Angevin Empire L'Empire Plantagenêt (fr)
Personal Union, Empire
1154-1214 (effective), 1242 (formal)
Royal Banner Royal Coat of arms
The extent of the Angevin Empire around 1172.
Capital	No official capital. Court was generally held at Angers and Chinon.
Language(s)	Old French (Greater Anjou and official de facto); Norman French (Normandy) Anglo-Norman, Middle English (England) Gascon, Basque (Gascony) Welsh (Wales) Breton (Brittany) Middle Irish (Ireland, Scotland and possibly part of Cumberland) Latin (Ecclesiastical and Governmental)
Religion	Roman Catholicism
Government	Feudal Monarchy
King, Prince, Duke, and Count
- 1154–1189	Henry II
- 1189–1199	Richard I
- 1199–1214 (effective end of Angevin Empire; de jure rule until John's death)	John Lackland
- 1216–1242 (de jure rule)	Henry III
Historical era	Middle Ages
- Henry II crowned     King of England	December 19, 1154
- Battle of Bouvines, effective and, at that time, unrecoverable loss of Normandy and Anjou.	July 27, 1214 (effective)
- Saintonge War, Henry III formally recognises Capetian rule over Normandy and Anjou.	July 1242
Currency	French livre, English pound

The term Angevin Empire is a modern term describing the collection of states once ruled by the Angevin Plantagenet dynasty.

The Plantagenets ruled over an area stretching from the Pyrenees to Ireland during the 12th and early 13th centuries, located north of the kingdoms of Navarre and Aragon. This "empire" extended over roughly half of medieval France, all of England, and some of Ireland. However, despite the extent of Plantagenet rule, they were defeated by the King of France, Philip II Augustus of the House of Capet, which left the empire split in two, having lost the provinces of Normandy and Anjou. This defeat, after which the ruling Plantagenets retained their English territories and the French province of Gascony, set the scene for the Saintonge and the Hundred Years' War.

Origin of the term and its application[link]

The Angevin Empire is a neologism defining the lands of the Plantagenets: Henry II and his sons Richard I and John. Another son Geoffrey II, Duke of Brittany ruled Brittany and established a separate line there. As far as historians know, there was no contemporary term for the region under Angevin control; however descriptions such as "our kingdom and everything subject to our rule whatever it may be" were used.^[1] The term Angevin Empire was coined by Kate Norgate in her 1887 publication, England under the Angevin Kings.^[2] In France, the term Espace Plantagenêt (Plantagenet Area) is sometimes used to describe the fiefdoms the Plantagenets had acquired.^[3]

The adoption of the Angevin Empire label marked a re-evaluation of the times, considering that both English and French influence spread throughout the dominion in the half century during which the union lasted. The term Angevin itself is the adjective applied to the residents of Anjou and its historic capital, Angers; the Plantagenets were descended from Geoffrey, Count of Anjou, hence the term.^[4]

The use of the term Empire has raised controversy among some historians, as the area was a collection of the lands inherited and acquired by Henry. It is unclear whether or not these dominions shared any common identity.^[5][6][7] Some historians argue that the term should be reserved solely for the Holy Roman Empire, the only Western European political structure actually named an empire at that time.^[8] Other historians argue that Henry II's empire was neither powerful, centralised, nor large enough to be seriously called an empire.^[9] There was no imperial title, as implied by the term Angevin Empire.^[10] However, even if the Plantagenets themselves did not claim any imperial title some chroniclers, often working for Henry II himself, did use the term empire to describe this assemblage of lands.^[11] In essence the highest title was "king of England", to which were added the titles of dukes and counts held in France that were completely and totally independent from the royal title, and not subject to any English royal law.^[12] Because of this some historians prefer the term commonwealth to empire, emphasising that the Angevin Empire was more of an assemblage of seven fully independent, sovereign states loosely bound to each other.^[13]

Geography and administration[link]

At its largest extent, the Angevin Empire consisted of the Kingdom of England, the Lordship of Ireland, the duchies of Normandy, Gascony and Aquitaine (also called Guyenne)^[14] as well as of the Counties of Anjou, Poitou, Maine, Touraine, Saintonge, Marche, Périgord, Limousin, Nantes and Quercy. While the duchies and counties were held with various levels of vassalage to the King of France,^[15] the Plantagenets held various levels of control over the Duchies of Brittany and Cornwall, the Welsh princedoms, the county of Toulouse, and the Kingdom of Scotland, although those regions were not formal parts of the empire. Further claims were laid over Berry and Auvergne, but these were not fulfilled.

The frontiers were sometimes well known and easy to draw, like the one between the royal Demesne of the King of France and the Duchy of Normandy, while in other places they were not so clear, especially as regards the eastern frontier of Aquitaine where there often was a difference between the frontiers Henry II and, later, Richard I claimed and the ones where their real power ended.^[16] One of the most important characteristics of the Angevin Empire was its "polycratic" nature, a term taken from one of the most important political pamphlets written by a subject of the Angevin Empire: the Policraticus by John of Salisbury.

• England was under a rather firm control and was probably one of the most controlled areas. The Kingdom was divided in shires with sheriffes enforcing the common law. A Justiciar was appointed by the King to make his voice respected while he was away. As the kings of England were more often in France than England they used a larger amount of writs than the Anglo-Saxon kings did, curiously this rather helped England than anything else.^[17] Under William's rule, Anglo-Saxon nobles were often replaced by Anglo-Norman ones who could not own large expanses of contiguous lands, which made it much harder for them to rise against the King and defend all of their lands in the same time. Earls held a status similar to that of the continental counts. Yet none of them were really strong enough to be a match for the King.

Château d'Angers and its massive walls, overlooking the city and the Maine River. The current castle was however built after the Angevin Empire.

• In Greater Anjou,^[18] for instance, two kinds of officials enforced the rule: prévots or seneschals. These were based at Tours, Chinon, Baugé, Beaufort, Brissac, Angers, Saumur, Loudun, Loches, Langeais and Montbazon. However the other places were not administered by the Plantagenets but by other families. For instance Maine was, at first, largely self-ruling and lacked of administration. The Plantagenets made efforts to improve the administration of this land by installing new administrators such as the seneschal of Le Mans. These reforms came too late though and the Capetians were the ones that really took benefits from these reforms after annexing Greater Anjou.^[19]
• Gascony was a very loosely administrated region, with officials only stationed in Entre-deux-mers, Bayonne, Dax, as well as on the pilgrimage route to Santiago de Compostela and on river Garonne up to Agen. The rest of Gascony was left without an administrator, and was a large area compared to several other provinces. It was very difficult for the Angevin, just like it was for the previous Poitevin dukes, to install their authority over the duchy.^[20]

• As for Poitou and Guyenne, the castles were concentrated in Poitou where there were official representatives while in the eastern provinces of Périgord and Limousin there simply were none. Indeed there were lords that ruled these regions as if they were "sovereign princes" and they had powers in fields such as minting coins. Richard the Lionheart himself met his demise in Limousin.
• Normandy was probably one of the most administrated states of the Angevin Empire. Prévots and vicomtes lost of their importance to the advantage of baillis who held both judicial and executive powers. They were introduced in the 12th century in Normandy and organised the country more like the sheriffs did in England. The Ducal authority was strong on the frontier between the Royal Demesne and the Duchy but was more loose elsewhere.
• Ireland was ruled by the Lord of Ireland who had a hard time imposing his rule at first. Dublin and Leinster were Angevin stronghold while Cork, Limerick and Ulster were taken by Anglo-Norman nobles.^[21]

In Aquitaine and Anjou although ducal and comital authorities did exist it was not homogeneous. For example, the family of the Lusignans, very powerful in these lands, proved themselves opponents of importance to the Plantagenets.

• Scotland was an independent Kingdom, but after the disastrous campaign led by William the Lion, English garrisons were established in the castles of Edinburgh, Roxburgh, Jedburgh and Berwick in southern Scotland as defined in the Treaty of Falaise.^[22]
• Toulouse was held through vassalage by the count of Toulouse but the latter did rarely comply. Only Quercy was directly administrated by the Plantagenets and it remained a contested area for the time being.
• Brittany, a region where nobles were traditionally very independent, was under firm Plantagenet control. Nantes was under undisputed Angevin rule while the Plantagenets often involved themselves in Breton affairs and installed archbishops and imposed authority on the region.^[23]
• Wales obtained good terms provided it paid homage to the Plantagenets and recognised them as lords.^[24] However it remained almost self-ruling. It supplied the Plantagenets with knives and longbows which England later used with great success.

Economy and revenue[link]

The economy of the Angevin Empire was quite complicated due to the varying political structure of the fiefdoms. Areas like England which had a centralised power structure generated larger revenues than the more loosely administrated regions such as Limousin; where local princes could mint their own coins.

It is commonly believed that money raised in England was used for continental issues.^[17] Also, due to the high level of administration of England and, to a lesser extent, Normandy, it was the only area where revenue was fairly consistent.

The English revenues themselves varied from a year to year:

• When Henry II became king, his income for England was a mere £10,500 a year or half of what the English revenue were under Henry I Beauclerc.^[25][26] This was due in part to The Anarchy and Stephen of Blois' loose rule. As time went on, Henry II installed his authority and incomes consequently went up to £22,000 a year.
• When it was time to prepare for the crusade, revenues increased to £31,050 per year but they dropped down to £11,000 a year when Richard I the Lionheart was away.
• Under John Lackland incomes remained stable for a time at £22,000 a year. In order to pay for the reconquest of France, he registered an income of £83,291 and yet that didn't include all sources like the Jews which could have increased it to £145,000 in the year of 1211.

In Ireland, the revenue was fairly low, a mere £2,000 for 1212; however, records are missing for the most part. For Normandy, there were a lot of fluctuations relative to the politics of the Duchy. In 1180, the Norman revenues were only £6,750 while they reached £25,000 a year in 1198, higher than in England.^[27] What was more impressive was the fact the Norman population was considerably smaller than England's, an estimated 1.5 million as opposed to England's 3.5 million.^[28][29]

For Aquitaine, Anjou and Gascony there is no record about revenues. It is not that these regions were poor; there were large vineyards, important cities and iron mines. This is what Ralph of Diceto, an English chronicler, wrote about Aquitaine:

Aquitaine overflows with riches of many kinds, excelling other parts of the western world to such an extent that historians consider it to be one of the most fortunate and flourishing of the provinces of Gaul. Its fields are fertile, its vineyards productive and its forests teem with wild life. From the Pyrenees northwards the whole countryside is irrigated by the River Garonne and other streams, indeed it is from these life-giving waters that the province takes its name.

The Capetian kings did not record such incomes, although the royal principality was more centralized under Louis VII and Philip II than it used to be under Hugh Capet or Robert the Pious.^[30] The wealth of the Plantagenet kings was definitely regarded as bigger, Gerald of Wales commented on this wealth with these words:^[31]

One may therefore ask how King Henry II and his sons, in spite of their many wars, possessed so much treasure. The reason is that as their fixed returns yielded less they took care to make up the total by extraordinary levies, relying more and more on these than on the ordinary sources of revenue.

Petit Dutailli had commented that: "Richard maintained a superiority in resources which would have given him the opportunity, had he lived, to crush his rival." There is another interpretation, not widely followed and proven wrong, that the king of France could have raised a stronger income, that the royal principality of the king of France generated alone more incomes than all of the Angevin Empire combined.^[32]

Formation of the Angevin Empire (1135–1156)[link]

Context before the Anarchy[link]

Chinon Castle.

The Counts of Anjou had been vying for power in north-western France for a long time. The Counts were recurrent enemies of the Dukes of Normandy and of the Dukes of Brittany and sometimes even of the King himself. Fulk IV claimed rule over Touraine, Maine and Nantes; however, of these only Touraine proved to be effectively ruled, as the construction of the castles of Chinon, Loches and Loudun exemplify. Fulk IV married his son Fulk V to Eremburga, the heiress of Maine, thus unifying it with Anjou. While the dynasty of the Angevins was successful, their rivals, the Normans, had conquered England, while the Poitevins had become Dukes of Aquitaine as well as Dukes of Gascony and the Count of Blois became Count of Champagne.

King Henry I of England had defeated his brother Robert Curthose, made an enemy of Robert's son William Clito (who became Count of Flanders in 1127), and used his paternal inheritance to claim the Duchy of Normandy and the Kingdom of England. Henry I tried to establish an alliance with Anjou against Flanders by marrying his only legitimate son, William Adelin, to Fulk V's daughter, but William died in the White Ship disaster in 1120. Then, Henry I married his daughter Matilda to Geoffrey V, however, the Anglo-Normans had to accept Matilda's inheritance to the throne of England. There had been only one occurrence of a medieval Europan queen regnant before, Urraca of Castile, and it wasn't an encouraging precedent; nevertheless, in January 1127 the Anglo-Normans barons and prelates recognized Matilda as heiress to the throne in an oath. On June 17, 1128, the wedding was celebrated in Le Mans.

The Anarchy and the question of the Norman succession[link]

In order to secure the succession, castles and supporters were needed in both England and Normandy. Had Matilda and Geoffrey succeeded, there would have been two authorities in England: King Henry I and his daughter, Matilda. Henry I prevented the disunion by refusing to hand over any castle to Matilda as well as confiscating the lands of the nobles he suspected of supporting her. By 1135, major disputes between Henry I and Matilda drove the barons loyal to Henry I against Matilda. In November 1135, Henry "Beauclerc" was dying; Matilda was with her husband in Maine and Anjou while Stephen of Blois, Matilda's cousin and another contender for the throne, was in Boulogne. Stephen rushed to England upon the news of Henry I's death and was crowned King of England in December 1135.^[33]

The White Tower, seen from the River Thames, was built by William the Conqueror.

Geoffrey V first sent Matilda alone to Normandy, in a diplomatic mission to be recognized Duchess of Normandy to replace Stephen. However, Geoffrey V wasn't far behind, at the head of his army, and he quickly captured several fortresses in southern Normandy, which he never lost again. It was then that an Angevin noble, Robert III of Sablé, rose up, opening a front on Geoffrey's rear and forcing him to withdraw to Anjou to end the revolt.

When Geoffrey V returned to Normandy in September 1136, the region was plagued with local struggles and infighting among the barons. Stephen was not able to travel to Normandy and as result, the situation remained chaotic. Geoffrey had found new allies with the Count of Vendôme and, most importantly, the Duke of Aquitaine. At the head of a new army and prepared to conquer Normandy, Geoffrey V was wounded and was forced to return to Anjou once more. Adding to that, an outbreak of diarrhea plagued his army. Orderic Vitalis stated "the invaders had to run for home leaving a trail of filth behind them". Stephen finally arrived in Normandy in 1137 and restored order, but he had lost much of credibility in the eyes of his supporter Robert of Gloucester. Geoffrey took control of the strongholds of Caen and Argentan without resistance, but he now had to defend Robert's possession in England against the anger of the King. In 1139, Robert and Matilda crossed the channel and arrived in England while Geoffrey kept the pressure on Normandy. Stephen was captured in February 1141 at the Battle of Lincoln, which prompted the collapse of Normandy.

Geoffrey now controlled almost all of Normandy, but no longer had the support of Aquitaine: King Louis VII of France was now Duke of Aquitaine by his marriage to Duchess Eleanor of Aquitaine in 1137; he had no interest in the shifts in Norman politics, since he already ruled vast and powerful territories. While Geoffrey V asserted control of Normandy, Matilda was suffering defeats against Stephen's allies.^[34] At Winchester, Robert of Gloucester was captured while covering Matilda's retreat. Matilda freed Stephen in exchange for Robert.

In 1142, Geoffrey V was beseeched to cross the channel and assist Matilda but he refused; he had become more interested in Normandy. Following the capture of Avranches, Mortain and Cherbourg, Geoffrey V launched a decisive attack on Rouen capturing it in 1144. He then anointed himself as Duke of Normandy and, in exchange for the cession of Gisors to Louis VII, was formally recognized by the King. Satisfied with his new role in Normandy, Geoffrey V made no effort to assist Matilda in England even as she was on the verge of defeat. Helie (Elias), Geoffrey's younger brother, felt that he deserved his fair share and asked for Maine. No sooner had that issue been settled, another Angevin noble rebelled: Gerald Berlay, newly appointed seneschal of Poitou by Louis VII, led a revolt in southern Anjou against Geoffrey V.

Accession of Henry and nominal foundation of the Angevin Empire[link]

Geoffrey Plantagenet, Count of Anjou

Stephen had by no means given up his claims on Normandy. Even though Louis VII had clearly recognised Geoffrey Plantagenet as duke, an alliance between the two Kings was possible because of the issue over Gerald Berlay. Louis VII agreed to recognise Geoffrey's son Henry as the new duke in 1151 in exchange of concessions in Norman Vexin. The death of Geoffrey, aged only 38, made Henry count of Anjou in 1151. According to the story told by William of Newburgh (in the 1190s) Geoffrey declared that Henry would have to hand down Anjou to one of his young brothers, also called Geoffrey, if he was to win the crown of England. To compel Henry to follow his will, Geoffrey V had ordered that he be left without sepulture until Henry swore an oath that he would renounce Anjou if he were to acquire England.

Henry II of England, first Angevin King

In March 1152, Louis VII and Eleanor of Aquitaine divorced under the pretext of consanguinity at the council of Beaugency because the couple was not getting along.^[35] The terms of the divorce left Eleanor as Duchess of Aquitaine but under rule of the King; eight weeks later she married Henry (who was no less related to her than was Louis VII). With Henry thus becoming Duke of Aquitaine and Gascony, it was obvious he would never give Anjou up to his brother, since it would mean splitting his land into two parts. A coalition of all of Henry's enemies was set up by Louis VII: King Stephen of England and his son Eustace IV of Boulogne (married to Louis' sister), Henry the Liberal (promised to Eleanor's daughter), Robert of Dreux (Louis VII's brother) and Geoffrey who no longer had hope of being given Anjou.

In July 1152, Capetian troops attacked Aquitaine while Louis VII himself, along with Eustace IV, Henry of Champagne and Robert of Dreux attacked Normandy. Geoffrey raised a revolt in Anjou while Stephen attacked Angevin loyalists in England. Several Anglo-Norman nobles switched allegiance, feeling the forthcoming disaster. Henry was about to sail for England to pursue his claim when his lands were attacked. He first reached Anjou and compelled Geoffrey to surrender, and then took the decision to sail for England in January 1153 in order to meet Stephen. Luckily enough Louis VII fell ill and had to retire from the conflict while Henry's defences held against his enemies. After seven months of both battles and political gambles Henry failed to get rid of King Stephen; then Eustace IV died in dubious circumstances, "struck by the wrath of god." This was the last straw and King Stephen gave up the struggle by ratifying the Treaty of Winchester. He made Henry his heir on condition that the land possessions of his family were guaranteed in England and France—the same terms Matilda had refused after her victory at Lincoln. Henry became Henry II of England in December 1154. Subsequently the question was again raised of Henry's oath to cede Anjou to his brother Geoffrey. Henry II received a dispensation from Pope Adrian IV under the pretext the oath had been forced upon him, and he proposed compensations to Geoffrey at Rouen in 1156, but the latter refused and returned to Anjou to rise once again against his brother. If Geoffrey had a solid moral claim, his position was nonetheless very weak. Louis VII wouldn't interfere since Henry II paid homage to the King of France for Normandy, Anjou and Aquitaine as vassal. Henry II crushed Geoffrey's revolt, and Geoffrey had to be satisfied with an annual pension.

Expansions of the Angevin Empire[link]

Henry II clearly claimed further lands and worked on the creation of a ring of vassal states, especially around England and Normandy, as buffers. The most obvious ones were Scotland, Wales, Brittany and Flanders, which could be also used as starting points for further expansions.

David of Scotland had taken advantage of The Anarchy to seize Cumberland, Westmorland and Northumberland. In Wales important leaders like Rhys of Deheubarth and Owain Gwynedd had emerged. In Brittany, there is no evidence that the Duke of Brittany, namely Eudes, had recognised the Norman overlordship. Two vital frontier castles, Moulins-la-Marche and Bonmoulins, had never been taken back by Geoffrey Plantagenet and were in the hands of Robert of Dreux. Count Thierry of Flanders had joined the alliance formed by Louis VII in 1153. Further south, the Count of Blois acquired Amboise. From Henry II's perspective, there were some issues to solve.^[26]

King Henry II showed himself to be an audacious and daring king; he was also active and mobile.^[36] Though he was often more present in France than in England as Ralph of Diss, Dean of St Paul's, said with irony:^[37]

The situation in 1154.

Castles and strongholds in France[link]

Henry II bought Vernon and Neufmarché back in 1154. From now on this new strategy regulated the Plantagenets-Capetians relationship. Louis VII couldn't deny his own unsuccessful attempt at breaking Henry II down. Because of the Angevin control of England in 1154 it was pointless to object to the superiority of the overall Angevin forces over the Capetian ones. Yet, Henry II wouldn't stop claiming the land until the Norman Vexin was entirely recovered. Thomas Beckett was sent as ambassador to Paris in 1158 for leading negotiations and he displayed all the wealth the Angevins could boast of to the Capetians. Louis VII's daughter, Margaret who was still a baby was promised to Henry the "future young king" (King Henry II's son). Although a baby, Margaret was old enough to be given a dowry at her wedding. This dowry happened to be the Norman Vexin. Henry II was given back the castles of Moulins-la-Marche and Bonmoulins. Theobald the Good handed Amboise back to him.

Flanders[link]

Although Thierry of Alsace had taken part in the assaults against Henry II along with Louis VII the wool trade between England and Flanders favoured a cordial relationship between the two men up to the point that the Count appointed Henry II guardian of his lands so that he undertake on a pilgrimage to Jerusalem without concerns. In 1159, William of Blois died without an inheritance, he was Stephen's last son, leaving the titles of Count of Boulogne and Count of Mortain vacant. Henry II absorbed the County of Mortain but wanted to grant Boulogne to Thierry's son, Matthew, who married Marie of Boulogne. The title of Count of Boulogne was accompanied with important manors in London and Colchester.

England traded much of its wool with Flanders via the port of Boulogne. An alliance with these two counties was then logically sealed by this wedding and the concessions of manors. Henry II had to get Marie out of her convent first, which had been a common practice in England since the Normans. In 1163, the few official remaining documents showed Henry II and Thierry renewed the treaty signed by William the Conqueror. Flanders would provide Henry II with knights in exchange of an annual tribute in money.

Brittany[link]

In Brittany, the duke Conan III declared his son Hoël a bastard and disinherited him. It was his sister Bertha who became Duchess of Brittany making her husband of the time, Eudes, nominally Duke. Hoël was then co-ruler with his brother in law, and had to be satisfied as Count of Nantes. Bertha was the widow of Alan de Bretagne with whom she already had a son, Conan. Conan who had become Earl of Richmond in 1148 was Henry II's perfect candidate to become the new Duke of Brittany as any Duke with possessions of importance in England could be easier to control.

In 1156, the Duchy of Brittany was hit by civil unrest which led to Conan IV's accession while in Nantes the population called for Henry II's help against Hoël. Geoffrey (Henry II's brother again) was made new Count of Nantes by Henry II, but he did not hold the position for long, as he died in 1158 at only 24 years of age. In 1158, Conan IV briefly ruled as Count of Nantes however, Henry II took the title that same year by mustering an army in Avranches to threaten Conan. In 1160 Henry II married his cousin Margaret of Scotland to Conan in an arranged wedding. He then appointed the archbishop of Dol. Without a tradition of a strong rule in Brittany, discontent grew among the nobles. This led to a revolt that Henry II answered in 1166. He betrothed his own 7-year-old son, Geoffrey, to Conan's daughter and later forced Conan to abdicate for his future son-in-law, making Henry II the ruler of Brittany, yet not the Duke. Breton nobles strongly opposed this, and more attacks on Brittany followed, first in 1167, then in 1168, and finally in 1173. Each of these invasions were followed by confiscations, and Henry II installed his men, William Fitzhamo and Rolland of Dinan, in the area. Although it was not formally part of the Plantagenet fiefdom, Brittany was under firm control.

Scotland[link]

Henry II met Malcolm IV in 1157 about Cumberland, Westmorland and Northumberland previously seized by his grandfather, David I of Scotland. In 1149, before Henry II became powerful, he made an oath to David that the lands north of Newcastle should belong to the King of Scotland forever. Malcolm reminded him of this oath but Henry II did not comply. There is no evidence that Henry II got a dispensation from the pope this time, as William of Newburgh put it, "prudently considering it was the king of England who had the better of the argument by reason of his much greater power."

Malcolm IV gave up and paid homage in return for Huntingdon, which he inherited from his father.^[38]

William the Lion, the next King of Scotland, was unhappy with Henry II since he was given Northumberland by David I in 1152 and therefore lost it to Henry II when Malcolm IV handed it back in 1157.

As a part of the coalition set by Louis VII, William the Lion first invaded Northumberland in 1173 and then again in 1174, as a result he was captured near Alnwick and had to sign the tough Treaty of Falaise. Garrisons were to be set in the castles of Edinburgh, Roxburgh, Jedburgh and Berwick.^[22] Southern Scotland was from then under firm control just as Brittany was. Richard I of England would end the Treaty of Falaise in exchange for money to fund his crusade, setting a context for cordial relationships between the two lion kings.

Wales[link]

Rhys of Deheubarth, also called Lord Rhys, and Owain Gwynedd were closed to negotiations. Henry II had to attack Wales three times, in 1157, 1158 and 1163 to have them answer his summons to the court. The Welsh found his terms too harsh and largely revolted against him. Henry then undertook a fourth invasion in 1164, this time with a massive army. According to the Welsh chronicle Brut y Tywysogion, Henry raised "a mighty host of the picked warriors of England and Normandy and Flanders and Anjou and Gascony and Scotland" in order to "carry into bondage and to destroy all the Britons."^[39]

Bad weather, rains, floods, and constant harassment from the Welsh armies slowed the Angevin army and prevented the capture of Wales (see the Battle of Crogen); a furious Henry II had Welsh hostages mutilated. Wales would remain safe for a while, but the invasion of Ireland in 1171 pressured Henry II to end the issue through negotiations with Lord Rhys.^[24]

Ireland[link]

King John's castle built on the Shannon River

Further plans of expansion were considered as Henry II's last brother didn't have a fiefdom. The Holy See was most likely to support a campaign in Ireland which would bring its church into the Christian Latin world of Rome. Henry II was given Rome's blessing in 1155 under the form of a Papal bull^[40] but had to postpone the invasion of Ireland because of all the issues in his domains and around them. In the terms of the Bull Laudabiliter, "Laudably and profitably does your magnificence contemplate extending your glorious name on earth."

William X, Count of Poitou died in 1164 without being installed in Ireland, but Henry II didn't gave up on the conquest of Ireland. In 1167 -Dermot of Leinster- an Irish King, was recognised as "prince of Leinster" by Henry II and was allowed to recruit soldiers in England and Wales to use in Ireland against the other Kings. The knights first met great success in carving themselves lands in Ireland, so much it worried Henry II enough to land himself in Ireland in October 1171 near Waterford and confronted to such demonstration of power most native kings of Ireland recognised him as their lord. Even Rory O' Connor, the king of Connacht who claimed to be High King of Ireland paid homage to Henry II. Henry II installed some of his men in strongholds like Dublin and Leinster (as Dermot was dead). He also gave unconquered kingdoms such as Cork, Limerick and Ulster to his men and left the Normans carving their lands in Ireland. In 1177 he made John, his son, the first Lord of Ireland, though John was too young and landed in Ireland only in 1185. He failed to install his authority on the land and had to return to Henry II. Only 25 years later John would return to Ireland while others built castles and installed their interests.

Toulouse[link]

Carcassonne was a fortified city of the County of Toulouse

Much less tenable was the claim over Toulouse. Eleanor's ancestors claimed the huge County of Toulouse as it used to be the central power of the ancient Duchy of Aquitaine back in the times of Odo the Great.^[14] Henry II and maybe even Eleanor were probably totally unrelated to this ancient line of dukes (Eleanor was a Ramnulfid while Henry II was an Angevin). Toulouse was a very large city, heavily fortified and much richer than many cities of the time. It was of strategical importance as it is between the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean. The County of Toulouse was the largest state of the Kingdom of France with its large access to the Mediterranean Sea itself, and included significant cities like Narbonne, Cahors, Albi, Nîmes and Carcassonne.

Toulouse wasn't easy prey though. The city was incredibly large and fortified for a medieval city.^[41] Not to mention the least, Raymond V was married to Louis VII's sister therefore attacking Toulouse would have endangered the policy of peace with the King of France. The County of Toulouse had also many heavily fortified areas like Carcassonne and its five sons: Queribus, Aguila, Termes, Peyrepertuse and Puylaurens and many more castles and fortified cities.^[42]

In June 1159 Henry II gathered in Poitiers what probably was the biggest army he had ever sent, formed by troops from all of his fiefdom (from Gascony to England), that army also included reinforcements sent by Thierry and Malcolm IV. Henry II attacked from the north while other of his allies, namely the Trencavels and Ramon Berenguer opened a different front. Henry II couldn't capture Toulouse proper and the recurrent conflicts with Toulouse would be called the Forty Years War with Toulouse by William of Newburgh. Henry II captured Cahors though as well as various castles in the Garonne valley (in the Quercy region), he came back in 1161 and then too busy with conflicts elsewhere in his fiefdom he left his allies fighting against Toulouse. Alfonso II the King of Aragon himself having interests there joined the war. In 1171 Henry II set an alliance with Humbert of Maurienne adding one more enemy of Raymond V to his alliance. In 1173, in Limoges, Raymond finally gave up after over a decade of constant fights. He paid homage to Henry II, to his son also called Henry and to his other son Richard the Lionheart newly appointed new Duke of Aquitaine.^[43]

Pinnacle of the Angevin Empire (1160–1199)[link]

Louis VII was known by his contemporaries for his piety and love of peace. Stephen of Paris wrote of King Louis VII:^[44]

He was so pious, so just, so catholic and benign, that if you were to see his simplicity of behaviour and dress, you would think, unless you already knew him, that he was not a king but a man of religion. He was a lover of justice, a defender of the weak.

Even Walter Map, a contemporary English satirical chronicler, had been kind toward Louis VII and praised him marking a contrast with the harsh critiques he did toward other kings.^[45]

King Louis VII was a man of peace who hated violence and war^[46] but the attacks on Toulouse made clear that peace with Henry II wasn't peace at all but just the opportunity to make war elsewhere. Louis VII himself was in an awkward position: his subject was more powerful than he was by a large degree and worst of all he had no male heir. Constance, his second wife, died in childbirth in 1160 and Louis VII announced he would remarry at once, in the urgent need of a male heir, with Adèle of Champagne. The young Henry was finally married to Margaret aged only 2, under the pressure of Henry II, and as declared in 1158 the Norman Vexin went to him as the dowry. Had Louis VII died without male heir, Henry the Young would have been in a comfortable position to become the next King of France himself.

In 1164 King Louis found a rather turbulent ally in Archbishop Thomas Beckett.^[47] King Louis and Thomas Beckett had met previously in 1158, but now the circumstances were very different. Louis had got already a few clerical refugees in his land, and was then called Rex Christianisimus (most Christian king) by John of Salisbury.^[48]

Thomas Beckett, archbishop and martyr.

Indeed there were growing conflicts between the king of England and the archbishop and Henry II provoked Thomas Beckett's murder by pronouncing words like, "What miserable traitors have I nourished in my household who led their lord be treated with such shameful contempt by a low-born clerck!"^[49]

Thomas Beckett was murdered in 1170, and the Christian world blamed Henry for this. Louis, who had protected Thomas Beckett, gained general approval against Henry. Although his secular power was still much weaker than Henry's, Louis now had the moral advantage.

In 1165, the idea of a possible succession of Henry the Young to the throne of France was all gone away as Philip was given birth by Adèle. With the birth of the next King of France it was clear peace was over, Henry II claimed Auvergne in and marched on it in 1167 while he also claimed Bourges and attacked it in 1170. Louis VII answered by raiding the Norman Vexin forcing Henry II to relocate his troops to the north and Louis VII then marched south and freed Bourges. At that point, not just Louis VII was wondering if Henry II's expansionism would ever end.

Henry II never treated his land as a coherent sovereign but much more as private possessions he planned to distribute his children. Henry the young was crowned King of England in 1170 but never actually ruled, in 1172 Richard the Lionheart became Duke of Aquitaine, in 1181 Geoffrey became Duke of Brittany, John became Lord of Ireland in 1185 while Leonora (born in 1161) was promised to Alfonso VII with Gascony as dowry during the campaign against Toulouse in 1170. This partition of the lands between his children made it much harder for him to control them, as several of them would then turn against him.

Following his coronation Henry the Young King asked for part of his inheritance, at least England or Normandy or Anjou, but Henry II the Old King refused to hand down anything. Henry the Young then joined Louis VII at his court, Eleanor of Aquitaine herself joined the conflict and both Richard the Lionheart and Geoffrey of Brittany joined their brother at the court of the King. From then, states that Henry II had pressured joined the conflict against him. Another King to join Louis VII was William the Lion, King of Scotland. Philip, the Count of Flanders also joined the conflict, as well as the Count of Boulogne and Theobald the Count of Blois. Henry II emerged victorious of that conflict: because of his wealth he could recruit very large amount of mercenaries, and he had captured and imprisoned Eleanor early on as well as captured William the Lion and forced him into the Treaty of Falaise. Henry II bought the County of Marche, then he asserted the French Vexin and Bourges should be given at once, but this time there was no invasion to back the claim.

Philip II Augustus and Richard I the Lionheart[link]

Richard Cœur de lion.

Philip II Augustus.

Louis VII died and was buried in the Saint Denis Basilica in 1180. His son, aged only 15, ascended of France and in 1183. Philip II of France's policy was to use Henry II's sons against him. Richard the Lionheart was administrating Aquitaine since 1175 but his policy of centralisation of the Aquitanian government had grown unpopular in the eastern part of the Duchy, notably Périgord and Limousin. Richard the Lionheart was accused of many crimes there, among which murders and rapes.^[50] If Richard was not so popular in Aquitaine, Philip II was not really liked either by contemporaries^[51] with comments describing him as: astute, manipulative, calculating, penurious and ungallant ruler.

In 1183, Henry the Young King joined a revolt led by Limoges and Geoffrey of Lusignan against Richard in order to take Richard's place. They were joined by Philip II, Raymond V and by Duke Hugh III of Burgundy. Henry the Young died suddenly of a fatal illness in 1183, saving Richard's position. Henry the Young King was buried in Notre Dame de Rouen.

Richard was then Henry II's oldest son and inherited much of Henry the Young King's status. Henry II ordered him to hand down Aquitaine to John Lackland, but Richard refused to comply. Henry II had too much to cope with at the time to take care of this, Welsh princes were now contesting his authority, William the Lion was asking for his castles to be given back and as Henry the Young was dead Philip II asked for the Norman Vexin to be given back. Henry II finally asked Richard I to surrender Aquitaine to Eleanor while Richard retained the control. Still in 1183, Raymond V had taken Cahors back and Henry II asked Richard to mount an expedition against Toulouse. Geoffrey of Brittany was quarrelling violently with his brother Richard and it was obvious Geoffrey could be used by the Capetians but his sudden death in 1186 in a tournament killed the plot. In 1187, Philip II and Richard were more than strong allies, as Roger of Hoveden reported:^[52]

The King of England was struck with great astonishment, and wondered what [this alliance] could mean, and, taking precautions for the future, frequently sent messengers into France for the purpose of recalling his son Richard; who, pretending that he was peaceably inclined and ready to come to his father, made his way to Chinon, and, in spite of the person who had the custody thereof, carried off the greater part of his father's treasures, and fortified his castles in Poitou with the same, refusing to go to his father.

In 1188 Raymond V attacked again, joined by the Lusignans. It was rumoured that Henry II himself financed the revolts. By this time Philip II attacked Henry II in Normandy and captured strongholds in Berry. In 1188, Philip II and Henry II met to discuss peace again, Henry II refused to make Richard his heir. One story reports that Richard said "Now at last, I must believe what I had always thought impossible."^[53]

This was the final collapse of all Henry's strategy. First Richard paid homage to the King of France for all the lands his father held. As Richard and Philip II attacked Henry II no one in Aquitaine stood for him and the Bretons seized the opportunity to attack him too. Even Henry's birthplace, Le Mans, was captured and Tours also soon fell. He was simply encircled in his castle of Chinon. Henry was finally compelled to surrender. He gave a large tribute in money to Philip II and swore that all his subjects in France and England would recognise Richard as their lord. Henry II died two days later, learning John had joined Richard and Philip. The old king was buried in Fontevraud Abbey.

Eleanor, who was Henry's hostage, was then freed while Lord Rhys raised and began to reconquer the southern parts of Wales that Henry had annexed. Richard I was crowned King in Westminster Abbey in November 1189, while he was already installed as Duke of Normandy, Count of Anjou and Duke of Aquitaine. Philip II asked for the Norman Vexin to be given back but the issue was settled when Richard I announced he would marry Alys, Philip II's sister. Richard I also recognised Auvergne was meant to belong to the crown of France and not to the Duke of Aquitaine ending Henry's claim on the place. In Britain King William of Scotland opened negotiations with King Richard of England (the two lion kings) to revoke the Treaty of Falaise and an agreement was reached.^[54]

The Third Crusade[link]

The next priority was the crusade, it had been delayed long enough and Richard I considered it was time to do his religious duty. Beyond purely religious matter, his ancestor Fulk V had been King of Jerusalem and Guy de Lusignan was a Poitevin noble while his wife -Sybilla- was no less than Richard's cousin. The crusade as well as French issues would be the reason for Richard's absence in England: the Lion Heart would spend less than six months of his reign in England.^[55]

"Philip II (right) and Richard I (left) at Acre"

Before leaving, Richard I had to make sure nothing went wrong while he was in the Holy Land. There was little doubt Raymond V would take the opportunity to expand his lands in Aquitaine. To counter that threat, he built an alliance with Sancho VI the Wise the King of Navarre. On the way to the Holy Land, Richard I married Berengaria the princess of Navarre in 1191, therefore repudiating Alys. To calm down Philip II, he accepted that if he had two sons the youngest should take Normandy or Aquitaine or Anjou and rule it for the King of France.^[56]

The administration left behind worked rather well, as an attack from the Count of Toulouse was repelled with the help of Sancho VI. The Siege of Acre was over. (Richard I had also upset Leopold V the Virtuous by removing his banner from Acre.) Much has been said about the reasons Philip II went back to France; it is often considered his dysentery was the principal reason. Other causes could have been the way his sister had been treated by Richard I or that he couldn't stand that his subject had more power and wealth than he did or even that following the Count of Flanders's death, Philip came back to ask for his share of the land of Artois.

Richard I left Palestine in October 1192 and would have retrieved his lands intact had he reached home in time. But Leopold V arrested him near Vienna, accusing him of the murder of his cousin Conrad, and then handed him down to Emperor Henry VI. John Lackland was summoned to Philip II's court and accepted to marry Alys with no less than Artois has a dowry. In return, the entire Norman Vexin would be given to the King of France. After all, no one was sure if Richard I would be ever released. Yet, all of the forces John could gather were a bunch of mercenaries as even William the Lion did not join his revolt and also sent money for Richard's ransom. Another revolt in Aquitaine was suppressed by Elias de la Celle, but in Normandy Philip II himself was leading the operations. By April 1193 he had reached Rouen and although the ducal capital couldn't be taken, he and his allies were then controlling all the ports from the Rhine to Dieppe. Confronted to the situation, Richard's regents conceded the Treaty of Mantes in July 1193, confirming Philip II's control on all the land he had taken including the entire Norman Vexin, the castles of Drincourt and Arques in Normandy and the castles of Loches and Châtillon in Tourraine as well as adding a substantial payment once Richard is back.

In a new treaty in 1194, concessions to the King of France went much further, when Tours with all the castles of Tourraine and all of Eastern Normandy except for Rouen were surrendered. The County of Angoulême was declared independent of Aquitaine, Vendôme was given to Louis of Blois and Geoffrey III of Perche acquired Moulins and Bonmoulins.^[57] Emperor Henry VI finally released Richard I in 1194 in exchange of the ransom.

Richard freed, recovers his lands, and finally dies[link]

Richard I was in a difficult position, Philip II had taken over large parts of his lands and had inherited of Amiens and Artois. England was Richard's most secure possessions, Hubert Walter who had been to the crusade with the King of England was appointed his justiciar. King Richard took over John's lordship over Ireland and rejected William the Lion's claim over the northern territories.

The construction of Château Gaillard began under Richard's rule, but he died before it could be seen finished.

Richard I had merely crossed the English Channel to claim back his territories that John Lackland betrayed Philip II by murdering the garrison of Évreux and handing the town down to Richard I. "He had first betrayed his father, then his brother and now our King" said William the Breton. Sancho the Strong, the future King of Navarre, joined the conflict and attacked Aquitaine, capturing Angoulème and Tours. Richard himself was known to be a great military commander.^[58] The first part of this war was difficult for Richard who suffered several setbacks, for Philip II was also a great commander and politician. But by October the new Count of Toulouse, Raymond VI, left the Capetian side and joined Richard's. He was followed by Baldwin IV of Flanders, the future Latin Emperor, as this one was contesting Artois to Philip II. In 1197, Henry VI died and was replaced by Otto IV, Richard I's own nephew. Renaud de Dammartin, the Count of Boulogne and a skilled commander, also deserted Philip II. Baldwin IV was invading Artois and captured Saint-Omer while Richard I was campaigning in Berry and inflicted a severe defeat to Philip II at Gisors, close to Paris. A truce was accepted, and Richard I had almost recovered all Normandy and now held more territories in Aquitaine than he had before. Richard I had to deal with a revolt once again, but this time from Limousin. He was struck by a bolt in April 1199 at Châlus-Chabrol and died of a subsequent infection. His body was buried at Fontevraud like his father.

John's reign and the collapse (1199–1217)[link]

John was not king yet; he had to fight to keep his lands. Following the news of Richard's death, Philip II captured Évreux in a rush. John tried to take the Angevin treasure and the castle of Chinon to install his power. But, in the local custom,^[59] the son of an older brother was preferred to a claimant. Henceforth they recognised Arthur as their ruler, son of Geoffrey of Brittany, depriving John of the Angevins' ancestral land. Only in Normandy and England he could install his rule. In Rouen, Normandy, he was made Duke in April 1199 and he was crowned King of England in May at Westminster Abbey. He left his mother, Eleanor, controlling Aquitaine.

His allies, Aimeri of Thouars and three Lusignan nobles led an attack on Tours in an attempt to capture Arthur and install John as count. Aimeri of Thouars was promised the title of seneschal had he captured Arthur. By this time John went to Normandy to negotiate a truce with Philip II. He took profit of this truce to gather Richard's former allies, especially the Count of Boulogne, the Count of Flanders and the Holy Roman Emperor. In the end no less than 15 French counts swore allegiance to John who was now definitely in a much stronger position than Philip II. A strong supporter of the King—William des Roches—even switched side in front of so much power and handed down Arthur, whom he was supposed to protect, to John. Arthur managed to espace and join Philip II's court very soon though. It was also the moment the Count of Flanders and many knights decided to join the crusade in 1199 and deserted John's court. John's dominant position was short-lived and then he had to accept the Treaty of Le Goulet in 1200. Philip II was confirmed over the lands he had taken in Normandy joined by further concessions in Auvergne and Berry. John was recognised at the head of Anjou in return of what he swore he would not interfere if Baldwin IV or Otto IV attacked Philip II.

The Lusignans' case and decisive defeats[link]

Les Très Riches Heures du duc de Berry shows the Château de Lusignan.

Hugh IX of Lusignan took Eleanor in hostage; John then recognised him as Count of Marche, thus expanding Lusignan power in the region. In August 1200, John had his first marriage annulled and he married Isabella who was already betrothed to Hugh X. John then confiscated La Marche. The Lusignans themselves called for Philip II's intervention, and he summoned John to his court. John refused to meet his King, so Philip II used his power of suzerainty to confiscate all the lands John held in France. Phillip then accepted Arthur's homage, granting Arthur control of Poitou, Anjou, Maine, and Tours in 1202. Raymond VI, Count of Toulouse, joined Philip II, as did Renaud de Dammartin. Most of John's other allies were either in the Holy Land or had deserted him. Of them, only Sancho VII the Strong remained, and he was in a weak position and unable to render much assistance to John.

Arthur launched an attack in Poitou with his Lusignan allies, while Philip II attacked Normandy and captured many castles on the frontier. John was in Le Mans when the attacks were launched and decided to move southward. John's forces captured Arthur along with Hugh X and 200 knights; this success was quickly followed by the capture of the Viscount of Limoges, who John imprisoned in Chinon. The year 1202 was a time of triumph for John, who had distinguished himself from Richard I nor Henry II by succeessfully stifling his enemies.

Unfortunately, John suffered from a fatal character flaw: "he could not resist the temptation to kick a man when he was down."^[60] He took pleasure in humiliating his enemies. After Arthur was murdered in prison (almost certainly at John's command), many of John's supporters deserted him.

John's former allies, many of whom now actively fought against him, handed Alençon over to Philip II in Normandy. Vaudreuil was delivered to the King of France without a fight. John, who was trying to retake Alençon, was forced to withdraw once Philip II arrived. Château Gaillard itself had fallen in 1204 after a six month siege; this was a devastating loss for the Angevins. Philip II continued campaigning in Normandy and successfully captured Argentan, Falaise, Caen, Bayeux and Lisieux in only three weeks. At the same time, a force of Breton knights captured the Mont Saint-Michel and Avranches. Tours fell in 1204, Loches and even Chinon followed in 1205; only Rouen and Arques continued to resist. Rouen finally capitulated and opened its gates to the King. The ducal castle was then destroyed and a bigger one was commissioned.

Eleanor died in 1204. Most of the Poitevin nobles joined Philip II since they were loyal to Eleanor, but not to John. After Eleanor's death, Alfonso VIII asked for Gascony, which was part of the dowry Henry II had given his daughter. Gascony was one of the few French portions of the once-powerful "Angevin Empire" to remain loyal to the Angevins; the Gascons resisted Alfonso and the territory remained under John's control.

The two kings finally agreed to a truce in 1206. The "Angevin Empire" had been reduced to only Gascony, Ireland, and England.

Campaigns in the British Isles and return to France[link]

John had to make his rule on the isles undisputed following the loss of Normandy and Anjou. He campaigned in South Wales in 1208, the Scottish border in 1209, Ireland in 1210, and North Wales in 1211. These campaigns often met with success. John used all resources he could muster to finance a campaign in France. Taxation of the Jews generated additional incomes, while all land property of the church was seized, which led to John's excommunication.

Philip II victorious at Bouvines.

In 1212, John was ready to land and invade France, but a revolt in Wales forced him to delay his plans and then a baronnal revolt in England made it worse. Philip II was then also in preparation for an invasion of England, but his fleet was destroyed while anchored at Damme by the Earl of Salisbury, William Longespee. Hearing of the news, John ordered all the forces he had set to defend England to sail for Poitou. He landed in La Rochelle in 1214 and was then allied with Renaud de Dammartin, Count Ferdinand of Flanders and of course with Otto IV. His allies would attack in the northeast of France while he would attack from the southwest. John went to Gascony and tried to install his garrison in Agens, but it was expelled. Unlike Normandy, Philip II had never invaded Poitou; it had just switched its allegiance. In order to invade Paris from England, it was much easier to go through Normandy than through the southwest. Thus, King Philip II concentrated his efforts there.

The sword swung two ways, as for Philip II it was easier to launch an invasion of England from Normandy. As a consequence, Poitou was left without a strong royal presence. John betrothed his daughter, Joan, to Hugh IX of Lusignan's son Hugh X, in return for which the Lusignans were granted Saintonge and the Island of Oleron, as well as possibilities of further concessions in Touraine and Anjou. These were huge gains for the Lusignans, yet John called that bringing them to submit. ^[61]

Peter was the Duke of Brittany of the time. He was loyal to the King of France, but his claim to the rule of Brittany was fairly weak. If anything, Eleanor of Brittany had a stronger claim, as she was the elder sister of the defunct Arthur. John had her captured and used her as blackmail against Peter with one hand, while tempting him by offering Richmond with the other hand. Peter refused to change allegiance in the end, and not even the capture of his brother Robert III of Dreux near Nantes made him change his stance.

John entered Angers and captured a newly built castle at Roche-au-Moine; but Prince Louis rushed from Chinon with an army and took it back by pushing John to retreat. Even though this was a setback, John had at least made the job of his allies easier by dividing the Capetian army. Then happened the disastrous Battle of Bouvines, in which all his allies were defeated by King Philip II.

• Ferdinand was captured and jailed.
• Otto IV was close to being captured. His position in Germany collapsed when he was overthrown by Frederick II son of Philip of Swabia and allied to King Philip II.
• Renaud de Dammartin languished in jail for the rest of his life, until his suicide.
• William Longespee, who had led the English forces, was himself captured and exchanged for Robert III, whose father, Robert II, had fought in the battle.

John was beaten, the economy of the Kingdom of England was bankrupted, and he was seen as a failed plunderer.^[62] All of the money that he could gather and all of the power that he used, brought nothing and his allies were all dead or captured. Unable to regain Brittany, he also abandoned the idea to release his niece, in order to prevent her potential threat to his throne, leading the deserted princess to end up in prison decades later.

This quote, taken from Capetian France 987–1328, summarises the reasons of the Angevin collapse:^[63]

It is often said of the Plantagenet lands in the late twelfth century that they were an empire in decline, divided by the treachery of Henry II's sons and held together only with difficulty by Richard I and John; and the attempt to hold them together gravely overstrained their resources and undermined their power from within, making their survival as a unit quite impossible. Thus Philip's conquest becomes unavoidable, and John's responsibility is greatly diminished.

Capetians in England[link]

In 1215, the English barons, convinced that John would not respect the terms of the recently signed Magna Carta, sent a letter to the French court offering the crown of England to Prince Louis, now a maternal grandson-in-law of Henry II. By November a Capetian garrison was sent to London to support the rebels. On 22 May 1216 Capetian forces landed at Sandwich led by Prince Louis himself. John fled, allowing Louis to capture London and Winchester.^[64][65] By August, Louis controlled most of eastern England; only Dover, Lincoln, and Windsor remained loyal to John. Even King Alexander II of Scotland travelled to Canterbury and paid homage to Prince Louis, recognizing him as King of England.^[66]

John died two months later, defeated even in England. In contrast to John's failure to honour the terms of Magna Carta, the regency which followed him (Henry III being a minor) ruled in compliance with it. The Anglo-Norman barons therefore withdrew their support from Louis. He was defeated nearly a year later at Lincoln and Sandwich, and dropped his claim to the English crown by the Treaty of Lambeth in September 1217.

Cultural influence[link]

The hypothetical continuation and expansion of the Angevin Empire over several centuries has been the subject of several tales of alternate history. Historically both English and French historians had viewed the juxtaposition of England and French lands under Angevin control as something of an aberration and an offence to national identity. To English historians the lands in France were an encumbrance, while French historians considered the union to be an English empire.^[67]

This is what Whig historian Macaulay, in 1849, wrote in his History of England about the union of the two lands.^[68]

Had the Plantagenets, as at one time seemed likely, succeeded in uniting all France under their government, it is probable that England would never have had an independent existence. Her princes, her lords, her prelates, would have been men differing in race and language from the artisans and the tillers of the earth. The revenues of her great proprietors would have been spent in festivities and diversions on the banks of the Seine. The noble language of Milton and Burke would have remained a rustic dialect, without a literature, a fixed grammar, or a fixed orthography, and would have been contemptuously abandoned to the use of boors. No man of English extraction would have risen to eminence, except by becoming in speech and habits a Frenchman…

The Plantagenet kings had adopted wine as main drink, replacing beer and cider used by the Norman kings. The ruling class of the Angevin Empire was also French speaking.^[69]

The 12th century is also the century of the Gothic architecture, first known as "Opus Francigenum", from the work of the Abbot Suger^[70] at Saint Denis in 1140. The Early English Period began around 1180 or 1190, in the times of the Angevin Empire,^[71] but this religious architecture was totally independent of the Angevin Empire, it was just born at the same moment and spread at those times in England. The strongest influence on architecture directly associated with the Plantagenets is about kitchens.

Richard I's personal arms of three golden lions passant guardant^[72] on a red field appear in most subsequent English royal heraldry, and in variations on the flags of both Normandy and Aquitaine.

From a political point of view the continental issues were given more attention from the monarchs of England than the British ones already under the Normans.^[73] Under Angevin lordship things became even more clear as the balance of power was dramatically set in France and the Angevin kings often spent more times in France than England.^[74] With the loss of Normandy and Anjou the fiefdom was cut in two and then the descendants of the Plantagenets can be regarded as English kings accounting Gascony in their domain.^[75] This is accordant with the newfound Lordship of Aquitaine being conferred upon the Black Prince of Wales, passing thence to the House of Lancaster, which had pretensions to the Crown of Castile, much as Edward III had to France. It was this assertion of power from England onto France and from Aquitaine onto Castile which marked the difference from earlier in the Angevin period.

See also[link]

• House of Anjou
• House of Plantagenet
• Counts and Dukes of Anjou

Further reading[link]

Due to the nature of the Angevin Empire there are a good number of sources in French. Thus to enjoy the largest array of sources requires a good knowledge of both English and French.

• "The Angevin Empire" by John Gillingham, editions Arnold.This book as been largely used as English source for this article.
• "L'Empire des Plantagenet" by Martin Aurell, editions Tempus, in French. From 2007 available in an English translation by David Crouch.
• "Noblesse de l'espace Plantagenêt (1154-1224)", editions Civilisations Medievales; it's a collection of essays by various French and English historians on the Angevin ruling class. It's a bilingual sourcebook which articles in French or English (but not both at a time).
• "The Plantagenet Chronicles" by Elizabeth Hallam. This book tells the history of the Angevin Dynasty and it is written in English.

Appendixes, notes and references.[link]

v t e House of Plantagenet Titles Count of Gâtinais (origin) · Count of Anjou · Count of Maine · King of Jerusalem (claim) · Duke of Aquitaine · Duke of Normandy · King of England · Lord of Ireland · Duke of Brittany · Lord of Cyprus · Prince of Wales · King of the Romans (claim) · King of France (claim) · King of Sicily (claim) · King of Castile (claim) Armorial of Plantagenet Branches House of Lancaster · House of York · House of Beaufort Monarchs, their queens and issue Henry II of England Spouse: Eleanor of Aquitaine William IX, Count of Poitiers · Henry the Young King · Richard I of England · Geoffrey, Duke of Brittany · Matilda of England, Duchess of Saxony · Eleanor, Queen of Castile · Joan, Queen of Sicily · John, King of England Illegitimates: William de Longespée, Earl of Salisbury · Geoffrey, Archbishop of York Henry the Young King Queen consort: Margaret of France William (died in infancy) Richard I of England Spouse: Berengaria of Navarre Illegitimates: Philip of Cognac John, King of England Spouse: Isabella of Angoulême Henry III of England · Richard, Earl of Cornwall · Joan, Queen of Scots · Isabella, Holy Roman Empress · Eleanor Illegitimates: Joan, Lady of Wales · Richard FitzRoy · Oliver FitzRoy · Geoffrey FitzRoy · John FitzRoy · Henry FitzRoy · Osbert Gifford · Eudes FitzRoy · Bartholomew FitzRoy · Maud FitzRoy · Isabel FitzRoy · Philip FitzRoy · William de Forz Henry III of England Spouse: Eleanor of Provence Edward I of England · Margaret, Queen of Scots · Beatrice, Duchess of Brittany · Edmund, Earl of Lancaster · Katherine Edward I of England Spouse: Eleanor of Castile · Margaret of France Eleanor, Countess of Bar · Joan, Countess of Hertford and Gloucester · Alphonso, Earl of Chester · Margaret, Duchess of Brabant · Mary Plantagenet · Elizabeth, Countess of Hereford · Edward II of England · Thomas, Earl of Norfolk · Edmund, Earl of Kent Edward II of England Spouse: Isabella of France Edward III of England · John, Earl of Cornwall · Eleanor, Countess of Guelders · Joan, Queen of Scots Edward III of England Spouse: Philippa of Hainault Edward, Prince of Wales · Isabella · Joan · Lionel of Antwerp, Duke of Clarence · John, Duke of Lancaster · Edmund, Duke of York · Mary, Duchess of Brittany · Margaret, Countess of Pembroke · Thomas, Duke of Gloucester Richard II of England Spouse: Anne of Bohemia · Isabella of Valois Henry IV of England Spouses: Mary de Bohun · Joanna of Navarre Henry V of England · Thomas, Duke of Clarence · John, Duke of Bedford · Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester · Blanche, Electorial Princess Palatine · Philippa, Queen of Denmark, Norway and Sweden Henry V of England Spouse: Catherine of Valois Henry VI of England Henry VI of England Spouse: Margaret of Anjou Edward of Westminster, Prince of Wales Edward IV of England Spouse: Elizabeth Woodville Elizabeth, Queen of England · Mary of York · Cecily, Viscountess Welles · Edward V of England · Richard, Duke of York · Anne, Countess of Surrey · Catherine, Countess of Devon · Bridget of York Edward V of England no consort or issue Richard III of England Queen consort: Anne Neville Edward of Middleham, Prince of Wales Illegitimates: John of Gloucester · Katherine Plantagenet · Richard of Eastwell History Matilda, Lady of the English · Geoffrey Plantagenet, Count of Anjou · Treaty of Wallingford · Angevin Empire · Revolt of 1173–1174 · Third Crusade · Magna Carta · First Barons' War · Provisions of Oxford · Second Barons' War · Gothic architecture · University of Oxford · University of Cambridge · Parliament of England · Competitors for the Crown of Scotland · Treaty of Northampton · House of Capet · Hundred Years' War · Order of the Garter · College of Arms · Wars of the Roses Category · Royalty Portal

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House of Plantagenet

Armorial of Plantagenet
Country	Kingdom of England, Kingdom of France, Lordship of Ireland, Principality of Wales
Ancestral house	Angevins
Titles	King of England King of Germany Lord of Ireland Prince of Wales Duke of Aquitaine Duke of Normandy Duke of Brittany Count of Anjou Count of Maine Count of Nantes Count of Poitou Lord of Cyprus Plantagenet claim to France Plantagenet claim to Jerusalem Plantagenet claim to Sicily Plantagenet claim to Rome Plantagenet claim to Castile
Founder	Geoffrey Plantagenet, Count of Anjou
Final sovereign	Richard III of England
Founding	1126
Cadet branches	House of Lancaster House of Beaufort House of York

The House of Plantagenet ( /plænˈtædʒənət/ plan-TAJ-ə-nət) is the name given in England's historical narrative for the 14 Kings that ruled for the 331 years from 1154 until 1485. There is little evidence for the Plantagenet name before the mid-fifteenth century and it was evidently popularised by Shakespeare.

As a dynasty it is considered a branch of the Angevins. The dynasty's origins as a royal house result from the matchmaking of Fulk V le Jeune^[1] which were planned to neutralise the threat of the rise of Normandy. First he married his daughter Alice to William Adelin heir to Henry I of England. Following William's drowning he married his daughter Sibylla of Anjou to William Clito heir to Robert Curthose although King Henry had this annulled because of the political threat of a rival claim to his throne. Finally he married his son Geoffrey to Henry's heir Matilda thereby bringing about the historical convergence of the Angevins, House of Normandy and the House of Wessex.

Plantagenet kings first ruled the Kingdom of England in the 12th century. Their paternal ancestors originated in the French province of Gâtinais and gained the County of Anjou through marriage during the 11th century. The dynasty accumulated several other holdings, building the Angevin Empire that at its peak stretched from the Pyrenees to Ireland and the border with Scotland.

In total fifteen Plantagenet monarchs, including those belonging to cadet branches, ruled England from 1154 until 1485. The senior branch ruled from Henry II until the deposition of Richard II in 1399. After that a junior branch, the House of Lancaster, ruled for some fifty years before clashing over control of England with another branch, the House of York, in a civil war known as the Wars of the Roses. After three ruling Lancastrian monarchs the crown passed to three Yorkist monarchs, the last of whom, Richard III, was killed in the Battle of Bosworth Field in 1485. The legitimate male line went extinct with the execution of Richard's nephew, Edward, Earl of Warwick in 1499. However an illegitimate scion, Arthur Plantagenet, Viscount Lisle, was active at the court of Henry VIII of England. Several illegitimate lines persist, including the Dukes of Beaufort.

A distinctive English culture and art emerged during the Plantagenet era, encouraged by some of the monarchs who were patrons of the "father of English poetry", Geoffrey Chaucer. The Gothic architecture style was popular during the time, with buildings such as Westminster Abbey and York Minster remodelled in that style. There were also lasting developments in the social sector, such as John of England's sealing of the Magna Carta. This was influential in the development of constitutional law. Political institutions such as the Parliament of England and the Model Parliament originate from the Plantagenet period, as do educational institutions including the universities of Cambridge and Oxford.

The eventful political climate of the day saw the Hundred Years' War, where the Plantagenets battled with the House of Valois for control of the Kingdom of France, and the War of the Roses. Some of the Plantagenet kings were renowned as warriors: Henry V of England left his mark with a famous victory against larger numbers at the Battle of Agincourt, and Richard I of England had earlier distinguished himself in the Third Crusade; he was later romanticised as an iconic figure in English folklore.

Origins[link]

Etymology[link]

The name Plantagenet has twelfth-century origins as a nickname Plantegenest or Plante Genest of Geoffrey V of Anjou^[2] derived from the name of a shrub, the common broom, known in Latin as the Planta genista. It is claimed the nickname arose because Geoffrey of Anjou wore a sprig of the common broom in his hat. The significance has been said to relate to its golden flower^[2] and contemporary belief in its vegetative soul.^[2] Since the 15th century, Plantagenet has been applied retrospectively as a surname for the descendants of Geoffrey of Anjou. There is barely^[2] any contemporary evidence for the name before the mid fifteenth century, and the house itself used no surname until the legitimist claimant Richard Plantagenet, Duke of York, father of both Edward IV and Richard III, assumed the name about 1448.^[2]

Background[link]

The White Ship sinking sparked a succession crisis.

The Carolingian Empire went into territorial decline from the death of Charlemagne in 814 with the five Frankish kingdoms steadily drifting apart. In Neustria royal authority declined allowing the development of counties as hereditary fiefs in Toulouse and Flanders (862), Poitou (867) and for the Angevins in Anjou in 870 while others originated in Gascony, Burgundy and Auvergne. ^[3]. The male line of the Counts of Anjou descended from a Count of Gâtinais who married an heiress to the county. Her Anjou ancestors derived from an obscure 9th-century nobleman, Ingelger.^[4]

In 911 the Norseman Gongu Hrolf (also known as Hrolf Walker as he was reportedly too big to have a horse carry him and Rollo) met Charles the Simple and agreed the Treaty of Saint-Clair-sur-Epte where it was agreed the Hrolf would convert to Christianity and become Charles' vassal in return for being created Duke of Normandy^[5].

This was the historical period when Feudalism was being regularized. The context of the medieval County of Anjou and Duchy of Normandy was one where the king of West Francia was unable to raise taxes or armies and began to delegate authority over territory in return for political and military loyalty.^[6] . This led to the creation of a society based on heavy cavalry, vassalage, enfeoffment, immunity, private castles, chivalry and militant Catholicism.

This culture made conflict between Anjou & Normandy inevitable as both tried to extend their territory by warfare or political marriage. Fulk V le Jeune^[7] planned to neutralise the threat of the rise of Normandy by first he marrying his daughter Alice to William Adelin heir to Henry I of England. However William Adelin died in the wreck of the White Ship, leaving Matilda to be her father's only surviving legitimate child.^[8]. Following William's drowning Fulk married his daughter Sibylla of Anjou to William Clito heir to Robert Curthose although King Henry had this annulled because of the political threat of a rival claim to his throne. Finally Fulk married his son Geoffrey to Henry's heir Matilda thereby bringing about the historical convergence of the Angevins, House of Normandy and the House of Wessex. On having resolved the issue in 1128 Fulk resigned his titles to Geoffrey and sailed to Jerusalem to marry Melisende leading to him becomming King of Jerusalem in 1131 on the death of Melisende's father Baldwin. Geoffrey's nickname Plantagenet later gave name to the dynasty^{[note 1]} and Fulk's grandson Henry was the first of the family to rule England.^[9]

The Devil's Brood[link]

Popular legends surrounding the Angevins suggested that they had corrupt or demonic origins. The chronicler Gerald of Wales is the key contemporaneous source for these stories, which often borrowed elements of the wider Melusine legend. For example, Gerald wrote in his De instructione principis of "a certain countess of Anjou" who rarely attended mass and one day flew away, never to be seen again.^[10] A similar story was attached to Eleanor of Aquitaine in the thirteenth century romance Richard Coeur-de-lion.^[11] Gerald also presents a list of sins committed by Geoffrey V and Henry II as further evidence of their "corrupt" origins.^[10]

According to Gerald these legends were not always discouraged by the Angevins. Richard I was said to have often remarked of his family that they "come of the devil, and to the devil they would go."^[10] A similar statement is attributed to St Bernard regarding Henry II.^[12] Henry II's sons reportedly defended their frequent infighting by saying "Do not deprive us of our heritage; we cannot help acting like devils."^[12] The legends surrounding the Angevins grew into English folklore^[13] and led some historians to give them the epithet "The Devil's Brood".^[14]

Chronology[link]

The Plantagenets come to England[link]

The Empress Matilda had been named as heir by her father Henry I of England.^[8] However there was no precedent for a female monarch in England and feudalism was based on military service. Therefore on Henry's death in 1135 Matilda's cousin Etienne de Blois repeated the method that Henry I of England had employed, racing to Winchester to seize the treasury and having himself proclaimed King.^[15]

Geoffrey never showed much interest in England. On his death bed he “forbade Henry his heir to introduce the customs of Normandy or England into his own county” according to John of Marmoutier. But with Matilda he entered Normandy to claim her inheritance. The following year, Geoffrey gave Ambrieres, Gorron, and Chatilon-sur-Colmont to Juhel de Mayenne, on condition that he help obtain the inheritance of his wife. ^[16]

Geoffrey of Anjou's invasion of Normandy, 1142–43

In 1139 Matilda landed in England with 140 knights, where she was besieged at Arundel Castle by King Stephen. In the "Anarchy" which ensued, Stephen was captured at Lincoln in February, 1141, and imprisoned at Bristol. A legatine council of the English church held at Winchester in April 1141 declared Stephen deposed and proclaimed Matilda "Lady of the English". Stephen was subsequently released from prison and had himself recrowned on the anniversary of his first coronation. Unrest and instability continued throughout Stephen's reign. Geoffrey managed to place the Duchy of Normandy under Angevin control by 1144 but did not show interest in campaigning across the English Channel.

Henry II followed up his mother's hereditary claim to England, with success.

Matilda's son, the future King Henry II of England, became a skilled military tactician and arrived in England to pursue his family claim to the throne.^[17] By his marriage to Eleanor of Aquitaine the Duchy of Aquitaine had become part of the Plantagenets' vast land holdings in the emerging Angevin Empire. After arriving in England, Henry came to an agreement with Stephen and in November 1153 they signed the Treaty of Wallingford recognising Henry as heir to Stephen's throne.^[18] Scholars regard Henry's reign as energetic with effective government.^[19] Henry overhauled the English judicial system, restoring royal authority to replace the manipulated feudal law of barons who had undermined Stephen's reign.^[19] The system and reforms put in place by Henry restored law and order to create a self-standing system which used competent government clerks and sheriffs. It could operate smoothly with common law prevailing even if the king was absent or less skilled monarchs reigned.^[19]

When in 1166 Dermot MacMurrough, King of Leinster, was chased out of his lands by Tiernan O'Rourke on behalf of Rory O'Connor, High King of Ireland, he asked Henry for help.^[20] Henry allowed MacMurrough enough soldiers to constitute a Norman invasion of Ireland, restoring MacMurrough to Leinster and inserting Henry's son John as Lord of Ireland.^[20] Henry also recovered Northumberland and Cumbria, which had been taken from England during the reigns of Malcolm II and David I of Scotland.^[21] Henry's first son, William, died at age two. His second son, also named Henry, was crowned coregent at the age of fifteen and was known thereafter as Henry the Young King. The coronation was performed by the Archbishop of York.^[22] This angered Thomas Becket, the Archbishop of Canterbury and a former close friend of Henry. Knights killed Becket after Henry asked, "Who would rid me of this turbulent priest?"^[23] The Pope thereupon excommunicated the King. Henry regretted his friend's death and exhibited a penance in public: walking barefoot into Canterbury Cathedral and there allowing monks to scourge him. His excommunication was rescinded.^[24]

Statue of Richard the Lionheart outside Westminster Palace. Richard's involvement in the Third Crusade earned him a reputation as an English icon.

In his will Henry envisaged a situation similar to a federal monarchy for the Plantagenet Empire.^[25] He planned that his four sons would inherit different parts: England, Normandy and Anjou for the younger Henry, Aquitaine for Richard, Brittany for Geoffrey and Ireland for John. Each would preside over a separate monarchy.^[25] Under the leadership of his son Henry the Young King, who wanted more power during Henry II's lifetime, his wife and sons rebelled in the Revolt of 1173–1174.^[25] The rebels drew support from the king of France, Henry's cousin the king of Scotland, and English barons.^[25] Despite being attacked on various different fronts, Henry II and his loyalists fought a defensive campaign that humiliated all their enemies.^[25] Led by Ranulf de Glanvill, Henry's men captured William I of Scotland at the Battle of Alnwick, but allowed him to swear fealty to Henry at York Castle.^[25] Henry the Young King instigated another rebellion against his father in 1183 but during this he died of dysentery.^[25]

Barons forced John to sign the Magna Carta, to the advantage of the nobility. The image shows John Lackland signing, but in reality he only placed his seal on the document.

Richard the Lionheart, as Henry II's third son would later be known, became monarch in 1189. Richard did not focus on local governance as his father did and rarely spent time in England.^[26] Rather, he built up a reputation as a great military leader and warrior for his efforts in the Third Crusade, achieving considerable victories against his Muslim counterpart Saladin.^[26] For a time Richard was Lord of Cyprus but sold the island in 1192 to Guy of Lusignan, whose wife was Richard's second cousin. Since his death Richard has been romanticised in English folklore. His name remains synonymous with bravery and courage.^[27]

His brother John of England, nicknamed Lackland (because he was the fifth son and there had originally been no lands left for him to inherit) succeeded the throne in 1199 and eventually inherited the entirety of his family's holdings. Geoffrey would have been next in line but had died in 1186. His son Arthur, formerly Richard's designated heir, inherited Anjou. On Arthur's behalf Philip II of France clashed with John to control the Plantagenet territories in the European mainlands and even supported Arthur's claim to the English crown. However, John had Arthur captured and killed. Also captured was Eleanor, sister of Arthur, who lacked baronial support and spent the rest of her life in prison. The Norman and Angevin lords rebelled against Plantagenet rule and John lost much of the continent to the House of Capet, a process solidified by defeat at the Battle of Bouvines.^[28] John also had to deal with rebellion in England and was forced by barons to place his seal upon the Magna Carta in 1215 to limit his power. That is regarded as an early first step in the evolution of modern democracy.^[29] As John failed to abide by this document signed under duress, the First Barons' War broke out with the barons inviting an invasion by Prince Louis, son of King Philip II of France and also a grandson-in-law of Henry II. The barons switched their allegiance back to the Plantagenets when John died in 1216 and his son Henry III succeeded him.^[30] and the next year the French withdrew.

Three Edwards and claim to Capet[link]

The English Justinian[link]

Henry III became king at just nine years old and nobles such as William Marshal and Hubert de Burgh dominated the early years of his reign.^[31] Henry made unsuccessful attempts to regain Plantagenet land in northern France.^[32] He handed out various honours to foreigners related to his wife, Eleanor of Provence, which aggravated the local nobility.^[33] The Provisions of Oxford were imposed on the king by barons led by Simon de Montfort, setting up a council of fifteen nobles to help govern the country. Henry reasserted himself and the Second Barons' War began. At the Battle of Lewes, de Montfort captured Henry's son Prince Edward and assumed a role as de facto ruler of the nation until royalists won the war at the Battle of Evesham.^[34] It was during this period that the Parliament of England originated. Henry was passionate about aesthetics and had many of England's buildings such as Westminster Abbey and York Minster re-built in the Gothic style.^[32] The reign of Edward I, nicknamed Longshanks due to his tall height, saw much legislative activity and improvements in the administration of the judiciary that would last almost unchanged for centuries.^[35] Due to this he is sometimes called "The English Justinian", a reference to the Byzantine Emperor.^[35]

Edward was a vassal to Philip IV of France, in his role as Duke of Aquitaine.

Edward clashed with Llywelyn ap Gruffydd, who directly ruled the Kingdom of Gwynedd while other parts of the Principality of Wales were English-controlled Marcher Lordships existing since Norman times.^[36] Llywelyn refused to pay homage or attend Edward's coronation; thus in 1277 the two men went to war.^[36] Edward was quickly victorious and the Treaty of Aberconwy was issued. Llywelyn and his brother Dafydd ap Gruffudd broke the treaty and continued to attack. Edward was again victorious but this time the Principality of Wales was seized and Edward's son, also named Edward, was crowned Prince of Wales.^[36]

After Edward's brother-in-law Alexander III of Scotland died leaving Margaret, Maid of Norway, as his sole heir, her marriage to Edward, Prince of Wales was proposed to foster an alliance that would make Scotland a Plantagenet holding within the next generation.^[37] The death of seven-year-old Margaret on the voyage from her native Norway to Scotland opened the way to various competitors for the Scottish throne.^[38] Edward was asked to arbitrate and chose the hereditarily-superior John Balliol while claiming for himself the role of feudal overlord.^[39] Balliol later betrayed Edward by setting up the Auld Alliance with France and the Wars of Scotland began.^[40] Edward's effective campaign led to the capture of the Stone of Scone coronation stone and the defeat of William Wallace at the Battle of Falkirk.^[41] Edward died at Burgh by Sands on the way to fight Robert I of Scotland, never having solidified his claim to Scotland.^[41]

Edward III and his son Edward, the Black Prince

Edward I's son and successor Edward II of England was the polar opposite of his warrior statesman father.^[42] Edward II's reign was largely unpopular for several reasons; he was regarded as a poor general and lost out in Scotland to Robert I at the Battle of Bannockburn.^[43] He also angered nobility by giving large sums of money and gifts to favourites such as Piers Gaveston.^[42] This annoyed the barons to the extent that they rallied around Edward's cousin Thomas, Earl of Lancaster, and had Gaveston murdered.^[43] Another favourite and rumoured homosexual lover of the king, Hugh Despenser, was further cause of conflict. Edward defeated his cousin Thomas at the resulting Battle of Boroughbridge and had him executed in 1322.^[43]

Edward's downfall came when his wife Isabella of France and her baronial lover Roger Mortimer set out to depose the king with the help of Henry, Earl of Lancaster, brother of the executed Earl Thomas.^[43] In defeat Edward agreed to abdicate the throne in favour of his and Isabella's son, Edward III of England. Edward II was subsequently moved to Berkeley Castle as a prisoner where he is believed to have remained for five months before being murdered on 11 October 1327.^[43] After four years of court control by his mother and her lover, the eighteen-year-old Edward III staged a revolt and had Mortimer executed. He overturned the Treaty of Northampton and supported Edward Balliol's claim to Scotland against king David II of the House of Bruce.^[44] The Plantagenet-backed campaign was a success for Balliol, resulting in David's capture at the Battle of Neville's Cross; he spent some time in the Tower of London before signing the Treaty of Berwick and paying a large ransom for his release. David's invasion into northern England had been under the terms of the Auld Alliance with the House of Valois of France.^[44]

Hundred Years' War begins[link]

The victory at Crécy was an important Plantagenet success of the Edwardian War in France.

The right of succession to the House of Capet fell into dispute when the three sons of Philip IV of France all died without having produced male issue aside from John, son of Louis X, who lived for only five days (a sister of John was ignored in the resulting disputes).^[45] Edward III of England, as son of Philip IV's daughter and sole remaining child, Isabella of France, claimed the French throne.^[45] However Philip VI of the House of Valois, a more distantly related Capetian cadet branch, invoked Salic law to deny the right of inheritance to the French throne to pass to or through any female, and was crowned King of France.^[45]

Philip confiscated the Duchy of Aquitaine from Edward III for "disobedience" and Edward decided to pursue his claim to the entire Kingdom of France with force; thus began the Hundred Years' War between the Plantagenets and Valois. The Hundred Years' War took place over three periods in time. The Plantagenets were particularly successful in the first of these, the Edwardian War, 1337–1360, their victories in battles at Crécy and Poitiers leading to the Treaty of Brétigny.^[46]

In spite of having to deal with the Black Death during his reign,^[47] Edward was able to make vital developments in legislature and government. In England his reign developed a strong sense of national identity due partly to the ongoing wars. He founded the chivalric Order of the Garter which essentially saw nationalisation of the aristocracy.^[47] His later years were less successful in comparison, with political problems at home and renewed problems with Valois. The death of Valois' John II in English captivity during 1364 instigated the rise of Charles V of France with his capable allies,^[48] and the second period of the Hundred Years' War known as the Caroline War broke out. In this the Plantagenets were led by Edward's sons Edward, the Black Prince and John of Gaunt.^[47] The Black Prince died in 1376 of an illness which may have been cancer, and Edward III himself died of a stroke the following year, having suffered an illness caused by an abscess.^[47]

Despite being just fourteen, king Richard II rode out on horseback to meet the leaders of the Great Rising.

Upon the deaths of his father Edward the Black Prince and grandfather Edward III, 10-year-old Richard II of England succeeded to the throne.^[49] The Parliamentary House of Commons feared the political decisions Richard's uncle John of Gaunt might exercise were he to be made regent, and so they created an environment in which a series of councils could control politics.

The continuing Hundred Years' War with Valois was an expensive venture and a poll tax covering 60% of the population was levied three times to finance it.^[50] The 1381 tax cost one shilling for each person over 15 and proved particularly unpopular. This was one of the main reasons behind the Great Rising of 1381.^[51] In spite of being only fourteen at the time, Richard showed considerable statesmanship qualities in riding out on horseback to meet with the rebel leaders.^[52]

Due to the king's dependence on a small number of courtiers, governance was taken over by a group known as the Lords Appellant in 1389.^[53] Richard regained control the same year and after eight years of relative harmony decided to take revenge on the appellants, executing some and exiling others.^[53] After John of Gaunt died the king disinherited his son, Henry of Bolingbroke, who had previously been exiled. Henry invaded England in June 1399 with a small force that quickly grew in numbers.^[54] Meeting little resistance he deposed Richard to have himself crowned Henry IV of England. Richard died in captivity early the next year; he was probably murdered.^[54]

Dynastic dispute[link]

Lancastrians crowned, rebellion[link]

Though as a Plantagenet in the male line Henry was more senior by agnatic primogeniture, according to male-preference cognatic primogeniture Edmund Mortimer, Earl of March had been the actual heir presumptive to Richard II by virtue of his descent from his grandmother Philippa, the only child of Lionel, Duke of Clarence.^[55] Edmund and his brother Roger were just children when Henry took the throne and though he kept them in custody he treated them honourably despite the threat of rebellion they could eventually pose.^[55]

Henry IV had to deal with rebellions in Wales under Owain Glyndŵr and in England. A falling out between the king and Henry Percy, Earl of Northumberland resulted in the Percy Rebellion and the Battle of Bramham Moor.^[56] Henry's wife Joanna of Navarre was accused of practising necromancy (and convicted of witchcraft in 1419, during Henry V's reign). This exacerbated the declining support for the Lancastrians.^[56] The Archbishop of York, Richard le Scrope, was executed after another rebellion, further diminishing support, and many saw it as a punishment from God when Henry was later struck down with leprosy and epilepsy.^[57] Henry was so ill during his last two years as king that his son and heir Henry of Monmouth took up the majority of royal responsibilities.^[56]

Victory at the Battle of Agincourt fought on Saint Crispin's Day.

Henry V of England was a soldier from age 14 and a commander at the Battle of Shrewsbury at age 16. He crushed the Southampton Plot in 1415^[56] and proved to be the warrior-statesman archetype of his ancestors.^[58] Henry desired the ancestral Plantagenet lands of the Duchy of Normandy and County of Anjou, earlier confiscated by Valois.^[58] He first attempted this diplomatically by suggesting that he and Charles VI of France's daughter Catherine of Valois should marry. The rejection of this proposal began the third part of the Hundred Years War, the Lancastrian War (1415–1429). Two political purposes lay behind this war for Henry, to gain land and to unite his cousins under a common cause in the hopes of dissuading further rebellion at home.^[58] Henry presented himself as a chaste and pious king, which was a relief to the masses after his father's reign. At the Battle of Agincourt Henry led his vastly outnumbered men to a famous victory. The Plantagenets allied with the Duchy of Burgundy despite Duke Philip the Good being of a Valois cadet branch. The Plantagenets took back Normandy as well as Picardy and much of the Île-de-France.^[58] A settlement was reached with the Treaty of Troyes in which it was agreed that not only would Catherine marry Henry but Charles VI would pass over his own son to name Henry the heir to the French crown.^[58] Henry died of dysentery in 1422 at Bois de Vincennes, two months before he was to be crowned King of France.^[59]

Henry VI founded King's College.

The nine-month-old baby Henry VI of England was crowned King of England on 31 August 1422 and king of France on 21 October the same year and was to actually reign, rather than simply claim to be king of France as had many Plantagenet monarchs during the Hundred Years' War.^[60] As he was still a child, during the early years of his reign his kinsmen, John, Duke of Bedford, Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester and Henry Beaufort, were regents.^[61] The rise of Joan of Arc and of the Valois claimant to France, Charles VII, sparked a continuation of the Lancastrian War. Between 1449 and 1453 the territories of Brittany, Normandy, and Gascony were lost, leaving the Plantagenets with only the Pale of Calais on Europe's mainland.^[60]

In England the government became increasingly unpopular due to the losses, breakdown in law and order, and corruption. Henry had a mental breakdown in 1453 and while he was suffering this illness his cousin Richard Plantagenet, Duke of York was named regent and Protector of the Realm. Richard benefited from influential allies such as Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick.^[60] Richard had a legitimist claim to the throne as senior descendant of Lionel, Duke of Clarence, elder brother of Henry's great-grandfather John of Gaunt.^[62] What separated Richard from past potential legitimists was that he united this claim with his Plantagenet paternal line through his grandfather Edmund, Duke of York, a younger brother of Lionel and John.^[62] By the time Henry had regained his senses a movement in favour of Richard, known as the Yorkists, had emerged. Henry himself was trusting and not a man of war. He was more interested in his foundation projects of educational institutions such as Eton College.^[63] However, Henry's wife Margaret of Anjou was more assertive, showing open enmity toward Richard. From these events a civil war for the English throne known as the Wars of the Roses began.^[63]

Wars of the Roses, Yorkist rule[link]

Symbolic representation of the Wars of the Roses in art.

The first phase of conflict took place between 1455–1460. The Yorkists were victorious at the First Battle of St Albans and attempts were made to reconcile differences.^[64] Margaret resisted attempts to have her son Edward of Westminster disinherited and Richard was forced to return to Ireland as a lieutenant.^[65] Hostilities picked up again after the Duke of York returned and the war continued. At the Battle of Northampton Henry was found abandoned in a tent experiencing another mental breakdown.^[66] The Act of Accord was agreed in which it was outlined that Henry would remain as monarch for his lifetime but Richard and his descendants would succeed him. The conflict continued because Margaret and the Lancastrian supporters found this unacceptable. Richard was slain at the Battle of Wakefield and his head set on display at Micklegate Bar, York.^[67] His son Edmund, Earl of Rutland and Richard Neville, Earl of Salisbury were captured and beheaded by the Lancastrians. Another son, Edward, Earl of March, took up the cause. Margaret formed an alliance with Mary of Guelders, Queen of Scots against the Yorkists and the Scottish army pillaged its way down to southern England.^[68] London's gates remained closed to the Scottish army after hearing of the plundering and the capital city enthusiastically welcomed Edward when the Yorkists arrived. The people demanded that he be made king, which was quickly confirmed by the Parliament of England and he was unofficially crowned Edward IV of England at Westminster Abbey.^[69] After a battle at Towton, Edward's official coronation in the capital city took place in June 1461.^[70]

Edward IV gained the throne for the Yorkists.

Edward was involved in governance far more directly than his predecessor.^[71] Though he had helped Edward come to power and wished to influence him, Warwick the Kingmaker was deeply unhappy at the new king's marriage with Elizabeth Woodville.^[72] Edward's family was also unhappy with this, leading his mother to declare him a bastard and his brother George, Duke of Clarence to revolt.^[72] After a counter-rebellion, Edward defeated Warwick who eventually entered into a pact with the Lancastrians.^[73] In late 1470, Warwick helped the Lancastrians depose the Yorkists and Henry VI returned briefly to the throne. Edward and his loyal brother, Richard, Duke of Gloucester, took refuge in Burgundy until the following year when they returned to England. George, Duke of Clarence, switched sides at the Battle of Barnet, leading to Warwick's death and Edward's restoration.^[73] After his restoration, Edward returned some stability with heavy personal control in government.^[71] He signed a peace treaty with France on favourable terms, tightened management of royal revenues, paid for the country's administration with Crown Estate profits, and patronised William Caxton who set up England's first printing press.^[71] Edward's son was crowned Edward V of England at age 12. The protectorship of the young king and his brother Richard of Shrewsbury was entrusted to their uncle Richard, Duke of Gloucester,^[74] who was suspicious of the influential Woodville faction who he blamed for the death of his brother George.^[74]

In 1483 the Parliament of England issued a statute known as "Titulus Regius" declaring the children of Edward IV illegitimate and thus passing the crown to Richard III of England.^[75] This was due to evidence presented by Ralph Shaa that Edward had entered contract to marry Lady Eleanor Talbot before he married Elizabeth Woodville, making his marriage to Elizabeth invalid and their issue bastards.^[75] The two boys became the Princes in the Tower, the Tower of London being a royal residence at the time. Their ultimate fate is unknown and suspicion has fallen on Richard.^[74] Richard had a strong power base in the North of England and founded the Council of the North to improve governance there.^[76] He also founded the College of Arms office of heraldry.^[77] The king's son and heir Edward of Middleham, Prince of Wales, died before him in 1484.^[78] Henry Tudor, a Welshman who was grandson of the former Queen, Catherine of Valois, and maternally descended from John of Gaunt took up leadership of the House of Lancaster and landed at Milford Haven in the Principality of Wales to invade with an army of foreign mercenaries.^[78] The invasion culminated at the Battle of Bosworth Field. There Richard was betrayed when Henry Percy, Earl of Northumberland, and Lord Stanley refused to send in troops.^[78] Side by side with his loyal commanders John, Duke of Norfolk and Sir William Catesby, Richard fought until the end and was killed in action.^[78] The crown passed to the House of Tudor with the coronation of Henry VII of England beginning the Tudor era.^[78]

Deposed house[link]

Henry married Elizabeth of York, daughter of Edward IV.

In 1486 the new Tudor monarch Henry VII married Elizabeth of York, oldest daughter and heir of Edward IV.^[79] The white and red roses were merged together to form the Tudor rose, intended to symbolise rapprochement and the consolidation of the Tudor dynasty.^[79] In fact, the Wars of the Roses and Yorkist attempts at restoration would continue. The Battle of Stoke Field took place the following year. Gerald Fitzgerald, Earl of Kildare in Ireland and John de la Pole, Earl of Lincoln in England (a Yorkist by maternal bloodline) supported the claim of Edward Plantagenet, Earl of Warwick, under the guise of Lambert Simnel who was sent to Ireland by Margaret, Duchess of Burgundy and presented as the escaped prince.^[80] As a paternal Plantagenet and son of George, Duke of Clarence, Edward had a strong claim to the throne but rumours abounded that he had died in the Tower of London. This Yorkist attempt failed with thin support outside of the Irish and Flemish, though Henry VII was merciful to young Simnel and gave him a job in the royal household.^[81]

Blessed Margaret Pole was executed by Henry VIII.

When Henry VII executed Edward, the Earl of Warwick in 1499, the House of Plantagenet went extinct in the legitimate male line. Margaret Pole, the Earl of Warwick's sister and last legitimate Plantagenet, was executed for treason by Henry VIII in 1541. Edward IV's illegitimate son Arthur Plantagenet, 1st Viscount Lisle was a member of Henry VIII's court until he was arrested and charged with treason in 1540. He was cleared of the treason charges but just before he was to be released from the Tower of London in 1542 he suffered a heart attack and died.

Titles[link]

Designation and details[link]

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