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Tamarix
Tamarix aphylla in its natural habitat in Israel
Scientific classification
Kingdom:	Plantae
(unranked):	Angiosperms
(unranked):	Eudicots
(unranked):	Core eudicots
Order:	Caryophyllales
Family:	Tamaricaceae
Genus:	Tamarix L.[1]
Species
See text

The genus Tamarix (tamarisk, salt cedar) is composed of about 50-60 species of flowering plants in the family Tamaricaceae, native to drier areas of Eurasia and Africa.^[2] The generic name originated in Latin and may have referred to the Tamaris River in Hispania Tarraconensis (Spain).^[3]

Description[link]

They are evergreen or deciduous shrubs or trees growing to 1–18 m in height and forming dense thickets. The largest, Tamarix aphylla, is an evergreen tree that can grow to 18 m tall. They usually grow on saline soils, tolerating up to 15,000 ppm soluble salt and can also tolerate alkali conditions.

Tamarisks are characterized by slender branches and grey-green foliage. The bark of young branches is smooth and reddish-brown. As the plants age, the bark becomes bluish-purple, ridged and furrowed. The leaves are scale-like, 1–2 mm long, and overlap each other along the stem. They are often encrusted with salt secretions. The pink to white flowers appear in dense masses on 5–10 cm long spikes at branch tips from March to September, though some species (e.g. T. aphylla) tend to flower during the winter.

Reproduction[link]

Tamarix can spread both vegetatively, by adventitious roots or submerged stems, and sexually, by seeds. Each flower can produce thousands of tiny (1 mm diameter) seeds that are contained in a small capsule usually adorned with a tuft of hair that aids in wind dispersal. Seeds can also be dispersed by water. Seedlings require extended periods of soil saturation for establishment.

Tamarix species are fire-adapted, and have long tap roots that allow them to intercept deep water tables and exploit natural water resources. They are able to limit competition from other plants by taking up salt from deep ground water, accumulating it in their foliage, and from there depositing it in the surface soil where it builds up concentrations temporarily detrimental to some plants. The salt is washed away during heavy rains. Tamarix trees are most often propagated by cuttings.

Tamarix species are used as food plants by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species including Coleophora asthenella which feeds exclusively on T. africana.

Selected species[link]

Tamarix gallica in flower

A Tamarix aphylla species in natural habitat in Algeria

Formerly placed here[link]

• Myricaria germanica (L.) Desv. (as T. germanica L.)^[4]

Tamarix in North America[link]

The Tamarix was introduced to the United States as an ornamental shrub, a windbreak, and a shade tree in the early 19th century. In the 1930s, during the Great Depression, tree-planting was used as a tool to fight soil erosion on the Great Plains, and the trees were planted by the millions in the Great Plains Shelterbelt.^[5][6]

Eight species are found in North America. They can be divided into two sub-groups:

Evergreen species

The Tamarix aphylla (Athel tree), a large evergreen tree, does not sexually reproduce in the local climate and is not considered a seriously invasive species. The Athel tree is commonly used for windbreaks on the edge of agricultural fields and as a shade tree in the deserts of the Southwestern United States.

Deciduous species

• The second sub-group contains the deciduous tamarisks, which are small shrubby trees, commonly known as "saltcedars." These include Tamarix pentandra, Tamarix tetranda, Tamarix gallica, Tamarix chinensis, Tamarix ramosissima, and Tamarix parvifolia.^[7]

These deciduous trees establish themselves in disturbed and undisturbed streams, waterways, bottom lands, banks and drainage washes of natural or artificial water bodies, moist rangelands and pastures, and other areas where seedlings can be exposed to extended periods of saturated soil for establishment.

Invasive species[link]

It is commonly believed that Tamarix disrupts the structure and stability of North American native plant communities and degrades native wildlife habitat, by outcompeting and replacing native plant species, salinizing soils, monopolizing limited sources of moisture, and increasing the frequency, intensity and effect of fires and floods. While it has been shown that individual plants may not consume larger quantities of water than native species,^[8] it has also been shown that large dense stands of Tamarix do consume more water than equivalent stands of native cottonwoods.^[9] There is an active and ongoing debate as to when Tamarix can out-compete native plants, and if it is actively displacing native plants or it just taking advantage of disturbance by removal of natives by humans and changes in flood regimes.^[10] Research on competition between Tamarix seedlings and co-occurring native trees has found that the seedlings are not competitive over a range of environments,^[11] however stands of mature trees effectively prevent native species establishment in the understory, due to low light, elevated salinity, and possibly changes to the soil biota.^[12] Thus, anthropogenic activities that preferentially favor tamarisk (such as changes to flooding regimes) are associated with infestation.^[13] To date, Tamarix has taken over large sections of riparian ecosystems in the western United States that were once home to native cottonwoods and willows,^[14] and are projected by some to spread well beyond the current range.^[15]

Controls[link]

There are several ways to deal with pest populations of tamarisk in the United States. The National Park Service has used physically removing the plants, spraying them with herbicides, and introducing northern tamarisk beetles (Diorhabda carinulata) in the National Park System. This has been done in the Dinosaur National Monument in Utah and Colorado along the Green and Yampa Rivers, during the summers of 2006 and 2007.^[16] After years of study, the USDA Agricultural Research Service has found that the tamarisk beetles eat only the tamarisk, and starve when there is no more tamarisk available. No other native North American plants have been found to be eaten by the introduced tamarisk beetle. Progress is slow, but proves that containment of the tamarisk is possible in the long term.^[17]

Uses[link]

• The tamarisk is used as an ornamental shrub, a windbreak, and a shade tree. The wood may be used for carpentry or firewood. It is a possible agroforestry species.^{[16] [18]}
• Plans are being made for the tamarisk to play a role in anti-desertification programs in China.,^[19][20]
• Salt cedars can be planted to mine salts, then be used in the production of fuel and fertilizer (although the latter will be somewhat salty).^[21]

Invasive species[link]

Tamarix ramosissima has naturalized and become a major invasive plant species in parts of the world, such as in the Southwestern United States and Desert Region of California, consuming large amounts of groundwater in riparian and oases habitats. The balance and strength of the native flora and fauna is being helped by various restoration projects, by removing, like tall woody noxious weeds, Tamarix groves.^[22]

Cultural history[link]

In Genesis 21:33, Abraham is recorded to have "planted a tamarisk at Beer-sheba".^[23] He had built a well there, earlier.

In the Quran 34:16, the people of Saba were punished when "[Allah] converted their two garden (rows) into gardens producing bitter fruit and tamarisks [...]"

In Egyptian Mythology, the body of Osiris is hidden for a time in a tamarisk tree in Byblos, until it was retrieved by Isis. A reference to this is also made in the computer game, Age of Mythology, where the head of Osiris is said to be hidden inside the trunk of a great tamarisk tree.

Wedgwood made a “Tamarisk” China pattern.

According to the New Larousse Encyclopedia of Mythology, the tamarisk plant is a favorite of the Greek god Apollo.

References[link]

This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (February 2008)

Further reading[link]

• Anderson, B. W. (1996), "Salt cedar, revegetation and riparian ecosystems in the Southwest.", Proceedings of the California Exotic Pest Plant Council, Symposium '95. California Exotic Pest Plant Council, Pacific Grove, California.: 32–41 .
• Anderson, B. W. (1998), "The case for salt cedar.", Restoration and Management Notes 16: 130–134, 138 .
• Cooper, D.; Merritt, David M.; Andersen, Douglas C.; Chimner, Rodney A. (1999), "Factors Controlling the Establishment of Fremont Cottonwood Seedlings on the Upper Green River, USA", Regul. Rivers: Res. Mgmt. 15 (5): 419–440, DOI:10.1002/(SICI)1099-1646(199909/10)15:5<419::AID-RRR555>3.0.CO;2-Y .
• Cooper, D.; Andersen, Douglas C.; Chimner, Rodney A. (2003), "Multiple pathways for woody plant establishment on floodplains at local to regional scales", Journal of Ecology 91 (2): 182–196, DOI:10.1046/j.1365-2745.2003.00766.x .
• Christensen, E. M. (1962), "The Rate of Naturalization of Tamarix in Utah", American Midland Naturalist (American Midland Naturalist, Vol. 68, No. 1) 68 (1): 51–57, DOI:10.2307/2422635, JSTOR 2422635 .
• Everitt, B. L. (1980), "Ecology of Saltcedar - A plea for research", Environmental Geology 3 (3): 77–84, DOI:10.1007/BF02473474 .
• Everitt, B. L. (1998), "Chronology of the spread of Tamarisk in the central Rio Grande", Wetlands (18): 658–668 .
• Stromberg, J. C. (1998), "Dynamics of Fremont cottonwood (Populus fremontii) and saltcedar (Tamarix chinesis) populations along the San Pedro River, Arizona", Journal of Arid Environments 40 (40): 133–155, DOI:10.1006/jare.1998.0438 .
• Stromberg, J. C. (1998), "Functional equivalency of saltcedar (Tamarix chinensis) and Fremont cottonwood (Populus fremontii) along a free-flowing river", Wetlands (18): 675–686 .
• Zamora-Arroyo, F. (2001), "Regeneration of native trees in response to flood releases from the United States into the delta of the Colorado River, Mexico", Journal of Arid Environments 49 (49): 49–64, DOI:10.1006/jare.2001.0835 .
• Zavaleta, E. (2001), "The Economic Value of Controlling an Invasive Shrub", Ambio 29 (8): 462–467 .
• Gilbert, Anna A.; Marshall, Diane L.; Gilbert, Steven A. (2000), "Competition between native Populus deltoides and invasive Tamarix ramosissima and the implications of reestablishing flooding disturbance", Conservation Biology 14 (6): 1744–1754, DOI:10.1046/j.1523-1739.2000.99306.x .
• Sher (2002), "Spatial partitioning within southwestern floodplains: patterns of establishment of native Populus and Salix in the presence of invasive, non-native Tamarix", Ecological Applications 12: 760–772 .
• Sher, A. A.; Marshall, D. L. (2003), "Competition between native and exotic floodplain tree species across water regimes and soil textures", American Journal of Botany 90 (3): 413–422, DOI:10.3732/ajb.90.3.413 .
• Bush; Smith, Stanley D (1995), "Mechanisms associated with decline of woody species in riparian ecosystems of the southwestern U.S", Ecological Monographs (Ecological Monographs, Vol. 65, No. 3) 65 (3): 347–370, DOI:10.2307/2937064, JSTOR 2937064 .
• Taylor (1998), "Restoration of saltcedar (Tamarix sp.)-infested floodplains on the Bosque del Apache National Wildlife Refuge", Weed Technology 12: 345–352 .
• Shafroth (2000), "Woody riparian vegetation response to different alluvial water table regimes", Western North American Naturalist 60: 66–76 .
• Merritt, David M.; Cooper, David J. (2000), "Riparian vegetation and channel change in response to river regulation: A comparative study of regulated and unregulated streams in the Green River Basin, USA", Regulated Rivers: Research and Management 16 (6): 543–564, DOI:10.1002/1099-1646(200011/12)16:6<543::AID-RRR590>3.0.CO;2-N .
• Horton, J. L.; Kolb, T. E.; Hart, S. C. (2001), "Responses of riparian trees to interannual variation in ground water depth in a semi-arid river basin", Plant, Cell and Environment 24 (3): 293–304, DOI:10.1046/j.1365-3040.2001.00681.x .

External links[link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Tamarix

Wikispecies has information related to: Tamarix

Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Tamarisk.

• Species Profile- Saltcedar (Tamarix spp.), National Invasive Species Information Center, United States National Agricultural Library. Lists general information and resources for Saltcedar.
• Flora Europaea Tamarix
• Flora of China Tamarix species list
• U.S. NPS guide
• Tamarix (Genus) zipcodezoo.com
• Exotic Tamarisk on the Colorado Plateau
• Tamarix, a natural resource on which the communities depend for fuelwood, tools, and basket making.
• Afforestation and Salinity Control Using Tamarix; in Western China
• Introduction of the Tamarisk Beetle in Dinosaur National Monument
• Saltcedar - Center for Invasive Species

Eric Coates (27 August 1886 – 21 December 1957) was an English composer of light music and a viola player.

Life[link]

Eric was born in Hucknall in Nottinghamshire to William Harrison Coates (d. 1935), a surgeon, and his wife, Mary Jane Gwynne, hailing from Usk in Monmouthshire.^[1] After studying at home with a governess, Eric enrolled (1906) at the Royal Academy of Music in London, where he received viola lessons from Lionel Tertis and studied composition with Frederick Corder. From 1910 he played in the Queen's Hall Orchestra under Henry J. Wood, becoming principal violist in 1912, "... which post I held for seven years," he said, speaking in a 1948 BBC radio interview, "until, I regret to say, I was dismissed through sending deputies to take my place when I was conducting my works elsewhere. Henry Wood little knew what a great help he had been to me by dispensing with my services, for from that day I never touched my viola again and was able to devote all my time to my writing."^[2]

He had an early success with the overture The Merrymakers (1922), but more popular was the London Suite (1933). The last movement of this, "Knightsbridge", was used by the BBC to introduce their radio programme In Town Tonight. Amongst his early champions was Sir Edward Elgar.

Coates's autobiography, Suite in Four Movements, was published in 1953. He died in Chichester having suffered a stroke and was cremated at the Golders Green Crematorium. His son, Austin Coates (1922–1997), was a writer who lived much of his life in Asia.

Eric Coates was not related to Albert Coates, the contemporary conductor and composer.

Works[link]

Coates's music, with its simple and memorable melodies, proved particularly effective for theme music. As well as "Knightsbridge", the BBC also used Calling All Workers (1940) as the theme for the radio programme Music While You Work, and By the Sleepy Lagoon (1930) is still used to introduce the long-running radio programme Desert Island Discs. Coates' "Halcyon Days", the first movement of the suite The Three Elizabeths, was used as the theme to the popular 1967 BBC TV series The Forsyte Saga, although he received no credit. This piece was originally written in the early 1940s. It was later used as a celebration of the Coronation of Queen Elizabeth II. It has had a recent resurgence in popularity, featuring on a number of CDs.

Coates also wrote a number of pieces that were used as television start-up music: the BBC Television March (for BBC-TV), was used daily from 1946 to the end of 1958 and occasionally from then until 1960, the Rediffusion March (written as Music Everywhere; for Associated-Rediffusion, from 1956 to 1957), Sound and Vision (for ATV in London from 1955 to 1968 and in the Midlands from 1956 to 1971), and the South Wales and the West Television March (for TWW from 1958 to 1968).

Commemorative plaque at Selsey, West Sussex

Coates is also well known for his contribution to the film score for The Dam Busters (1954); he composed the famous main title march. He was unwilling to write the entire score when asked by the film's producers, but warmed to the idea of writing a signature march around which the rest of the film's score was based - in fact, he submitted a piece that he had recently completed, so the famous Dam Busters March was not itself composed with the film in mind. The final film score was completed by Leighton Lucas.

His songs, some with lyrics by Arthur Conan Doyle and Fred E. Weatherly, are less well remembered, despite their initial success. He wrote some thirty songs before turning his attention to orchestral works.

Miniature Suite was the first of many orchestral works by Coates. It was written in 1911, and consists of three movements - Children's Dance, Intermezzo and Scene du Bal.

Coates made a number of 78 rpm recordings of his music, initially for Columbia Records and then for Decca Records (released in the U.S. on the London Records label). He recorded his London Suite and London Again Suite for Columbia. Some of his recordings were later issued on LP and CD. From the surviving recordings, it is clear that he was a very competent conductor, who benefited from advances in high fidelity recording.

References[link]

External links[link]

• Eric Coates at the Internet Movie Database
• Eric Coates at Allmusic
• Eric Coates discography at Discogs
• Eric Coates discography at MusicBrainz
• Biography at the Robert Farnon Society
• Find-A-Grave profile for Eric Coates
• Free scores by Eric Coates at the International Music Score Library Project