New Zealand Police Ngā Pirihimana o Aotearoa (Māori)
220x140px
Logo of the New Zealand Police.
Flag
Motto	Safer Communities Together
Agency overview
Formed	1842
Preceding agencies	1842 - 1886 known as the New Zealand Armed Constabulary or Armed Constabulary Force 1886 - 1958 known as the New Zealand Police Force
Employees	11,413 (30 June 2008)
Legal personality	Governmental: Government agency
Jurisdictional structure
National agency	New Zealand
Governing body	New Zealand Government
Constituting instruments	Police Act 1886 Police Act 1958 Policing Act 2008
General nature	Law enforcement Local civilian police
Operational structure
Headquarters	Wellington, New Zealand
Sworn members	8,453 (30 June 2008)
Unsworn members	2,960 (30 June 2008)
Minister responsible	Anne Tolley, Minister of Police
Agency executive	Peter Marshall, Commissioner of Police
Services	31 111 Emergency Armed Offenders Squad Beat and patrol Counter Terror Criminal investigation Diplomatic Protection Squad Dive Diversion Dogs Drugs E-Crime EM-Bail Ethnic Evaluation Financial Fingerprint Firearms Forensics Info4traders Interpol Licensing Maritime Missing persons Museum International Road Policing Search & rescue Statistics Tenders Vetting Youth education
Districts	12 Northland Waitematā Auckland City Counties Manukau Waikato Bay of Plenty Eastern Central Wellington Tasman Canterbury Southern
Facilities
Stations	400+
Website
http://www.police.govt.nz/

The New Zealand Police (Māori: Ngā Pirihimana o Aotearoa, lit. The Policemen of New Zealand) is the national police force of New Zealand, responsible for enforcing criminal law, enhancing public safety, maintaining order and keeping the peace throughout New Zealand. With over 11,000 staff it is the largest law enforcement agency in New Zealand, and with few exceptions has primary jurisdiction over the majority of New Zealand criminal law.

The New Zealand police also has responsibility for traffic and commercial vehicle enforcement as well as other key responsibilities including dignitary protection, firearms licensing and matters of national security.

The current Minister of Police is the Hon. Anne Tolley, of the New Zealand National Party.

Origins and history[link]

Policing in New Zealand started in 1840 with the arrival of six constables accompanying Lt. Governor Hobson's official landing party to form the colony of New Zealand. Early policing arrangements were along similar lines to the UK and British colonial police forces, in particular the Royal Irish Constabulary and the New South Wales Police Force. Many of its first officers had seen prior service in either Ireland or Australia. The early Force was initially part police and part militia.

At the outset, official establishment of sworn constables holding common law powers to arrest people was achieved by magistrates being given the power to swear them in via the Magistrates Ordinance of 1842. By 1846 the emerging organisation of a police force was recognised with the passage of the Armed Constabulary Ordinance. New Zealand's early police force continued to grow with the colony, and was further enhanced with additional structure and rules with the passage of the first Police Act, the New Zealand Armed Constabulary Act of 1867. The Armed Constabulary took part in land wars against Māori opposed to colonial expansion at that time.

From the police force's beginnings in 1840 through the next forty years, policing arrangements varied around New Zealand. Whilst the nationally organised Armed Constabulary split its efforts between regular law enforcement functions and militia support to the Maori land wars, some provinces desired local police forces of their own. This led to a separate Provincial Police Force Act being passed by the Parliament. However, provincial policing models lasted only two decades as economic depression in the 1870s saw some provinces stop paying their police as they ran out of money. Eventually, government decided a single nationally organised police would be the best and most efficient policing arrangement.

The New Zealand Police Force was established as a single national force under the Police Force Act of 1886. The change in name was significant, and provincial policing arrangements were dis-established and their staff largely absorbed into the newly created New Zealand Police Force. At the same time, government took the important step to hive off the militia functions of the old Armed Constabulary, and form the genesis of today's New Zealand Defence Force, initially called in 1886 the New Zealand Permanent Militia.

Just a decade later, policing in New Zealand was given a significant overhaul. In 1898 there was a very constructive Royal Commission of Enquiry into New Zealand Police. The Royal Commission, which included the reforming Commissioner Tunbridge who had come from the Metropolitan Police in London, produced a far reaching report which laid the basis for positive reform of New Zealand Police for the next several decades. A complete review of Police's legislation in 1908 built significantly off the Royal Commission's work.

A further Police Force Act in 1947 reflected some changes of a growing New Zealand, and a country coming out of World War II. But the most significant change in the structure and arrangement for Police was to arrive after the departure of Commissioner Compton under a cloud of government and public concern over his management of Police in 1955. The appointment of a caretaker civilian leader of Police, especially titled "Controller General" to recognise his non-operational background, opened the windows on the organisation and allowed a period of positive and constructive development to take place.

In 1958, the word "Force" was removed from the name when legislation was significantly revised.

On 1 July 1992, the Traffic Safety Service of the Ministry of Transport was merged with the Police. Up until that time, the Ministry of Transport and local councils had been responsible for traffic law enforcement. In 2001, the Police re-established a specialist road policing branch known as the Highway Patrol. Today the Police are responsible for enforcing traffic law, while local councils enforce parking regulations.^[1] In 2010, after some calls to split traffic enforcement again from standard police duties, it was decided that it would remain part of their duties, partly due to the public having shown "enormous support" for it remaining this way.^[2]

The Police Act 1958 was extensively reviewed starting in 2006, after a two and a half year consultative process the Policing Act 2008 came into effect on 1 October 2008.^[3][4] The process included the world's first use of a wiki to allow the public to submit/propose amendments. The wiki was open for less than two weeks, but drew international attention.^[5]

Notable policing events[link]

Police officers at an entrance to Eden Park during the 1981 Springbok tour.

Laura Bush, First Lady of the United States in this 2008 photo, meeting New Zealand Police officers in Bamyan, Afghanistan

During the 1981 Springbok tour, the Police formed two riot squads known as Red Squad and Blue Squad to control anti-apartheid protesters who laid siege to rugby union fields where the touring team was playing.^[6]

In July 1985, the New Zealand Police arrested two French Security Service operatives after the Rainbow Warrior was bombed and sunk in Auckland harbour. The rapid arrest was attributed to the high level of public support for the investigation.^[7]

A member of the New Zealand Police, Sergeant Stewart Graeme Guthrie, was the last civilian recipient of the George Cross, which is awarded for conspicuous gallantry. He fired a warning shot near a gunman at Aramoana on 13 November 1990, but was killed by a return shot from the gunman, who also killed twelve others.^[8]

More recently, the New Zealand Police has been involved in international policing and peacekeeping missions to East Timor and the Solomon Islands, to assist these countries with establishing law and order after civil unrest. They have also been involved in Community Police training in Bougainville, in conjunction with Australian Federal Police. Other overseas deployments for regional assistance and relief have been to Afghanistan as part of the reconstruction effort, the Kingdom of Tonga, Thailand for the tsunami disaster and Indonesia after terrorist bombings. New Zealand Police maintains an international policing support network in eight foreign capitals, and has about 80 staff deployed in differing international missions.^[9]

At least 17 people were arrested in a series of raids under the Suppression of Terrorism Act and the Arms Act 1983 on 15 October 2007. The raids targeted a range of political activists allegedly involved in illegal firearms activity.^[10]

Killed on duty[link]

As of May 2009^[update], 29 police officers have been killed by criminal acts, and about 17 by accident, while in the performance of their official duties.^[11][12][13] The last policeman to die was Senior Constable Len Snee, who was shot and killed by Jan Molenaar in the 2009 Napier shootings.^[14]

Equipment[link]

New Zealand Police officers do not normally carry firearms while on patrol, but routinely carry pepper spray and batons. Tasers fitted with cameras were introduced following a decision by Commissioner Broad in August 2008 as an additional non-lethal weapon.^[15] However, non-commissioned officers and specialist officers such as dog handlers and crime squad detectives often have a secure container within their police vehicle containing firearms; usually Glock 17 pistols as well as Bushmaster M4A3 XM15 carbines. ^[16][17] Weapons may be issued to front line staff in an armed response to a serious incident under the supervision of a senior officer. An armed response by police to an incident will often be considered a newsworthy event by the media.

In 1964, the Armed Offenders Squad (AOS) was created to provide a specialist armed response unit, similar to CO19 in the United Kingdom.

In addition to the AOS, the New Zealand Police maintain a full-time counter-terrorist unit, the Special Tactics Group (STG). Similar to the FBI's Hostage Rescue Team, the STG train in dynamic entry and other tactics vital in high-risk situations. The STG train with the SAS and are the last line of law enforcement response available before a police Incident Controller calls in support from the Military.

Counter-terrorism and military assistance[link]

The NZ Police are accountable for the operational response to threats to national security, including terrorism. If an incident escalates to a level where their internal resources are unable to adequately deal with the issue (for example, a major arms encounter or a significant terrorist threat), the Police Incident Controller may call on extra assistance from the New Zealand Defence Force and in particular NZ's Special Forces, the military focused Special Air Service and terrorism focused CTTAG (Counter Terrorist Tactical Assault Group). Control of the incident remains with police throughout. As of 2009, the two military counter terrorist units have never been deployed in a domestic law-enforcement operation. Military resources such as Light Armoured Vehicles have been used and requested before, such as during the 2009 Napier Siege, and Royal New Zealand Air Force aircraft are often used to assist in search and rescue and cannabis eradication operations.

Organisation[link]

Royal New Zealand Police training college.

Although headed by a Commissioner, the New Zealand Police is a decentralised organisation divided into twelve districts, each with a geographical area of responsibility, three communications centres that each receive calls from *555 traffic, 111 emergency or general queues, and a Police National Headquarters that provides policy and planning advice as well as national oversight and management of the organisation.

The Commissioner is in overall charge of the New Zealand Police. Assisting the Commissioner are two chief officers in the rank of Deputy Commissioner, Deputy Commissioner-Resource Management and Deputy Commissioner-Operations.

Five chief officers in the rank of Assistant Commissioner and the Director of Intelligence report to the Deputy Commissioner-Operations. The Assistant Commissioner-Investigations/International is responsible for the National Criminal Investigations Group, the Organised and Financial Crime Agency New Zealand (OFCANZ), Financial Crime Group, International Services Group and Pacific Islands Chiefs of Police Secretariat. The Investigations and International Group leads the prevention, investigation, disruption and prosecution of serious and transnational crime. It also leads liaison, overseas deployment and capacity building with international policing partners. The Assistant Commissioner-Operations is responsible for Community Policing, Youth, Communications Centres, Operations Group, Prosecutions and Road Policing. The remaining three Assistant Commissioners command geographical policing areas-Upper North, Lower North and South. Each area is divided into three to five districts.

District Commanders hold the rank of Superintendent, as do sworn National Managers, the road policing manager in the Waitemata District, responsible for the motorway network and traffic alcohol group, and the commandant of the Royal New Zealand Police College. Area Commanders hold the rank of Inspector as do Shift Commanders based in each of the three Communications Centres. District Section Commanders are typically Senior Sergeants. The New Zealand Police is a member of Interpol and has close relationships with the Australian police forces, at both the state and federal level. Several New Zealand Police representatives are posted overseas in key New Zealand diplomatic missions.

The Police also work closely with the Serious Fraud Office.

Staff[link]

While sworn officers make up the majority of the workforce, non-sworn staff and volunteers provide a wide range of support services where a sworn officer's statutory powers are not required.

Ranks[link]

Rank insignia is worn on the epaulettes. Officers of Inspector rank and higher are commissioned by the Governor General, but are still promotions from the ranks of non-commissioned officers.

A recently graduated Constable is considered a Probationary Constable for up to two years, until he or she has passed ten workplace assessment standards and a compulsory university paper. The completion of the above is known as obtaining permanent appointment.

Police officers on foot in the Auckland CBD, wearing stab resistant vests over normal uniforms.

Detective ranks somewhat parallel the street ranks up to Detective Superintendent. Trainee Detectives spend around 6–12 months time as a Constable on Trial after completing an intensive Selection and Induction course, before progression to Detective Constable after successful completion of several training modules. There is then a Workplace assessment for Detective Constables, and after approximately 2–3 years in the Criminal Investigation Branch, a Detective Constable may take the pre-requisite examination and qualifying course to become a Detective.

The rank of Senior Constable is granted to Constables after 14 years of service and the Commissioner of Police is satisfied with their conduct. Senior Constables are well regarded within the New Zealand Police for their extensive policing experience, and are often used to train and mentor other police officers.

Detective and Detective Constable are considered designations and not specific ranks. That is, Detectives do not outrank uniformed constables. Although, a police officer with a Detective designation will generally assume control of a serious crime scene rather than a uniform staff member regardless of rank.

New Zealand police uniforms formerly followed the British model closely but since the 1970s a number of changes have been implemented. These include the adoption of a medium blue shade in place of dark blue, the abolition of custodian helmets and the substitution of synthetic leather jackets for silver buttoned tunics when on ordinary duty. AOS and STG members, when deployed, wear the usual charcoal-coloured clothing used by armed-response and counter-terror units around the world. In 2008, a survey found strong staff support for the re-introduction of custodian helmets to reinforce the police's professional image.^[19]

Training and educational change[link]

Under new management, in early 2009 the Royal New Zealand Police College embarked upon an assessment of its quality, purpose and personnel. This assessment led to the initiation of a programme of change. Within the programme are multiple projects, managed via four work streams addressing change in the areas of:

• Strategy & Growth
• Business Planning & Performance
• Learning Pathways
• Technology Assisted Learning

By September 2009, the programme had submitted a restructure to the organisation through formal consultation. By November 2009, 400 formal submissions were recorded.

Transport[link]

Typical general duties police car livery.

Typical highway patrol car livery.

The Holden Commodore is the current generic vehicle of choice for the Police - in the past they have used Ford Falcons and the Nissan Maxima. The highway patrol mainly uses the Holden Commodore S variant. Also the police currently use unmarked models of the Toyota Camry, Subaru Legacy, Holden Commodore and Hyundai Sonata. Also, Holden Rodeo utility vehicles and Holden Captiva's are used in rural areas. Liveries are checkered Battenburg markings orange-blue (general duties) or yellow-blue (highway patrol), as well as cars in standard factory colours. Since 2008 the orange-blue livery is being phased out, and all marked patrol vehicles are expected to have the yellow-blue livery as well as LED light bars by 2014.^[20] Both Commodore sedan and wagon bodies are used - normally in V6 form and optionally with an LPG tank fitted.

Dog handlers have fully enclosed utility or station wagon vehicles, which may be liveried or unmarked, with cages in the rear and remotely operated canopy doors to allow the handler to release their dog if away from the vehicle.

The police operate one dedicated air unit - the Eagle helicopter in Auckland (an Aérospatiale AS355),^[21] and two maritime units - the launch Deodar III and four smaller vessels in Auckland, and the launch Lady Elizabeth IV in Wellington.^[22]

Accountabilities[link]

While the New Zealand Police is technically a government department and has political representation in Government through the Minister of Police, the Commissioner and all sworn members swear allegiance directly to the Sovereign and, by constitutional convention, have constabulary independence from the government of the day.

Crime statistics[link]

In addition to the annual report, the Police also publishes six-monthly statistical summaries of crime for both New Zealand as a whole and each Police District. In early 2005, crime statistics for both Recorded Crime and Recorded Apprehensions for the last 10 years were published by Statistics New Zealand. These statistics provide offence statistics down to individual sections of legislation and appear to be the most detailed national crime statistics available today.

Recent controversies[link]

There have been a number of recent controversies that have put the Police under close scrutiny. While the Police Complaints Authority is an independent body that investigates complaints against the New Zealand Police, the following events have either fallen outside the authority's ambit or received significant publicity.

Historic sexual misconduct[link]

In 2004, a number of historic sexual misconduct allegations dating from the 1980s were made against both serving and former police officers.

In March 2006 assistant police commissioner Clinton Rickards and former police officers Brad Shipton and Bob Schollum were charged with raping and sexually abusing Louise Nicholas in Rotorua during the 1980s. The defendants claimed all sex was consensual and all were found not guilty on 31 March 2006.^[23][24] In February 2007 the same three men faced historic charges of kidnapping and indecent assault for the pack rape of a 16-year-old girl with a whisky bottle that took place in the early 1980s, and again they were acquitted. Information that had been kept from both juries (but was widely distributed following the 2006 not guilty verdicts) was then allowed to be publicly released: Brad Shipton and Bob Schollum were convicted in 2005 of another historic pack rape with an object and are currently serving lengthy prison sentences for this crime.^[25] Rickards subsequently resigned from the police.^[26]

Communications centres[link]

New Zealand Police operate a system of three Communications Centres across the country:

• Northern Communications Centre, based in Auckland and responsible for the northern half of the North Island, from Cape Reianga in the North to Hicks Bay, Desert Rd south of Turangi, and Awakino in the South.
• Central Communications Centre, based in Wellington and responsible for the southern half of the North Island, from Mokau, Taumarunui, Desert Rd north of Waiouru, and Te Araroa in the North to Wellington in the South.
• Southern Communications Centre, based in Christchurch, responsible for the entire South Island.^[27]

Together the three centres receive and dispatch 111-emergency calls and general calls for service.

In 2004 and 2005, the police were criticised over several incidents in which callers to the Police Communications Centres, particularly those using the 111 emergency telephone number, are alleged to have received inadequate responses.

In October 2004, under sustained political scrutiny for these apparent systemic problems in the Communications Centres, and after the Iraena Asher incident received a lot of publicity and a whistle-blowing employee resigned, the Commissioner of Police ordered an Independent Review into the Communications Centres. On 11 May 2005, the Review Panel released a report into the service ^[28] which criticised the service for systemic failures and inadequate management, and expressed ongoing concerns for public safety.

Police acted on the recommendations of the review with a number of initiatives, including increasing communications centre staff numbers ^[29] and then initiating a demonstration project for a future "Single Non-Emergency Number" (SNEN) ^[30][31][32] centre, to reduce the load on the 111 service.

Police culture[link]

An investigation into "Police Culture" reported on 10 October 2005 that while the defunct Emergency Response Group at Counties-Manukau used excessive force and took inappropriate and degrading photographs of people in custody, there was no nationwide problem with police culture.^[33] In a subsequent investigation into police culture by Margaret Bazley, she reported several elements of the problem police culture. These include strong bonding among colleagues, bad attitudes toward the use of alcohol, particularly when off duty, as well as a male-oriented culture. ^[34]

Taser trial[link]

The New Zealand Police taser trial commenced on Friday 1 September 2006 for a twelve month period.^[35] Some opposition to the trial has been expressed by various people, including Māori Party police spokesperson Hone Harawira, Green party police spokesperson, Keith Locke,^[36] and several high profile individuals including Barrister, Marie Dyhrberg and Sir Paul Reeves who have formed a lobby group opposing their use.^[37] The first person to be tasered was an 18 year old after an incident in the Auckland suburb of Western Springs on 8 September 2006.^[38]

Since the completion of the trial it has been revealed that even if the taser is approved it is unlikely that every frontline officer would be equipped with a taser.^[39] Tasers are likely to be issued in 2009, and the Commissioner has made recommendations in the 2009 budget to equip the remaining 8 Districts.^{[citation needed]}

See also[link]

• Armed Offenders Squad
• Crime in New Zealand
• Crimes Act 1961
• Diplomatic Protection Squad
• Organised Crime Agency
• Royal New Zealand Police College
• Special Tactics Group
• Institute of Environmental Science and Research - provider of forensic services to NZ police.

References[link]

External links[link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Police of New Zealand

• New Zealand Police
• New Zealand Police - statistics

New Zealand Aotearoa
Flag Coat of arms
Anthem:  "God Defend New Zealand" "God Save the Queen"[n 1]
The hemisphere centred on New Zealand
Capital		Wellington 41°17′S 174°27′E / 41.283°S 174.45°E / -41.283; 174.45
Largest city		Auckland
Official language(s)		English (95.9%)[n 2] Māori (4.2%) NZ Sign Language (0.6%)
National language		English (98%)
Ethnic groups		78% European/Other[n 3] 14.6% Māori 9.2% Asian 6.9% Pacific peoples
Demonym		New Zealander, Kiwi (colloquial)
Government		Unitary parliamentary constitutional monarchy
-	Monarch	Elizabeth II
-	Governor-General	Sir Jerry Mateparae
-	Prime Minister	John Key
Legislature		House of Representatives
Independence		from the United Kingdom[n 4]
-	New Zealand Constitution Act 1852	17 January 1853
-	Dominion	26 September 1907
-	Statute of Westminster	11 December 1931 (adopted 25 November 1947)
-	Constitution Act 1986	13 December 1986
Area
-	Total	268,021 km2 (75th) 103,483 sq mi
-	Water (%)	1.6[n 5]
Population
-	September 2011 estimate	4,422,700[6] (122nd)
-	2006 census	4,027,947[7]
-	Density	16.5/km2 (202nd) 42.7/sq mi
GDP (PPP)		2011 estimate
-	Total	$122.193 billion[8]
-	Per capita	$27,668[8]
GDP (nominal)		2011 estimate
-	Total	$161.851 billion[8]
-	Per capita	$36,648[8]
Gini (1997)		36.2[9] (medium)
HDI (2011)		0.908[10] (very high) (5th)
Currency		New Zealand dollar (NZD)
Time zone		NZST[n 6] (UTC+12)
-	Summer (DST)	NZDT (UTC+13)
		(Sep to Apr)
Date formats		dd/mm/yyyy
Drives on the		left
ISO 3166 code		NZ
Internet TLD		.nz[n 7]
Calling code		+64

New Zealand (Māori: Aotearoa) is an island country located in the southwestern Pacific Ocean. The country geographically comprises two main landmasses ‒ that of the North and South Islands ‒ as well as numerous smaller islands. New Zealand is situated some 1,500 kilometres (900 mi) east of Australia across the Tasman Sea and roughly 1,000 kilometres (600 mi) south of the Pacific island nations of New Caledonia, Fiji, and Tonga. Because of its remoteness, it was one of the last lands to be settled by humans.

During its long isolation, New Zealand developed a distinctive biodiversity of both animal and plant life. Most notable are the large number of unique bird species, many of which became extinct after the arrival of humans and introduced mammals. With a mild maritime climate, the land was mostly covered in forest. The country's varied topography and its sharp mountain peaks owe much to the tectonic uplift of land and volcanic eruptions caused by the Pacific and Indo-Australian Plates clashing beneath the earth's surface.

Polynesians settled New Zealand in 1250–1300 CE and developed a distinctive Māori culture, and Europeans first made contact in 1642 CE. The introduction of potatoes and muskets triggered upheaval among Māori early during the 19th century, which led to the inter-tribal Musket Wars. In 1840 the British and Māori signed a treaty making New Zealand a colony of the British Empire. Immigrant numbers increased sharply and conflicts escalated into the New Zealand Wars, which resulted in much Māori land being confiscated in the mid North Island. Economic depressions were followed by periods of political reform, with women gaining the vote during the 1890s, and a welfare state being established from the 1930s. After World War II, New Zealand joined Australia and the United States in the ANZUS security treaty, although the United States later, until 2010, suspended the treaty after New Zealand banned nuclear weapons. New Zealand is part of the intelligence sharing among the Anglosphere countries, the UKUSA Agreement. New Zealanders enjoyed one of the highest standards of living in the world in the 1950s, but the 1970s saw a deep recession, worsened by oil shocks and the United Kingdom's entry into the European Economic Community. The country underwent major economic changes during the 1980s, which transformed it from a protectionist to a liberalised free-trade economy. Markets for New Zealand's agricultural exports have diversified greatly since the 1970s, with once-dominant exports of wool being overtaken by dairy products, meat, and recently wine.

The majority of New Zealand's population is of European descent; the indigenous Māori are the largest minority, followed by Asians and non-Māori Polynesians. English, Māori and New Zealand Sign Language are the official languages, with English predominant. Much of New Zealand's culture is derived from Māori and early British settlers. Early European art was dominated by landscapes and to a lesser extent portraits of Māori. A recent resurgence of Māori culture has seen their traditional arts of carving, weaving and tattooing become more mainstream. Many artists now combine Māori and Western techniques to create unique art forms. The country's culture has also been broadened by globalisation and increased immigration from the Pacific Islands and Asia. New Zealand's diverse landscape provides many opportunities for outdoor pursuits and has provided the backdrop for a number of big budget movies.

New Zealand is organised into 11 regional councils and 67 territorial authorities for local government purposes; these have less autonomy than the country's long defunct provinces did. Nationally, executive political power is exercised by the Cabinet, led by the Prime Minister. Queen Elizabeth II is the country's head of state and is represented by a Governor-General. The Queen's Realm of New Zealand also includes Tokelau (a dependent territory); the Cook Islands and Niue (self-governing but in free association); and the Ross Dependency, New Zealand's territorial claim in Antarctica. New Zealand is a member of the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation, Commonwealth of Nations, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, Pacific Islands Forum, and the United Nations.

Etymology[link]

Detail from a 1657 map showing the western coastline of "Nova Zeelandia"

Aotearoa (often translated as "land of the long white cloud")^[11] is the current Māori name for New Zealand, and is also used in New Zealand English. It is unknown whether Māori had a name for the whole country before the arrival of Europeans, with Aotearoa originally referring to just the North Island.^[12] Abel Tasman sighted New Zealand in 1642 and called it Staten Landt, supposing it was connected to a landmass of the same name at the southern tip of South America.^[13] In 1645 Dutch cartographers renamed the land Nova Zeelandia after the Dutch province of Zeeland.^[14][15] British explorer James Cook subsequently anglicised the name to New Zealand.^{[n 8]}

Māori had several traditional names for the two main islands, including Te Ika-a-Māui (the fish of Māui) for the North Island and Te Wai Pounamu (the waters of greenstone) or Te Waka o Aoraki (the canoe of Aoraki) for the South Island.^[16] Early European maps labelled the islands North (North Island), Middle (South Island) and South (Stewart Island / Rakiura).^[17] In 1830 maps began to use North and South to distinguish the two largest islands and by 1907 this was the accepted norm.^[18] The New Zealand Geographic Board discovered in 2009 that the names of the North Island and South Island had never been formalised, but there are now plans to do so.^[19] The board is also considering suitable Māori names,^[20] with Te Ika-a-Māui and Te Wai Pounamu the most likely choices according to the chairman of the Māori Language Commission.^[21]

History[link]

The Māori people are most likely descended from people who emigrated from Taiwan to Melanesia and then travelled east through to the Society Islands. After a pause of 70 to 265 years, a new wave of exploration led to the discovery and settlement of New Zealand.^[22]

New Zealand was one of the last major landmasses settled by humans. Radiocarbon dating, evidence of deforestation^[23] and mitochondrial DNA variability within Māori populations^[24] suggest New Zealand was first settled by Eastern Polynesians between 1250 and 1300,^[16][25] concluding a long series of voyages through the southern Pacific islands.^[26] Over the centuries that followed these settlers developed a distinct culture now known as Māori. The population was divided into iwi (tribes) and hapū (subtribes) which would cooperate, compete and sometimes fight with each other. At some point a group of Māori migrated to the Chatham Islands (which they named Rēkohu) where they developed their distinct Moriori culture.^[27][28] The Moriori population was decimated between 1835 and 1862, largely because of Māori invasion and enslavement, although European diseases also contributed. In 1862 only 101 survived and the last known full-blooded Moriori died in 1933.^[29]

The first Europeans known to have reached New Zealand were Dutch explorer Abel Tasman and his crew in 1642.^[30] In a hostile encounter, four crew members were killed and at least one Māori was hit by canister shot.^[31] Europeans did not revisit New Zealand until 1769 when British explorer James Cook mapped almost the entire coastline.^[30] Following Cook, New Zealand was visited by numerous European and North American whaling, sealing and trading ships. They traded food, metal tools, weapons and other goods for timber, food, artefacts, water, and on occasion sex.^[32] The introduction of the potato and the musket transformed Māori agriculture and warfare. Potatoes provided a reliable food surplus, which enabled longer and more sustained military campaigns.^[33] The resulting inter-tribal Musket Wars encompassed over 600 battles between 1801 and 1840, killing 30,000–40,000 Māori.^[34] From the early 19th century, Christian missionaries began to settle New Zealand, eventually converting most of the Māori population.^[35] The Māori population declined to around 40 percent of its pre-contact level during the 19th century; introduced diseases were the major factor.^[36]

The Waitangi sheet from the Treaty of Waitangi

The British Government appointed James Busby as British Resident to New Zealand in 1832^[37] and in 1835, following an announcement of impending French settlement by Charles de Thierry, the nebulous United Tribes of New Zealand sent a Declaration of the Independence to King William IV of the United Kingdom asking for protection.^[37] Ongoing unrest and the dubious legal standing of the Declaration of Independence prompted the Colonial Office to send Captain William Hobson to claim sovereignty for the British Crown and negotiate a treaty with the Māori.^[38] The Treaty of Waitangi was first signed in the Bay of Islands on 6 February 1840.^[39] In response to the commercially run New Zealand Company's attempts to establish an independent settlement in Wellington^[40] and French settlers "purchasing" land in Akaroa,^[41] Hobson declared British sovereignty over all of New Zealand on 21 May 1840, even though copies of the Treaty were still circulating.^[42] With the signing of the Treaty and declaration of sovereignty the number of immigrants, particularly from the United Kingdom, began to increase.^[43]

New Zealand, originally part of the colony of New South Wales, became a separate Crown colony in 1841.^[44] The colony gained a representative government in 1852 and the 1st New Zealand Parliament met in 1854.^[45] In 1856 the colony effectively became self-governing, gaining responsibility over all domestic matters other than native policy. (Control over native policy was granted in the mid-1860s.)^[45] Following concerns that the South Island might form a separate colony, premier Alfred Domett moved a resolution to transfer the capital from Auckland to a locality near the Cook Strait.^[46] Wellington was chosen for its harbour and central location, with parliament officially sitting there for the first time in 1865. As immigrant numbers increased, conflicts over land led to the New Zealand Wars of the 1860s and 1870s, resulting in the loss and confiscation of much Māori land.^[47] In 1893 the country became the first nation in the world to grant all women the right to vote^[48] and in 1894 pioneered the adoption of compulsory arbitration between employers and unions.^[49]

In 1907, at the request of the New Zealand Parliament, King Edward VII proclaimed New Zealand a dominion within the British Empire, reflecting its self-governing status. In 1947 the country adopted the Statute of Westminster, making New Zealand a Commonwealth realm.^[45] New Zealand was involved in world affairs, fighting alongside the British Empire in the First and Second World Wars^[50] and suffering through the Great Depression.^[51] The depression led to the election of the first Labour government and the establishment of a comprehensive welfare state and a protectionist economy.^[52] New Zealand experienced increasing prosperity following World War II^[53] and Māori began to leave their traditional rural life and move to the cities in search of work.^[54] A Māori protest movement developed, which criticised Eurocentrism and worked for greater recognition of Māori culture and the Treaty of Waitangi.^[55] In 1975, a Waitangi Tribunal was set up to investigate alleged breaches of the Treaty, and it was enabled to investigate historic grievances in 1985.^[39] The government has negotiated settlements of these grievances with many iwi, although Māori claims to the foreshore and seabed have proved controversial in the 2000s.

Politics[link]

John Key, Prime Minister of New Zealand since 2008

Government[link]

New Zealand is a constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary democracy,^[56] although its constitution is not codified.^[57] Queen Elizabeth II is the Queen of New Zealand and the head of state.^[58] The Queen is represented by the Governor-General,^[59] whom she appoints on the advice of the Prime Minister.^[60] The Governor-General can exercise the Crown's prerogative powers (such as reviewing cases of injustice and making appointments of Cabinet ministers, ambassadors and other key public officials)^[61] and in rare situations, the reserve powers (the power to dismiss a Prime Minister, dissolve Parliament or refuse the Royal Assent of a bill into law).^[62] The powers of the Queen and the Governor-General are limited by constitutional constraints and they cannot normally be exercised without the advice of Cabinet.^[62][63]

Elizabeth II

Sir Jerry Mateparae

The Queen of New Zealand and her representative, the Governor-General

The Parliament of New Zealand holds legislative power and consists of the Sovereign (represented by the Governor-General) and the House of Representatives.^[63] It also included an upper house, the Legislative Council, until this was abolished in 1950.^[63] The supremacy of the House over the Sovereign was established in England by the Bill of Rights 1689 and has been ratified as law in New Zealand.^[63] The House of Representatives is democratically elected and a Government is formed from the party or coalition with the majority of seats.^[63] If no majority is formed a minority government can be formed if support from other parties during confidence and supply votes is assured. The Governor-General appoints ministers under advice from the Prime Minister, who is by convention the Parliamentary leader of the governing party or coalition.^[64] Cabinet, formed by ministers and led by the Prime Minister, is the highest policy-making body in government and responsible for deciding significant government actions.^[65] By convention, members of cabinet are bound by collective responsibility to decisions made by cabinet.^[66]

Judges and judicial officers are appointed non-politically and under strict rules regarding tenure to help maintain constitutional independence from the government.^[57] This theoretically allows the judiciary to interpret the law based solely on the legislation enacted by Parliament without other influences on their decisions.^[67] The Privy Council in London was the country's final court of appeal until 2004, when it was replaced with the newly established Supreme Court of New Zealand. The judiciary, headed by the Chief Justice,^[68] includes the Court of Appeal, the High Court, and subordinate courts.^[57]

New Zealand government "Beehive" and the Parliament Buildings (right), in Wellington

Almost all parliamentary general elections between 1853 and 1996 were held under the first past the post voting system.^[69] The elections since 1930 have been dominated by two political parties, National and Labour.^[69] Since 1996, a form of proportional representation called Mixed Member Proportional (MMP) has been used.^[57] Under the MMP system each person has two votes; one is for the seventy electoral seats (including seven reserved for Māori),^[70] and the other is for a party. The remaining fifty seats are assigned so that representation in parliament reflects the party vote, although a party has to win one electoral seat or 5 percent of the total party vote before it is eligible for these seats.^[71] Between March 2005 and August 2006 New Zealand became the only country in the world in which all the highest offices in the land (Head of State, Governor-General, Prime Minister, Speaker and Chief Justice) were occupied simultaneously by women.^[72]

Foreign relations and the military[link]

Early colonial New Zealand allowed the British Government to determine external trade and be responsible for foreign policy.^[73] The 1923 and 1926 Imperial Conferences decided that New Zealand should be allowed to negotiate their own political treaties, with the first successful commercial treaty being with Japan in 1928. Despite this independence New Zealand readily followed Britain in declaring war on Germany on 3 September 1939 with then Prime Minister Michael Savage proclaiming, "Where she goes, we go; where she stands, we stand."^[74]

Māori Battalion haka in Egypt, 1941

In 1951 the United Kingdom became increasingly focused on its European interests,^[75] while New Zealand joined Australia and the United States in the ANZUS security treaty.^[76] The influence of the United States on New Zealand weakened following protests over the Vietnam War,^[77] the refusal of the United States to admonish France after the sinking of the Rainbow Warrior,^[78] disagreements over environmental and agricultural trade issues and New Zealand's nuclear-free policy.^[79][80] Despite the USA's suspension of ANZUS obligations the treaty remained in effect between New Zealand and Australia, whose foreign policy has followed a similar historical trend.^[81] Close political contact is maintained between the two countries, with free trade agreements and travel arrangements that allow citizens to visit, live and work in both countries without restrictions.^[82] Currently over 500,000 New Zealanders live in Australia and 65,000 Australians live in New Zealand.^[82]

New Zealand has a strong presence among the Pacific Island countries. A large proportion of New Zealand's aid goes to these countries and many Pacific people migrate to New Zealand for employment.^[83] Permanent migration is regulated under the 1970 Samoan Quota Scheme and the 2002 Pacific Access Category, which allow up to 1,100 Samoan nationals and up to 750 other Pacific Islanders respectively to become permanent New Zealand residents each year. A seasonal workers scheme for temporary migration was introduced in 2007 and in 2009 about 8,000 Pacific Islanders were employed under it.^[84] New Zealand is involved in the Pacific Islands Forum, Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation and the Association of Southeast Asian Nations Regional Forum (including the East Asia Summit).^[82] New Zealand is also a member of the United Nations,^[85] the Commonwealth of Nations,^[86] the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development^[87] and the Five Powers Defence Arrangements.^[88]

Infantry from the 2nd Battalion, Auckland Regiment in the Battle of the Somme, September 1916.

The New Zealand Defence Force has three branches: the Royal New Zealand Navy, the New Zealand Army and the Royal New Zealand Air Force.^[89] New Zealand's national defence needs are modest because of the unlikelihood of direct attack,^[90] although it does have a global presence. The country fought in both world wars, with notable campaigns in Gallipoli, Crete,^[91] El Alamein^[92] and Cassino.^[93] The Gallipoli campaign played an important part in fostering New Zealand's national identity^[94][95] and strengthened the ANZAC tradition it shares with Australia.^[96] According to Mary Edmond-Paul, "World War I had left scars on New Zealand society, with nearly 18,500 in total dying as a result of the war, more than 41,000 wounded, and others affected emotionally, out of an overseas fighting force of about 103,000 and a population of just over a million."^[97] New Zealand also played key parts in the naval Battle of the River Plate^[98] and the Battle of Britain air campaign.^[99][100] During World War II, the United States had more than 400,000 American military personnel stationed in New Zealand.^[101]

In addition to Vietnam and the two world wars, New Zealand fought in the Korean War, the Second Boer War,^[102] the Malayan Emergency,^[103] the Gulf War and the Afghanistan War. It has contributed forces to several regional and global peacekeeping missions, such as those in Cyprus, Somalia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, the Sinai, Angola, Cambodia, the Iran–Iraq border, Bougainville, East Timor, and the Solomon Islands.^[104] New Zealand also sent a unit of army engineers to help rebuild Iraqi infrastructure for one year during the Iraq War.

Local government and external territories[link]

Realm of New Zealand

The early European settlers divided New Zealand into provinces, which had a degree of autonomy.^[105] Because of financial pressures and the desire to consolidate railways, education, land sales and other policies, government was centralised and the provinces were abolished in 1876.^[106] As a result, New Zealand now has no separately represented subnational entities. The provinces are remembered in regional public holidays^[107] and sporting rivalries.^[108]

Since 1876, various councils have administered local areas under legislation determined by the central government.^[105][109] In 1989, the government reorganised local government into the current two-tier structure of regional councils and territorial authorities.^[110] The 249 municipalities^[110] that existed in 1975 have now been consolidated into 67 territorial authorities and 11 regional councils.^[111] The regional councils' role is to regulate "the natural environment with particular emphasis on resource management",^[110] while territorial authorities are responsible for sewage, water, local roads, building consents and other local matters.^[112] Five of the territorial councils are unitary authorities and also act as regional councils.^[113] The territorial authorities consist of 13 city councils, 53 district councils, and the Chatham Islands Council. While officially the Chatham Islands Council is not a unitary authority, it undertakes many functions of a regional council.^[114]

The Realm of New Zealand is one of 16 realms within the commonwealth^[115][116] and comprises New Zealand, Tokelau, the Ross Dependency, the Cook Islands and Niue.^[116] The Cook Islands and Niue are self-governing states in free association with New Zealand.^[117][118] The New Zealand Parliament cannot pass legislation for these countries, but with their consent can act on behalf of them in foreign affairs and defence. Tokelau is a non-self-governing territory that uses the New Zealand flag and anthem, but is administered by a council of three elders (one from each Tokelauan atoll).^[119][120] The Ross Dependency is New Zealand's territorial claim in Antarctica, where it operates the Scott Base research facility.^[121] New Zealand citizenship law treats all parts of the realm equally, so most people born in New Zealand, the Cook Islands, Niue, Tokelau and the Ross Dependency before 2006 are New Zealand citizens. Further conditions apply for those born from 2006 onwards.^[122]

Environment[link]

Geography[link]

See also: Atlas of New Zealand at Wikimedia Commons

The snow-capped Southern Alps dominate the South Island, while the North Island's Northland Peninsula stretches towards the subtropics.

Mount Cook, located in the Southern Alps. A significant portion of New Zealand's South Island landscape is mountainous.

New Zealand is made up of two main islands and a number of smaller islands, located near the centre of the water hemisphere. The main North and South Islands are separated by the Cook Strait, 22 kilometres (14 mi) wide at its narrowest point.^[123] Besides the North and South Islands, the five largest inhabited islands are Stewart Island, the Chatham Islands, Great Barrier Island (in the Hauraki Gulf),^[124] d'Urville Island (in the Marlborough Sounds)^[125] and Waiheke Island (about 22 km (14 mi) from central Auckland).^[126] The country's islands lie between latitudes 29° and 53°S, and longitudes 165° and 176°E.

New Zealand is long (over 1,600 kilometres (990 mi) along its north-north-east axis) and narrow (a maximum width of 400 kilometres (250 mi)),^[127] with approximately 15,134 km (9,404 mi) of coastline^[128] and a total land area of 268,021 square kilometres (103,483 sq mi)^[129] Because of its far-flung outlying islands and long coastline, the country has extensive marine resources. Its Exclusive Economic Zone, one of the largest in the world, covers more than 15 times its land area.^[130]

The South Island is the largest land mass of New Zealand, and is divided along its length by the Southern Alps.^[131] There are 18 peaks over 3,000 metres (9,800 ft), the highest of which is Aoraki/Mount Cook at 3,754 metres (12,316 ft).^[132] Fiordland's steep mountains and deep fiords record the extensive ice age glaciation of this south-western corner of the South Island.^[133] The North Island is less mountainous but is marked by volcanism.^[134] The highly active Taupo volcanic zone has formed a large volcanic plateau, punctuated by the North Island's highest mountain, Mount Ruapehu (2,797 metres (9,177 ft)). The plateau also hosts the country's largest lake, Lake Taupo,^[135] nestled in the caldera of one of the world's most active supervolcanoes.^[136]

Abel Tasman National Park in the South Island

The country owes its varied topography, and perhaps even its emergence above the waves, to the dynamic boundary it straddles between the Pacific and Indo-Australian Plates.^[137] New Zealand is part of Zealandia, a microcontinent nearly half the size of Australia that gradually submerged after breaking away from the Gondwanan supercontinent.^[138] About 25 million years ago, a shift in plate tectonic movements began to contort and crumple the region. This is now most evident in the Southern Alps, formed by compression of the crust beside the Alpine Fault. Elsewhere the plate boundary involves the subduction of one plate under the other, producing the Puysegur Trench to the south, the Hikurangi Trench east of the North Island, and the Kermadec and Tonga Trenches^[139] further north.^[137]

Climate[link]

New Zealand has a mild and temperate maritime climate with mean annual temperatures ranging from 10 °C (50 °F) in the south to 16 °C (61 °F) in the north.^[140] Historical maxima and minima are 42.4 °C (108.3 °F) in Rangiora, Canterbury and −25.6 °C (−14.08 °F) in Ranfurly, Otago.^[141] Conditions vary sharply across regions from extremely wet on the West Coast of the South Island to almost semi-arid in Central Otago and the Mackenzie Basin of inland Canterbury and subtropical in Northland.^[142] Of the seven largest cities, Christchurch is the driest, receiving on average only 640 millimetres (25 in) of rain per year and Auckland the wettest, receiving almost twice that amount.^[143] Auckland, Wellington and Christchurch all receive a yearly average in excess of 2,000 hours of sunshine. The southern and south-western parts of the South Island have a cooler and cloudier climate, with around 1,400–1,600 hours; the northern and north-eastern parts of the South Island are the sunniest areas of the country and receive approximately 2,400–2,500 hours.^[144]

Biodiversity[link]

The endemic flightless kiwi is a national icon.

New Zealand's geographic isolation for 80 million years^[145] and island biogeography is responsible for the country's unique species of flora and fauna. They have either evolved from Gondwanan wildlife or the few organisms that have managed to reach the shores flying, swimming or being carried across the sea.^[146] About 82 percent of New Zealand's indigenous vascular plants^{[n 9]} are endemic, covering 1,944 species across 65 genera and includes a single family.^[147][149] The two main types of forest are those dominated by broadleaf trees with emergent podocarps, or by southern beech in cooler climates.^[150] The remaining vegetation types consist of grasslands, the majority of which are tussock.^[151]

Before the arrival of humans an estimated 80 percent of the land was covered in forest, with only high alpine, wet, infertile and volcanic areas without trees.^[152] Massive deforestation occurred after humans arrived, with around half the forest cover lost to fire after Polynesian settlement.^[153] Much of the remaining forest fell after European settlement, being logged or cleared to make room for pastoral farming, leaving forest occupying only 23 percent of the land.^[154]

The forests were dominated by birds, and the lack of mammalian predators led to some like the kiwi, kakapo and takahē evolving flightlessness.^[155] The arrival of humans, associated changes to habitat, and the introduction of rats, ferrets and other mammals led to the extinction of many bird species, including large birds like the moa and Haast's eagle.^[156][157]

Other indigenous animals are represented by reptiles (tuataras, skinks and geckos),^[158] frogs, spiders (katipo), insects (weta) and snails.^[159][160] Some, such as the wrens and tuatara, are so unique that they have been called living fossils. Three species of bats (one since extinct) were the only sign of native land mammals in New Zealand until the 2006 discovery of bones from a unique, mouse-sized land mammal at least 16 million years old.^[161][162] Marine mammals however are abundant, with almost half the world's cetaceans (whales, dolphins, and porpoises) and large numbers of fur seals reported in New Zealand waters.^[163] Many seabirds breed in New Zealand, a third of them unique to the country.^[164] More penguin species are found in New Zealand than in any other country.^[165]

Since human arrival almost half of the country's vertebrate species have become extinct, including at least fifty one birds, three frogs, three lizards, one freshwater fish, four plant species, and one bat.^[156] Others are endangered or have had their range severely reduced.^[156] However New Zealand conservationists have pioneered several methods to help threatened wildlife recover, including island sanctuaries, pest control, wildlife translocation, fostering, and ecological restoration of islands and other selected areas.^{[166][167][168][169]}

Economy[link]

New Zealand has a modern, prosperous and developed market economy with an estimated gross domestic product (GDP) at purchasing power parity (PPP) per capita of roughly US$28,250.^{[n 10]} The currency is the New Zealand dollar, informally known as the "Kiwi dollar"; it also circulates in the Cook Islands (see Cook Islands dollar), Niue, Tokelau, and the Pitcairn Islands.^[173] New Zealand was ranked 5th in the 2011 Human Development Index,^[174] 4th in the 2011 Index of Economic Freedom published by The Heritage Foundation.^[175]

Milford Sound, one of New Zealand's most famous tourist destinations^[176]

Historically, extractive industries have contributed strongly to New Zealand's economy, focussing at different times on sealing, whaling, flax, gold, kauri gum, and native timber.^[177] With the development of refrigerated shipping in the 1880s meat and dairy products were exported to Britain, a trade which provided the basis for strong economic growth in New Zealand.^[178] High demand for agricultural products from the United Kingdom and the United States helped New Zealanders achieve higher living standards than both Australia and Western Europe in the 1950s and 1960s.^[179] In 1973 New Zealand's export market was reduced when the United Kingdom joined the European Community^[180] and other compounding factors, such as the 1973 oil and 1979 energy crisis, led to a severe economic depression.^[181] Living standards in New Zealand fell behind those of Australia and Western Europe, and by 1982 New Zealand had the lowest per-capita income of all the developed nations surveyed by the World Bank.^[182] Since 1984, successive governments engaged in major macroeconomic restructuring (known first as Rogernomics and then Ruthanasia), rapidly transforming New Zealand from a highly protectionist economy to a liberalised free-trade economy.^[183][184]

Unemployment peaked above 10 percent in 1991 and 1992,^[185] following the 1987 share market crash, but eventually fell to a record low of 3.4 percent in 2007 (ranking fifth from twenty-seven comparable OECD nations).^[186] The global financial crisis that followed however had a major impact on New Zealand with the GDP shrinking for five consecutive quarters, the longest recession in over thirty years,^[187][188] and unemployment rising back to 7% in late 2009.^[189] The unemployment rate for youth was 17.4% in the June 2011 quarter.^[190] New Zealand has experienced a series of "brain drains" since the 1970s^[191] that still continue today.^[192] Nearly one quarter of highly skilled workers live overseas, most in Australia and Britain, the most from any developed nation.^[193] In recent years, however, a "brain gain" has brought in educated professionals from Europe and lesser developed countries.^[194][195]

Trade[link]

New Zealand is heavily dependent on international trade,^[196] particularly in agricultural products.^[197] Exports account for a high 24 percent of its output,^[128] making New Zealand vulnerable to international commodity prices and global economic slowdowns. Its principal export industries are agriculture, horticulture, fishing, forestry and mining, which make up about half of the country's exports.^[198] Its major export partners are Australia, United States, Japan, China, and the United Kingdom.^[128] On 7 April 2008, New Zealand and China signed the New Zealand China Free Trade Agreement, the first such agreement China has signed with a developed country.^[199][200] The service sector is the largest sector in the economy, followed by manufacturing and construction and then farming and raw material extraction.^[128] Tourism plays a significant role in New Zealand's economy, contributing $15.0 billion to New Zealand’s total GDP and supporting 9.6 percent of the total workforce in 2010.^[201] International visitors to New Zealand increased by 3.1 percent in the year to October 2010^[202] and are expected to increase at a rate of 2.5 percent annually up to 2015.^[201]

Wool has historically been one of New Zealand's major exports.

Wool was New Zealand’s major agricultural export during the late 19th century.^[177] Even as late as the 1960s it made up over a third of all export revenues,^[177] but since then its price has steadily dropped relative to other commodities^[203] and wool is no longer profitable for many farmers.^[204] In contrast dairy farming increased, with the number of dairy cows doubling between 1990 and 2007,^[205] to become New Zealand's largest export earner.^[206] In the year to June 2009, dairy products accounted for 21 percent ($9.1 billion) of total merchandise exports,^[207] and the country's largest company, Fonterra, controls almost one-third of the international dairy trade.^[208] Other agricultural exports in 2009 were meat 13.2 percent, wool 6.3 percent, fruit 3.5 percent and fishing 3.3 percent. New Zealand's wine industry has followed a similar trend to dairy, the number of vineyards doubling over the same period,^[209] overtaking wool exports for the first time in 2007.^[210][211]

Infrastructure[link]

In 2008, oil, gas and coal generated approximately 69 percent of New Zealand's gross energy supply and 31% was generated from renewable energy, primarily hydroelectric power and geothermal power.^[212] New Zealand's transport network includes 93,805 kilometres (58,288 mi) of roads, worth 23 billion dollars,^[213] and 4,128 kilometres (2,565 mi) of railway lines.^[214] Most major cities and towns are linked by bus services, although the private car is the predominant mode of transport.^[215] The railways were privatised in 1993, then re-purchased by the government in 2004 and vested into a state owned enterprise.^[216] Railways run the length of the country, although most lines now carry freight rather than passengers.^[217] Most international visitors arrive via air^[218] and New Zealand has seven international airports, although currently^[update] only the Auckland and Christchurch airports connect directly with countries other than Australia or Fiji.^[219] The New Zealand Post Office had a monopoly over telecommunications until 1989 when Telecom New Zealand was formed, initially as a state-owned enterprise and then privatised in 1990.^[220] Telecom still owns the majority of the telecommunications infrastructure, but competition from other providers has increased.^[221]

Demography[link]

New Zealand's historical population (black) and projected growth (red)

The population of New Zealand is approximately 4.4 million.^[222] New Zealand is a predominantly urban country, with 72 percent of the population living in 16 main urban areas and 53 percent living in the four largest cities of Auckland, Christchurch, Wellington, and Hamilton.^[223] New Zealand cities generally rank highly on international livability measures. For instance, in 2010 Auckland was ranked the world's 4th most liveable city and Wellington the 12th by the Mercer Quality of Life Survey^[224]

The life expectancy of a New Zealand child born in 2008 was 82.4 years for females, and 78.4 years for males.^[225] Life expectancy at birth is forecast to increase from 80 years to 85 years in 2050 and infant mortality is expected to decline.^[226] In 2050 the population is forecast to reach 5.3 million, the median age to rise from 36 years to 43 years and the percentage of people 60 years of age and older to rise from 18 percent to 29 percent.^[226]

Ethnicity and immigration[link]

In the 2006 census, 67.6 percent identified ethnically as European and 14.6 percent as Māori.^[227] Other major ethnic groups include Asian (9.2 percent) and Pacific peoples (6.9 percent), while 11.1 percent identified themselves simply as a "New Zealander" (or similar) and 1 percent identified with other ethnicities.^{[228][n 11]} This contrasts with 1961, when the census reported that the population of New Zealand was 92 percent European and 7 percent Māori, with Asian and Pacific minorities sharing the remaining 1 percent.^[230] While the demonym for a New Zealand citizen is New Zealander, the informal "Kiwi" is commonly used both internationally^[231] and by locals.^[232] The Māori loanword Pākehā usually refers to New Zealanders of European descent, although some reject this appellation,^[233][234] and some Māori use it to refer to all non-Polynesian New Zealanders.^[235]

New Zealand's fastest growing ethnic groups are Asian. Here, lion dancers perform at the Auckland Lantern Festival.

The Māori were the first people to reach New Zealand, followed by the early European settlers. Following colonisation, immigrants were predominantly from Britain, Ireland and Australia because of restrictive policies similar to the white Australian policies.^[236] There was also significant Dutch, Dalmatian,^[237] Italian, and German immigration together with indirect European immigration through Australia, North America, South America and South Africa.^[238] Following the Great Depression policies were relaxed and migrant diversity increased. In 2009–10, an annual target of 45,000–50,000 permanent residence approvals was set by the New Zealand Immigration Service—more than one new migrant for every 100 New Zealand residents.^[239] Twenty-three percent of New Zealand's population were born overseas, most of whom live in the Auckland region.^[240] While most have still come from the United Kingdom and Ireland (29 percent), immigration from East Asia (mostly mainland China, but with substantial numbers also from Korea, Taiwan, Japan, and Hong Kong) is rapidly increasing the number of people from those countries.^[241] The number of fee-paying international students increased sharply in the late 1990s, with more than 20,000 studying in public tertiary institutions in 2002.^[242]

Language[link]

English is the predominant language in New Zealand, spoken by 98 percent of the population.^[3] New Zealand English is similar to Australian English and many speakers from the Northern Hemisphere are unable to tell the accents apart.^[243]. The most prominent differences between the New Zealand English dialect and other English dialects are the shifts in the short front vowels: the short-"i" sound (as in "kit") has centralised towards the schwa sound (the "a" in "comma" and "about"); the short-"e" sound (as in "dress") has moved towards the short-"i" sound; and the short-"a" sound (as in "trap") has moved to the short-"e" sound.^[244] Hence, the New Zealand pronunciation of words such as "bad", "dead", "fish" and "chips" sound like "bed", "did", "fush" and "chups" to non-New Zealanders.

After the Second World War, Māori were discouraged from speaking their own language (te reo Māori) in schools and workplaces and it existed as a community language only in a few remote areas.^[245] It has recently undergone a process of revitalisation,^[246][247] being declared one of New Zealand's official languages in 1987,^[248] and is spoken by 4.1 percent of the population.^[3] There are now Māori language immersion schools and two Māori Television channels, the only nationwide television channels to have the majority of their prime-time content delivered in Māori.^[249] Many places have officially been given dual Maori and English names in recent years. Samoan is one of the most widely spoken languages in New Zealand (2.3 percent),^{[n 12]} followed by French, Hindi, Yue and Northern Chinese.^{[3][250][n 13]} New Zealand Sign Language is used by approximately 28,000 people and was made New Zealand's second official language in 2006.^[251]

A Ratana church

Education and religion[link]

Primary and secondary schooling is compulsory for children aged 6 to 16, with the majority attending from the age of 5.^[252] There are 13 school years and attending public schools is free. New Zealand has an adult literacy rate of 99 percent,^[128] and over half of the population aged 15 to 29 hold a tertiary qualification.^{[252][n 14]} There are five types of government-owned tertiary institutions: universities, colleges of education, polytechnics, specialist colleges, and wānanga,^[253] and also private training establishments.^[254] In the adult population 14.2 percent have a bachelor's degree or higher, 30.4 percent have some form of secondary qualification as their highest qualification and 22.4 percent have no formal qualification.^[255]

Christianity is the predominant religion in New Zealand. In the 2006 Census, 55.6 percent of the population identified themselves as Christians, while another 34.7 percent indicated that they had no religion (up from 29.6 percent in 2001) and around 4 percent affiliated with other religions.^{[256][n 15]} The main Christian denominations are Anglicanism, Roman Catholicism, Presbyterianism and Methodism. There are also significant numbers of Christians who identify themselves with Pentecostal, Baptist, and Latter-day Saint churches and the New Zealand-based Ratana church has adherents among Māori. According to census figures, other significant minority religions include Hinduism, Buddhism, and Islam.^[250][257]

List of cities in New Zealand (June 2010 population estimates)[258]
Rank	City Name	Region	Pop.	Rank	City Name	Region	Pop.
1	Auckland	Auckland Region	1,377,200	7	Dunedin	Otago Region	117,700
3	Wellington	Wellington Region	393,400	8	Palmerston North	Manawatu-Wanganui Region	82,400
2	Christchurch	Canterbury Region	380,900	9	Nelson	Nelson	60,800
4	Hamilton	Waikato Region	206,400	10	Rotorua	Bay of Plenty Region	56,200
5	Napier-Hastings	Hawke's Bay Region	124,800	11	New Plymouth	Taranaki Region	52,500
6	Tauranga	Bay of Plenty Region	121,500	12	Whangarei	Northland Region	52,200

Culture[link]

Late twentieth-century house-post depicting the navigator Kupe fighting two sea creatures

Early Māori adapted the tropically based east Polynesian culture in line with the challenges associated with a larger and more diverse environment, eventually developing their own distinctive culture. Social organisation was largely communal with families (whanau), sub-tribes (hapu) and tribes (iwi) ruled by a chief (rangatira) whose position was subject to the community's approval.^[259] The British and Irish immigrants brought aspects of their own culture to New Zealand and also influenced Māori culture,^[260][261] particularly with the introduction of Christianity.^[262] However, Māori still regard their allegiance to tribal groups as a vital part of their identity, and Māori kinship roles resemble those of other Polynesian peoples.^[263] More recently American, Australian, Asian and other European cultures have exerted influence on New Zealand. Non-Māori Polynesian cultures are also apparent, with Pasifika, the world's largest Polynesian festival, now an annual event in Auckland.