Part of a series on the
Culture of Algeria
History
People
Languages
Traditions Gender roles
Mythology and folklore
Cuisine Couscous Karantita Makroudh Merguez Pastilla Wine more
Festivals Public holidays
Religion Christianity (Roman Catholicism) Islam Judaism more
Art
Literature Writers more
Music and performing arts Andalusi nubah Berber music Chaabi Hip hop Hofii Nuubaat Raï Zindalii more
Media Radio Television Cinema Films Newspapers more
Sport Basketball (national team) Football Olympics Rugby union (national team) Tennis (Davis Cup team) Tennis (Fed Cup team) more
Monuments World Heritage Sites
Symbols Flag National anthem Coat of arms more
Culture portal Algeria portal
v t e

Raï (/ˈraɪ/; Arabic: راي‎) is a form of folk music that originated in Oran, Algeria from Bedouin shepherds, mixed with Spanish, French, African and Arabic musical forms, which dates back to the 1930s.

Singers of raï are called cheb (shabab, young) as opposed to sheikh (shaykh, old), the name given to Chaabi singers. The tradition arose in cities like Oran, Relizane, Mostaganem, Chlef and Sidi-Bel-Abbès, primarily among the poor. Traditionally sung by men, at the turn of the 20th century, female singers became common. The lyrics of raï have concerned social issues, such as disease and the policing of European colonies, that affected native populations.^[1]

History[link]

Origins[link]

Raï is a music style that originated in Algeria in the 1930s. It appealed to young people who sought to modernize the traditional Islamic values and attitudes. Regional, secular, and religious drum patterns, melodies, and instruments were blended with Western electric instrumentation.

Oran, a seaport in Western Algeria, was invaded by the Spanish in the 16th century; Spanish troops kept women there to entertain the troops, and the city has retained a reputation for hedonism ever since. In the early 20th century, Oran was divided into Jewish, French, Spanish, and Arab quarters. By independence in 1962, the Jewish quarter (known as the Derb), was home to musicians like Reinette L'Oranaise, Saoud L'Oranais and Larbi Bensari. Sidi el Houari was home to Spanish fishermen and many refugees from Spain who arrived after 1939. These two quarters had active music scenes,^[2] and the French inhabitants of the city went to the Jewish and Spanish areas to examine the music. The Arabs of Oran were known for al-andalous, a classical style of music imported from Southern Spain after 1492. Hawzi classical music was popular during this time, and female singers of the genre included Cheikha Tetma, Fadila D'zirya and Myriam Fekkai. Another common musical genre was bedoui (or gharbi), which originated from Bedouin] chants. Bedoui consisted of Melhun poetry being sung with accompaniment from guellal drums and gaspa Flutes. Bedoui was sung by male singers, known as cheikhs, who were dressed in long, white jellabas and turbans. Lyrics came from the poetry of people such as Mestfa ben Brahim and Zenagui Bouhafs. Performers of bedoui included Cheikh Hamada, Cheikh Mohammed Senoussi, Cheikh Madani, Cheikh Hachemi Bensmir and Cheikh Khaldi. Senoussi was the first to have had recorded the music in 1906.

French colonization of Algeria changed the organization of society, producing a class of poor, uneducated urban men and women. Bedoui singers mostly collaborated with the French colonizers, though one exception from such collaboration was Cheikh Hamada.^[3] The problems of survival in a life of poverty were the domain of street musicians who sang bar-songs called zendanis. A common characteristic of these songs included exclamations of the word "raï!" and variations thereof. The word "rai" implies that an opinion is being expressed.

In the 1920s, the women of Oran were held to strict code of conduct. Many of those that failed became social outcasts and singers and dancers. They sang medh songs in praïse of the prophet Mohammed and performed for female audiences at ceremonies such as weddings and circumcision feasts. These performers included Les Trois Filles de Baghdad, Soubira bent Menad and Kheira Essebsadija. Another group of female social outcasts were called cheikhas, who were known for their alluring dress, hedonistic lyrics, and their display of a form of music that was influenced from meddhahates and zendani singers. These cheikhas, who sang for both men and women, included people such as Cheikha Remitti el Reliziana, Cheikha Grélo, Cheikha Djenia el Mostganmia, Cheikha Bachitta de Mascara, and Cheikha a; Ouachma el Tmouchentia. The 1930s saw the rise of revolutionary organizations, including organizations motivated by Marxism, which mostly despised these early roots raï singers. At the same time, Arab classical music was gaining popularity across North Africa, especially the music of Umm Kulthum.

When first developed, raï was a hybrid blend of rural and cabaret musical genres, invented by and targeted toward distillery workers, peasants who had lost their land to European settlers, and other types of lower class citizens. The geographical location of Oran allowed for the spread of many cultural influences, allowing raï musicians to absorb an assortment of musical styles such as flamenco from Spain, gnawa music, and French cabaret, allowing them to combine with the rhythms typical of Arab nomads. In the early 1930s, social issues afflicting the Arab population in the colony, such as the disease of typhus, harassment and imprisonment by the colonial police, and poverty were prominent themes of raï lyrics. However, other main lyrical themes concerned the likes of wine, love, and the meaning and experiences of leading a marginal life. From its origins, women played a significant role in the music and performance of raï. In contrast to other Algerian music, raï incorporated dancing in addition to music, particularly in a mixed-gender environment.^[4][5]

In the 1930s, Raï, al-andalousm, and the Egyptian classical style influenced the formation of wahrani, a musical style popularized by Blaoui Houari. Musicians like Mohammed Belarbi and Djelloul Bendaoud added these influences to other Oranian styles, as well as Western piano and accordion, resulting in a style called bedoui citadinisé. Revolt began in the mid-1950s, and musicians which included Houari and Ahmed Saber supported the Front de Libération National. After independence in 1962, however, the Marxist government of the Houari Boumédienne regime, along with President Ahmed Ben Bella, did not tolerate criticism from musicians such as Saber, and suppression of Raï and Oranian culture ensued. The amount of public performances by female raï singers decreased^{[clarification needed]}, which led to men playing an increased role in this genre of music. Meanwhile, traditional raï instruments such as the gasba (reed flute), and the derbouka (Maghrebi drums) were replaced with the violin and accordion.^[4]

Post-independence[link]

In the 1960s, Bellamou Messaoud and Belkacem Bouteldja began their career, and they changed the raï sound, eventually gaining mainstream acceptance in Algeria by 1964. In the 1970s, recording technology began growing more advanced, and more imported genres had Algerian interest as well, especially Jamaican reggae with performers like Bob Marley. During the 1970s, raï artists brought in influences from other countries such as Egypt, Europe, and the Americas. Trumpets, the electric guitar, synthesizers, and drum machines were specific instruments that were put into raï music. This marked the beginning of pop raï, which was performed by a later generation of chabs (young men) and chabas (young women).^[6] International success of the genre had begun as early as 1976 with the rise to prominence of producer Rachid Baba Ahmed.

While this form of raï increased cassette sales, its association with mixed dancing, an obscene act according to orthodox Islamic views, led to government-backed suppression. However, this suppression was overturned due to raï's growing popularity in France, where it was strongly demanded by the Maghrebi Arab community. This popularity in France was increased as a result of the upsurge of Franco-Arab struggles against racism. This led to a following of a white audience that was sympathetic to the antiracist struggle.^[4]

After the election of president Chadli Bendjedid in 1979, Raï music had a chance to rebuild because of his lessened moral and economic restraints. Shortly afterwards, Raï started to form into pop-raï, with the use of instruments such as electrical synthesizers, guitars, and drum machines.^[7][8]

In the 1980s, raï began its period of peak popularity. Previously, the Algerian government had opposed raï because of its sexually and culturally risqué topics, such as alcohol and consumerism, two subjects that were taboo to the traditional Islamic culture.

The government eventually attempted to ban raï, banning the importation of blank cassettes and confiscating the passports of raï musicians. This was done to prevent raï from not only spreading throughout the country, but to prevent it from spreading internationally and from coming in or out of Algeria. Though this limited the professional sales of raï, the music increased in popularity through the illicit sale and exchange of tapes. In 1985, Algerian Colonel Snoussi joined with French minister of culture Jack Lang to convince the Algerian state to accept raï.^[9] He succeeded in getting the government to return passports to raï musicians and to allow raï to be recorded and performed in Algeria, with government sponsorship, claiming it as a part of Algerian cultural heritage. This not only allowed the Algerian government to financially gain from producing and releasing raï, but it allowed them to monitor the music and prevent the publication of "unclean" music and dance and still use it to benefit the Algerian State's image in the national world.^[10] In 1986, the first state-sanctioned raï festival was held in Algeria, and a festival was also held in Bobigny, France.

In 1988, Algerian students and youth flooded the streets to protest state-sponsored violence, the high cost of staple foods, and to support the Peoples' Algerian Army.^[11] President Chadli Bendjedid, who held power from 1979 to 1992, and his FLN cronies blamed raï for the massive uprising that left 500 civilians dead in October 1988. Most raï singers denied the allegation, including Cheb Sahraoui, who said there was no connection between raï and the October rebellion. Yet raï's reputation as protest music stuck because the demonstrators adopted Khaled's song "El Harba Wayn" ("To Flee, But Where?") to aid their protesting:

Where has youth gone?
Where are the brave ones?
The rich gorge themselves
The poor work themselves to death
The Islamic charlatans show their true face...
You can always cry or complain
Or escape... but where?^[12]

In the 1990s, restrictions^[specify] were placed on raï, and those who did not submit to censorship faced consequences such as exile. One exiled raï singer, Cheb Hasni, accepted an offer to return to Algeria and perform at a stadium in 1994. Hasni's fame and controversial songs led to him receiving death threats from Islamic fundamentalist extremists. On September 29, 1994, he was the first raï musician to be murdered, outside his parents' home in the Gambetta district of Oran, reportedly because he let girls kiss him on the cheek during a televised concert. His death came amid other violent actions against North African performers. A few days before his death, Kabylian singing star Lounès Matoub was abducted by the GIA. The following year, on February 15, 1995, Raï producer Rachid Baba-Ahmed was assassinated in Oran.

The escalating tension of the Islamist anti-raï campaign caused raï musicians such as Chab Mami and Chaba Fadela to relocate from Algeria to France. Moving to France was a way to sustain the music's existence.^[13] France was where Algerians had moved during the post-colonial era in order to find work, and where musicians had a greater opportunity to oppose the government without censorship.^[14]

Though raï found mainstream acceptance in Algeria, Islamic fundamentalists still protested the genre, saying that it was still too liberal and too contrasting to traditional Islamic values. The fundamentalists claimed that the musical genre still promoted sexuality, alcohol and Western consumer culture, but critics of the fundamentalist viewpoint stated that fundamentalists and raï musicians were ultimately seeking converts from the same population, the youth, who often had to choose where they belonged between the two cultures. Despite the governmental support, a split remained between those citizens belonging to strict Islam and those patronizing the raï scene.^[15]

International success[link]

Cheb Khaled was the first musician with international success, including his 1988 album Kutché, though his popularity did not extend to places such as the United States and Latin America. Other prominent performers of the 1980s included Houari Benchenet, Raïna Raï, Mohamed Sahraoui, Cheb Mami, and Cheb Hamid.

International success grew in the 1990s, with Cheb Khaled's 1992 album Khaled. With Khaled no longer in Algeria, musicians such as Cheb Tahar, Cheb Nasro, and Cheb Hasni began singing lover's raï, a sentimental, pop-ballad form of raï music. Later in the decade, funk, hip hop, and other influences were added to raï, especially by performers like Faudel and Rachid Taha, the latter of whom took raï music and fused it with rock. Taha does not call his creation raï music, but rather describes it as a combination of folk raï and punk.^{[citation needed]} Another mix of cultures in Arabic music of the late 1990s came through Franco-Arabic music released by musicians such as Aldo.

The late 1980s and early 1990s saw a rise in female raï performers. According to authors Gross, McMurray, and Swedenburg in their article "Arab Noise and Ramadan Nights: Raï, Rap, and Franco-Maghrebi Identity," raï musician Chaba Zahouania was forbidden by her family to perform or even appear in public. According to Gross et al., the raï record companies have pushed female artists to become more noticed.^[16]

Censorship of raï music[link]

Throughout the course of raï music's development and commercialization in Algeria and France, there have been many attempts to stifle the genre. From lyrical content to the album cover images, raï has been a controversial music. Religious identity and transnationalism function to define the complexities of Franco-Maghrebi identity in France. This complex identity is expressed through raï music and is often contested and censored in many cultural contexts.

In 1962, as Algeria claimed its national independence, expression of popular culture was stifled by the Puritan nature of Salafi reform.^[17] During this time of drastic restriction of female expression, many men started to become raï singers. By 1979, when president Chadli Bendjedid endorsed more liberal moral and economic standards, raï music became further associated with Algerian youth. The music remained stigmatized amongst the Salafi Islamists and the Algerian government. Termed the "raï generation", the youth found raï as a way to express sexual and cultural freedoms.^[17] An example of this free expression is though the lyrics of Cheb Hasni in his song "El Berraka". Hasni sang: "I had her ... because when you're drunk that's the sort of idea that runs through your head!"^[18] Hasni challenged the fundamentalists of the country and the condemnation of non-religious art forms.

Raï started to circulate on a larger scale, via tape sales, TV exposure, and radio play. However, the government attempted to "clean up" raï to adhere to conservative values.^[17] Audio engineers manipulated the recordings of raï artists in order to submit to such standards. This tactic allowed for the economy to profit from the music by gaining conservative audiences. The conservativeness not only affected the way listeners received raï music, but also the way the artists, especially female artists, presented their own music. For instance, many^{[weasel words]} female raï artists do not appear on their album covers. Such patriarchal standards pressure women to societal privacy.^[17]

Selected list of raï musicians[link]

• Bellemou Messaoud
• Chaba Fadela
• Cheb Bilal
• Cheb Hasni
• Cheb Mami
• Cheb Sahraoui
• Cheikha Rimitti
• Faudel
• Khaled
• Rachid Taha
• Hamid Bouchnak
• Reda Taliani

See also[link]

• Arabic pop music

References[link]

Further reading[link]

• Al Taee, Nasser. "Running with the Rebels: Politics, Identity & Sexual Narrative in Algerian Raï". Retrieved on 22 November 2006.
• Schade-Poulsen, Marc. "The Social Significance of Raï: Men and Popular Music in Algeria". copyright 1999 University of Texas Press. ISBN 978-0-292-77740-8
• Mazouzi, Bezza. La musique algérienne et la question raï, Richard-Masse, Paris, 1990.
• Morgan, Andy. "Music Under Fire". 2000. In Broughton, Simon and Ellingham, Mark with McConnachie, James and Duane, Orla (Ed.), World Music, Vol. 1: Africa, Europe and the Middle East, pp 413–424. Rough Guides Ltd, Penguin Books. ISBN 1-85828-636-0

v t e  Algeria topics Politics and government Constitution Council of the Nation DRS Elections Flag Foreign relations Human rights LGBT rights Law enforcement Military People's National Assembly Political parties President Prime Minister Cabinet History Prehistory Classical period Medieval Muslim Algeria Ottoman rule French rule Nationalism and resistance Algerian War of Independence Since 1962 Algerian Civil War 2000s Geography and environment Cities Municipalities Districts Ecoregions National parks Provinces Rivers Wildlife Economy and infrastructure Bank of Algeria Communication Companies Dinar Mineral industry Taxation Tourism Trade unions Transport Culture and society Cuisine Demographics Education Ethnic groups Films Football Gender roles Holidays Languages Literature Media Music Notable Algerians Religion List of Algeria-related articles Portal:Algeria

This biographical article needs additional citations for verification. Please help by adding reliable sources. Contentious material about living persons that is unsourced or poorly sourced must be removed immediately, especially if potentially libelous or harmful. (July 2009)

This article may require cleanup to meet Wikipedia's quality standards. No cleanup reason has been specified. Please help improve this article if you can; the talk page may contain suggestions. (July 2009)

Ahmed Khelifati Mohamed (Arabic: أحمد خليفاتي محمد‎) better known by his stage name Cheb Mami (Arabic: شاب مامي‎), (born in Saïda, Algeria on 1 January 1966) is an Algerian-born raï singer. He sings and speaks in Algerian Arabic, French and sometimes, as on Layali, in Egyptian Arabic.

As of July 2010, Mami was imprisoned in France, where he was found guilty of drugging and forcing a former romantic partner to undergo a failed abortion. A Parisian court found him guilty at trial and sentenced him to five years in prison. He was released in March 2011 on parole.^[1]

Beginnings[link]

Cheb Mami was born in Graba-el-wed (Arabic: غربة الواد), a populous quarter of Saïda (Arabic: سعيدة), Algeria. Located 170 kilometres south of Oran, the city of Saida is on the high mesas of southwestern Algeria. Cheb Mami grew up to a family of factory workers. He began singing and playing the accordion on Saida streets and by 1980 began performing at local weddings and ceremonies.^[2]

In 1982, the 16-year-old adolescent sang on the Alhan wa Chabab radio show, a singing competition organised by Radio Télevision Algérienne. He sang "El Marsam" (The Sanctuary) a classic of Oranese music from the 1920s. The audience was transfixed by the sheer emotion of his performance and by his concordant vocal intonations which captured perfectly the flavour of the song's title. The judges, who represented the government which refused to admit even the existence of raï, gave the first prize to the contestant that sang a cover version of a hit by the famous Egyptian diva, Umm Kulthum, but were forced to acknowledge the standing ovation Mami received by awarding him second prize.

Cheb Mami was spotted by Boualem, the producer of the Oran label, Disco Maghreb, and the cassette waltz began.^[3]

Career[link]

It was in 1985 that Mami came to Paris and found his musical niche. Raï fused blues, funk, salsa, reggae, hip hop and Algerian rhythms, while integrating touches of his idols Stevie Wonder, Otis Redding and French rapper MC Solaar.

Cheb Mami made his first official public appearance at the First Oran Raï Festival in 1985, which marked the official recognition of the genre by the Algerian authorities.^[3]

He was in military service for two years in Algeria but was an entertainer on army bases. After that, in May 1989, Mami returned to Paris at the Olympia, rejuvenating raï music. He began making recordings and performing in cabarets in the Paris suburb of Barbès. He also toured the United States, the Netherlands, Germany, Switzerland, Spain, Scandinavia and England.

Mami's music is a blend of Mediterranean and Western influences including Turkish, Flamenco and Greek music as well as Latin music. His voice is tinged with Andalusian accents, and his music is an amalgamation of the traditional and the modern styles of singing and creation of music.

In 1999, Mami topped the French pop charts with a groundbreaking duet with French rapper K-Mel, "Parisien du Nord". The song was an anthem against racism that seamlessly made the transition between hip hop and raï, and introduced throngs of young new audiences to raï. This song explores the racist issues between Arabs and French and the challenges of identity.^[2]

international recognition[link]

When Sting's album Brand New Day was released in 1999, the pair's duet, "Desert Rose", appeared on singles charts around the world, and led to television appearances on Saturday Night Live, the Today Show, Jay Leno, David Letterman, the Grammy Awards telecast and even a live performance at the Super Bowl".^[4]

Soon after his collaboration with Sting, Mami's released perhaps his most successful recording, the album Dellali, produced by former Chic guitarist Nile Rodgers. The album's lead single was "Le Raï C'est Chic", on which Sting returned the favor by providing backing vocals.^[5]

These successes fulfilled Mami's long-held dream of internationalising raï sounds, and has led him to be called the "Prince of Raï".^[5] Although Mami has been able to be recognized by mainstream media in the United States, Americans often equate his raï music genre with rock in the US during the 1950s and 1960s.^[6] Americans believe raï to be "North African punk,^[6]" a genre of music for the purpose of rebelling against the government and resembling the music of ‘young rockers’^[6] in the US, when in reality this music plays a very different role in the life of the North African diasporic community in France.^[6] Although raï does include narratives of the various struggles of this community against "the Algerian state or against the forces of ‘tradition’",^[6] it is also the "music of the racialized Other"^[6] which chronicles struggles with racism and identity of North African people in France.

Arrest, imprisonment and release[link]

Mami was under an international arrest warrant after being indicted in October 2006 for "voluntary violence, sequestration and threats" against an ex-girlfriend, and failing to answer a court summons on May 14, 2007. He was accused of having tried to force Isabelle Simon, his former girlfriend and a magazine photographer, to have an forced abortion.^[7] During a trip to Algeria in the summer of 2005, the victim Isabelle Simon was locked in a house belonging to one of Mami's friends, where an abortive procedure was attempted on her. Back in France, however, she realized the fetus was still alive. Mami had accused his manager Michel Lecorre (a.k.a. Michel Levy) of organizing the abortion plan; Michel Levy was later sentenced to four years for plotting and organizing the assault.^{[8][9][10][11]}

Mami was arrested in France several days before his trial; he was taken into custody by officials at a Paris airport as he arrived into the country from Algeria on June 22, 20010.^[12] The following July, a Paris court found him guilty of drugging and attempted forcible abortion, and sentenced him to five years in prison.^[13]

On 21 September 2010, his lawyers applied for conditional release, a request that was turned down on 12 October 2010.^[14] Upon a second appeal however, the French court agreed for his conditional release on 23 March 2011.^[15]

Selected discography[link]

• Prince of Raï (1989)
  • Tracks: Ana Mazel  • Dertfik Confiance  • Douni El Bladi  • Lella Rani Ensaaf El Mektoub  • Ralia Mahboubit Galbi  • Tayo Tayo Adiani
• Let Me Raï (1991)
  • Tracks: Yo Yo  • Haoulou  • Let Me Cry  • Douha Alia  • Fatma  • Rah Eddani  • Khalihoum  • Maandi  • Manimane  • Alache Alache
• Saida (1994)
  • Tracks: H'babi  • Ma Ma  • Gaulbak K'ssah  • Hay Wadi Hay Galbi  • Bent Bareh  • Baida  • Ghi N'Ti  • Li Fet ghi Mnem  • Zouaji  • Alache Alache  • Trab
• Douni El Bladi (1996)
  • Tracks: Douni el Bladi  • Dertfik Confiance  • Ralia Mahboubit Galbi  • Ana Mazel  • Lella Rai Saaf El Mektoub  • Tayo Tayo Adiani  • Ouach Etsalini  • Idha Enti Bitik  • Chedi Bentek  • Maniche Aadouk  • Ghebnouha  • Sehrane Ouahdi  • Alauni (Instrumental)
• Meli Meli (1999)
  • Tracks: Meli Meli  • Alache Alik  • Bledi  • Rani Maak El Youm  • Fatma  • Hada Ch'h  • Hatachi  • Bekatni  • Cheikh  • Azwaw  • Parisien du Nord  • Marseillais du Nord  • Au Pays des Merveillus  • Azwaw Alternative
• Dellali (2001)
  • Tracks: Raï C'est Chic  • Viens Habibi  • Madanite  • Rim Lachoua  • Yahamami  • Ana Oualache  • Ma Vie 2 fois  • Tzazae  • Zarartou  • Manazureh  • Machi Chaba  • Hoaulou  • Khalouni
• Lazrag Saani (2002)
  • Tracks: Lazrag Saani  • Zazarkhatri  • Rouhi Douri Yalala  • Mani Sabar  • Madiriche Aliya  • Hay Delali  • Delali Mantzaoutchi  • Raikoum Rai Ma  • Salou Maana  • Derti Jauline  • Ana Khatini  • Hoaulou  • Sair Fer
• Du Sud au Nord (2003)
  • Tracks: Des 2 Côtés feat. Mouss et Hakim / Parisien du Nord feat. K.mel / Madanite feat. Ziggy Marley  • Desert Rose feat. Sting  • Cosi Celeste feat. Zucchero  • Nagumo feat. Susheela Raman  • Enfant d'esfrinque feat. Corneille  • Clando feat. 113  • Youm Wara Youm feat. Samira Said  • Fugitif feat. Tonton David  • The Best Times of Our Lives feat. Aswad  • Koum Tara feat. Enrico Macias  • Azwaw 2 feat. Idir
• Live au Grand Rex (2004)
  • Tracks: Azwaw  • Parisien du Nord  • Nagumo feat. Susheela Raman  • Mamzareli  • Mazal Souvenir Aandi  • Desert Rose  • Koum Tara feat. Enrico Macias  • Bledi - Mon pays  • Cosi Celeste feat. Zucchero  • Alache Alik  • Meli Meli  • Des 2 Côtés feat. Mous et Hakim  • Haoulou  • Zarartou
• Layali (2006)
  • Tracks: Halili feat. Zaho  • Gualbi Gualbi  • Inshallah  • Tigi Tigi  • Gaiye bil Salama  • Ahla Layali Omrina  • Ajlissou  • Nos Couleurs feat. K.Maro  • Mama Dabia  • Ellie Beina Intaha  • Amshi Btraring  • Non c'sera non (Omri Omri) feat. Sween

References[link]

External links[link]

• Official website (French/English/Arabic)
• Cheb Mami's lyrics English translation on Shawshara.com
• [www.zikooo.com/search/mp3/1/cheb-mami.html Télécharger Cheb Mami Mp3]

Muhammad VIII
King of Tunisia
Reign	15 May 1943 - 25 July 1957
Full name	Muhammad al-Amin
Name in Arabic	الأمين باي بن محمد الحبيب
Born	(1881-09-04)September 4, 1881
Died	September 30, 1962(1962-09-30) (aged 81)
Place of death	Tunis, Tunis Governorate Tunisia
Predecessor	Muhammad VII
Successor	Husain Bey as Pretender 30 September 1962
Dynasty	Husainid Dynasty
Father	Muhammad VI al-Habib
Religious beliefs	Islam

Muhammad VIII al-Amin (4 September 1881 – 30 September 1962) (Arabic: الأمين باي بن محمد الحبيب‎, al-ʾAmīn Bāy bin Muḥammad al-Ḥabīb) was the last bey of Tunisia (15 May 1943 and 20 March 1956). He was the first head of state (as king or bey) of independent Tunisia from 1956 until he was deposed in 1957. He was the son of Muhammad VI al-Habib, bey of Tunis.

Muhammad became bey after the Free French Forces deposed his cousin Muhammad VII al-Munsif on the accusation that he was a Vichy collaborator. On 20 March 1956 he proclaimed the independence of Tunisia and became King of Tunisia with the style of His Majesty. A monarchy did not meet the expectations of future president Habib Bourguiba, who replaced the Royal Guard at Carthage Palace with his own loyal soldiers. By his command all the telephone lines to the palace were cut and the king put under house arrest 15 July 1957, and on 25 July the Tunisian Constituent Assembly deposed the king.

Muhammad was moved to a government-watched residence at La Manouba, but was permitted to return to Tunis after his wife died. He never abdicated his throne rights. He died in Tunis and was buried at the Tomb of King Muhammad al-Amin. Muhammad was succeeded as head of the Husainid Dynasty and heir to the throne and titular king by Husain Bey.

Bibliography[link]

• Martin Meredith. The State of Africa. — Free Press (London), 2005. — ISBN 978-0-7432-3222-7

This article about a Tunisian politician is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e

Cheb Bilal (born Bilal Mouffok) is a well-known raï singer. He was born on July 23, 1966 in Cherchel, Algeria.

Career[link]

Bilal spent much of his youth in Oran, Algeria where he studied at the conservatory of music. He was raised by his grandfather.

Initially, Cheb Bilal performed at weddings and festivals around Oran. In 1980, he created the group El Ahouar. In 1989 he went to Marseilles, France, which he described as a turning point in his career.^[1] He also spent much of his time on the prision of "l3awad" in Kenitra ( Morocco). He is a well-known singer in morocco.

It is said^{[by whom?]} he gained his inspiration from former legendary singer Abdul.

References[link]