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Thought-form of the Music of Gounod, according to Annie Besant and C.W. Leadbeater in Thought Forms (1901)

The term musical form refers to the overall structure or plan of a piece of music,^[1] and it describes the layout of a composition as divided into sections.^[2] In the tenth edition of The Oxford Companion to Music, Percy Scholes defines musical form as "a series of strategies designed to find a successful mean between the opposite extremes of unrelieved repetition and unrelieved alteration."^[3]

Musicologist Richard Middleton describes form through repetition and difference: difference is the distance moved from a repeat; a repeat being the smallest difference. Difference is quantitative and qualitative; how far different and what type of difference. According to Middleton, musical form is "the shape or structure of the work." In many cases, form depends on statement and restatement, unity and variety, contrast and connection.^[4]

Levels of organization[link]

The founding level of musical form can be divided into two parts:

• The arrangement of the pulse into accented and unaccented beats, the cells of a measure that, when harmonized, may give rise to a motif or figure.
• The further organization of such a measure, by repetition and variation, into a true musical phrase having a definite rhythm and duration that may be implied in melody and harmony, defined, for example, by a long final note and a breathing space. This "phrase" may be regarded as the fundamental formal unit of music: it may be broken down into measures of two or three beats, but its distinctive nature will then be lost. Even at this level, the importance of the principles of repetition and contrast, weak and strong, climax and repose, can be seen.^[5] (See also: Meter (music)) Thus, form may be understood on three levels of organization. For the purpose of this exposition, these levels can be roughly designated as passage, piece, and cycle.

Passage[link]

The smallest level of construction concerns the way musical phrases are organized into musical sentences and "paragraphs" such as the verse of a song. This may be compared to, and is often decided by, the verse-form or meter of the words or the steps of a dance.^{[citation needed]}

For example, the twelve bar blues is a specific verse form, while common meter is found in many hymns and ballads and, again, the Elizabethan galliard, like many dances, requires a certain rhythm, pace and length of melody to fit its repeating pattern of steps. Simpler styles of music may be more or less wholly defined at this level of form, which therefore does not differ greatly from the loose sense first mentioned and which may carry with it rhythmic, harmonic, timbral, occasional and melodic conventions.

In the analysis of musical form, any components that can be defined on the time axis (such as sections and units) are conventionally designated by letters. Upper-case letters are used for the most fundamental, while lower-case letters are used for sub-divisions. If one such section returns in a varied or modified form, a numerical digit or an appropriate number of prime symbols appears after the letter. Even at this simplest level, there are patterns that may be re-used on larger time-scales. For example:

The following verse is composed of two differently-rhymed couplets (AABB), and thus its organization is binary or "twofold".

Twinkle, twinkle, little star,

How I wonder what you are.

Up above the world so high,

like a diamond in the sky.

However, in the verse below, there is a rhyme repeated in the second line, then a variant in the third line, two half-lines sharing a new rhyme, followed by a final return to the first arrangement in the last line (AABA), and thus its organization is ternary form or "threefold".

There once was a fellow from Leeds

Who swallowed a packet of seeds.

In less than an hour he burst into flower

And he died trying to pull up the weeds.

However, as music educator Stewart Macpherson stated, there is a preference at all levels of musical organization for groupings of two, four, eight over other divisions, so that even a ternary form is often extended by repetition of the first subject into a "fourfold" structure. Composers can be on guard against excessive "squareness".^[6]

Pieces[link]

The next level concerns the entire structure of any single self-contained musical piece. If the hymn, ballad, blues or dance alluded to above simply repeats the same musical material indefinitely then the piece is said to be in strophic form overall. If it repeats with distinct, sustained changes each time, for instance in setting, ornamentation or instrumentation, then the piece is a theme and variations. If two distinctly different themes are alternated indefinitely, as in a song alternating verse and [Refrain|chorus] or in the alternating slow and fast sections of the Hungarian czardas, then this gives rise to a simple binary form. If the theme is played (perhaps twice), then a new theme is introduced, the piece then closing with a return to the first theme, we have a simple ternary form.

Great confusion, argument and misunderstanding can be generated by such terms as 'ternary' and 'binary', as a complex piece may have elements of both at different organizational levels.^{[citation needed]} A minuet, like any Baroque dance, generally had simple binary structure (AABB), however, this was frequently extended by the introduction of another minuet arranged for solo instruments (called the trio), after which the first was repeated again and the piece ended—this is a ternary form—ABA: the piece is binary on the lower compositional level but ternary on the higher. Organisational levels are not clearly and universally defined in western musicology, while words like "section" and "passage" are used at different levels by different scholars whose definitions, as Scholes and others^[who?] point out, cannot keep pace with the myriad innovations and variations devised by musicians.

Cycle[link]

The grandest level of organization may be referred to as "cyclical form". It concerns the arrangement of several self-contained pieces into a large-scale composition. For example, a set of songs with a related theme may be presented as a song-cycle, whereas a set of Baroque dances were presented as a suite. The opera and ballet may organize song and dance into even larger forms. This level of musical form, though it again applies and gives rise to different genres, takes more account of the methods of musical organisation used. For example: a symphony, a concerto and a sonata differ in scale and aim, yet generally resemble one another in the manner of their organization. The individual pieces which make up the larger form may be called movements.

Single forms[link]

Scholes suggested that European classical music had only six stand-alone forms: simple binary, simple ternary, compound binary, rondo, air with variations, and fugue. However, musicologist Alfred Mann emphasized that the fugue is primarily a method of composition that has sometimes taken on certain structural conventions.^[7]

Where a piece cannot readily be broken down into sectional units (though it might borrow some form from a poem, story or programme), it is said to be through-composed. Such is often the case with pieces named Fantasia, Prelude, rhapsody, etude or study, symphonic poem, Bagatelle, Impromptu, etc.^{[citation needed]} Professor Charles Keil classified forms and formal detail as "sectional, developmental, or variational."^[8]

Sectional form[link]

This form is built from a sequence of clear-cut units^[9] that may be referred to by letters as outlined above but also often have generic names such as Introduction and coda, Exposition, Development and recapitulation, verse, chorus or refrain, and bridge. Introductions and codas, when they are no more than that, are frequently excluded from formal analysis. All such units may typically be eight measures long. Sectional forms include:

Strophic form[link]

This form is defined by its "unrelieved repetition" (AAAA...).

Medley or "chain" form[link]

Medley, potpourri or chain form is the extreme case opposite that of "unrelieved variation": it is simply an indefinite sequence of self-contained sections (ABCD...), sometimes with repeats (AABBCCDD...). Examples include orchestral overtures, which are sometimes no more than a string of the best tunes of the show to come.

Binary form[link]

This form uses two sections (AB...); each section is often repeated (AABB...). In 18th-century western classical music, "simple binary" form was often used for dances and carried with it the convention that the two sections should be in different musical keys but maintain the same rhythm, duration and tone. The alternation of two tunes gives enough variety to permit a dance to be extended for as long as may be required.

Ternary form[link]

This form has three parts. In Western classical music a simple ternary form has a third section that is a recapitulation of the first (ABA). Often, the first section is repeated (AABA). This approach was popular in the 18th-century operatic aria,^{[citation needed]} and was called da capo (i.e. "repeat from the top") form. Later, it gave rise to the 32-bar song, with the B section then often referred to as the "middle eight". A song has more need than a dance of a self-contained form with a beginning and an end.

Rondo form[link]

This form has a recurring theme alternating with different (usually contrasting) sections called "episodes". It may be asymmetrical (ABACADAEA) or symmetrical (ABACABA). A recurring section, especially the main theme, is sometimes more thoroughly varied, or else one episode may be a "development" of it. A similar arrangement is the ritornello form of the Baroque concerto grosso. Arch form (ABCBA) resembles a symmetrical rondo without intermediate repetitions of the main theme.

Variational form[link]

Variational forms are those in which variation is an important formative element.

Theme and Variations: a theme, which in itself can be of any shorter form (binary, ternary, etc.), forms the only "section" and is repeated indefinitely (as in strophic form) but is varied each time (A,B,A,F,Z,A), so as to make a sort of sectional chain form. An important variant of this, much used in 17th-century British music and in the Passacaglia and Chaconne, was that of the ground bass - a repeating bass theme or basso ostinato over and around which the rest of the structure unfolds, often, but not always, spinning polyphonic or contrapuntal threads, or improvising divisions and descants. This is said by Scholes (1977) to be the form par excellence of unaccompanied or accompanied solo instrumental music. The Rondo is often found with sections varied (AA¹BA²CA³BA⁴) or (ABA¹CA²B¹A).

Developmental form[link]

Developmental forms are built directly from smaller units, such as motifs, combined and worked out in different ways, perhaps having a symmetrical or arch-like underpinning and a progressive development from beginning to end. By far the most important in Western classical music is:

Sonata form[link]

This form, also known as sonata allegro form, first movement form, compound binary, ternary and a variety of other names,^{[example needed]} developed from the binary-formed dance movement described above but is almost always cast in a greater ternary form having the nominal subdivisions of Exposition, Development and Recapitulation. Usually, but not always, the "A" parts (Exposition and Recapitulation, respectively) may be subdivided into two or three themes or theme groups which are taken asunder and recombined to form the "B" part (the Development) - thus e. g. (AabB[dev. of a and/or b]A¹ab¹+coda). This developmental form is generally confined to certain sections of the piece, as to the middle section of the first movement of a sonata, though nineteenth-century composers such as Berlioz, Liszt and Wagner made valiant efforts to derive large-scale works purely or mainly from the motif.

Chester (1970) distinguished this as "extensional music", that "produced by starting with small components - rhythmic or melodic motifs, perhaps - and then 'developing' these through techniques of modification and combination." "Intensional music", meanwhile, "starts with a framework - a chord sequence, a melodic outline, a rhythmic pattern - and then extends itself by repeating the framework with perpetually varied inflections to the details filling it in."

Cyclical forms[link]

Opera was originally modelled upon classical drama and takes much of its form from its libretto and narrative. For many years, ballet was a component of opera, not in itself narrative, but having the form of a suite of set dances included at some appropriate moment in the story such as a festival or wedding. It emerged as a separate form, supplying its own narrative or representation, during the 19th-century.^{[citation needed]} At the same time, the song cycle emerged, which is a set of related songs (as the suite is a set of related dances). The oratorio took shape as a narrative, often religious,^{[citation needed]} recounted—rather than acted—by the singers.

The sonata, symphony, and concerto were all developed by major composers of the Viennese school (Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven primarily) along the same formal lines into distinctively musical forms limited little by the forms of song, dance or ceremony. Other forms of music, such as the Catholic mass and requiem, are largely shaped by, and subordinated to, their texts and ceremonial functions.

More recent developments[link]

This section is written like a personal reflection or essay rather than an encyclopedic description of the subject. Please help improve it by rewriting it in an encyclopedic style. (September 2011)

A common idea is the depth of layers of form necessary for complexity, in which foregrounded detail events occur against a more structural background, as in Schenkerian analysis.^{[citation needed]} Composer and music theorist Professor Fred Lerdahl, among others,^{[who else?]} argues that popular music lacks the structural complexity of multiple structural layers and thus lacks depth.^[10] However, Lerdahl's theories explicitly exclude associational details which are used to help articulate form in popular music; the theories of which are analyzed in music theorist and musicologist Allen Forte's book, The Structure of Atonal Music.^[11]

Western classical music is the apodigm of the extensional form of musical construction. Theme and variations, counterpoint, tonality (as used in classical composition) are all devices that build diachronically and synchronically outwards from basic musical atoms. The complex is created by combination of the simple, which remains discrete and unchanged in the complex unity...If those critics who maintain the greater complexity of classical music specified that they had in mind this extensional development, they would be quite correct...Rock however follows, like many non-European musics, the path of intensional development. In this mode of construction, the basic musical units (played/sung notes) are not combined through space and time as simple elements into complex structures. The simple entity is that constituted by the parameters of melody, harmony, and beat, while the complex is built up by modulation of the basic notes, and by inflexion of the basic beat. All existing genres and sub-types of the Afro-American tradition show various forms of combined intensional and extensional development.

—Chester 1970, p.78-9

Similarly, Middleton maintains that "syntactic music" is centered on notation and "the hierarchic organization of quasilinguistic elements and their putting together (com-position) in line with systems of norms, expectations, surprises, tensions and resolutions. The resulting aesthetic is one of 'embodied meaning.'" on the other hand, non-notated music and performance "foreground process and are concerned with gesture, physical feel, the immediate moment, improvisation; the resulting aesthetic is one of 'engendered feeling' and is unsuited to the application of 'syntactic' criteria."

Connection and contrast may be achieved in new ways. Procedures of connection include: gradation, amalgamation, and dissolution. Procedures of contrast include: stratification, juxtaposition, and interpolation.

Especially recently,^[when?] more segmented approaches have been taken through the use of stratification, superimposition, juxtaposition, interpolation, and other interruptions and simultaneities. Examples include the postmodern "block" technique used by composers such as John Zorn, where rather than organic development, one follows separate units in various combinations. These techniques may be used to create contrast to the point of disjointed chaotic textures, or, through repetition and return and transitional procedures such as dissolution, amalgamation, and gradation, may create connectedness and unity. Composers have also made more use of open forms such as produced by aleatoric devices and other chance procedures, improvisation, and some processes.

See also[link]

• Developing variation
• List of musical forms by era
• Song structure (popular music)

References[link]

External links[link]

Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Musical form

• Lessons in Music Form by Percy Goetschius, 1904
• Study Guide for Musical Form: A Complete Outline of Standardized Formal Categories and Concepts by Robert T. Kelley
• A Practical Guide to Musical Composition by Alan Belkin
• Morphopoiesis: A General Procedure for Structuring Form by Panayiotis Kokoras

Gary C. Clark (born May 1, 1962) is a former professional American football wide receiver in the National Football League who played for the Washington Redskins (1985–1992), Phoenix Cardinals (1993–1994) and Miami Dolphins (1995).

Early life[link]

Clark attended and played high school football at Pulaski County High School in Dublin, Virginia.

College career[link]

Clark played college football at James Madison University in Harrisonburg, Virginia, where he caught 155 passes for 2,863 yards and 16 touchdowns. He also had three punt returns for touchdowns, including 89- and 87-yard returns in a game during the 1983 season against the University of Virginia. Clark was at James Madison during the Dukes' first four Division I-AA seasons. He caught 46 passes for James Madison's 8-3 team in 1982 and had 57 receptions in 1983. He was the Virginia offensive player of the year in 1982 and an honorable mention All-American in 1982 and 1983.

Clark became the first person in James Madison history to have his jersey retired.

Professional career[link]

USFL[link]

After college, Clark played for the Jacksonville Bulls of the United States Football League after being picked in the United States Football League draft. He played for the Bulls in 1984 and 1985.

NFL[link]

Clark was selected by the Washington Redskins in the second round of the 1984 NFL Supplemental Draft of USFL and CFL Players.

In 1985, he signed with the Redskins and had a superb rookie season, recording 72 receptions for 926 yards and five touchdowns. Clark quickly established himself as one of the top receivers in the NFL. He followed up his superb rookie season in 1986 with a Pro Bowl year catching 74 passes for 1,265 yards and seven touchdowns. Clark set a Redskin record for receiving yards in a game during a Monday Night Football contest with the New York Giants. He caught 11 passes for 241 yards and a touchdown. The record still stands today as the "most receiving yards in a non-strike game" (Anthony Allen surpassed Clark's tally during the 1987 strike season). The Redskins went on to finish 12-4 and defeated the reigning Super Bowl champion Chicago Bears, 27-13, in a divisional playoff game but lost to the Giants in the NFC Championship game, 17-0.

In 1987, Clark again had a Pro Bowl year, catching 56 passes for 1,066 and seven touchdowns. He achieved these numbers in only 11 games, as a player strike shortened the season by one game and replacements played three games. No Redskin player crossed the picket line and the replacements went 3-0. Clark was only one of four NFL receivers to surpass 1,000 yards. By this time, he had caught the eye of CBS commentator John Madden. Clark's toughness, big-play ability and willingness to block made him a regular on the All Madden Team during his playing career. The Redskins went on to finish 11-4, winning the NFC East crown. In the playoffs, the Redskins defeated the Chicago Bears in the Divisional Playoff game for the second year in a row, 21-17. Clark caught three passes for 57 yards and a touchdown in the NFC Championship game against the Minnesota Vikings. The Redskins won, 17-10, to earn the right to play in Super Bowl XXII. Clark caught three passes for 55 yards and a touchdown, while also rushing for 25 yards in Washington's 42-10 rout of John Elway and the Denver Broncos in Super Bowl XXII.

Clark's numbers dropped in 1988 as he caught 59 passes for 892 yards and seven touchdowns. The Redskins finished a paltry 7-9 and missed the playoffs. He returned to form in 1989, catching 79 passes (a career high) for 1,229 yards and nine touchdowns. The Redskins finished 10-6 but missed the playoffs again because of a 5-6 start. Clark, along with fellow receivers Art Monk and Ricky Sanders, surpassed the 1,000 yard mark in 1989. This was the first time in NFL History that three receivers from one team all went over the 1,000 yard mark in the same year.

In 1990, Clark had another Pro Bowl year and the Redskins made the playoffs. He caught 75 passes for 1,112 yards and eight touchdowns. The Redskins went on to beat the Philadelphia Eagles, 20-6, in an NFC Wild Card game. Clark caught four passes for 63 yards and a touchdown. The Redskins lost the next week to the San Francisco 49ers, 28-10.

In 1991, Clark and the Redskins tore through the NFL. He caught 70 passes for 1,340 yards and ten touchdowns. His 19.1 yards per catch was second in the NFL. Clark caught four passes for 203 yards and three touchdowns in Washington's 56-17 rout of the Atlanta Falcons in week 11. The Redskins finished 14-2, won the NFC East, and claimed home field advantage throughout the playoffs. Washington beat Atlanta, 24-7, and crushed Detroit, 41-10, to earn a berth in Super Bowl XXVI against the Buffalo Bills. Clark had a big day with seven catches for 114 yards and a touchdown in Washington's 37-24 defeat of the Bills. The Redskins led 24-0 early in the third quarter, but Buffalo cut the lead to 24-10. His 30-yard touchdown reception in the third quarter was instrumental in thwarting a comeback attempt by the Bills.

Clark, Monk and Sanders gave the Redskins one of the best receiving corps in the NFL during the late 1980s and early 1990s. They were known as The Posse. Clark was long known as the most fiery spirit of the bunch, and he was known to run laps around RFK Stadium after touchdowns and during Redskins comebacks. Clark signed with the Phoenix Cardinals as a free agent prior to the 1993 season, and the Redskins have only made the playoffs three times since.

Clark retired from the NFL after the 1995 season. In his 11 NFL seasons, he caught 699 passes for 10,856 yards and 65 touchdowns, while rushing for 54 yards and gaining 62 yards on nine punt returns. He also had twenty-seven 100-yard games wearing the Redskins uniform. Clark was a four-time Pro Bowl selection in 1986, 1987, 1990, and 1991. He was also a three-time All-Pro selection. He led his team in receiving seven times (1986, 1987, 1989–1992, 1994), and won two Super Bowls, Super Bowl XXII and Super Bowl XXVI, during his NFL career.

Clark was the first receiver in NFL history to catch at least 50 passes in his first ten NFL seasons. As of 2009, the only other players to do so have been Marvin Harrison and Torry Holt.

Notes[link]

Clark was the owner of the now closed South Beach Restaurant and Martini Lounge in Bethesda, Maryland.

He was inducted into the Redskins Ring of Honor on October 7, 2007 and concluded his speech with, "We are going to spank Detroit's butt." The Redskins won the game, 34-3.

In 2007, he was inducted into the Virginia Sports Hall of Fame.

External links[link]

• Clark's statistics
• More Career Stats
• Gary Clark Biography
• JMU Athletic Hall of Fame