Juris Doctor (see etymology and abbreviations below) is a professional doctorate^{[1][2][3][4][5][6]} and first professional^[7][8] graduate degree^[9][10][11] in law. The degree was first awarded by Harvard University in the United States in the late 19th century and was created as a modern version of the old European doctor of law degree (such as the Dottore in Giurisprudenza in Italy and the Juris Utriusque Doctor in Germany and Central Europe).^[12] Originating from the 19th century Harvard movement for the scientific study of law, it is a law degree that in some common law jurisdictions has a goal of being the primary professional preparation for lawyers. It is a three year program in most jurisdictions.^[13][14]

Etymology and abbreviations[link]

In the United States, the professional doctorate in law may be conferred in Latin or in English, as Juris Doctor (JD or J.D.) or Doctor of Jurisprudence (DJur or D.Jur.), respectively. "Juris Doctor" literally means "Teacher of Law", while the Latin for "Doctor of Jurisprudence" - Jurisprudentia Doctor - literally means "Teacher of Legal Knowledge".

Invariably an earned doctorate, the J.D./D.Jur. is equivalent in academic rank to the Doctor of Laws or Legum Doctor (LLD or LL.D.). However, while the LL.D. remains an earned doctorate in Ireland and many Commonwealth countries, it is invariably an honorary degree in the United States.^[15][16]

Historical context[link]

Origins of the law degree[link]

In Europe the first academic degrees were law degrees, and the law degrees were doctorates.^[17][18][19] The foundations of the first universities were the glossators of the 11th century, which were schools of law.^[20] The first university, that of Bologna, was founded as a school of law by four famous legal scholars in the 11th century who were students of the glossator school in that city. The University of Bologna served as the model for other law schools of the medieval age.^[21] While it was common for students of law to visit and study at schools in other countries, such was not the case with England because of the English rejection of Roman law (except in certain specialized areas, such as admiralty court) and although the University of Oxford and University of Cambridge did teach canon law until the English Reformation, the importance of common law was always superior to civil law in those institutions.^[22]

The history of legal training in England[link]

The Inns of Court of London served as a professional school for lawyers in England

The nature of the J.D. can be better understood by a review of the context of the history of legal education in England. The teaching of law at Oxford University was for philosophical or scholarly purposes and not meant to prepare one to practise law.^[23] Professional training for practising common law in England was undertaken at the Inns of Court, but over time the training functions of the Inns lessened considerably and apprenticeships with individual practitioners arose as the prominent medium of preparation.^[24] However, because of the lack of standardisation of study and of objective standards for appraisal of these apprenticeships, the role of universities became subsequently of importance for the education of lawyers in the English speaking world.^[25]

In England in 1292 when Edward I first requested that lawyers be trained, students merely sat in the courts and observed, but over time the students would hire professionals to lecture them in their residences, which led to the institution of the Inns of Court system.^[26] The original method of education at the Inns of Court was a mix of moot court-like practice and lecture, as well as court proceedings observation.^[27] By the seventeenth century, the Inns obtained a status as a kind of university akin to the University of Oxford and the University of Cambridge, though very specialized in purpose.^[28] With the frequent absence of parties to suits during the Crusades, the importance of the lawyer role grew tremendously, and the demand for lawyers grew.^[29]

Traditionally Oxford and Cambridge did not see common law as worthy of study, and included coursework in law only in the context of canon and civil law and for the purpose of the study of philosophy or history only. The apprenticeship program for solicitors thus emerged, structured and governed by the same rules as the apprenticeship programs for the trades.^[30] The training of solicitors by apprenticeship was formally established by an act of parliament in 1729.^[31] William Blackstone became the first lecturer in English common law at the University of Oxford in 1753, but the university did not establish the program for the purpose of professional study, and the lectures were very philosophical and theoretical in nature.^[31] Blackstone insisted that the study of law should be university based, where concentration on foundational principles can be had, instead of concentration on detail and procedure had through apprenticeship and the Inns of Court.^[32]

The Inns of Court continued but became less effective and admission to the bar still did not require any significant educational activity or examination, therefore in 1846 Parliament examined the education and training of prospective barristers and found the system to be inferior to the legal education provided in Europe and the United States.^[25] Therefore, formal schools of law were called for, but not finally established until later in the century, and even then the bar did not consider a university degree in admission decisions.^[25]

Legal training in colonial North America and 19th century U.S.[link]

Initially there was much resistance to lawyers in colonial North America because of the role they had played in hierarchical England, but slowly the colonial governments started using the services of professionals trained in the Inns of Court in London, and by the end of the American Revolution there was a functional bar in each state.^[33] Due to an initial distrust of a profession open only to the elite in England, as institutions for training developed in what would become the United States they emerged as quite different from those in England.^[34]

Initially in the United States the legal professionals were trained and imported from England.^[35] A formal apprenticeship or clerkship program was established first in New York in 1730—at that time a seven-year clerkship was required, and in 1756 a four-year college degree was required in addition to five years of clerking and an examination.^[36] Later the requirements were reduced to require only two years of college education.^[36] But a system like the Inns did not develop, and a college education was not required in England until the 19th century, so this system was unique.

The clerkship program required much individual study and the mentoring lawyer was expected to carefully select materials for study and guide the clerk in his study of the law and ensure that it was being absorbed.^[37] The student was supposed to compile his notes of his reading of the law into a "commonplace book", which he would try to memorize.^[38] Although those were the ideals, in reality the clerks were often overworked and rarely were able to study the law individually as expected. They were often employed to tedious tasks, such as making handwritten copies of documents. Finding sufficient legal texts was also a seriously debilitating issue, and there was no standardization in the books assigned to the clerk trainees because they were assigned by their mentor, whose opinion of the law may have differed greatly from his peers.^[39] It was said by one famous attorney in the U.S., William Livingston, in 1745 in a New York newspaper that the clerkship program was severely flawed, and that most mentors "have no manner of concern for their clerk's future welfare... [T]is a monstrous absurdity to suppose, that the law is to be learnt by a perpetual copying of precedents."^[38] There were some few mentors that were dedicated to the service, and because of their rarity, they became so sought after that the first law schools evolved from the offices of some of these attorneys who took on many clerks and began to spend more time training than practicing law.^[38]

In time, the apprenticeship program was not considered sufficient to produce lawyers fully capable of serving their clients' needs.^[40] The apprenticeship programs often employed the trainee with menial tasks, and while they were well trained in the day to day operations of a law office, they were generally unprepared practitioners or legal reasoners.^[41] The establishment of formal faculties of law in U.S. universities did not occur until the latter part of the 18th century.^[42] With the beginning of the American Revolution, the supply of lawyers from Britain ended. The first law degree granted by a U.S. university was a Bachelor of Law in 1793 by the College of William and Mary, which was abbreviated L.B.; Harvard was the first university to use the LL.B. abbreviation in the United States.^[43]

The first university law programs in the United States, such as that of the University of Maryland established in 1812, included much theoretical and philosophical study, including works such as the Bible, Cicero, Seneca, Aristotle, Adam Smith, Montesquieu and Grotius.^[44] It has been said that the early university law schools of the early 19th century seemed to be preparing students for careers as statesmen rather than as lawyers.^[45] At the LL.B. programs in the early 1900s at Stanford University and Yale continued to include "cultural study," which included courses in languages, mathematics and economics.^[46]

In the 1850s there were many proprietary schools which originated from a practitioner taking on multiple apprentices and establishing a school and which provided a practical legal education, as opposed to the one offered in the universities which offered an education in the theory, history and philosophy of law.^[47] The universities assumed that the acquisition of skills would happen in practice, while the proprietary schools concentrated on the practical skills during education.^[47]

Revolutionary approach: Scientific study of law[link]

Joseph Story, U.S. Supreme Court Justice, lecturer of law at Harvard and proponent of the scientific study of law

In part to compete with the small professional law schools, there began a great change in U.S. university legal education. For a short time beginning in 1826 Yale began to offer a complete "practitioners' course" which lasted two years and included practical courses, such as pleading drafting.^[48] U.S. Supreme Court justice Joseph Story started the spirit of change in legal education at Harvard when he advocated a more "scientific study" of the law in the 19th century.^[49] At the time he was a lecturer at Harvard. Therefore at Harvard the education was much of a trade school type of approach to legal education, contrary to the more liberal arts education advocated by Blackstone at Oxford and Jefferson at William and Mary.^[50] Nonetheless there continued to be debate among educators over whether legal education should be more vocational, as at the private law schools, or through a rigorous scientific method, such as that developed by Story and Langdell.^[51][52] In the words of Dorsey Ellis, "Langdell viewed law as a science and the law library as the laboratory, with the cases providing the basis for learning those 'principles or doctrines' of which law, considered as a science, consists.'"^[53] Nonetheless, into the year 1900 most states did not require a university education (although an apprenticeship was often required) and most practitioners had not attended any law school or college.^[50]

Therefore, the modern legal education system in the U.S. is a combination of teaching law as a science and a practical skill,^[54] implementing elements such as clinical training, which has become an essential part of legal education in the U.S. and in the J.D. program of study.^[55] Today as a result of the development of the U.S. legal education system, law graduates receive more practical experience, but are nonetheless unprepared to practice law on their own upon graduation from law school.

Creation of the J.D. and major common law approaches to legal education[link]

The J.D. originated in the United States during a movement to improve training of the professions. The didactic approaches which resulted were revolutionary for university education and have slowly been implemented outside the U.S., but only recently (since about 1997) and in stages. The degrees which resulted from this new approach, such as the M.D. and the J.D., are just as different from their European counterparts as the educational approaches differ.

Legal education in the United States[link]

Professional doctorates were developed in the United States in the 19th century, the first being the Doctor of Medicine in 1807,^[56] but the professional law degree took more time. At the time the legal system in the United States was still in development as the educational institutions were developing. The status of the legal profession was at that time still ambiguous, therefore the development of the legal degree took much time.^[57] Even when some universities offered training in law, they did not offer a degree.^[57] Because in the United States there were no Inns of Court, and the English academic degrees did not provide the necessary professional training, the models from England were inapplicable, and the degree program took some time to develop.^[58] At first the degree took the form of a B.L. (such as at the College of William and Mary), but then Harvard, keen on importing legitimacy through the trappings of Oxford and Cambridge, implemented an LL.B. degree.^[59] This was somewhat controversial at the time because it was a professional training without any of the cultural or classical studies required of a bachelors degree in England.^[60] Thus, even though the name of the English LL.B. degree was implemented at Harvard, the program in the U.S. was nonetheless intended as practical or professional training, and not, as in England, merely a bachelor of arts denoting a specialization in law.^[61]

Creation of the Juris Doctor[link]

In the mid-19th century there was much concern about the quality of legal education in the United States. Christopher Columbus Langdell, who served as dean of Harvard Law School from 1870 to 1895, dedicated his life to reforming legal education in the United States. The historian Robert Stevens wrote that "it was Langdell's goal to turn the legal profession into a university educated one—and not at the undergraduate level, but through a three-year post baccalaureate degree."^[62] This graduate level study would allow the intensive legal training that Langdell had developed, known as the case method (a method of studying landmark cases) and the Socratic method (a method of examining students on the reasoning of the court in the cases studied). Therefore, a graduate high level law degree was established, the Juris Doctor, implementing the case and Socratic methods as its didactic approach.^[63] According to professor J. H. Beale, a 1882 Harvard Law graduate, one of the main arguments for the change was uniformity. Harvard's four professional schools of Theology, Law, Medicine and Arts and Sciences were all graduate schools, and their degrees were therefore a second degree. Two of them conferred a doctorate and the other two a baccalaureate degree. The change from LL. B. to J.D. was intended to end this discriminatory practice of conferring what is normally a first degree upon persons who have already their primary degree.^[64] The J.D. was established as the equivalent of the J.U.D. in Germany to reflect the advanced study required to be an effective lawyer. Harvard was first to offer the new doctorate. The University of Chicago Law School was the first to offer it exclusively (i.e., the first to not offer both the J.D. and the LL.B.).^[65] While approval was still pending at Harvard, the degree was introduced at many other law schools in the United States.

Because of tradition, and concerns about less famous universities implementing a J.D. program, there was some reluctance by some institutions, such as Yale Law School, to implement the J.D. as the only law degree.^[66] By the 1960s every law school except Yale offered a J.D. as its sole professional law degree.^[67] Yale continued to confer the LL.B. as its professional degree in law until 1971.^[67] Nonetheless, the LL.B. at Yale retained the didactical changes of the "practitioners courses" of 1826 and was very different from the LL.B. in common law countries other than Canada.^[48]

Major common law approaches[link]

The English legal system is the root of the systems of other common-law countries, such as the United States. Originally common lawyers in England were trained exclusively in the Inns of Court, but even though it took nearly 150 years since common law education began with Blackstone at Oxford for university education to be part of legal training in England and Wales, eventually the LL.B. became the degree usually taken before becoming a lawyer. Nonetheless, in England and Wales the LL.B. is an undergraduate scholarly program and does not provide all of the training required before becoming licensed in that jurisdiction.^[68] Both barristers and solicitors must undertake two further periods of training (the Bar Vocational Course and pupillage for barristers and the LPC and a training contract for solicitors).

The bachelor's degree originated at the University of Paris, which system was implemented at Oxford and Cambridge.^[69] The "arts" designation of the degree traditionally signifies that the student has undertaken a certain amount of study of the classics.^[70] On continental Europe the bachelor's degree was phased out in the 18th or early 19th century but it continued at Oxford and Cambridge. Today Oxford offers the bachelor's degree in law (B.C.L.) as a second entry program, contrary to the practice of all other English universities. Cambridge followed the same practice until relatively recently, renaming its LL.B. degree as LL.M. in 1982.^[71]

Because the English legal education is undergraduate and provides a general education (retaining some of the characteristics of the liberal arts degree advocated by Blackstone) a great number of the graduates have no intention of becoming solicitors or barristers.^[72] The approach of the English degree can be seen in the required curriculum, in which there is no study of civil procedure, and relatively few courses in advanced law such as business entities, bankruptcy, evidence, family law, etc.^{[dubious – discuss][73]} There has been a trend in the past twenty years in England to introduce more professionally relevant courses in the curriculum, particularly in "qualifying law degrees," and the law school has taken a more central role in the preparation of lawyers in England,^[73] but the degree is still more scholarly or academic than those in North America. This is also the case for other common law jurisdictions such as in Australia, India and Hong Kong.

Legal education in Canada has unique variations from other commonwealth countries. Even though the legal system of Canada is mostly a transplant of the English system (Quebec excepted), the Canadian system is unique in that there are no Inns of Court, the practical training occurs in the office of a barrister and solicitor with law society membership, and, since 1889, a university degree has been a prerequisite to initiating an articling clerkship (which requirement was not implemented until much later in England^[when?]).^[74] The education in law schools in Canada was similar to that in the United States at the turn of the 20th century, but with a greater concentration on statutory drafting and interpretation, and elements of a liberal education.^[75] The bar associations in Canada were influenced by the changes at Harvard, and were sometimes quicker to nationally implement the changes proposed in the United States, such as requiring previous college education before studying law.^[75]

Modern variants and curriculum[link]

Legal education is rooted in the history and structure of the legal system of the jurisdiction where the education is given, therefore law degrees are vastly different from country to country, making comparisons among degrees problematic.^[76] This has proven true in the context of the various forms of the J.D. which have been implemented around the world.

Until about 1997 the J.D. was unique to law schools in the U.S. But with the rise in international success of law firms from the United States, and the rise in students from outside the U.S. attending U.S. law schools, attorneys with the J.D. have become increasingly common internationally.^[77] Therefore the prestige of the J.D. has also risen, and many universities outside of the U.S. have started to offer the J.D., often for the express purpose of raising the prestige of their law school and graduates.^[77] Such institutions usually aim to appropriate the name of the degree only, and sometimes the new J.D. program of study is the same as that of their traditional law degree, which is usually more scholarly in purpose than the professional training intended with the J.D. as created in the U.S. Various characteristics can therefore be seen among J.D. degrees as implemented in universities around the world.

Types and characteristics[link]

Until very recently, only law schools in the United States offered the Juris Doctor. Starting about 1997, universities in other countries began introducing the J.D. as a first professional degree in law, with differences appropriate to the legal systems of the countries in which these law schools are situated.

Standard Juris Doctor Curriculum[link]

As stated by James Hall and Christopher Langdell, two people who were involved in the creation of the J.D., the J.D. is a professional degree like the M.D., intended to prepare practitioners through a scientific approach of analysing and teaching the law through logic and adversarial analysis (such as the Casebook and Socratic methods).^[87] It has existed as described in the United States for over 100 years, and can therefore be termed the standard or traditional J.D. program. The J.D. program requires a bachelors degree for entry. The program of study for the degree has remained substantially unchanged since its creation, and is an intensive study of the substantive law and its professional applications (and therefore requires no thesis, although a lengthy writing project is sometimes required^[88]). As a professional training, it provides sufficient training for entry into practice (no apprenticeship is necessary to sit for the bar exam). It requires at least three academic years of full time study. Strictly defined, the United States is the only jurisdiction with this form of a J.D., but the University of Tokyo (in Japan) and the University of Melbourne (in Australia) are attempting to follow this model closely. While the J.D. is considered a doctorate degree, lawyers usually use the suffix of "esquire" as opposed to the prefix "doctor." Although calling a lawyer "doctor" would not be incorrect, it is more commonly employed overseas than in the U.S.

Replacement for the LL.B.[link]

Canadian and Australian universities have law programs that are very similar to the J.D. programs in the United States. These include the University of British Columbia, University of Alberta, University of Victoria, Université de Moncton, University of Calgary, University of Saskatchewan, University of Manitoba, University of Windsor, University of Ottawa, the Osgoode Hall Law School^[89] and University of Toronto Law School^[90] in Canada, and the University of Melbourne in Australia.^[11] Therefore, when the J.D. program was introduced at these institutions, it was a mere renaming of their second-entry LL.B. program and entailed no significant substantive changes to their curricula.^[91] The reason given for so doing is because of the international popularity and recognizability of the J.D., and the need to recognize the demanding graduate characteristics of the program.^[92] Because these programs are in institutions heavily influenced by those in the UK, the J.D. programs often have some small scholarly element (see chart above, entitled "Comparisons of J.D. Variants"). And because the legal systems are also influenced by that of the UK, an apprenticeship is still required before being qualified to apply for a license to practice (see country sections below, under "Descriptions of the J.D. outside the U.S.").

Descriptions of the J.D. outside the U.S.[link]

Australia[link]

The Juris Doctor is now offered at a number of Australian Universities including: Australian National University, Bond University, Monash University, University of Melbourne, University of New South Wales, University of Notre Dame Australia, University of Southern Queensland, University of Sydney, University of Technology, Sydney, and University of Western Australia. Generally universities that offer the J.D. also offer the LL.B. - the LL.B. is for students without a prior degree while the J.D. is offered as a graduate level degree for those with a prior non-law Bachelor's degree. However, at some universities, for example the University of Melbourne and the University of Western Australia, law can now only be studied at the postgraduate level and the J.D. has completely replaced the LL.B.

An Australian Juris Doctor consists of three years of full-time study, or the equivalent. As with graduates of the LL.B, graduates of the J.D. need to complete practical training requirement before they are eligible for admission to practice. An exception is the University of Technology Sydney which offers practical training as part of their J.D. program enabling direct admission upon graduation. At universities offering both the J.D. and the LL.B, the core curriculum is generally the same for both degrees. However, J.D. students may be taught separately and assessed differently. In addition students enrolled in the J.D complete Master's level electives.

The Juris Doctor is a graduate entry first professional degree, however, despite the naming of the degree, in Australia it is not considered to be a doctoral degree. According to the Australian Qualifications Framework, the J.D. is categorised as a level 9, Masters Degree (extended). This is similar to other graduate entry first professional degrees which are now in Australia such as the Doctor of Medicine.

Canada[link]

The J.D. degree is the dominant law degree in Canada, replacing the traditional LL.B. degree prominent in Commonwealth countries.^[93] As with the second-entry LL.B., in order to be admitted to a Juris Doctor program, applicants must have completed a minimum 3-year Bachelor's study and scored high on the North American Law School Admission Test.^[94] As a practical matter, nearly all successful applicants have completed one or more degrees before admission to a Canadian law school.^[95] All Canadian Juris Doctor programs consist of three years, and have similar content in their mandatory first year courses. The mandatory first year courses in Canadian law schools outside Quebec include public law (i.e. state law, constitutional law, and administrative law), property law, tort law, contract law, criminal law, and legal research and writing.^[96] Beyond first year and other courses required for graduation, course selection is elective with various concentrations such as business law, international law, natural resources law, environmental law, marine law, criminal law, and Aboriginal law.^[97] After graduation from an accredited law school, each province's or territory's law society requires completion of a bar examination, and a period of supervised "articling" prior to independent practice.^[98]

Use of the "J.D." designation by Canadian law schools is not intended to indicate an emphasis on American law, but rather to distinguish Canadian law degrees from English law degrees, which do not require prior undergraduate study.^[77] The Canadian J.D. is a degree in Canadian Law. Accordingly, United States jurisdictions other than New York and Massachusetts,^[99] do not recognize Canadian Juris Doctor degrees automatically.^[100][101] This is equivalent to the manner in which United States J.D. graduates are treated in Canadian jurisdictions such as Ontario.^[102] To prepare graduates to practise in jurisdictions on both sides of the border, some pairs of law schools, such as the New York University (NYU) Law School and Osgoode Hall Law School,^[103] the University of Ottawa Law School and the Michigan State University Law School or American University,^[104] and the University of Windsor Law School and the University of Detroit Mercy Law School,^[105] have developed joint American-Canadian J.D programs.

Hong Kong[link]

The J.D. degree is currently offered at the Chinese University of Hong Kong, the City University of Hong Kong, and the University of Hong Kong.^[106] The degree is known as the 法律博士 in Chinese, and in Cantonese it is pronounced as Faat Leot Bok Si.^[107] The J.D. in Hong Kong is almost identical to the LL.B. and is reserved for graduates of non-law disciplines, but the J.D. is considered to be a graduate-level degree and requires a thesis or dissertation.^[108] Like the LL.B. there is much scholarly content in the required coursework. Although the universities offering the degree claim that the J.D. is a two-year program, completing the degree in two years would require study during the summer term.^[109] There seems to be much confusion of the role or status of the J.D. in Hong Kong, as the City University website states that their J.D. is not a research doctorate.^[110] Neither the LL.B. nor the J.D. provides the education sufficient for a license to practice, as graduates of both are also required to undertake the PCLL course and a solicitor traineeship or a barrister pupillage.^[111]

Japan[link]

In Japan the J.D. is known as Homu Hakushi (法務博士).^[112] The program generally lasts three years. Two year J.D. programs for applicants with legal knowledge (mainly undergrduate level LL.B. holders) are also offered .This curriculum is professionally oriented,^[113] but does not provide the education sufficient for a license to practice as an attorney in Japan, as all candidates for a license must have 12 month practical training by the Legal Training and Research Institute after passing bar examination.^[114]

Philippines[link]

In the Philippines, the J.D. exists alongside the more common LL.B. Like the standard LL.B, it requires four years of study, is considered as a graduate degree and requires prior undergraduate study as a prerequisite for admission, and covers the core subjects required for the bar examinations. However, the J.D. requires students to finish the core bar subjects in just 2½ years; take elective courses (such as legal theory, philosophy, and sometimes even theology); undergo an apprenticeship; and write and defend a thesis.^[115]

The degree was first conferred in the Philippines by the Ateneo de Manila Law School, which first developed the model program later adopted by most schools now offering the J.D.. After the Ateneo, schools such as the University of Batangas College of Law began offering the J.D., with schools such as the Far Eastern University Institute of Law offering a joint degree program leading to a J.D. and an MBA.^[116] In 2008, the University of the Philippines College of Law began conferring the J.D. on its graduates, the school choosing rename its LL.B. program into a J.D. because to accurately reflect the nature of education the university provides as "nomenclature does not accurately reflect the fact that the LL.B. is a professional as well as a post baccalaureate degree."^[117] In 2009, the Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila (PLM) and the Silliman University College of Law also shifted their respective LL.B Programs to Juris Doctor -applying the change to incoming freshmen students for School Year 2009–2010.^[118][119] The newly established De La Salle University College of Law will likewise offer the J.D., although it will offer the program using a trimestral calendar, unlike the model curriculum that uses a semestral calendar.^[120]

Others[link]

China[link]

J.D.'s are not generally awarded in the People's Republic of China (P.R.C.) instead，a J.M.(Juris Magister) is awarded as the counterpart of JD in the United States, the professional degree in law in China.^[121] The primary law degree in the P.R.C. is the bachelor of law. In the fall of 2008 the Shenzhen campus of Peking University started the School of Transnational Law, which offers a U.S.-style education and awards both a Chinese masters degree and, by special authorization of the government, a J.D.^[122]

India[link]

At this time the Juris Doctor does not exist in India; no official entity in India authorizes the award of such a degree. A new venture Jindal Global Law School sought to start an academic program with a recognized Juris Doctor degree,^[123] however that plan was withdrawn, and the school now only offers the more traditional LL.B. and LL.M. degrees.

Italy[link]

No university in Italy awards a Juris Doctor degree, nor are there any plans to implement the degree. However, the law degree in Italy is far more advanced (5 years course) than a standard undergraduate program,^[124] and lawyers in Italy often use the title of "doctor"^[125] (Italian law authorizes all university graduates, including undergraduates, to use the title of doctor).^[126]

The Juris Doctor in Academia[link]

As a professional doctorate, the Juris Doctor is a degree that prepares the recipient to enter the profession (as does the M.D. in the medical profession). While the J.D. is the sole degree necessary to become a professor of law or to obtain a license to practice law, it (like the M.D.) is not a "research degree".^[127] Research degrees in the study of law include the Master of Laws (LL.M.), which ordinarily requires the J.D. or LL.B. as a prerequisite,^[128] and the Doctor of the Science of Law (S.J.D./J.S.D.), which ordinarily requires the LL.M. as a prerequisite.^[128] However, the American Bar Association has issued a Council Statement^[129] advising that the J.D. be considered as being equivalent to the Ph.D. for educational employment purposes. Accordingly, while most law professors are required to conduct original writing and research in order to be awarded tenure, most only have a J.D. The United States Department of Education and the National Science Foundation do not include the J.D. or other professional doctorates among the degrees that are equivalent to research doctorates.^[130][131]

See also[link]

Look up Juris Doctor in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

• Bachelor of Civil Law (B.C.L., LL.B., or LL.L.)
• Bachelor of Laws (LL.B)
• Doctor of Juridical Science (J.S.D. or S.J.D.)
• Doctor of Laws (LL.D)
• Master of Laws (LL.M)
• Legal education
• Admission to practice law
• Accelerated JD program
• Law degree
• Law school in the United States - describes general characteristics of the J.D. curriculum in the U.S.
• Lawyer

Notes and references[link]

[[zh:法律博士]

John Daniel "J. D." Sumner (November 19, 1924 - November 16, 1998) was an American gospel singer, songwriter, and music promoter noted for his extremely deep bass voice, his group J. D. Sumner and the Stamps Quartet and his associations with Elvis Presley.

Career[link]

Sumner sang in Southern gospel groups including The Sunny South Quartet 1945-1949 (Tampa,Fl WFLA Studios) the Sunshine Boys (1949 - 1954), the Blackwood Brothers Quartet (1954 - 1965), J. D. Sumner and the Stamps Quartet (1965 - 1980; 1988 - 1998), and the Masters V (1981 - 1988).

For eighteen years, Sumner held the Guinness World Record for recording the lowest bass note. As of 2011, he has been surpassed only three times by the following vocalists: Dan Britton (1984), Tim Storms (2002), and Roger Menees (2011).^[1]

In 1964, Sumner founded the Gospel Music Association with James Blackwood. He was also the founding force behind the National Quartet Convention.

Sumner was most noted as leader of the Stamps Quartet which became known as J.D. Sumner & The Stamps. Elvis Presley, while a teenager, idolized Sumner's singing after seeing him perform with the Sunshine Boys. Presley hired Sumner & The Stamps as his back-up singers in 1971. The group toured and recorded with Presley from November 1971 until Presley's death in 1977. He not only sang at Elvis' funeral but had previously sung at the funeral of Elvis' mother, Gladys, in 1958.^[2]

After the Stamps Quartet disbanded in 1980, Sumner with Hovie Lister, Jake Hess, Rosie Rozell, and James Blackwood formed the Masters V as a special consolidation of members of the Blackwood Brothers Quartet and Statesmen Quartet. The group was a showcase for Sumner's voice and compositions and won the 1981 Grammy Award for best traditional gospel performance. Sumner was credited not only for his singing, songwriting, and concert promotions, but was also noted for being the first to customize a coach bus for the entertainment business to use for music groups.

After the Masters V disbanded in 1988, Sumner reformed the Stamps Quartet and performed with the group until his death in 1998. He was often seen in his latter years appearing as a guest artist on the Bill Gaither Homecoming videos. The Stamps Quartet is currently led by Ed Enoch^[3], a member since 1969.

Sumner was inducted into the Gospel Music Hall of Fame in 1984 and the Southern Gospel Music Association Hall of Fame in 1997.^[4][5]

Lowest note[link]

The lowest recorded note that J. D. Sumner ever hit was a G0, two notes below the lowest key on the piano. He hit the note at the end of a 26-second slide at an Elvis concert in 1977, demonstrating not only his exceptional range, but his mastery of breath control.^{[citation needed]}

Songwriting[link]

Sumner wrote more than 700 songs including the following:

Selected discography[link]

This section is empty. You can help by adding to it.

The Blackwood Brothers[link]

• See Blackwood Brothers discography

The Masters V[link]

• See Masters V discography

J.D. Sumner & The Stamps[link]

• 20 Gospel Favorites 1996
• Great Gospel Performances
• Master of the Wind 1996
• Peace in the Valley 1996
• The Final Sessions 1999
• Hall Of Fame 1999

See also[link]

• Tim Storms
• Mike Holcomb
• George Younce

References[link]

External links[link]

• Wayfaring Stranger - 1967 performance with The Stamps Quartet
• Official home page of J.D. Sumner and the Stamps Quartet
• J. D. Sumner at Find a Grave
• Larry Strickland Interviw at Elvis2001.net
• Donnie Sumner Interview at Elvis2001.net
• Ed Hill Interview at Elvis2001.net
• Bill Baise Interview at Elvis2001.net
• Ed Enoch Interview at Elvis2001.net
• Shaun Neilson Interview at Elvis2001.net
• J. D. Sumner's lowest recorded note on Youtube.com

This biographical article needs additional citations for verification. Please help by adding reliable sources. Contentious material about living persons that is unsourced or poorly sourced must be removed immediately, especially if potentially libelous or harmful. (September 2010)

Mason Durell Betha (born August 27, 1977),^[1] better known by stage name Mase (often typeset as Ma$e) who was previously known as Murda Ma$e, is an American rapper, songwriter, actor and inspirational speaker. He was an artist on Sean "Diddy" Combs's hip hop label Bad Boy Records. He was introduced as Bad Boy Entertainment's next big artist during the summer of 1996 when he was featured on the remix to 112's debut single, "Only You", which peaked at number one on Billboard's Hot Dance Singles Sales chart as well as its Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Airplay chart. With his soon-to-be-trademarked^{[citation needed]} slow flow, Mase quickly developed a crossover fan base as he was featured on original tracks, as well as remixes, by popular R&B artists such as Brian McKnight, Mariah Carey, Keith Sweat, and Brandy, among others. Puff Daddy (Diddy) featured Mase on "Mo' Money, Mo' Problems" from The Notorious B.I.G.'s double-LP Life After Death, the album's biggest hit single. He then featured Mase on several songs on his own debut album, No Way Out: the lead single, "Can't Nobody Hold Me Down", which hit number one on the Rap, R&B, and Pop charts, as well as on "Been Around the World", which would also reach number one on Billboard's Hot Rap Tracks. By the time Mase released his own debut album, Harlem World, in late 1997, the rapper had become Bad Boy's premier artist, filling the void left by the death of Biggie Smalls. He is married to Twyla Betha and leads an international ministry.

Early life[link]

Rapper Mase was born Mason Durell Betha in Jacksonville, Florida on August 27, 1977, moved to Harlem, New York City with his family at age five, returned to Florida at age 13, and then moved back to Harlem two years later.^[1] Betha was a point guard for the Manhattan Center High School basketball team and in 1993 he performed as "Murder Mase" in a rap group called Children of the Corn which also included successful solo artists Big L and Cam'ron (at the time known as Killa Cam). Of his ten childhood friends, eight were murdered and two went to prison. While attending SUNY Purchase, Mase met hip hop producer Country, was introduced to producer Sean Combs, and dropped out of college to pursue a rap career.^[2]

Career[link]

[edit] Harlem World

Mase released his first solo LP, Harlem World, which debuted at #1 on the Billboard Pop and R&B LP charts selling over 270,000 copies in the U.S. its first week of release; it has since gone 4x Platinum in the United States. Mase told MTV about his first solo effort: "Well, basically what I'm trying to establish is a strong identity and foundation for Mase so a lot of people could know that Mase is his own person and Mase can do other things besides rap and music and things in that nature." Entertainment Weekly said of the album: "...creatively refreshing, well-crafted lyrics... rap's newest bad boy more than holds his own on his solo debut... his distinctive marble-mouthed drawl... creates a regular-guy persona all too rare in hip-hop."

The album spawned hits such as "Feel So Good" and "Lookin' At Me" which both reached number one status on the Rap Billboard charts, as well as "What You Want," which peaked at number three on both the Rap and R&B Billboard charts.

[edit] Double Up and retirement

Mase's sophomore effort, Double Up, was released in 1999 and distributed by Bad Boy Records and sold 107,000 copies in its first week, debuting at #11. Though it reached #5 when popular rap music was dominated by Master P and his No-Limit crew. Double Up also featured much more aggressive material. Perhaps no other sign was as clear as a line in the last song of the album, "From Scratch": "If I could do it all again, I'd do it all for Christ."

On April 20, 1999, during an interview with Funkmaster Flex on New York radio station Hot 97, Mase announced his retirement from music to pursue "a calling from God." He felt he was leading people, friends, kids and others down a path to hell, stating that he left to find God in his heart and follow him.^{[citation needed]} He declared it was time for him to serve God in his way, saying rap was not real and that he wanted to deal with reality, and that he had become unhappy with what he did, no matter how much it paid.^{[citation needed]}

Return to music and subsequent controversy[link]

After a five-year hiatus from the music industry, Mase made a comeback with "Welcome Back" during the summer of 2004. Prior to the album's release, the rapper was featured on Nelly's "In My Life," as well as the remix to Fat Joe's "Lean Back".

Mase's third album, Welcome Back, released August 24, 2004. The album debuted at #4 on the charts, selling 188,000 copies in the first week; the album would eventually go gold, selling 559,000 copies in the United States. Released after a five-year break from the rap scene, the album was a product of Mase's newly developed Christian persona. Portraying a "cleaner" image during this short-lived return to the industry, Mase dubbed himself "a Bad Boy gone clean," on the lead single, also titled "Welcome Back." This new approach to rap was received with mixed reviews. However, even though the album was not a commercial success like Harlem World, the singles, "Welcome Back" and "Breathe, Stretch, Shake," received moderate radio airplay and video play on BET and MTV, with the latter reaching #28 on the Billboard Hot 100; both singles were also certified gold by the RIAA.

Mase for a short time had recorded for G-Unit. He has since said that working with the group was not something he regrets, but that the message he was sending was a mistake. He joined G-Unit to appeal to a different audience so they could see that they could change just as he did, thinking that "in order to get people where I'm at, I have to go back to where I once was." Under G-Unit, he released a "Crucified 4 The Hood: 10 Years of Hate," a mixtape from the DJ Whoo Kid series, but an official album was never released. According to 50, Diddy refused to let Mase out of his contract with Bad Boy for anything less than $2 million. Uncertain that Mase's album would sell well enough to make up for that type of investment, 50 gave up on trying to bring Mase onto G-Unit.

Second comeback[link]

Following the formula that worked for him 13 years ago, Mase has begun to appear on popular R&B artists' remixes. In early June, he was featured on the last verse of "Uptown Boy" by Harry O, signed to The Inc., which also features Ron Browz. Weeks later, Mase appeared on a street remix for Drake's "Best I Ever Had." Mase stated that since the death of Michael Jackson it has lit the fire inside him and he is ready to come back. He appeared on Power 105.1 to have a phone conversation with "The Prince of New York" DJ Self to discuss his latest attempt at a comeback. During this interaction, former-friend-turned-rival, Jim Jones, called in to make peace and hinted at the possibility of the two working together in the near future. Mase would then use that very radio show as his outlet to release new music throughout the rest of the summer as he'd have a new song or feature premiere every Friday on DJ Self's show. On July 3, Mase appeared on the remix to Trey Songz' hit single "I Need A Girl," where he shouts out "And Diddy told them that '10 years from now we'll still be on top. I thought I told you that we won't stop," referring to the line on "Mo' Money, Mo' Problems."

July 10 would be the first time a brand new track featuring Mase would be released as he drops the first verse on "Get It," which was produced by Big Ran and also featured Cam'ron. There are two versions out, one featuring newcomer B. Rossi and the other featuring Vado, but what makes this song special is that it marks the first time in over ten years that Mase has worked with Cam'ron. Mase released the Ron Browz produced "Thinkin' 'Bout You" on July 17, then followed that up by adding a verse to the street remix of Teairra Mari & Kanye West's "Diamonds", on July 24. Mase used the last Friday in July to "Shut the City Down," which was the title of his second solo release since his comeback began. The song primarily discusses the rapper's legacy and makes reference to the ways in which Rap music, as a business, has changed since he reigned atop of it. He also makes reference to his new Batman-esque logo, and hints at himself as Hip-Hop's superhero. Mase released the song "Radio" on August 21 as a prelude to his upcoming mixtape, titled "I Bleed Money." On September 11, Mase was one of the featured artists who appeared on the remix to Ron Browz' "Gimme 20 Dollars." While being the third time since his comeback that he has worked with Browz, the remix is also significant in that it's his first collaboration with Jim Jones since the two had their falling out years ago. OJ Da Juiceman and Shawty Lo are also featured.

In an interview with MTV, Diddy spoke on Mase's comeback and what it potentially could mean for his label, Bad Boy Records. "Mase has called me... We've spoken. He's basically said, 'Just keep your eye on me. Making this switch, I gotta kinda bear this cross myself for a second. Just watch what I do.' I said, 'I've seen.' He's definitely one of the dopest emcees to ever touch the game. People can't deny that. He's one of the most successful. I've seen people come back from different things in this game. I said, 'Yeah. Without a doubt, I'll keep my eye on you.' I spoke to him today. He's out there working." Mase has been under contract with Bad Boy for 13 years and this latest gem from MTV and Diddy have led many fans to believe that there may be a Bad Boy reunion in the works.

In October 2009, Mase appeared on a live on-air interview on V-103 with appearance release forms to Bad Boy Records which he gave to Diddy in the middle of the interview for his signature. Diddy signed the forms and was quoted: "He has the freedom to go do whatever he wants to do." However, the forms do not end Mase's contractual obligations to Bad Boy Records, but rather allow him to appear on songs with artists from other labels.^[3]

2010-Present[link]

In 2010, Diddy offered Mase a 1 year release from Bad Boy Records to settle their differences, with this Mase decided to retire from rap for good although Mase was to be resigned to Bad Boy after his year break was done. On April 17 2012, Spiff TV Films-the production company that shoots most of the videos for Rick Ross' Maybach Music Group releases- tweeted a photo of rappers Ma$e, Rick Ross and French Montana, as well as singer Omarion and producer Rico Love, together in the studio. The picture immediately caused a frenzy online, sparking speculation that Ma$e might be making his third return to music since he announced he was retiring to become a pastor in April 1999 and leaving again in 2007. A week after the photo appeared, DJ Funkmaster Flex debuted a remix of Wale's "Slight Work" on his WQHT (Hot 97) New York radio show. The remix, of Wale's fourth charting single from sophomore album "Ambition," features Maybach rapper Meek Mill, Bad Boy CEO Sean Combs," and new Bad Boy signee French Montana and Ma$e, marking the first appearance of the Harlem rapper on record since 2010. Speaking to Flex during an on-air call following the remix's debut, Ma$e didn't address rumors about him possibly signing with Warner Bros. imprint Maybach Music Group. It was revealed that Bad Boy artist French Montana was the reason Mase was making his third comeback according to Montana, Ma$e is serving as an A&R representative on Montana's forthcoming Bad Boy debut, "Excuse My French," as well as appearing on the remix of Montana's "Everything's a Go." "I'm not sure what kind of decisions he's going to make," Montana says, "[but] I would love to see him in my camp." Mase is currently resigned to Bad Boy Records but has yet to announce whether he is resigned as part of a joint venture deal between Bad Boy and MMG.

Discography[link]

Albums[link]

• Harlem World (1997)
• Double Up (1999)
• Welcome Back (2004)

Compilations[link]

• Children of the Corn: The Collector’s Edition (2003)

Official Mixtapes[link]

• G-Unit Radio Part 16: Crucified 4 The Hood (2006)
• I Do The Impossible (2009)

Filmography[link]

References[link]

http://www.peoplesmart.com/psp.aspx?_act=resultswp

External links[link]

• Mase at VH1

Kanye West
West at the SWU Music & Arts Festival, 2011
Background information
Birth name	Kanye Omari West
Born	(1977-06-08) June 8, 1977 (age 35) Atlanta, Georgia, United States
Origin	Chicago, Illinois, United States
Genres	Hip hop
Occupations	rapper, singer, songwriter, record producer, music video director, film director, fashion designer
Instruments	Vocals, keyboards, sampler, percussion, synthesizer
Years active	1996–present
Labels	GOOD Music, Roc-A-Fella, Def Jam
Associated acts	Go Getters, Child Rebel Soldier, Jay-Z, The Throne, Common, John Legend, Kid Cudi, Rihanna, Jeff Bhasker, Pusha T, Mos Def, Mr Hudson, Talib Kweli, Big Sean, A-Trak, Pharrell, Lupe Fiasco, RZA
Website	kanyewest.com

Kanye Omari West ( /ˈkɑːnjeɪ/; born June 8, 1977)^[1] is an American musician, film director and fashion designer. West first rose to fame as a producer for Roc-A-Fella Records, where he eventually achieved recognition for his work on Jay-Z's album The Blueprint, as well as hit singles for musical artists including Alicia Keys, Ludacris, and Janet Jackson. His style of production originally used pitched-up vocal samples from soul songs incorporated with his own drums and instruments. However, subsequent productions saw him broadening his musical palette and expressing influences encompassing '70s R&B, baroque pop, trip hop, arena rock, folk, alternative, electronica, synthpop, and classical music.^[2]

West released his debut album The College Dropout in 2004, his second album Late Registration in 2005, his third album Graduation in 2007, his fourth album 808s & Heartbreak in 2008, and his fifth album My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy in 2010. West released a collaborative album, Watch the Throne with Jay-Z in 2011, which is the duo's first collaborative album. His five solo albums, all of which have gone platinum, have received numerous awards and critical acclaim.^[3] As of 2012, West has won a total of eighteen Grammy Awards, making him one of the most awarded artists of all-time.^[4] All albums have been very commercially successful, with My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy becoming his fourth consecutive No. 1 album in the U.S. upon release.^[5] West has had 5 songs exceed 3 million in digital sales as of July 2011, with "Gold Digger" selling 3,086,000, "Stronger" selling 4,402,000, "Heartless" selling 3,742,000, "E.T." selling over 4,000,000 and "Love Lockdown" selling over 3,000,000^[6][7] placing him third in overall digital sales of the past decade.^[8][9] He has sold over 30 million digital songs in the United States making him one of the best-selling digital artists of all-time.^[10]

West also runs his own record label GOOD Music, home to artists such as John Legend, Common and Kid Cudi.^[11] West's mascot and trademark is "Dropout Bear," a teddy bear which has appeared on the covers of three of his five solo albums as well as various single covers and in his music videos.^[12] About.com ranked Kanye West No. 8 on their "Top 50 Hip-Hop Producers" list.^[13] On May 16, 2008, Kanye West was crowned by MTV as the year's No. 1 "Hottest MC in the Game."^[14] On December 17, 2010, Kanye West was voted as the MTV Man of the Year by MTV.^[15] Billboard ranked Kanye West No. 3 on their list of Top 10 Producers of the Decade.^[16] West has also been included in the Time 100 list of the most influential people in the world as well as being listed in a number of Forbes' annual lists.^[17]

Kanye will release the full-length album entitled Cruel Summer with GOOD Music signed artists sometime in 2012.

Early life[link]

Kanye West was born in Atlanta, Georgia,^[18] where he lived with his parents. When he was three years old, his parents divorced, and he and his mother moved to Chicago, Illinois.^[19] His father was Ray West, a former Black Panther who was one of the first black photojournalists at The Atlanta Journal-Constitution, and is now a Christian counselor.^[19] West's mother, Dr. Donda West, was a Professor of English at Clark Atlanta University, and the Chair of the English Department at Chicago State University before retiring to serve as West's manager. He was raised in a middle-class background, attending Polaris High School^[20] in suburban Oak Lawn, Illinois after living in Chicago.^[21] When asked about his grades in high school, West replied, "I got A's and B's. And I'm not even frontin'".^[22]

West attended art classes at the American Academy of Art in Chicago, and also enrolled at Chicago State University, but dropped out to focus on his music career.^[23] While attending school, West produced for local artists. He later gained fame by producing hit singles for major hip hop/R&B artists, including Jay-Z, Talib Kweli, Cam'ron, Paul Wall, Common, Mobb Deep, Jermaine Dupri, Scarface, The Game, Alicia Keys, Janet Jackson, John Legend among others. He also "ghost-produced" for his mentor Deric Angelettie, according to his song "Last Call" and the credits of Nas' "Poppa Was a Playa".^[23]

Music career[link]

1996–2003: Career beginnings[link]

Kanye West's first career productions came on Chicago rapper Grav's 1996 debut album Down to Earth. West produced eight tracks on the album. While the album did not attract much attention and would be the only album released by Grav, West would soon be producing for higher profile artists. In 1998–1999 he produced for well-known artists such as Jermaine Dupri, Foxy Brown, Goodie Mob, and the group Harlem World.

West got his big break in the year 2000, when he began to produce for artists on Roc-a-Fella Records. He produced the well-received Jay-Z song "This Can't Be Life" off of the album The Dynasty: Roc La Familia. West would later state that to create the beat for "This Can't Be Life", he sped up the drum beat from Dr. Dre's song "Xxplosive".^[24]

After producing for Jay-Z earlier, West’s sound was featured heavily on Jay-Z's critically acclaimed album The Blueprint, released September 11, 2001.^[25] His work was featured on the lead single "Izzo (H.O.V.A.)", "Heart of the City (Ain't No Love)" and a diss track against Nas and Mobb Deep named "Takeover"; West has worked with Mobb Deep and Nas since the track's release.^[25]

After meeting great commercial success and critical acclaim for his productions on The Blueprint, West became a sought after producer in the hip-hop industry, even before he became known as a rapper and solo artist. In the years 2002–2003 he would produce for artists such as Nas, Scarface, Talib Kweli, Mos Def, T.I., Ludacris, DMX, and Monica. He also continued producing for Roc-a-Fella Records artists and contribued four tracks to Jay-Z's follow up album to The Blueprint, The Blueprint²: The Gift & the Curse.

After great successes as a producer, West now looked to pursue a career as a rapper and solo artist, but struggled to get a record deal. Chris Anokute, then A&R at Def Jam, said that when West regularly dropped by the office to pick up his producer checks he would play demos of solo material to Anokute in his cubicle and bemoan the fact that no one was taking him seriously as a rapper.^[26] Jay-Z admitted that Roc-A-Fella was initially reluctant to support West as a rapper, claiming that he saw him as a producer first and foremost.^[27] Multiple record companies felt he was not as marketable as rappers who portray the "street image" prominent in hip hop culture.^[24] Beginning his career as a rapper, Kanye West recorded the third verse on the song "The Bounce" off of Jay-Z's The Blueprint²: The Gift & the Curse, an album he produced for, from the same label he was signed to as a rapper.

[edit] 2004–05: The College Dropout and Late Registration

On October 23, 2002, West was involved in a near fatal car crash while driving home from the recording studio.^[28] The crash provided inspiration for West's first single, "Through the Wire".^[29] West's faith is apparent in many of his songs, such as "Jesus Walks", which became a staple at his benefit performances, such as the Live 8 concert. These songs were featured on West's debut album, The College Dropout, which was released on Roc-A-Fella Records in February 2004, and went on to receive critical acclaim. The album also defined the style for which West would become known, including wordplay and sampling.^[29] The album was eventually certified triple platinum. Guest appearances included Jay-Z, Ludacris, GLC, Consequence, Talib Kweli, Mos Def, Common, and Syleena Johnson. The album also featured the singles, "All Falls Down" and "The New Workout Plan", as well as Twista's number one single, "Slow Jamz".^[30] During 2003 West also co-produced songs for British singer Javine Hylton, even appearing in the music video to Real Things playing the love interest of Javine.

West was involved in a financial dispute over Royce Da 5'9"'s song "Heartbeat", produced by West and released on Build & Destroy: The Lost Sessions. West maintains that Royce never paid for the beat, but recorded to it and released it; hearing him on the beat, the original customers decided not to buy it from West. After the disagreement, West vowed to never work with Royce again.^[31] Other Kanye West-produced hit singles during the period The College Dropout was released included "I Changed My Mind" by Keyshia Cole, "Overnight Celebrity" by Twista and "Talk About Our Love" by Brandy.^[29]

West and Jamie Foxx performing "Gold Digger" at the Democratic Convention in Denver, Colorado

Taking a more eclectic route, West collaborated with American film score composer Jon Brion to construct his second album, Late Registration, which was released on August 30, 2005.^[32] Like its predecessor, the sophomore effort garnered universal acclaim from music critics.^[33] Late Registration topped countless critic polls and was revered as the best album of the year by numerous publications, including USA Today, Spin, and Time.^[34][35] Rolling Stone awarded the album the highest position on their end of the year record list and hailed it as a "sweepingly generous, absurdly virtuosic hip-hop classic."^[36] The record earned the number one spot on the Village Voice's Pazz & Jop critics' poll of 2005 for the second consecutive year.^[37] Late Registration was also a commercial success, selling over 860,000 copies in its first week alone and topping the Billboard 200.^[38] Grossing over 2.3 million units sold in the United States alone by year's end, Late Registration was considered by industry observers as the sole majorly successful album release of the fall of 2005, a season that was plagued by steadily declining CD sales.^[39] The second album earned eight Grammy Award nominations including Album of the Year and Record of the Year for the song "Gold Digger".^[40] The album is certified triple platinum.^[41]

On August 22, 2005, the MTV special All Eyes On Kanye West aired, in which West spoke out against homophobia in hip-hop. He claimed that hip-hop has always been about "speaking your mind and about breaking down barriers, but everyone in hip-hop discriminates against gay people."^[42] He then reflected on a personal experience. He said that he had a "turning point" when he realized one of his cousins was gay. He said regarding this experience: "This is my cousin. I love him and I've been discriminating against gays." He drew comparison between African Americans' struggle for civil rights and today's gay rights movement. The following year, in an interview with Entertainment Weekly, West further expounded his experiences with and views on the relationship between the black and gay communities.^[43]

In September 2005, West announced that he would release his Pastelle Clothing line in spring 2006:^[44] "Now that I have a Grammy under my belt and Late Registration is finished, I am ready to launch my clothing line next spring." In that year, West produced the hit singles "Go" by Common and "Dreams" by The Game.^[45]

[edit] 2007–09: Graduation and 808s & Heartbreak

West performing in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, April 2007.

In 2007, it was announced that West would be starring in a series directed by Larry Charles. He has been working on the pilot episode for the past two years with Larry Charles and Rick Rubin. He also had this to say on January 14: "I wouldn't do something as cliché as a reality show. At least give me the credit for being more creative than that. It's a situational half-hour comedy. It's fictional, and loosely based on my life.^[46] " West also collaborated with Japanese hip-hop group Teriyaki Boyz to produce the single "I Still Love H.E.R.", a reference to Common's 1994 single "I Used to Love H.E.R.". Further to this, during a radio appearance in early 2007, West, like many of his peers, recorded an impromptu freestyle to the popular song "Throw Some D's." The song that to all other rappers was about automobile rims, was used by West to comically refer to D-cup breasts. Because of the unexpected success of the song, West went on to make a video for the freestyle, in which he is seen playing his 'Old Ass Cousin'.^[47]

West was also featured in a new song called "Classic (Better Than I've Ever Been)". It was believed to be a single for, Graduation, because he is featured on the track, but Nike quickly explained that it was for the Nike Air Force 1's anniversary. It was meant only to be an exclusive track for the company.^[48]

On March 25, 2007, he and his father Ray West supported World Water Day by having a "Walk for Water" rally.^[49] After a two-year break, West has returned to being a fashion columnist in lifestyle magazine Complex.^[50] On July 7, 2007, West performed with The Police and John Mayer at the American leg of Live Earth.^[51] West hosted the August 17 edition of British comedy- variety show The Friday Night Project.^[52]

In July 2007, West changed the release date of Graduation, his third album, from September 18, 2007, to the same release date as 50 Cent's album Curtis, September 11, 2007.^[53] 50 Cent later claimed that if Graduation were to sell more records than Curtis, he would stop releasing solo albums. However, 50 Cent would later dispel his comments.^[54] The album has been certified double platinum. Guest appearances included T-Pain, Mos Def, and Lil Wayne.^[55]

On August 26, 2007, West appeared as himself on the HBO television show Entourage which he used as a platform to premier his new single "Good Life" during the end credits. On September 9, 2007, West performed at the 2007 MTV Video Music Awards, losing in every category he was nominated for; he gave an angry speech immediately afterward. (see "Controversies" section)

Following the MTV stint, West was nominated in eight Grammy Award categories for the 50th annual Grammy Awards.^[57] He won four of them,^[58] including Best Rap Album for Graduation and Best Rap Solo Performance for "Stronger" from Graduation. During the four-hour televised Grammy Awards ceremony, West also performed two songs: "Stronger" (with Daft Punk) and "Hey Mama" (in honor of his recently deceased mother).^[59]

West kicked off the Glow in the Dark Tour in Seattle at the Key Arena on April 16. The tour was originally scheduled to end in June in Cincinnati but was extended into August. Over the course of the tour West was joined by a varying group of opening acts, including Lupe Fiasco, Rihanna, N.E.R.D., DJ Craze, and Gnarls Barkley. On June 15, West was scheduled to perform a late night set at the Bonnaroo Music Festival. His performance started almost two hours late and ran for half of its alloted time, angering many fans in the audience. West later wrote an outraged entry on his blog, blaming the festival organizers as well as Pearl Jam's preceding set, which ran longer than expected.

On September 7, West debuted a new song "Love Lockdown" at the 2008 MTV Video Music Awards. "Love Lockdown" features no rapping and only singing using an auto-tune device. This song appears on West's fourth studio album, 808s & Heartbreak. The new album was expected to be released on December 16, but West announced on his blog on September 24, 2008, that he had finished the album and would be releasing it sometime in November, earlier than previously scheduled. In early October, West made a surprise appearance at a T.I. concert in Los Angeles, where he stated that 808s & Heartbreak was scheduled to be released on November 25, though it was actually released on the 24th, and that the second single is "Heartless". The album was another number one album for West, even though the first week numbers fell well short of Graduation with 450,145 sold.^[60]

West performing in 2008

West performed at the American Music Awards ceremony on November 23.^[61] That same night he won two AMA awards, including Favorite Rap/Hip-Hop Album for Graduation and Favorite Rap/Hip-Hop Male Artist. West performed at the Democratic National Convention in Denver in August 2008, along with Wyclef Jean and N.E.R.D. in support of Barack Obama. On January 20, 2009, Kanye West performed at the Youth Inaugural Ball hosted by MTV for Obama's inauguration.

On February 17, 2009, West was named one of Top 10 Most Stylish Men in America by GQ.^[62] The next day, February 18, 2009, West won International Male Solo Artist at The Brit Awards 2009. West was not in attendance but accepted his award with a video speech, saying "Barack is the 'Best Interracial Male' but I'm proud to be the Best International Male in the world.^[63]

In April 2009, Kanye West recorded a song called "Hurricane" with 30 Seconds to Mars to appear on their album This Is War, but was not released due to legal issues with both record companies. The song was eventually released on the deluxe version of This Is War, titled "Hurricane 2.0".^[64][65][66]

[edit] 2010–present: My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy and Watch the Throne

West performing at The Big Chill

In May 2010, West made an animated television guest appearance on Fox's animated television series The Cleveland Show (a spin-off of Family Guy) as the voice behind "Kenny West", a rival of Cleveland Brown's son.^[67] In his first episode he performed in a rap battle with Cleveland's son. The producers stated working with West was a very good experience and a reason they chose him was because they knew he was a fan of Family Guy.^[68] Kenny West re-appeared in the season 2 premiere of The Cleveland Show.

West spent the first half of 2010 in Honolulu, Hawaii, working on his new album with the working title "Good Ass Job", later named My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy, released on November 22, 2010.^[69] West has cited Maya Angelou, Gil Scott-Heron and Nina Simone as his musical inspirations for this album. Outside production is said to come from RZA, Q-Tip, Pete Rock, and DJ Premier.^[70][71] West also had Justin Vernon flown into his studio on Oahu after seemingly expressing interest in sampling one of Bon Iver's songs; Vernon proceeded to feature on a number of new tracks, including "Lost In The World," which features Vernon's vocal line from Woods.^[72]

On May 28, the Dwele-assisted first single from the album, entitled "Power", leaked to the Internet. On June 30, the track was officially released via iTunes. The upcoming music video was quoted as being "apocalyptic, in a very personal way" by the director Marco Brambilla.^[73]

On September 12, 2010, West performed a new song, "Runaway" featuring Pusha T, at the 2010 MTV Video Music Awards.^[74] Shortly after the performance, Kanye revealed he was working on a 35 minute short film based around the song. The movie is said to be influenced by film noir and concerns a fallen phoenix whom Kanye falls in love with.^[75] On October 15, 2010, Kanye West was ranked 3rd in BET's "Top Ten Rappers of the 21st Century" list.^[76]

West performing at a benefit at the Museum of Modern Art in 2011

Watch the Throne, a collaborative studio album by West and Jay-Z,^[77] was released by Def Jam Recordings on August 8, 2011.^[78] It has been under production since August 2010 as part of West's GOOD Friday initiative of releasing new songs every Friday between August 20 and Christmas 2010.^[79] West said through a recent interview with MTV that the album is "going to be very dark and sexy, like couture hip hop."^[79][80][81] He appeared at the Macy's Thanksgiving Day Parade, performing the track "Lost in the World" from My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy.^[82] On January 6, 2011, Kanye announced via Twitter that the first official single from Watch the Throne would be a song called "H•A•M" produced by Lex Luger. The song was released on January 11, 2011.^[83]