A pupa (Latin ''pupa'' for doll, pl: ''pupae'' or ''pupas'') is the life stage of some insects undergoing transformation. The pupal stage is found only in holometabolous insects, those that undergo a complete metamorphosis, going through four life stages; embryo, larva, pupa and imago. (For a list of such insects see Holometabolism).

The pupae of different groups of insects have different names such as chrysalis in the Lepidoptera and tumbler in mosquitoes. Pupae may further be enclosed in other structures such as cocoons, nests or shells.

Some pupae remain inside the exoskeleton of the final larval instar and receive the name of puparium (plural, puparia); the flies of the families Stratiomyidae, Syrphidae and others have puparia.

Position in life cycle

In the life of an insect the pupal stage follows the larval stage and precedes adulthood (''imago''). It is during the time of pupation that the adult structures of the insect are formed while the larval structures are broken down. Pupae are inactive, and usually sessile (not able to move about). They have a hard protective coating and often use camouflage to evade potential predators.

Duration

Pupation may last weeks, months or even years. For example it is 2 weeks in monarch butterflies. The pupa may enter dormancy or ''diapause'' until the appropriate season for the adult insect. In temperate climate pupae usually stay dormant during winter, in the tropics pupae usually do so during the dry season. Anise Swallowtails sometimes emerge after years as a chrysalis.

Emergence

Insects emerge (eclose) from pupae by splitting the pupal case, and the whole process of pupation is controlled by the insect's hormones. Most butterflies emerge in the morning. In mosquitoes the emergence is in the evening or night. In fleas the process is triggered by vibrations that indicate the possible presence of a suitable host. Prior to emergence, the adult inside the pupal exoskeleton is termed "pharate". Once the pharate adult has eclosed from the pupa, the empty pupal exoskeleton is called an "exuvium" (or exuvia); in most hymenopterans (ants, bees and wasps) the exuvium is so thin and membranous that it becomes "crumpled" as it is shed.

Pupal mating

thumb|right|Mating in pierid ''Catopsilia pyranthe'' of male with newly emerged female. In a few taxa of the Lepidoptera, especially ''Heliconius'', pupal mating is an extreme form of reproductive strategy where adult males mate with female pupa about to emerge or with the newly moulted female; this is accompanied by other actions such as capping of the reproductive system of the female with the sphragis, denying access to other males, or by exuding an anti-aphrodisiac pheromone.

Defense

Pupae are usually immobile and are largely defenseless. To overcome this, a common feature is concealed placement. There are some species of Lycaenid butterflies who are protected in their pupal stage by ants. Another means of defense by pupae of other species is the capability of making sounds or vibrations to scare potential predators. A few species use chemical defenses including toxic secretions. The pupae of social hymenopterans are protected by adult members of the hive.

Chrysalis

A chrysalis (Latin ''chrysallis'', from Greek χρυσαλλίς = ''chrysallís'', pl: ''chrysalides'') or nympha is the pupal stage of butterflies. The term is derived from the metallic gold-coloration found in the pupae of many butterflies, referred to by the Greek term χρυσός (''chrysós'') for gold.

When the caterpillar is fully grown, it makes a button of silk which it uses to fasten its body to a leaf or a twig. Then the caterpillar's skin comes off for the final time. Under this old skin is a hard skin called a chrysalis.

Because chrysalides are often showy and are formed in the open, they are the most familiar examples of pupae. Most chrysalides are attached to a surface by a Velcro-like arrangement of a silken pad spun by the caterpillar, usually cemented to the underside of a perch, and the ''cremaster'', a hook-shaped protuberance from the rear of the chrysalis at the tip of the pupal abdomen by which the caterpillar fixes itself to the pad of silk.

Like other types of pupae, the chrysalis stage in most butterflies is one in which there is little movement. However, some butterfly pupae are capable of moving the abdominal segments to produce sounds or to scare away potential predators. Within the chrysalis, growth and differentiation occur. The adult butterfly emerges (ecloses) from this and expands its wings by pumping haemolymph into the wing veins. Although this sudden and rapid change from pupa to imago is often called metamorphosis, metamorphosis is really the whole series of changes that an insect undergoes from egg to adult.

When the butterfly emerges from the chrysalis, usually it will sit on the empty shell in order to expand and harden its wings. However, if the chrysalis was near the ground (such as if it fell off from its silk pad), the butterfly would find another vertical surface to rest upon and harden its wings (such as a wall or fence).

Moth pupae are usually dark in color and either formed in underground cells, loose in the soil, or their pupa is contained in a protective silk case called a cocoon.

It is important to differentiate between pupa, chrysalis and cocoon. The pupa is the stage between the larva and adult stages. The chrysalis is a butterfly pupa. A cocoon is a silk case that moths, and sometimes other insects, spin around the pupa.

Cocoon

A cocoon is a casing spun of silk by many moth caterpillars, and numerous other holometabolous insect larvae as a protective covering for the pupa.

Cocoons may be tough or soft, opaque or translucent, solid or meshlike, of various colors, or composed of multiple layers, depending on the type of insect larva producing it. Many moth caterpillars shed the larval hairs (setae) and incorporate them into the cocoon; if these are urticating hairs then the cocoon is also irritating to the touch. Some larvae attach small twigs, fecal pellets or pieces of vegetation to the outside of their cocoon in an attempt to disguise it from predators. Others spin their cocoon in a concealed location – on the ''underside'' of a leaf, in a crevice, down near the base of a tree trunk, suspended from a twig or concealed in the leaf litter.

The silk in the cocoon of the silk moth can be unravelled to get silk fibre which makes this moth the most economically important of all Lepidopterans. The moth is the only completely domesticated Lepidopteran and does not exist in the wild.

Insects that pupate in a cocoon must escape from it, and they do this either by the pupa cutting its way out, or by secreting fluids that soften the cocoon. Some cocoons are constructed with built-in lines of weakness along which they will tear easily from inside, or with exit holes that only allow a one-way passage out; such features facilitate the escape of the adult insect after it emerges from the pupal skin.

Gallery

See also

Brood (honeybee)

Larva

Silk

References

External links

Cocoon Silk: A Natural Architecture

Pupas photos plus species descriptions at Lepidoptera.pro

Category:Entomology Category:Developmental biology

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Victor Abimbola Olaiya, or 'Dr Victor Olaiya', is a Nigerian trumpeter who plays in the Highlife style. He was possibly the biggest star in Nigeria in the 1950s and early 1960s, but received little recognition outside of Nigeria. Alhaji Alade Odunewu of the Daily Times admiringly styled him "The Evil Genius of Highlife."

Life

Olaiya was born on 31 December 1931, in Calabar, Cross River State, the 20th child of a family of 24. His parents, Alfred Omolona Olaiya and Bathsheba Owolabi Motajo came from Ijesha-Ishu in Ekiti State. At an early age he learned to play the Bombardon and the French Horn. After leaving school he moved to Lagos where he passed the school certificate examination in 1951 and was accepted by Howard University, USA to study Civil engineering. However, due to lack of money he was unable to go, and instead started a career as a musician, a move of which his parents disapproved. He played with the Sammy Akpabot band, the Old Lagos City Orchestra (a dance band) and the Bobby Benson Jam Session Orchestra, where he was leader and trumpeter of the second band.

In 1954 he left Bobby Benson to form his own band, the Cool Cats, playing popular highlife music. His band was chosen to play at the state ball when Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom visited Nigeria in 1956, and later to play at the state balls when Nigeria became independent in 1960 and when Nigeria became a republic in 1963. On that occasion, he shared the stage with the famous American jazz player Louis Armstrong. During the Nigerian Civil War of 1967-1970, Olaiya was given the rank of a lieutenant colonel (honorary) in the Nigerian Army when his band played for the troops at various locations. His band later traveled to the Congo to perform for United Nations troops. He led his band, renamed to the All Stars Band, to the 1963 International Jazz Festival in Prague, Czechoslovakia.

In addition to his successful career as a musician, Olaiya ran a business that imported and distributed musical instruments and accessories throughout West Africa, and also established the Stadium Hotel in Surulere.

In 1990, Olaiya received a fellowship of the Institute of Administrative Management of Nigeria. For a period, he was president of the Nigerian Union of Musicians.

Music

Olaiya's music bridges between Ghanaian highlife and what would become Afrobeat. His musical style was influenced by James Brown, with horn parts harmonized in Brown's style, as opposed to the mostly unison lines of Afrobeat. The music includes the swinging percussion of Tony Allen, but not the syncopated style that Allen later pioneered. His music is infectious, typifying highlife music, played with great energy. The unique style of some of his recordings is inimitable.

He played with highlife artist E. T. Mensah of Ghana, and released a best-selling joint album with Mensah. Both the drummer Tony Allen and vocalist Fela Kuti played with Olaiya and went on to achieve individual success. Kola Ogunkoya played in the All Stars Band from 1986 to 1987 and went on to have a highly successful career with his own Afrobeat band.

Discography

A partial list of albums:

!Date	!Group	!Album	!Format	!Label
Late 1950s/Early 1960s	Victor Olaiya & his Cool Cats	Odale Ore b/w Mofe Muyon	10" 78	Badejo's Sound Studios BBA 150
1960s?	Various Artists	Catchy Rhythms from Nigeria - Vol. 2	10" LP	Philips West Africa [Lagos] P 13401
1961	Dr. Victor Olaiya & his All Stars	Olaiya's Victories	10" LP	Philips [Netherlands] 13403
Early 1960s	Various Artists	Catchy Rhythms From Nigeria - Vol. 3	(10" LP	Philips West Africa [Lagos] 13404
1960s	Victor Olaiya & his Cool Cats	Afro-Rhythm Parade Vol. 2	7" EP	Philips [Netherlands] 420001
1960s?	Victor Olaiya & his All Stars	Oruku Tiniditindi / Iye Jemila	7" 45	Philips [Lagos] 303 015
1960s	Victor Olaiya & his All Stars	Pambotoriboto b/w Moonlight Highlife	7" 45	Philips [Lagos] 382357
1960s	Victor Olaiya & his All Stars	Feso J'aiye / Asian Udo	7" 45	Philips [Lagos] 382 397
1960s	Victor Olaiya & his All Stars	Kosowo Lode b/w Ewelewekuewele	7" 45	Philips [Lagos] 382739
1960s	Victor Olaiya & his All Stars	Afro-Rhythm Parade Vol. 7	7" EP	Philips [Lagos] 420014
Late 1960s?	Various Artists	West Africa's Big Sound	7" EP	Philips [Lagos] 420023 PE
1982	Dr. Victor Olaiya	In the Sixties	LP	Polydor [Lagos] POLP 066
1982	Dr. Victor Olaiya	Highlife Reincaration	LP	Polydor [Lagos] POLP 073
1983	Dr. Victor Olaiya	Ilu Le O (Country Hard 0!)	LP	Polydor [Lagos] POLP 096
1983	Various Artists	African Music	LP	Vertigo [Netherlands] 814 480-1
1983	E.T. Mensah & Dr. Victor Olaiya	Highlife Giants of Africa Vol. 1	LP	Polydor [Lagos] POLP 102
1986	Dr. Victor Olaiya	Papingo Davalaya	LP	Polydor [Lagos] POLP 156
2001?	Dr. Victor Olaiya	The Best of Dr. Victor Olaiya - 3 Decades of Highlife	CD	Premier Music [Lagos] KMCD003
2003?	Dr. Victor Abimbola Olaiya	Highlife in The 80's - The Best of Dr. Victor Olaiya Vol. 2 - Evil Genius of Highlife	CD	Premier Music [Lagos] KMCD007
2002?	Various Artists	High Life Kings Vol. 1	CD	Premier Music [Lagos] KMCD 01
2002?	Various Artists	High Life Kings Vol. 2	CD	Premier Music [Lagos] KMCD 02
2003?	Various Artists	The Kings of Highlife	CD	Wrasse Records [UK] WRASS 097
2005	Victor Olaiya & his International All Stars / St. Augustine	Let Yourself Go/There Was a Time / Papa de Love	7"45	Soundway [UK] SNDW 7002
2009	Victor Olaiya's All Stars Soul International	Victor Olaiya's All Stars Soul International	CD	Vampisoul [Spain] VAMPI 107)

External links

References

Category:Nigerian musicians Category:Yoruba musicians Category:1931 births Category:Living people

yo:Victor Olaiya