Alfalfa
Medicago sativa
Scientific classification
Kingdom:	Plantae
(unranked):	Angiosperms
(unranked):	Eudicots
(unranked):	Rosids
Order:	Fabales
Family:	Fabaceae
Genus:	Medicago
Species:	M. sativa
Binomial name
Medicago sativa L.[1]
Subspecies
Medicago sativa subsp. ambigua (Trautv.) Tutin Medicago sativa subsp. microcarpa Urban Medicago sativa subsp. sativa L. Medicago sativa subsp. varia (T. Martyn) Arcang.

Alfalfa ( /ælˈfælfə/; Medicago sativa) is a perennial flowering plant in the pea family Fabaceae cultivated as an important forage crop in the US, Canada, Argentina, France, Australia, the Middle East, South Africa, and many other countries. The English name is adopted from the Spanish, originally alfalfez, which in turn is derived from the Arabic al-fisfisa "fresh fodder". The Spanish name is widely used, particularly in the US but it is also known as lucerne in the UK, Australia, South Africa and New Zealand, erba medica in Italy, meaning medical herb, luzerne in France, and lucerne grass in south Asian English. It superficially resembles clover, with clusters of small purple flowers followed by fruits spiralled in 2 to 3 turns containing 10-20 seeds. Alfalfa has been cultivated by humans since at least the 4th century CE and has some use in herbal medicine.

Ecology[link]

Alfalfa is a perennial forage legume which normally lives 4–8 years, but can live more than twenty years, depending on variety and climate.^[2] The plant grows to a height of up to 1 meter (3 ft), and has a deep root system, sometimes stretching more than 15 meters (49 ft).^[2] This makes it very resilient, especially to droughts.^[2] It has a tetraploid genome.^[3]

Alfalfa is a small seeded crop, and has a slowly-growing seedling, but after several months of establishment, forms a tough 'crown' at the top of the root system. This crown contains many shoot buds that enables alfalfa to re-grow many times after being grazed or harvested.

This plant exhibits autotoxicity, which means it is difficult for alfalfa seed to grow in existing stands of alfalfa.^[4] Therefore, it is recommended that alfalfa fields be rotated with other species (for example, corn or wheat) before reseeding.^[5]

Culture[link]

Alfalfa is widely grown throughout the world as forage for cattle, and is most often harvested as hay, but can also be made into silage, grazed, or fed as greenchop.^[6] Alfalfa usually has the highest feeding value of all common hay crops. It is used less frequently as pasture.^[5] When grown on soils where it is well-adapted, alfalfa is often the highest yielding forage plant, but its primary benefit is the combination of high yield per hectare and high nutritional quality.^[7]

Its primary use is as feed for high producing dairy cows—because of its high protein content and highly digestible fiber—and secondarily for beef cattle, horses, sheep, and goats.^[8][9] Humans also eat alfalfa sprouts in salads and sandwiches.^[10][11] Dehydrated alfalfa leaf is commercially available as a dietary supplement in several forms, such as tablets, powders and tea.^[12] Alfalfa is believed by some to be a galactagogue, a substance that induces lactation.^[13] Alfalfa can cause bloating in livestock, care must be taken with livestock grazing on alfalfa because of its high bloat hazard.^[14]

Like other legumes, its root nodules contain bacteria, Sinorhizobium meliloti, with the ability to fix nitrogen, producing a high-protein feed regardless of available nitrogen in the soil.^[15] Its nitrogen-fixing abilities (which increases soil nitrogen) and its use as an animal feed greatly improve agricultural efficiency.^[16][17]

Alfalfa can be sown in spring or fall, and does best on well-drained soils with a neutral pH of 6.8 – 7.5.^[18][19] Alfalfa requires sustained levels of potassium and phosphorus to grow well.^[20] It is moderately sensitive to salt levels in both the soil and irrigation water, although it continues to be grown in the arid southwestern United States, where salinity is an emerging issue.^[21][22][23] Soils low in fertility should be fertilized with manure or a chemical fertilizer, but correction of pH is particularly important.^[24] Usually a seeding rate of 13 – 20 kg/hectare (12 – 25 lb/acre) is recommended, with differences based upon region, soil type, and seeding method.^[25] A nurse crop is sometimes used, particularly for spring plantings, to reduce weed problems and soil erosion, but can lead to competition for light, water and nutrients.^[26]

In most climates, alfalfa is cut three to four times a year, but it can be harvested up to 12 times per year in Arizona and southern California.^[27][28] Total yields are typically around 8 tonnes per hectare (4 short tons per acre) in temperate environments, but yields have been recorded up to 20 t/ha (16 short tons per acre).^[28] Yields vary with region, weather, and the crop's stage of maturity when cut. Later cuttings improve yield, but with reduced nutritional content.^[29]

Alfalfa leafcutter bee, Megachile rotundata, a pollinator on alfalfa flower

Alfalfa is considered an insectary due to the large number of insects it attracts.^[30] Some pests, such as alfalfa weevil, aphids, armyworms, and the potato leafhopper, can reduce alfalfa yields dramatically, particularly with the second cutting when weather is warmest.^[31] Chemical controls are sometimes used to prevent this.^[31] Alfalfa is also susceptible to root rots, including Phytophthora, Rhizoctonia, and Texas root rot.^[32][33][34]

Harvesting[link]

Alfalfa hay on the way to Clayton, New Mexico, circa 1915.

Cylindrical bales of alfalfa

When alfalfa is to be used as hay, it is usually cut and baled.^[35] Loose haystacks are still used in some areas, but bales are easier for use in transportation, storage and feed.^[36] Ideally, the first cutting should be taken at the bud stage, and the subsequent cuttings just as the field is beginning to flower, or one tenth bloom for the reason that carbohydrates are at their highest.^[37] When using farm equipment rather than hand-harvesting, a swather cuts the alfalfa and arranges it in windrows.^[38] In areas where the alfalfa does not immediately dry out on its own, a machine known as a mower-conditioner is used to cut the hay.^[35] The mower-conditioner has a set of rollers or flails that crimp and break the stems as they pass through the mower, making the alfalfa dry faster.^[39] After the alfalfa has dried, a tractor pulling a baler collects the hay into bales.

There are several types of bales commonly used for alfalfa. For small animals and individual horses, the alfalfa is baled into small two-string bales, commonly named by the strands of string used to wrap it. Other bale sizes are three-string, and so on up to half-ton (six-string) "square" bales – actually rectangular, and typically about 40 x 45 x 100 cm (14 in x 18 in x 38 in).^[3] Small square bales weigh from 25 – 30 kg (50 – 70 pounds) depending on moisture, and can be easily hand separated into "flakes". Cattle ranches use large round bales, typically 1.4 to 1.8 m (4 to 6 feet) in diameter and weighing from 500 to 1,000 kg, (1000 to 2000 lbs). These bales can be placed in stable stacks or in large feeders for herds of horses, or unrolled on the ground for large herds of cattle.^[3] The bales can be loaded and stacked with a tractor using a spike, known as a bale spear, that pierces the center of the bale,^[40] or they can be handled with a grapple (claw) on the tractor's front-end loader. A more recent innovation is large "square" bales, roughly the same proportions as the small squares, but much larger. The bale size was set so stacks would fit perfectly on a large flatbed truck. These are more common in the western United States.

When used as feed for dairy cattle, alfalfa is often made into haylage by a process known as ensiling.^[8] Rather than drying it to make dry hay, the alfalfa is chopped finely and fermented in silos, trenches, or bags, anywhere the oxygen supply can be limited to promote fermentation.^[41] The anaerobic fermentation of alfalfa allows it to retain high nutrient levels similar to those of fresh forage, and is also more palatable to dairy cattle than dry hay.^[42] In many cases, alfalfa silage is inoculated with different strains of microorganisms to improve the fermentation quality and aerobic stability of the silage.^[43]

Worldwide production[link]

Worldwide alfalfa production

Alfalfa is the most cultivated forage legume in the world.^{[citation needed]} Worldwide production was around 436 million tons in 2006.^{[44][page needed]} The US is the largest alfalfa producer in the world, but considerable production is found in Canada, Argentina (primarily grazed), Southern Europe, Australia, South Africa, and the Middle East.^{[citation needed]}.

Within the United States, the leading alfalfa growing states are California, South Dakota, and Wisconsin. The upper Midwestern states account for about 50% of US production, the Northeastern states 10%, the Western states 40%, and the Southeastern states almost none. Alfalfa can be grown in the southern US states, but often leaf and root diseases and poor soils are limitations. Alfalfa has a wide range of adaptation, and can be grown from very cold northern plains to high mountain valleys, from rich temperate agricultural regions to Mediterranean climates and searing hot deserts.^{[citation needed]}

Alfalfa and bees[link]

Alfalfa seed production requires the presence of pollinators when the fields of alfalfa are in bloom.^[3] Alfalfa pollination is somewhat problematic, however, because Western honey bees, the most commonly used pollinator, are not suitable for this purpose; the pollen-carrying keel of the alfalfa flower trips and strikes pollinating bees on the head, which helps transfer the pollen to the foraging bee.^[3] Western honey bees, however, do not like being struck in the head repeatedly and learn to defeat this action by drawing nectar from the side of the flower. The bees thus collect the nectar, but carry no pollen and so do not pollinate the next flower they visit.^[45] Because older, experienced bees do not pollinate alfalfa well, most pollination is accomplished by young bees that have not yet learned the trick of robbing the flower without tripping the head-knocking keel. When western honey bees are used to pollinate alfalfa, the beekeeper stocks the field at a very high rate to maximize the number of young bees.^[45] Western honey bee colonies may suffer protein stress when working alfalfa only, due to shortage of one of the amino-acids comprising the pollen protein, iso-leucine. Today, the alfalfa leafcutter bee is increasingly used to circumvent these problems.^[46] As a solitary but gregarious bee species, it does not build colonies or store honey, but is a very efficient pollinator of alfalfa flowers.^[46] Nesting is in individual tunnels in wooden or plastic material, supplied by the alfalfa seed growers.^[45] The leafcutter bees are used in the Pacific Northwest, while western honeybees dominate in California alfalfa seed production.^[45]

A smaller amount of alfalfa produced for seed is pollinated by the alkali bee, mostly in the northwestern United States. It is cultured in special beds near the fields. These bees also have their own problems. They are not portable like honey bees, and when fields are planted in new areas, the bees take several seasons to build up.^[45] Honey bees are still trucked to many of the fields at bloom time.

Varieties[link]

Small square bales of alfalfa

Considerable research and development has been done with this important plant. Older cultivars such as 'Vernal' have been the standard for years, but many better public and private varieties better adapted to particular climates are available.^[47] Private companies release many new varieties each year in the US.^[48]

Most varieties go dormant in the fall, with reduced growth in response to low temperatures and shorter days.^[48] 'Nondormant' varieties that grow through the winter are planted in long-seasoned environments such as Mexico, Arizona, and Southern California, whereas 'dormant' varieties are planted in the Upper Midwest, Canada, and the Northeast.^[48] 'Nondormant' varieties can be higher yielding, but they are susceptible to winter-kill in cold climates and have poorer persistence.^[48]

Most alfalfa cultivars contain genetic material from sickle medick (M. falcata), a wild variety of alfalfa that naturally hybridizes with M. sativa to produce sand lucerne (M. sativa ssp. varia). This species may bear either the purple flowers of alfalfa or the yellow of sickle medick, and is so called for its ready growth in sandy soil.^[49]

Watering an alfalfa field

Most of the improvements in alfalfa over the last decades have consisted of better disease resistance on poorly drained soils in wet years, better ability to overwinter in cold climates, and the production of more leaves. Multileaf alfalfa varieties have more than three leaflets per leaf, giving them greater nutritional content by weight because there is more leafy matter for the same amount of stem^{[citation needed]}.

Wisconsin and California and many other states publish alfalfa variety trial data. A complete listing of state variety testing data is provided by the North American Alfalfa Improvement Conference (NAAIC) State Listing as well as additional detailed alfalfa genetic and variety data published by NAAIC.

Genetically modified alfalfa[link]

Roundup Ready alfalfa, a genetically modified variety was released by Forage Genetics Int'l in 2005. This was developed through the insertion of a gene owned by Monsanto Company that confers resistance to glyphosate, a broad-spectrum herbicide, also known as Roundup. Although most grassy and broadleaf plants, including ordinary alfalfa, are killed by Roundup, growers can spray fields of Roundup Ready alfalfa with the glyphosate herbicide and kill the weeds without harming the alfalfa crop.

Legal issues with Roundup Ready alfalfa in the US[link]

Roundup Ready alfalfa was sold in the United States from 2005 to 2007 with more than 300,000 acres (120,000 ha) planted out of 21,000,000 acres (8,500,000 ha). After a hiatus of nearly 4 years of legal and regulatory troubles, planting resumed in February 2011. In 2006, the Center for Food Safety and Geertson Seed Farm sued USDA-APHIS to stop farmers from growing Roundup Ready alfalfa. Their primary claim was 1) the possibility of increased spread of glyphosate-resistant weeds, and 2) the possibility that gene flow from Roundup Ready alfalfa would harm organic or conventional growers. In early 2007, The 9th Circuit Court in San Francisco decided in favor of the plaintiffs, forcing USDA-APHIS to conduct an Environmental Impact Study—this study took four years and was completed in December 2010. At the same time, the California Northern District Court also issued an injunction order prohibiting farmers from planting Roundup Ready alfalfa until the US Department of Agriculture (USDA) completed its EIS study. As a result, the USDA put a hold on any further planting of Roundup Ready alfalfa from 2007 to 2011.

Monsanto subsequently sued Geertson Seed, a case that went to the US Supreme Court in 2010 (Monsanto Co. v. Geertson Seed Farms^[50]).^[51] In June 2010, the US Supreme Court issued a ruling on this matter in favor of Monsanto and determined that the 9th Circuit should not have prohibited further plantings, but should have allowed USDA-APHIS to determine the safety of the technology. Both sides claimed victory.^[52]

The final Environmental Impact Statement was issued by APHIS in December 2010, which found Roundup Ready alfalfa to be safe for the environment. After a comment period, the crop was completely deregulated in January 2011 and planting resumed in February 2011. APHIS issued its lengthy EIS document and considered the gene flow issue, impacts on organic growers, the issue of Roundup-resistant weeds and host of other questions. In the end, it was determined that Roundup-ready did not present a risk to the environment (APHIS). A new lawsuit by the Center for Food Safety (and others) to stop further development of Roundup Ready alfalfa was filed against USDA-APHIS in March 2011.

History[link]

A book on agriculture by the Roman writer Palladius, dated 4th century AD, includes a section about alfalfa. Palladius says: "One sow-down lasts ten years. The crop may be cut four or six times a year.... An [Roman] acre of it is abundantly sufficient for three horses all the year.... It may be given to cattle, but new provender is at first to be administered very sparingly, because it bloats up the cattle."^[53] Palladius called alfalfa "medica", a name that referred to the Medes, a people who lived in ancient Iran. The ancient Greeks and Romans believed, probably correctly, that the alfalfa plant came from the Medes land (in today's Iran). (The ancient Greeks and Romans also used the name medica to mean a citron fruit, once again because it was believed to have come from the Medes land). The ancient Roman name medica is the root of the modern scientific name for the alfalfa genus, Medicago. Despite the report in Palladius and in some other Roman and ancient Greek writers, there is little evidence that alfalfa was in widespread use in the Mediterranean region in those days.

The 13th century Arabic dictionary Lisan al-Arab says that "al-fiṣfiṣa" (alfalfa) is cultivated as an animal feed and consumed in both fresh and dried form.^[54] In medieval Spain, the Arabic name "al-fisfisa" mutated into the Spanish name "alfalfa".^[55] Alfalfa in medieval Spain was cultivated as fodder for horses and had a reputation as the best fodder for them. In the 16th century, Spanish colonizers introduced alfalfa to the Americas as fodder for their horses.^[56] The English name "alfalfa" dates from mid-19th century far-west USA, from the Spanish. Alfalfa seeds were imported to California from Chile in the 1850s. That was the beginning of a rapid and extensive introduction of the crop over the western US States.^[57] In the North American colonies of the eastern US back in the 18th century it was called "lucerne" and lots of trials at growing it were made, but generally without getting satisfactory results. Relatively very little alfalfa is grown in the eastern US still today. Today in France and Germany, and also in Britain and Australia, alfalfa is usually called "lucerne" | "luzerne", a word that arose in French in the 16th century. Since North and South America now produce a large part of the world's output, the word "alfalfa" has been slowly entering into other languages besides English and Spanish.

Phytoestrogens in alfalfa[link]

Alfalfa, like other leguminous crops, is a known source of phytoestrogens,^[58] including spinosterol.^[59] Grazing on alfalfa has been suspected as a cause of reduced fertility in sheep.

Medical uses[link]

Alfalfa has been used as an herbal medicine for over 1,500 years.^{[citation needed]} Alfalfa is high in protein, calcium, plus other minerals, vitamins in the B group, vitamin C, vitamin D, vitamin E, and vitamin K.^{[60][61][62][63]}

In early Chinese medicines, physicians used young alfalfa leaves to treat disorders related to the digestive tract and the kidneys.^{[citation needed]} In Ayurvedic medicine, physicians used the leaves for treating poor digestion. They made a cooling poultice from the seeds for boils. At the time, alfalfa was also believed to be beneficial to people suffering from arthritis and water retention.^{[citation needed]}

Vitamin D[link]

The sun-dried hay of Alfalfa (also known as Lucerne) has been found as a source of vitamin D, containing 48 ng/g (1920 IU/kg) vitamin D₂ and 0.63 ng/g (25 IU/kg) vitamin D₃.^[64] There is reference to vitamin D₂ and vitamin D₃ being found in the alfalfa shoot, this is awaiting verification. ^[65] Mushrooms are not allowed in Jain vegetarianism making alfalfa the only known source they can use to make vitamin D₂ supplements from.

Gallery[link]

Medicago sativa   Medicago sativa   Medicago sativa   Medicago sativa   Flowers   Yellow flowers   Light violet flowers   Medicago sativa sativa, mature fruits   Seeds   Lucerne field   Bee on alfalfa flower

References[link]

External links[link]

Look up alfalfa in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Medicago sativa

Wikispecies has information related to: Medicago sativa

• Grassland Species profile
• National Alfalfa Alliance

Lamar Alexander
27th Chairman of the Senate Republican Conference
In office January 3, 2007 – January 26, 2012
Leader	Mitch McConnell
Preceded by	Jon Kyl
Succeeded by	John Thune
United States Senator from Tennessee
Incumbent
Assumed office January 3, 2003 Serving with Bob Corker
Preceded by	Fred Thompson
5th United States Secretary of Education
In office March 22, 1991 – January 20, 1993
President	George H. W. Bush
Preceded by	Lauro Cavazos
Succeeded by	Richard Riley
45th Governor of Tennessee
In office January 16, 1979 – January 17, 1987
Lieutenant	John S. Wilder
Preceded by	Ray Blanton
Succeeded by	Ned McWherter
Personal details
Born	Andrew Lamar Alexander (1940-07-03) July 3, 1940 (age 71) Maryville, Tennessee
Nationality	American
Political party	Republican
Spouse(s)	Honey Buhler
Children	4
Residence	Maryville, Tennessee (while governor) Nashville, Tennessee (while Senator)
Alma mater	Vanderbilt University (B.A.) New York University School of Law (J.D.)
Occupation	president of the University of Tennessee, and professor at Harvard Kennedy School
Profession	Attorney
Religion	Presbyterian[1]
Website	www.alexander.senate.gov

Andrew Lamar Alexander, Jr. (born July 3, 1940) is the senior United States Senator from Tennessee. He was previously the Conference Chair of the Republican Party from 2007 to 2012, the 45th Governor of Tennessee from 1979 to 1987, United States Secretary of Education from 1991 to 1993 under President George H. W. Bush and candidate for the Republican Presidential nomination in 1996 and 2000.

Early and personal life[link]

Alexander was born in Maryville, Tennessee, where he was raised, to Genevra Floreine (née Rankin) and Andrew Lamar Alexander, a high school principal.^[2] In high school he was elected Governor of Tennessee Boys State. Alexander graduated with a B.A. from Vanderbilt University where he was a member of Phi Beta Kappa and Sigma Chi Fraternity in 1962 and from the New York University School of Law in 1965. After graduating from law school, Alexander clerked for United States Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit judge John Minor Wisdom in New Orleans from 1965 to 1966.^[3]

In 1969 Alexander married Honey Buhler,^[1] who grew up in Victoria, Texas, and graduated from Smith College of Massachusetts.^[4] They had met during a softball game for Senate staff members; he was then a staffer for Senator Howard Baker of Tennessee while she worked for Senator John Tower of Texas. Together they have four children: Drew, Leslee, Kathryn, and Will.

He is also a classical and country pianist. Alexander got to put these talents on display in April 2007 when he played piano on singer Patti Page's re-recording of her 1950 hit "Tennessee Waltz". He appeared on the record at the invitation of record executive Mike Curb. Alexander and Page then performed the song live at an April 4 fundraiser for his Senatorial re-election campaign in Nashville's Schermerhorn Symphony Center.^[5]

He is a member of Sons of the Revolution.^[6]

Political career[link]

In 1967, Alexander worked as a legislative assistant for Senator Howard Baker. While a staffer, he was briefly roommates with future U.S. Senator Trent Lott. In 1969, he worked for Bryce Harlow, President Richard Nixon's executive assistant.^[3] In 1970 he moved back to Tennessee, serving as campaign manager for Memphis dentist Winfield Dunn's successful gubernatorial bid.

Thanks to his successful tenure as Dunn's campaign manager, Alexander received the Republican nomination for governor of Tennessee in 1974. He faced Democrat Ray Blanton, a former congressman and unsuccessful 1972 Senate candidate. Blanton attacked Alexander for his service under Nixon, who had resigned in disgrace several months earlier. He also portrayed Alexander as being too distant from average Tennesseans, even though Alexander was the son of teachers. Blanton would win the election 56%–44%.^{[citation needed]}

In 1974, TIME magazine named Alexander one of the 200 Faces of the Future.^[7]

In 1977, Alexander once again worked in Baker's Washington office following Baker's election as Senate Minority Leader.

Governor of Tennessee[link]

Even though the Tennessee State Constitution had been amended in early 1978 to allow a governor to succeed himself, Blanton chose not to seek re-election, due to a number of scandals. Alexander once again ran for governor, and made a name for himself by walking 1000 mi (1600 km) across the state wearing a red and black plaid shirt. He defeated Knoxville banker Jake Butcher in the November election.

In early 1979, a furor ensued over pardons made by Blanton.^[8][9] Since the state constitution is somewhat vague on when a governor must be sworn in, several political leaders from both parties, including Lieutenant Governor John S. Wilder and State House Speaker Ned McWherter, arranged for Alexander to be sworn in on January 16, 1979, three days earlier than the traditional inauguration day.^[9] Wilder later called the move "impeachment Tennessee-style."

Alexander made history by becoming the first Tennessee governor reelected to a second four-year term (after the 1978 amendment, see above) by defeating Knoxville mayor Randy Tyree in the 1982 election, carrying almost 70% of Knox County. Since that time, every Tennessee Governor has been elected to consecutive terms. During his second term, he served as chairman of the National Governors Association from 1985 to 1986. After opting out of the 1984 U.S. Senate contest for the open seat of retiring Majority Leader Howard Baker, Alexander was constitutionally ineligible for a third term and stepped down from the governorship in January 1987.

After governorship[link]

Moving with his family to Australia for a time, he would soon return to Tennessee and became the president of the University of Tennessee (1988–1991), and United States Secretary of Education (1991–1993). As Education Secretary, he sparked controversy after he approved Transnational Association of Christian Colleges and Schools (TRACS) to accredit schools despite an advisory panel that repeatedly recommended against it in 1991 and 1987.^{[10][11][12][13]} In 1993, Steve Levicoff published a book-length critical discussion of TRACS and Alexander's decision in When the TRACS Stop Short.^[14][15]

Former Department of Education employee and writer Lisa Schiffren has stated that, "His fortune is founded on sweetheart deals not available to the general public, and a series of cozy sinecures provided by local businessmen. Such deals are not illegal..." In 1987, he helped found Corporate Child Care Management, Inc. (now known as Bright Horizons Family Solutions Inc.), a company that – via a merger – is now the nation's largest provider of worksite day care. While businessman Jack C. Massey spent $2 million on this enterprise, Alexander co-founded the company with only $5,000 of stock which increased in value to $800,000, a 15,900 percent return within four years. Also in 1987, he a wrote a never-cashed investment check for $10,000 to Christopher Whittle for shares in Whittle Communications that increased in value to $330,000. In 1991, Alexander's house just purchased for $570,000 was sold to Whittle for $977,500. Alexander's wife obtained an $133,000 profit from her $8,900 investment in a company created to privatize prisons. Alexander frequently shifted assets to his wife's name, yet such transfers are not legal under federal ethics and security laws.^[16] In his 2005 U.S. Senate financial disclosure report, he listed personal ownership of BFAM (Bright Horizons Family Solutions) stock valued (at that time) between $1 million and $5 million dollars. He taught about the American character as a faculty member at Harvard University's Kennedy School of Government.^{[citation needed]}

He also made two unsuccessful runs for President of the United States, in the 1996 and 2000 election cycles. In 1996, he finished third in both the Iowa caucus and New Hampshire primary and dropped out before the Super Tuesday primaries. After dropping out of the race, Alexander took an advisory role in the Dole/Kemp campaign.^[17] His second candidacy, in which he traveled around the U.S. in a Ford Explorer, eschewing a campaign bus or plane, lasted less than six months, being announced March 9, 1999, and withdrawn August 16, 1999 (after a poor showing in the Ames Straw Poll), both times in Nashville.^[18] An article in The New York Times during this period comments that Alexander's "bitter belief that party's nominating process is being short-circuited by big money and big media has become [his] consuming preoccupation," referring to the Republican Party.^[19]

Senate career[link]

Senator and Mrs. Alexander with the Presbyterian Chaplain of the 844th from Rhea County in 2005.

Despite vowing not to return to elective office, he was nevertheless persuaded by the White House to run for the open seat of retiring Senator Fred Thompson in 2002. Seen as a moderate Republican by Tennessee standards, his candidacy was vigorously opposed by conservatives who supported Congressman Ed Bryant, who had become one of the House managers during the 1998 impeachment of President Bill Clinton. Alexander was better-funded and armed with more prominent endorsements, winning by a closer-than-expected margin over Bryant in the primary. Democrats had high hopes of recovering the seat with their candidate, Nashville Congressman Bob Clement, a member of a prominent political family. However, Clement's campaign never really caught on, and Alexander handily defeated him in the general election with 54 percent of the vote. With his election to the U.S. Senate, he became the first Tennessean to be popularly elected both governor and senator. At 62, Alexander also became the oldest elected freshman U.S. Senator from Tennessee since Democrat Lawrence D. Tyson in 1924.

Iraq[link]

Before the Iraq War began, Alexander supported sending troops to Iraq and expressed his agreement with President Bush that Iraq must be dealt with immediately.^[20] A year after the war began, Alexander stated that the Iraq War had provided "lessons" to the nation, but went on to say that American troops should not be withdrawn, saying "It would be even worse if we left before the job was done."^[21] In 2007, Alexander touted implementing the Iraq Study Group recommendations, noting that he believes Bush will be viewed as a Truman-esque figure if he implements the Group's recommendations.^[22][23] Alexander has, however, opposed most efforts in the Senate to bring an end to the Iraq War or reduce the number of troops in Iraq, voting, for example, against an amendment to a bill that would have required that soldiers be given minimum periods of rest before being redeployed to Iraq.^[24]

Gun control and gun rights[link]

On June 25, 2009, much to the chagrin of conservatives and 2nd Amendment supporters, Lamar Alexander was one of 8 Republicans to cross the aisle and vote for confirmation of Harold Hongju Koh, a gun control advocate, as Legal Adviser to the State Department.^[25]

Supreme Court advice and consent[link]

Again breaking ranks with Republicans and conservatives in the Senate, on July 30, 2009 Alexander announced his support for the nomination of Supreme Court nominee Sonia Sotomayor.^[26]

Science[link]

In 2007, a species of springtail, Cosberella lamaralexanderi, was named in his honor partially because of his support in the Senate for scientific research funding.

Health care reform[link]

On July 15, 2009, Alexander voted against President Obama's health care reform bill in the Senate Health, Education, Labor and Pensions Committee.^[27] Alexander stated that he opposed the bill because he says it will result in higher state taxes, an increased federal debt, government-run health care, and Medicare cuts, and instead supports a different approach to reform.^[28] Alexander voted against the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act in December 2009,^[29] and he voted against the Health Care and Education Reconciliation Act of 2010.^[30]

Cross the aisle[link]

According to the 2009 annual vote studies by Congressional Quarterly, Alexander is one of the most bipartisan Republican members of the Senate.^[31] According to National Journal’s 2009 Vote Ratings, he was ranked as the 32nd most conservative member in the Senate.^[32]

Committee assignments[link]

• Committee on Appropriations
  • Subcommittee on Commerce, Justice, Science, and Related Agencies
  • Subcommittee on Energy and Water Development
  • Subcommittee on Financial Services and General Government
  • Subcommittee on Interior, Environment, and Related Agencies (Ranking Member)
  • Subcommittee on Labor, Health and Human Services, Education, and Related Agencies
  • Subcommittee on Transportation, Housing and Urban Development, and Related Agencies
• Committee on the Budget
• Committee on Environment and Public Works
  • Subcommittee on Children's Health (Ranking Member)
  • Subcommittee on Water and Wildlife
• Committee on Health, Education, Labor, and Pensions
  • Subcommittee on Children and Families (Ranking Member)
  • Subcommittee on Primary Health and Aging
• Committee on Rules and Administration

Caucus memberships[link]

• International Conservation Caucus
• Sportsmen's Caucus
• Tennessee Valley Authority Caucus (Co-Chair)

Republican leadership[link]

In late 2006, Alexander announced that he had secured the requisite number of votes to become the Republican Party's Minority Whip in the Senate during the 110th Congress. Even though he was seen as the preferred choice of Minority Leader Mitch McConnell and the Bush Administration, he lost the election to former Senate Majority Leader Trent Lott by one vote (25–24).^[33]

Alexander would get a second shot at entering his party's leadership a year later when Lott announced his intent to resign from the Senate by the end of 2007. Sen. Jon Kyl of Arizona, then Chairman of the Senate Republican Conference, ran for Whip and was elected without opposition. With the Conference Chair vacant, Alexander announced that he would seek the position.^[34] He would go on to defeat Sen. Richard Burr of North Carolina by a margin of 31–16.^[35]

Alexander stepped down as Conference Chairman in January 2012, citing his desire to foster consensus. He said, "I want to do more to make the Senate a more effective institution so that it can deal better with serious issues." He added, "For these same reasons, I do not plan to seek a leadership position in the next Congress", ending speculation that he would run for the position of Republican Whip after Jon Kyl retired in 2013.^[36]

2008 Re-election campaign[link]

In April 2007, Alexander announced he would run for re-election to the Senate in 2008.^[37]

Alexander was favored throughout the entire campaign, due to his long history in Tennessee politics and a disorganized Democratic opposition. His rivals were former state Democratic Party Chairman Bob Tuke, who won a heated primary, and Libertarian candidate Daniel T. Lewis.

Alexander won reelection in a landslide, taking 65 percent of the vote to Tuke's 32 percent. Alexander also carried all but one of Tennessee's 95 counties; he lost only in majority-black Haywood County in western Tennessee. He won the normally Democratic strongholds of Davidson and Shelby counties—home to Nashville and Memphis, respectively. Alexander also benefited from the coattails of John McCain's solid victory statewide in the Presidential race.

Electoral history[link]

United States presidential election, 1996 (Republican primaries):^[38]

• Bob Dole – 9,024,742 (58.82%)
• Pat Buchanan – 3,184,943 (20.76%)
• Steve Forbes – 1,751,187 (11.41%)
• Lamar Alexander – 495,590 (3.23%)
• Alan Keyes – 471,716 (3.08%)
• Richard Lugar – 127,111 (0.83%)
• Unpledged delegates – 123,278 (0.80%)
• Phil Gramm – 71,456 (0.47%)
• Bob Dornan – 42,140 (0.28%)
• Morry Taylor – 21,180 (0.14%)

Republican Senate Minority Whip^[39]

• Trent Lott (MS) – 25 (51.02%)
• Lamar Alexander (TN) – 24 (48.98%)

Senate Republican Conference Chairman:^[40]

• Lamar Alexander (TN) – 31 (65.96%)
• Richard Burr (NC) – 16 (34.04%)

See also[link]

Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Lamar Alexander

• Lobbying in the United States

References[link]

External links[link]

Find more about Lamar Alexander on Wikipedia's sister projects:
	Definitions and translations from Wiktionary
	Images and media from Commons
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• United States Senator Lamar Alexander official U.S. Senate site
• Biography at WhoRunsGov.com at The Washington Post
• Biography at the Biographical Directory of the United States Congress
• Voting record maintained by The Washington Post
• Biography, voting record, and interest group ratings at Project Vote Smart
• Congressional profile at GovTrack
• Congressional profile at OpenCongress
• Issue positions and quotes at On the Issues
• Financial information at OpenSecrets.org
• Staff salaries, trips and personal finance at LegiStorm.com
• Campaign finance reports and data at the Federal Election Commission
• Appearances on C-SPAN programs
• Collected news and commentary at The New York Times
• Profile at SourceWatch

v t e United States Secretaries of Education Hufstedler Bell Bennett Cavazos Alexander Riley Paige Spellings Duncan

v t e Governors of Tennessee Sevier Roane Sevier Blount McMinn Carroll Houston Hall Carroll Cannon Polk Jones A. Brown N. Brown Trousdale Campbell Johnson Harris Johnson East Brownlow Senter J. Brown Porter Marks Hawkins Bate R. Taylor Buchanan Turney R. Taylor McMillin Frazier Cox Patterson Hooper Rye Roberts A. Taylor Peay Horton McAlister Browning Cooper McCord Browning Clement Ellington Clement Ellington Dunn Blanton Alexander McWherter Sundquist Bredesen Haslam

v t e United States Senators from Tennessee Class 1 Cocke A. Jackson Smith J. Anderson Campbell Eaton Grundy Foster Grundy Nicholson Foster Turney Jones Johnson Patterson Brownlow Johnson Key Bailey H. Jackson Whitthorne Bate Frazier Lea McKellar Gore, Sr. Brock III Sasser Frist Corker Class 2 Blount J. Anderson Cocke Smith Whiteside Campbell Wharton Williams A. Jackson White A. Anderson Jarnagin Bell Nicholson Fowler Cooper Harris Turley Carmack Taylor Sanders Webb Shields Tyson Brock I Hull Bachman Berry Stewart Kefauver Walters Bass Baker Gore, Jr. Mathews Thompson Alexander

v t e Cabinet of President George H. W. Bush (1989–1993)   Cabinet Secretary of State James Baker (1989–1992) Lawrence Eagleburger (1992–1993) Secretary of the Treasury Nicholas F. Brady (1989–1993) Secretary of Defense Dick Cheney (1989–1993) Attorney General Dick Thornburgh (1989–1991) William Barr (1991–1993) Secretary of the Interior Manuel Lujan, Jr. (1989–1993) Secretary of Agriculture Clayton K. Yeutter (1989–1991) Edward Rell Madigan (1991–1993) Secretary of Commerce Robert Mosbacher (1989–1992) Barbara Hackman Franklin (1992 – 1993) Secretary of Labor Elizabeth Dole (1989 – 1990) Lynn Morley Martin (1990 – 1993) Secretary of Health and Human Services Louis Wade Sullivan (1989–1993) Secretary of Education Lauro Cavazos (1989–1990) Lamar Alexander (1991–1993) Secretary of Housing and Urban Development Jack Kemp (1989–1993) Secretary of Transportation Samuel K. Skinner (1989–1992) Andrew Card (1992–1993) Secretary of Energy James D. Watkins (1989–1993) Secretary of Veterans Affairs Ed Derwinski (1989–1992)   Cabinet-level Vice President Dan Quayle (1989–1993) Trade Representative Carla Anderson Hills (1989 – 1993) Director of the Office of Management and Budget Richard Darman (1989 – 1993)