Persian
فارسی, دری, تاجیکی
Written in native script (Nastaʿlīq style), pronounced in the Persian language as Fārsī.
Pronunciation	[fɒːɾˈsiː]
Spoken in	Iran[1]  Afghanistan[1]  Tajikistan[1]  Uzbekistan  Iraq  India[1]  Turkey  UAE  Qatar  Pakistan[1]  Bahrain  Kuwait  Oman (see article for full list)
Region	Western Asia, Central Asia
Native speakers	80–100 million  (2011 estimates)[2] 60–110 million[3]
Language family	Indo-European Indo-Iranian Iranian Western Iranian Southwestern Iranian Persian
Dialects	Iranian Persian (pes) Afghan Persian (prs) Tajik Persian (tgk) Bukharic (bhh) Pahlavani (phv) Hazaragi (haz) Aimaq (aiq) Dzhidi (jpr) Dehwari (deh)
Writing system	Persian alphabet (Arabic script) Cyrillic script (Tajikistan, see Tajik alphabet)
Official status
Official language in	Iran  Afghanistan  Tajikistan
Regulated by	Iran: Academy of Persian Language and Literature  Afghanistan: Academy of Sciences of Afghanistan
Language codes
ISO 639-1	fa
ISO 639-2	per (B) fas (T)
ISO 639-3	fas – inclusive code Individual codes: pes – Western Persian prs – Eastern Persian tgk – Tajiki aiq – Aimaq bhh – Bukharic haz – Hazaragi jpr – Dzhidi phv – Pahlavani deh – Dehwari
Linguasphere	58-AAC (Wider Persian) > 58-AAC-c (Central Persian)
Approximate extent of the Persian language area. Map includes all three dialects of Persian.
This page contains IPA phonetic symbols in Unicode. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Unicode characters.

This article contains Persian text, written from right to left with some letters joined. Without proper rendering support, you may see unjoined letters written left-to-right, instead of right-to-left or other symbols instead of Persian script.

Persian (فارسی IPA: [fɒːɾˈsiː] formerly پارسی IPA: [pɒːɾˈsiː]) is an Iranian language within the Indo-Iranian branch of the Indo-European languages. It is primarily spoken in Iran, Afghanistan, Tajikistan and countries which historically came under Persian influence. The Persian language is classified as a continuation of Middle Persian, the official religious and literary language of Sassanid Persia, itself a continuation of Old Persian, the language of the Persian Empire in the Achaemenid era.^[4][5][6] Persian is a pluricentric language and its grammar is similar to that of many contemporary European languages.^[7]

Persian has ca. 110 million native speakers, holding official status respectively in Iran, Afghanistan and Tajikistan. For centuries Persian has also been a prestigious cultural language in Central Asia, South Asia, and Western Asia.^[8]

Persian has had a considerable influence (mainly in the lexicon) on neighboring languages, particularly the Turkic languages in Central Asia, Caucasus, and Anatolia, neighboring Iranian languages, as well as Armenian, and Indo-Aryan languages, especially Urdu. It has exerted less influence on Arabic, while borrowing much vocabulary from it.^{[4][7][9][10][11][12]}

With a long history of literature in the form of Middle Persian before Islam, Persian was the first language in Muslim civilization to break through Arabic’s monopoly on writing, and the writing of poetry in Persian was established as a court tradition in many eastern courts.^[8] Some of the famous works of Persian literature are the Shahnameh of Ferdowsi, works of Rumi (Molana), Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam, Divan of Hafiz and poems of Saadi.

Classification[link]

Persian belongs to the Western branch of the Iranian family of Indo-European languages, which also includes Kurdish, Mazandarani, Gilaki, Talyshi, and Baluchi. The first poems of the Persian Language, a language historically called Dari, have emerged in Afghanistan.^[13]

The language is in the Southwestern Iranian group, along with the Larestani and Luri languages,^[14] and the Tat Persian of the Caucasus.^[15][16][17]

Nomenclature[link]

Contemporary local nomenclature[link]

The term Persian often refers to three groups of dialects:

• Farsi (فارسی‎^[18] — translit.: fārsi ) is the local name of the language in Iran, and is sometimes used in English instead of the word Persian when referring to the language;
• Dari (دری‎^[19] — translit.: darī ) is a Persian dialect and one of the two official languages of Afghanistan;^[20]
• Tajik (тоҷикӣ / تاجیکی‎ — translit.: tojikī ^[21]) is a group of dialects spoken in Central Asia.^[22]

English nomenclature[link]

Persian, the more widely used name of the language in English historically, is an anglicized form derived from Latin *Persianus < Latin Persia < Greek Πέρσις Pérsis, a Hellenized form of Old Persian Parsa. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the term Persian as a language name is first attested in English in the mid-16th century.^[23] Native Iranian Persian speakers call it Fârsi.^[24] Farsi is the arabicized form of Pârsi, due to a lack of the 'p' phoneme in Standard Arabic (i.e., the 'p' was replaced with an 'f').^[25][26] In English, this language is historically known as "Persian", though some Persian speakers migrating to the West continued to use "Farsi" to identify their language in English and the word gained some currency in English-speaking countries.^[27] "Farsi" is encountered in some linguistic literature as a name for the language, used both by Iranian and by foreign authors.^[28] According to the OED, the term Farsi was first used in English in the mid-20th century.^[24] The Academy of Persian Language and Literature has declared that the name "Persian" is more appropriate, as it has the longer tradition in the western languages and better expresses the role of the language as a mark of cultural and national continuity.^[29] Most Persian language scholars such as Ehsan Yarshater and Kamran Talattof have also rejected the usage of "Farsi" in their articles.^[30][31]

International nomenclature[link]

The international language encoding standard ISO 639-1 uses the code "fa", as its coding system is mostly based on the local names. The more detailed standard ISO 639-3 uses the name "Persian" (code "fas") for the dialect continuum spoken across Iran and Afghanistan. This consists of the individual languages Dari (Afghan Persian) and Iranian Persian.^[32][33][34]

A similar terminology, but with even more subdivisions, is also adopted by the LINGUIST List, where "Persian" appears as a sub-grouping under "Southwest Western Iranian".^[35] Currently, VOA, BBC, DW, and RFE/RL use "Persian Service" for their broadcasts in the language. RFE/RL also includes a Tajik service, and an Afghan (Dari) service. This is also the case for the American Association of Teachers of Persian, The Centre for Promotion of Persian Language and Literature, and many of the leading scholars of Persian language.^[36]

History[link]

Persian is an Iranian language belonging to the Indo-Iranian branch of the Indo-European family of languages. In general, Iranian languages are known from four periods, usually referred to as Old, Middle, Classic and New (Modern) periods. These correspond to four eras in Iranian history; Old era being the period from sometime before Achaemenids, the Achaemenid era and sometime after Achaemenids (that is to 400-300 BC), Middle era being the next period most officially Sassanid era and sometime in post-Sassanid era, and the New era being the period afterwards down to present day. However as for Classic Persian, the origin of this language is not very clear. Words have their roots in different languages spoken in various parts of Iran but the majority of the words have their roots in Old Persian, Pahlavi and Avesta. They are represented in classical writings and poems such as the Shahnameh by Persian poet Ferdowsi. Ferdowsi claims to have gone through great pains for a period of thirty years to preserve this language, which was under pressure from the Arab invaders, and was on the verge of being lost. [1]

The Persian language [Persian: فارسی] was the language of the Persian Empire and was widely spoken in the ancient days ranging from the borders of India in the east, Russian in the north, the southern shores of the Persian Gulf, to Egypt and the Mediterranean in the west.

According to available documents, the Persian language is "the only Iranian language"[2][3] for which close philological relationships between all of its three stages are established and so that Old, Middle, and New Persian represent[2][4] one and the same language of Persian, that is New Persian is a direct descendent of Middle and Old Persian.[4]

It is documented that under the rule of the last shah of Iran, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, there was established a research group consisting historians and literates who were to discover words from Old Persian and Middle Persian and revive the original dialects.

The oldest records in Old Persian date back to the Persian Empire of the 6th century BC.[5] The known history of the Persian language can be divided into the following three distinct periods:

Old Persian[link]

Old Persian evolved from Proto-Iranian as it evolved in the Iranian plateau's southwest. The earliest dateable example of the language is the Behistun Inscription of the Achaemenid Darius I (r. 522 BC – ca. 486 BC). Although purportedly older texts also exist (such as the inscription on the tomb of Cyrus II at Pasargadae), these are actually younger examples of the language. Old Persian was written in Old Persian cuneiform, a script unique to that language and is generally assumed to be an invention of Darius I's reign.

After Aramaic, or rather the Achaemenid form of it known as Imperial Aramaic, Old Persian is the most commonly attested language of the Achaemenid age. While examples of Old Persian have been found wherever the Achaemenids held territories, the language is attested primarily in the inscriptions of Western Iran, in particular in Parsa "Persia" in the southwest, the homeland of the tribes that the Achaemenids (and later the Sassanids) came from.

In contrast to later Persian, written Old Persian had an extensively inflected grammar, with eight cases, each declension subject to both gender (masculine, feminine, neuter) and number (singular, dual, plural).

Middle Persian[link]

In contrast to Old Persian, whose spoken and written forms must have been dramatically different from one another^{[citation needed]}, written Middle Persian reflected oral use. The complex conjugation and declension of Old Persian yielded to the structure of Middle Persian in which the dual number disappeared, leaving only singular and plural, as did gender. Middle Persian used postpositions to indicate the different roles of words, for example an -i suffix to denote a possessive "from/of" rather than the multiple (subject to gender and number) genitive caseforms of a word.

Although the "middle period" of the Iranian languages formally begins with the fall of the Achaemenid Empire, the transition from Old- to Middle Persian had probably already begun before the 4th century. However, Middle Persian is not actually attested until 600 years later when it appears in Sassanid era (224–651) inscriptions, so any form of the language before this date cannot be described with any degree of certainty. Moreover, as a literary language, Middle Persian is not attested until much later, to the 6th or 7th century. And from the 8th century onwards, Middle Persian gradually began yielding to New Persian, with the middle-period form only continuing in the texts of Zoroastrian tradition.

The native name of Middle Persian was Parsik or Parsig, after the name of the ethnic group of the southwest, that is, "of Pars", Old Persian Parsa, New Persian Fars. This is the origin of the name Farsi as it is today used to signify New Persian. Following the collapse of the Sassanid state, Parsik came to be applied exclusively to (either Middle or New) Persian that was written in Arabic script. From about the 9th century onwards, as Middle Persian was on the threshold of becoming New Persian, the older form of the language came to be erroneously called Pahlavi, which was actually but one of the writing systems used to render both Middle Persian as well as various other Middle Iranian languages. That writing system had previously been adopted by the Sassanids (who were Persians, i.e. from the southwest) from the preceding Arsacids (who were Parthians, i.e. from the northeast). While Rouzbeh (Abdullah Ibn al-Muqaffa, 8th century) still distinguished between Pahlavi (i.e. Parthian) and Farsi (i.e. Middle Persian), this distinction is not evident in Arab commentaries written after that date.

Gernot Windfuhr considers new Persian as an evolution of the Old Persian language and the Middle Persian language^[37] but also states that none of the known Middle Persian dialects is the direct predecessor of the [New] Persian ^[38][39] Professor. Ludwig Paul states: "The language of the Shahnameh should be seen as one instance of continuous historical development from Middle to New Persian"^[40]

New Persian[link]

from Ferdowsi's Shahnameh.

The history of New Persian itself spans more than 1,000–1,200 years. The development of the language in its last period is often divided into three stages dubbed early, classical, and contemporary. Native speakers of the language can in fact understand early texts in Persian with minimal adjustment, because the morphology and, to a lesser extent, the lexicon of the language have remained relatively stable for the most part of a millennium.^[41]

Early New Persian[link]

New Persian developed from the 8th century on as an independent literary language.^[42] Upon the decline of the Caliphate at Baghdad in the ninth century a.d. began the re-establishment of Persian national life and Persians laid the foundations for a renaissance in the realm of letters. New Persian was born in Eastern Iran through the adaptation of the spoken form of Sassanian Middle Persian court language. The cradle of the Persian literary renaissance lay also in Eastern Iran.^[43]

The mastery of the newer speech having now been transformed from Middle- into New Persian was already complete during three princely dynasties of Iranian origin Tahirid (820-872), Saffarid (860-903) and Samanid (874-999), and could develop only in range and power of expression.^[43]

Abbas of Merv is mentioned as being the earliest minstrel to chant verse in the newer Persian tongue and after him the poems of Hanzala Badghisi were among the most famous between the Persian-speakers of the time.^[44]

The first significant Persian poet was Rudaki. He flourished in the 10th century, when the Sāmānids were at the height of their power. His reputation as a court poet and as an accomplished musician and singer has survived, although little of his poetry has been preserved. Among his lost works is versified fables collected in Kalilah wa Dimnah.^[8]

The language spread geographically from the 11th century on and was the medium through which among others, Central Asian Turks became familiar with Islam and urban culture. New Persian was widely used as a transregional lingua franca, a task for which it was particularly suitable due to its relatively simple morphological structure and this situation persisted till at least 19th century.^[42] In the late Middle Ages, new Islamic literary languages were created on the Persian model: Ottoman, Chaghatay and Urdu, which are regarded as "structural daughter languages" of Persian.^[42]

Classic Persian[link]

Kalilah wa Dimna, an influential work in Persian literature.

The Islamic conquest of Persia marks the beginning of the new history of Persian language and literature. This period produced world class Persian language poets and the language served, for a long span of time, as the lingua franca of the eastern parts of Islamic world and South Asia. It was also the official and cultural language of many Islamic dynasties, including Samanids, Buyids, Tahirids, Ziyarids, the Mughal Empire, Timurids, Ghaznavid, Seljuq, Khwarezmids, Safavid, Afsharids, Zand, Qajar, Ottomans and also many Mughal successor states such as the Nizams etc. For example, Persian was the only oriental language known and used by Marco Polo at the Court of Kublai Khan and in his journeys through China.^[45] The heavy influence of Persian on other languages can still be witnessed across the Islamic world, especially, and it is still appreciated as a literary and prestigious language among the educated elite, especially in fields of music (for example Qawwali) and art (Persian literature). After the Arab invasion of Persia, Persian began to adopt many words from Arabic and as time went by, a few words were even taken from Turko-Mongol languages under the Mongol Empire and Turco-Persian society.

Use in South Asia[link]

Persian poem, Agra castle, India, 18th century

Persian poem, Takht-e Shah Jahan, Agra castle, India

For five centuries prior to the British colonization, Persian was widely used as a second language on the Indian subcontinent. It took prominence as the language of culture and education in several Muslim courts on the subcontinent and became the sole "official language" under the Mughal emperors. Coinciding with the Safavid rule over Iran, when (royal) patronage of Persian poets was curtailed, the centre of Persian culture and literature moved to the Mughal Empire, which had huge financial resources to employ a veritable army of Persian courtly poets, lexicographers and other literati. Beginning in 1843, though, English gradually replaced Persian in importance on the subcontinent.^[46] Evidence of Persian's historical influence there can be seen in the extent of its influence on the languages of the Indian subcontinent, as well as the popularity that Persian literature still enjoys in that region. Words borrowed from Persian are still commonly used in Indo-Aryan languages, especially Urdu.

Contemporary Persian[link]

A variant of the Iranian standard ISIRI 9147 keyboard layout for Persian.

Since the nineteenth century, Russian, French and English and many other languages have contributed to the technical vocabulary of Persian. The Iranian National Academy of Persian Language and Literature is responsible for evaluating these new words in order to initiate and advise their Persian equivalents. The language itself has greatly developed during the centuries.

Varieties[link]

There are three modern varieties of standard Persian:

• Western Persian (Persian, Iranian Persian, or Farsi) is spoken in Iran, and by minorities in Iraq and the Persian Gulf states.
• Eastern Persian (Dari Persian, Afghan Persian, or Dari) is spoken in Afghanistan.
• Tajiki (Tajik Persian) is spoken in Tajikistan and Uzbekistan. It is written in the Cyrillic script.

All these three varieties are based on the classic Persian literature and its literary tradition. There are also several local dialects from Iran, Afghanistan and Tajikistan which slightly differ from the standard Persian. Hazaragi (in Central Afghanistan and Pakistan), Herati (in Western Afghanistan), Darwazi (in Afghanistan and Tajikistan), Tehrani (in Iran) and Dehwari (in Pakistan) are examples of these dialects. Persian-speaking peoples of Iran, Afghanistan, and Tajikistan can understand one another with a relatively high degree of mutual intelligibility, give or take minor differences in vocabulary, pronunciation, and grammar – much in the same relationship as shared between British and American English.

ISO 639-3 lists ten dialects of Persian, the three main literary dialects listed above and seven regional dialects: Hazaragi, Aimaq, Bukharic, Dzhidi, Dehwari, Darwazi, Pahlavani.^[47]

The following are some closely related languages to Persian:

• Luri (or Lori), spoken mainly in the southwestern Iranian provinces of Lorestan, Kohgiluyeh and Boyer-Ahmad Province, some western parts of Fars Province and some parts of Khuzestan.
• Tat, spoken in parts of Azerbaijan, Russia, etc. It includes Judæo-Tat & Christian-Tat.
• Lari (in southern Iran)

Phonology[link]

Iranian Persian has six vowels and twenty-three consonants.

Vowels[link]

The vowel phonemes of modern Tehran Persian

Historically, Persian has distinguished length: Early New Persian possessed a series of five long vowels (/iː/, /uː/, /ɒː/, /oː/ and /eː/) along with three short vowels /æ/, /i/ and /u/. At some point prior to the sixteenth century within the general area that is today encompassed by modern Iran, /eː/ and /iː/ merged into /iː/, and /oː/ and /uː/ merged into /uː/. Thus, the older contrasts such as shēr "lion" vs. shīr "milk," and rūd "river" vs rōd "bow-string" were lost. There are exceptions to this rule and in some words, "ē" and "ō" are preserved or merged into the diphthongs [eɪ] and [oʊ] (which are descendents of the diphthongs [æɪ] and [æʊ] in Early New Persian), instead of merging into /iː/ and /uː/. Examples of this exception can be found in words such as [roʊʃæn] (bright).

However, in the eastern varieties, the archaic distinction of /eː/ and /iː/ (respectively known as Yā-ye majhūl and Yā-ye ma'rūf) is still preserved, as well as the distinction of /oː/ and /uː/ (known as Wāw-e majhūl and Wāw-e ma'rūf). On the other hand, in standard Tajik, the length distinction has disappeared and /iː/ merged with /i/, and /uː/ with /u/.^[48] Therefore, contemporary Afghan dialects are the closest one can get to the vowel inventory of Early New Persian.

According to most studies on the subject (e.g. Samareh 1977, Pisowicz 1985, Najafi 2001,) the three vowels which are traditionally considered long (/i/, /u/, /ɒ/) are currently distinguished from their short counterparts (/e/, /o/, /æ/) by position of articulation, rather than by length. However, there are studies (e.g. Hayes 1979, Windfuhr 1979) which consider vowel-length to be the active feature of this system, i.e. /ɒ/, /i/, and /u/ are phonologically long or bimoraic whereas /æ/, /e/, and /o/ are phonologically short or monomoraic.

There are also some studies which consider quality and quantity to be both active in the Iranian system (e.g. Toosarvandani 2004). This view offers a synthetic analysis which includes both quality and quantity, often suggesting that modern Persian vowels are in a transition state between the quantitative system of classical Persian and a hypothetical future Persian which will eliminate all traces of quantity, and retain quality as the only active feature.

Suffice it to say that the length-distinction is strictly observed by careful reciters of classic-style poetry, for all varieties (including the Tajik).

Consonants[link]

(Where symbols appear in pairs, the one to the right represents a voiced consonant. Allophones are in parentheses.)

Grammar[link]

Morphology[link]

Suffixes predominate Persian morphology, though there is a small number of prefixes.^[49] Verbs can express tense and aspect, and they agree with the subject in person and number.^[50] There is no grammatical gender in Persian, nor are pronouns marked for natural gender.

Syntax[link]

Normal declarative sentences are structured as "(S) (PP) (O) V". This means sentences can comprise optional subjects, prepositional phrases, and objects, followed by a required verb. If the object is specific, then the object is followed by the word rā and precedes prepositional phrases: "(S) (O + rā) (PP) V".^[50]

Vocabulary[link]

Native word formation[link]

Persian makes extensive use of word building and combining affixes, stems, nouns and adjectives. Persian frequently uses derivational agglutination to form new words from nouns, adjectives, and verbal stems. New words are extensively formed by compounding – two existing words combining into a new one, as is common in German. Professor Mahmoud Hessaby demonstrated that Persian can derive 226 million words.^[51]

Influences[link]

While having a lesser influence on Arabic^[10] and other languages of Mesopotamia and its core vocabulary being of Middle Persian origin,^[7] New Persian contains a considerable amount of Arabic lexical items,^[4][9][11] which were Persianized^[12] and often took a different meaning and usage than the Arabic original. The Arabic vocabulary in other Iranic, Turkic and Indic languages are generally understood to be have been copied from New Persian.^[52]

John R. Perry in his article "Areas and Semantic Fields of Arabic" indicates his belief that the overall range of Arabic synonyms vocabulary used along or interchangeable with their equivalents Persian words varies from 2% frequency in the Shahnama,^[53] 14% in material culture,^[54] 24% in intellectual life^[54] to 40% of everyday literary activity.^[54] Most of the Arabic words used in Persian are either synonyms of native terms^[54] or could be (and often have been) glossed in Persian.^[54] The Arabic vocabulary in Persian is thus suppletive,^[54] rather than basic and has enriched New Persian.

The inclusion of Mongolian and Turkic elements in the Persian language should also be mentioned,^[55] not only because of the political role a succession of Turkic dynasties played in Iranian history, but also because of the immense prestige Persian language and literature enjoyed in the wider (non-Arab) Islamic world, which was often ruled by sultans and emirs with a Turkic background. The Turkish and Mongolian vocabulary in Persian is minor in comparison to that of Arabic and these words were mainly confined to military, pastoral terms and political sector (titles, administration, etc.).^[56] New military and political titles were coined based partially on Middle Persian (e.g. Artesh for army instead of Qoshun, Sarlashkar, DaryaBaan, etc.) in the 20th century. Persian has likewise influenced the vocabularies of other languages, especially other Indo-Iranian languages like Urdu and to a lesser extent Hindi, etc., as well as Turkic languages like Ottoman Turkish, Chagatai language, Tatar language, Turkish,^[57] Turkmen, Azeri^[58] and Uzbek, Afro-Asiatic languages like Assyrian and Arabic,^[59] and even Dravidian languages especially Telugu and Brahui. Persian has also had a significant lexical influence, via Turkish, on Bosnian, especially as spoken in Bosnia and Herzegovina.

Use of occasional foreign synonyms instead of Persian words can be a common practice in everyday communications as an alternative expression. In some instances in addition to the Persian vocabulary, the equivalent synonyms from multiple foreign languages can be used. For example, the phrase "thank you" can be expressed using the French word merci (stressed however on the first syllable), by the hybrid Persian-Arabic word moteshaker-am (moteshaker being merciful in Arabic and am meaning I am), or by the pure Persian word sepasgozar-am.

References[link]

Persian language edition of Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

1. ^ ^{a b c d e} Samadi, Habibeh; Nick Perkins (2012). Martin Ball, David Crystal, Paul Fletcher. ed. Assessing Grammar: The Languages of Larsp. Multilingual Matters. p. 169. ISBN 978-1-84769-637-3. 
2. ^ Iran, 41.282 M (53%) – 50.629 M (65%) Loc.gov, Afghanistan, 14.917 M (50%), Tajikistan, 6.094 M (79.9%), Uzbekistan, 1.237 M (4.4%)
3. ^ Windfuhr, Gernot. The Iranian Languages. Routledge. 2009. p. 418.
4. ^ ^{a b c} Professor. Gilbert Lazard, : The language known as New Persian, which usually is called at this period (early Islamic times) by the name of Dari or Farsi-Dari, can be classified linguistically as a continuation of Middle Persian, the official religious and literary language of Sassanian Iran, itself a continuation of Old Persian, the language of the Achaemenids. Unlike the other languages and dialects, ancient and modern, of the Iranian group such as Avestan, Parthian, Soghdian, Kurdish, Balochi, Pashto, etc., Old Middle and New Persian represent one and the same language at three states of its history. It had its origin in Fars (the true Persian country from the historical point of view) and is differentiated by dialectical features, still easily recognizable from the dialect prevailing in north-western and eastern Iran in Lazard, Gilbert 1975, "The Rise of the New Persian Language" in Frye, R. N., The Cambridge History of Iran, Vol. 4, pp. 595–632, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
5. ^ Ulrich Ammon, Norbert Dittmar, Klaus J. Mattheier, Peter Trudgill, "Sociolinguistics Hsk 3/3 Series Volume 3 of Sociolinguistics: An International Handbook of the Science of Language and Society", Walter de Gruyter, 2006. 2nd edition. pg 1912. Excerpt: "Middle Persian, also called Pahlavi is a direct continuation of old Persian, and was used as the written official language of the country." "However, after the Moslem conquest and the collapse of the Sassanids, Arabic became the dominant language of the country and Pahlavi lost its importance, and was gradually replaced by Dari, a variety of Middle Persian, with considerable loan elements from Arabic and Parthian."
6. ^ Skjærvø, Prods Oktor (2006). Encyclopedia Iranica,"Iran, vi. Iranian languages and scripts, "new Persian, is "the descendant of Middle Persian" and has been "official language of Iranian states for centuries", whereas for other non-Persian Iranian languages "close genetic relationships are difficult to establish" between their different (Middle and Modern) stages. Modern Yaḡnōbi belongs to the same dialect group as Sogdian, but is not a direct descendant; Bactrian may be closely related to modern Yidḡa and Munji (Munjāni); and Wakhi (Wāḵi) belongs with Khotanese."
7. ^ ^{a b c} Richard Davis, "Persian" in Josef W. Meri, Jere L. Bacharach, "Medieval Islamic Civilization", Taylor & Francis, 2006. pp. 602–603. "The grammar of New Persian is similar to many contemporary European languages."Similarly, the core vocabulary of Persian continued to be derived from Pahlavi.
8. ^ ^{a b c} Encyclopædia Britannica: Persian literature, retrieved Sept. 2011.
9. ^ ^{a b} Lazard, Gilbert, "Pahlavi, Pârsi, dari: Les langues d'Iran d'apès Ibn al-Muqaffa" in R.N. Frye, "Iran and Islam. In Memory of the late Vladimir Minorsky", Edinburgh University Press, 1971.
10. ^ ^{a b} Nushin Namazi (2008-11-24). "Persian Loan Words in Arabic". http://cgi.stanford.edu/group/wais/cgi-bin/?p=24327. Retrieved 2009-06-01. 
11. ^ ^{a b} Classe, Olive (2000). Encyclopedia of literary translation into English. Taylor & Francis. p. 1057. ISBN 1-884964-36-2, ISBN 978-1-884964-36-7. http://books.google.com/?id=C1uXah12nHgC&pg=PA1057. "Since the Arab conquest of the country in 7th century AD, many loan words have entered the language (which from this time has been written with a slightly modified version of the Arabic script) and the literature has been heavily influenced by the conventions of Arabic literature." 
12. ^ ^{a b} Ann K. S. Lambton, "Persian grammar", Cambridge University Press, Cambridge University Press 1953. Excerpt: "The Arabic words incorporated into the Persian language have become Persianized".
13. ^ Adamec, Ludwig W. (2011). Historical Dictionary of Afghanistan (4th Revised ed.). Scarecrow. p. 105. ISBN 978-0-8108-7815-0. 
14. ^ Windfuhr, Gernot (1987). Berard Comrie. ed. The World's Major Languages. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 523–546. ISBN 978-0-19-506511-4. 
15. ^ Gernot Windfuhr, "Persian Grammar: history and state of its study", Walter de Gruyter, 1979. pg 4:""Tat- Persian spoken in the East Caucasus""
16. ^ C Kerslake, Journal of Islamic Studies (2010) 21 (1): 147-151. excerpt:"It is a comparison of the verbal systems of three varieties of Persian—standard Persian, Tat, and Tajik—in terms of the 'innovations' that the latter two have developed for expressing finer differentiations of tense, aspect and modality..." [1]
17. ^ Borjian, Habib, "Tabari Language Materials from Il'ya Berezin's Recherches sur les dialectes persans", Iran and the Caucasus, Volume 10, Number 2, 2006 , pp. 243–258(16). Excerpt:"It embraces Gilani, Ta- lysh, Tabari, Kurdish, Gabri, and the Tati Persian of the Caucasus, all but the last belonging to the north-western group of Iranian language."
18. ^ Or (زبان فارسی‎ — translit.: zabān-e fārsi
19. ^ Or (فارسی دری \ فارسئ دری‎ — translit.: fārsi-ye dari
20. ^ See Dari - Geographical distribution
21. ^ Or (забони тоҷикӣ‎ / فارسی تاجیکی‎ — translit.: zabon-i tojiki
22. ^ See Tajik language - Geographical distribution
23. ^ Oxford English Dictionary online, s.v. "Persian", draft revision June 2007.
24. ^ ^{a b} Oxford English Dictionary online, s.v. "Pârsi".
25. ^ Cannon, Garland Hampton and Kaye, Alan S. (1994) The Arabic contributions to the English language: an historical dictionary Harrassowitz Verlag, Wiesbaden, Germany, page 106, ISBN 3-447-03491-2
26. ^ Odisho, Edward Y. (2005) Techniques of teaching comparative pronunciation in Arabic and English Gorgias Press, Piscataway, New Jersey, page 23 ISBN 1-59333-272-6
27. ^ Pejman Akbarzadeh (2005). ""Farsi" or "Persian"?". http://heritage.chn.ir/en/Article/?id=88. Retrieved 2007-02-20. 
28. ^ For example: A. Gharib, M. Bahar, B. Fooroozanfar, J. Homaii, and R. Yasami. Farsi Grammar. Jahane Danesh, 2nd edition, 2001.
29. ^ "Pronouncement of the Academy of Persian Language and Literature". Heritage.chn.ir. 2005-11-19. http://heritage.chn.ir/en/Article/?id=88. Retrieved 2010-07-13. 
30. ^ "Persian or Farsi?". Iranian.com. 1997-11-16. http://www.iranian.com/Features/Dec97/Persian/. Retrieved 2010-09-23. 
31. ^ "Fársi: "recently appeared language!"". PersianDirect.com. 2005-02-15. http://www.persiandirect.com/articles/2004/july/id_00003.htm. Retrieved 2010-09-23. 
32. ^ "Documentation for ISO 639 identifier: fas". Sil.org. http://www.sil.org/iso639-3/documentation.asp?id=fas. Retrieved 2010-07-13. 
33. ^ "Code PRS". Ethnologue. http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=prs. Retrieved 2010-07-13. 
34. ^ "Code PES". Ethnologue. http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=pes. Retrieved 2010-07-13. 
35. ^ "Tree for Southwest Western Iranian". Linguist List. http://linguistlist.org/forms/langs/get-familyid.cfm?CFTREEITEMKEY=IEIBCB. Retrieved 2010-07-13. 
36. ^ "Kamran Talattof Persian or Farsi? The debate continues". Iranian.com. 1997-12-16. http://www.iranian.com/Features/Dec97/Persian/. Retrieved 2010-07-13. 
37. ^ Comrie, Bernard (1990) The major languages of South Asia, the Middle East and Africa, Taylor & Francis,p. 82. Excerpt: " The evolution of Persian as the culturally dominant language of eastern Near East, from Iran to Central Asia to northwest India until recent centuries, began with the political domination of these areas by dynasties originating in southwestern province of Iran, Pars, later Arabicised to Fars: first the Achaemenids (599-331 BC) whose official language was Old Persian; then the Sassanids (c. AD 225-651) whose official language was Middle Persian. Hence, the entire country used to be called Perse by the ancient Greeks, a practice continued to this day. The more general designation 'Iran(-shahr)" derives from Old Iranian aryanam (Khshathra)'(the realm) of Aryans'. The dominance of these two dynasties resulted in Old and Middle-Persian colonies throughout the empire, most importantly for the course of the development of Persian, in the north-east i.e., what is now Khorasan, northern Afghanistan and Central Asia, as documented by the Middle Persian texts of the Manichean found in the oasis city of Turfan in Chinese Turkistan (Sinkiang). This led to certain degree of regionalisation".
38. ^ Comrie, Bernard (1990) The major languages of South Asia, the Middle East and Africa, Taylor & Francis,p. 82
39. ^ Barbara M. Horvath, Paul Vaughan, Community languages, 1991, 276 p.
40. ^ L. Paul (2005), "The Language of the Shahnameh in historical and dialetical perspective" pg 150:"The language of the Shahnameh should be seen as one instance of continuous historical development from Middle to New Persian" in Dieter Weber, D. N. MacKenzie, Languages of Iran: past and present: Iranian studies in memoriam David Neil MacKenzie, Volume 8 of Iranica Series, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. [2]
41. ^ Jeremias, Eva M. (2004). "Iran, iii. (f). New Persian". Encyclopaedia of Islam. 12 (New Edition, Supplement ed.). pp. 432. ISBN 90-04-13974-5. 
42. ^ ^{a b c} Johanson, Lars, and Christiane Bulut. 2006. Turkic-Iranian contact areas: historical and linguistic aspects. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz.
43. ^ ^{a b} Jackson, A. V. Williams. 1920. Early Persian poetry, from the beginnings down to the time of Firdausi. New York: The Macmillan Company. pp.17-19. (in Public Domain
44. ^ Jackson, A. V. Williams.pp.17-19.
45. ^ John Andrew Boyle, Some thoughts on the sources for the Il-Khanid period of Persian history, in Iran: Journal of the British Institute of Persian Studies, British Institute of Persian Studies, vol. 12 (1974), p. 175.
46. ^ Clawson, Patrick (2004). Eternal Iran. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 6. ISBN 1-4039-6276-6. 
47. ^ "Language Family Trees – Persian". Ethnologue. http://www.ethnologue.com/show_family.asp?subid=90035. Retrieved 2010-07-13. 
48. ^ Perry, J. R. (2005) A Tajik Persian Reference Grammar (Boston : Brill) ISBN 90-04-14323-8
49. ^ Megerdoomian, Karine (2000). "Persian computational morphology: A unification-based approach". Memoranda in Computer and Cognitive Science: MCCS-00-320. pp. 1. http://www.zoorna.org/papers/MCCS320.pdf. 
50. ^ ^{a b} Mahootian, Shahrzad (1997). Persian. London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-02311-4. http://books.google.com/?id=DHqUjnN2_YwC&pg=PR1&dq=Mahootian+Shahrzad+1997. 
51. ^ Fareiran.com / فرايران
52. ^ John R. Perry, "Lexical Areas and Semantic Fields of Arabic" in Éva Ágnes Csató, Eva Agnes Csato, Bo Isaksson, Carina Jahani, Linguistic convergence and areal diffusion: case studies from Iranian, Semitic and Turkic, Routledge, 2005. pg 97: "It is generally understood that the bulk of the Arabic vocabulary in the central, contingous [sic?] Iranic, Turkic and Indic languages was originally borrowed into literary Persian between the ninth and thirteenth century"
53. ^ John Perry, Encyclopedia Iranica, "Arabic Words in ŠĀH-NĀMA "
54. ^ ^{a b c d e f} John R. Perry, "Lexical Areas and Semantic Fields of Arabic" in Éva Ágnes Csató, Eva Agnes Csato, Bo Isaksson, Carina Jahani, Linguistic convergence and areal diffusion: case studies from Iranian, Semitic and Turkic,Routledge, 2005. excerpt:"A dictionary based sample yields an inventory of approximately 8000 Arabic loanwords in current standard Persian or about forty percent of an everyday literary vocabulary of 20,000 words, not counting compounds and deravitives." excerpt: "In a random experiment, the Arabic Vocabulary of material culture was 14% while that of intellectual life was 24% percent in Persian." excerpt:"Most of the Arabic loans in Persian are either synonyms of attested native terms (as Arabic Mariz; Persian Bimar 'sick') or could be (and often have been) glossed in Persian native morphs (as Arabic ta'lim va tarbiyat 'education' was later replaced by Amuzesh o Parvaresh). Arabic vocabulary in Persian is thus suppletive, rather than basic."
55. ^ e.g. The role of Azeri-Turkish in Iranian Persian, on which see John Perry, "The Historical Role of Turkish in Relation to Persian of Iran", Iran & the Caucasus, Vol. 5 (2001), pp. 193–200.
56. ^ Xavier Planhol, "Land of Iran", Encyclopedia Iranica. "The Turks, on the other hand, posed a formidable threat: their penetration into Iranian lands was considerable, to such an extent that vast regions adapted their language. This process was all the more remarkable since, in spite of their almost uninterrupted political domination for nearly 1,000 years, the cultural influence of these rough nomads on Iran’s refined civilization remained extremely tenuous. This is demonstrated by the mediocre linguistic contribution, for which exhaustive statistical studies have been made (Doerfer). The number of Turkish or Mongol words that entered Persian, though not negligible, remained limited to 2,135, i.e., 3 percent of the vocabulary at the most. These new words are confined on the one hand to the military and political sector (titles, administration, etc.) and, on the other hand, to technical pastoral terms. The contrast with Arab influence is striking. While cultural pressure of the Arabs on Iran had been intense, they in no way infringed upon the entire Iranian territory, whereas with the Turks, whose contributions to Iranian civilization were modest, vast regions of Iranian lands were assimilated, notwithstanding the fact that resistance by the latter was ultimately victorious. Several reasons may be offered."
57. ^ Andreas Tietze, Persian loanwords in Anatolian Turkish, Oriens, 20 (1967) pp- 125-168. Archive.org
58. ^ L. Johanson, "Azerbaijan: Iranian Elements in Azeri Turkish" in Encyclopedia Iranica Iranica.com
59. ^ Pasad. "Bashgah.net". Bashgah.net. http://www.bashgah.net/modules.php?name=News&file=article&sid=23845. Retrieved 2010-07-13. 

lez:Фарс чӀал

Jaleh Amouzgar (ژاله آموزگار in Persian, born 2 December 1939) is a world-class Iranist and a university professor

Life[link]

Amouzgar holds a Ph. D. degree from Sorbonne University in Iranistics (Iranian linguistics).^[1] She is currently chairman of the department of Ancient Iranian Culture and Languages at Tehran University.^[2]

Prof. Amouzgar in collaboration with Prof. Ahmad Tafazzoli has contributed significantly to Ancient Iranian studies and the history of literature in ancient Iran.

She is also associated with the Encyclopædia Iranica project at Columbia University.^[3]

Works[link]

• Zoroastrian myth of life
• Pahlavi language, literature and instructions
• Mythological history of Iran
• The first samples and the first man on legendary Iranian Shahriyar (translation)
• Le Cinquieme Livre Du Denkard, Ahmad Tafazzuli (Translator), Peeters, 2001-01-01, ISBN 978-2-910640-09-5

See also[link]

• Iranistics
• Persian culture
• List of famous Persian women

References[link]

External links[link]

• Biography of Jaleh Amouzgar
• Portrait of Jaleh Amouzgar

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Maba Diakhou Bâ (also Ma Ba Diakhu, Ma Ba Diakho Ba, Ma Ba Jaaxu, Màbba Jaxu Ba) (born 1809 at Tavacaltou - July 1867) was a marabout from Rip, and a disciple of the Tijaniyya sufi brotherhood. He became leader (Almamy) of Saloum.

A descendant of the Fulani dynasty of Dényankobé, from the branch of the Bâ family in the region of Badibou, Maba Diakhou Bâ combined political and religious goals in an attempt to reform or overthrow previous animist monarchies, and resist French encroachment. He is in a tradition of Fulani jihad leaders who revolutionized the states of West Africa at the time of colonialism.

Maba Diakhou Bâ founded the city of Nioro in Rip, and the village of Keur Maba Diakhou near Kaolack is named for him.

Resistance and conquest[link]

Maba Diakhou Bâ mounted a fierce resistance to the French colonial invasions of Senegal. Under governor Faidherbe French forces had carried out a scorched earth policy against resistance to their expansion in the Senegambia, with villages razed and populations removed after each victory. Throughout the founding of an Islamic state, Maba Diakhou Bâ tried to unify the area north of the Gambia, while leading a war of conversion against the traditional states.

After meeting Oumar Tall around 1850, Maba Diakhou Bâ launched his jihad into Serer territory from his small state of Rip in 1861. While he eventually succeeded in overtaking the dynasty of Saloum, his movement never succeeded in Sine, and much of Serer territory remained animist or Christian into the 20th century. That said, there is much to suggest that Sine resistance was as much nationalist as religious, with Muslims and animists fighting on both sides of these struggles^[1].

Battle of Rip (1865)[link]

On 30 November 1865, with the help of Lat Dior and his Cayor forces, Maba Diakhou Bâ began the conquest of the states of Sine, Baol and Djolof.

Siege of Kaolack (1865)[link]

Later at Kaolack, Maba and Lat Dior were checked by a combined force of French under Pinet-Laprade of 2000 cavalry and 4000 colonial infantry, allied with 1000 infantry and 500 cavalry from the states of Waalo, Ndiambour and Ndiander.

Islamization and reform[link]

As well as converting traditional states to Islam, Maba Diakhou Bâ's forces sought to abolish the traditional caste system of the Wolof and Serer aristocratic states. In unifying with other Muslim forces, West African Jihad states aimed to end the reign of small regional kingships who kept the area in a constant state of war, and the farming and artisanal classes in slave conditions. The Toucouleur Empire of El Hadj Umar Tall in Mali, which rose at about the same time had much the same goals, and Umar Tall himself was in contact with and recruited among Maba Diakhou Bâ's forces^[2].

Lat Dior[link]

After Lat Dior, the young king of Wolof Cayor was defeated by the French at the Battle of Loro (1864), Maba Diakhou Bâ offered him asylum, and converted Dior and his soldiers from the traditional Tièddo animism to Islam. While his conversion may have been for reasons more political than spiritual, Lat Dior became a powerful ally even in exile, leading his forces alongside those of Sine.

In 1867, Lat Dior and Maba Diakhou Bâ reconquered Cayor from the king placed there by the French. Governor Pinet-Laprade had little choice but to accede to Lat Dior, confirming him as the French chef de canton.

Death and legacy[link]

In 1876, Maba Diakhou Bâ was killed leading forces against the animist Serer state of Maad a Sinig Kumba Ndoffene Famak Joof. By 1871, the Serer had re-instated their traditional monarchy, which was soon to be supplanted by the French^{[dubious – discuss]}.

Maba Diakhou Bâ is an important link in the tradition of Senegalese marabouts who trace their lineage to Umar Tal. This tradition has continued to the present, with such notables as El Hadj Saidou Nourou Tall (the former grand marabout of French West Africa) the Tivaouane-based Sy family of El Hadj Malik Sy (1855-1922), and the Niass family of Abdoulaye Niass (1840–1922) and his son Ibrahim Niass in Kaolack. Tivaouane in the north among the Wolof and Kaolack among the Serer have become the two centers of Tijaniyyah sufi teaching in Senegal, and both were founded as a direct result of Maba Diakhou Bâ's short-lived state^[3].

He was interred in the village of Fandène (or Mbel Fandane), and his tomb, which has become a place of pilgrimage, is in the arrondissement of Diakhao, département of region of Fatick in Sine-Saloum, Sénégal.

See also[link]

• Maad a Sinig Kumba Ndoffene Famak Joof
• The Battle of Fandane-Thiouthioune
• Muslim brotherhoods of Senegal
• The Tijaniyyah Expansion in West Africa

References[link]

• Translation of Fr:wikipedia.
• Tidiane N’Diaye, MEMOIRE D’ERRANCE.
• Lat Dior, Le Kayor, l'impossible defi.
• Site officiel du Sénégal.
• Joseph Hill. Màbba Jaxu Ba and Islamic Revolution, 4 March 2006.

Bibliography[link]

• L’épopée de Maba Diakhou Ba du Rip, mémoire de maîtrise, Dakar, Faculté des Lettres et Sciences humaines, Département de Lettres modernes, 1996. MBAYE, A. K.
• Maba Diakhou Ba, par Iba Der Thiam - ISBN 978-2-85809-102-7 - ISBN 2-85809-102-1 - Publié par A.B.C. [Afrique biblio-club] - Date: 1977-01-01
• Kélétigui S. Keita, Maba Diakhou Ba dans le Rip et le Saloum (1861-1867), Dakar, Université de Dakar, 1970, 165 p. (Mémoire de Maîtrise)
• Atlas du Sénégal, par Iba Der Thiam et Mbaye Guèye, édition Jeune Afrique, 2000.