Barry Goldwater

Monday, 29 October 2012

Barry Goldwater

Barry Goldwater explains his vote against the Civil Rights Act of 1964 - Firing Line (1966)

Extremism In The Defense Of Liberty Is No Vice

Barry Goldwater: 1964 Republican National Convention

Barry Goldwater on the role of conservatism - Firing Line with William F. Buckley

Mr. Conservative: Barry Goldwater vs. the Religious Right

Barry Goldwater on The Trouble w/Big Inflationary Government

Barry Goldwater - To The Future From The Past

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Alabama
Alabama () is a state located in the southeastern region of the United States of America. It is bordered by Tennessee to the north, Georgia to the east, Florida and the Gulf of Mexico to the south, and Mississippi to the west. Alabama ranks 30th in total land area and ranks second in the size of its inland waterways. The state ranks 23rd in population with almost 4.6 million residents in 2006.
http://wn.com/Alabama
Alaska
Alaska () is the largest state of the United States by area. It is situated in the northwest extremity of the North American continent, with Canada to the east, the Arctic Ocean to the north, and the Pacific Ocean to the west and south, with Russia further west across the Bering Strait. Approximately half of Alaska's 698,473 residents live within the Anchorage metropolitan area. As of 2009, Alaska remains the least densely populated state of the U.S.
http://wn.com/Alaska
Arizona Territory
The Territory of Arizona was an organized incorporated territory of the United States that existed from February 24, 1863 until February 14, 1912, when it was admitted to the Union as the 48th state.
http://wn.com/Arizona_Territory
Birmingham, Alabama
Birmingham (, ) is the largest city in Alabama. The city is the county seat of Jefferson County. According to an estimate by the U.S. Census Bureau in 2007, Birmingham had a population of about 229,800. The Birmingham Metropolitan Area, in estimate by the U.S. Census Bureau in 2009, had a population of about 1,212,848. The Birmingham Metropolitan Area contains about one-quarter of the entire population of Alabama.
http://wn.com/Birmingham_Alabama
California
California (pronounced ) is the most populous state in the United States and the third-largest by land area, after Alaska and Texas. California is also the most populous sub-national entity in North America. It's on the U.S. West Coast, bordered by the Pacific Ocean to the west and by the states of Oregon to the north, Nevada to the east, Arizona to the southeast, Baja California, Mexico, to the south. Its 5 largest cities are Los Angeles, San Diego, San Jose, San Francisco, and Long Beach, with Los Angeles, San Diego, and San Jose each having at least 1 million residents. Like many populous states, California's capital, Sacramento is smaller than the state's largest city, Los Angeles. The state is home to the nation's 2nd- and 6th-largest census statistical areas and 8 of the nation's 50 most populous cities. California has a varied climate and geography and a multi-cultural population.
http://wn.com/California
Dien Bien Phu
http://wn.com/Dien_Bien_Phu
Emma Goldman
http://wn.com/Emma_Goldman
Georgia (U.S. state)
Georgia () is a state located in the southeastern United States. Georgia was established in 1732, the last of the original Thirteen Colonies. Georgia was the fourth state to ratify the United States Constitution, on January 2, 1788. It declared its secession from the Union on January 21, 1861, and was one of the original seven Confederate states. It was the last state to be restored to the Union, on July 15, 1870 and the only among the 13 that is explicitly named after a monarch; King George II of England.
http://wn.com/Georgia_(US_state)
Green River, UT
http://wn.com/Green_River_UT
Heard Museum
The Heard Museum of Native Cultures and Art is a museum located in Phoenix, Arizona, USA. There is also the Heard Museum North Scottsdale branch in Scottsdale and the Heard Museum West branch in Surprise.
http://wn.com/Heard_Museum
Himalayas
The Himalaya Range (Sanskrit: literally, "abode of snow", Hindi/Sanskrit: , IPA: ), the Himalayas or Himalaya for short, is a mountain range in Asia, separating the Indian subcontinent from the Tibetan Plateau. By extension, it is also the name of a massive mountain system that includes the Karakoram, the Hindu Kush, and other, lesser, ranges that extend out from the Pamir Knot.
http://wn.com/Himalayas
Illinois
Illinois ( {{respell|-i-), is the fifth-most populous state of the United States of America, and is often noted for being a microcosm of the entire country. It is the most populous state in the Midwest region, however with 65% of its residents concentrated in the Chicago metropolitan area, most of the state has either a rural or a small town character. With Chicago in the northeast, small industrial cities and great agricultural productivity in central and western Illinois, and natural resources like coal, timber, and petroleum in the south, Illinois has a broad economic base. Illinois is an important transportation hub; the Port of Chicago connects the Great Lakes to the Mississippi River via the Illinois River. As the "most average state", Illinois has long had a reputation as a bellwether both in social and cultural terms and politics, though the latter has not really been true since the early 1970s.
http://wn.com/Illinois
India
India (), officially the Republic of India ( ; see also official names of India), is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by geographical area, the second-most populous country with over 1.18 billion people, and the most populous democracy in the world. Mainland India is bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the west, and the Bay of Bengal on the east; and it is bordered by Pakistan to the west; Bhutan, the People's Republic of China and Nepal to the north; and Bangladesh and Burma to the east. In the Indian Ocean, mainland India and the Lakshadweep Islands are in the vicinity of Sri Lanka and the Maldives, while India's Andaman and Nicobar Islands share maritime border with Thailand and the Indonesian island of Sumatra in the Andaman Sea. India has a coastline of .
http://wn.com/India
Iran
Iran ( ), officially the Islamic Republic of Iran is a country in Central Eurasia and Western Asia. The name Iran has been in use natively since the Sassanian era and came into use internationally in 1935, before which the country was also known to the western world as Persia. Both Persia and Iran are used interchangeably in cultural contexts; however, Iran is the name used officially in political contexts.
http://wn.com/Iran
Kansas
http://wn.com/Kansas
Kentucky
The Commonwealth of Kentucky () is a state located in the East Central United States of America. As classified by the United States Census Bureau, Kentucky is a Southern state. Kentucky is one of four U.S. states constituted as a commonwealth (the others being Virginia, Pennsylvania, and Massachusetts). Originally a part of Virginia, in 1792 it became the 15th state to join the Union. Kentucky is the 37th largest state in terms of total area, the 36th largest in land area, and ranks 26th in population.
http://wn.com/Kentucky
Louisiana
http://wn.com/Louisiana
Massachusetts
The Commonwealth of Massachusetts () is a state in the New England region of the northeastern United States. It is bordered by Rhode Island and Connecticut to the south, New York to the west, and Vermont and New Hampshire to the north; at its east lies the Atlantic Ocean. Most of its population of 6.6 million lives in the Boston metropolitan area. The eastern half of the state consists of urban, suburban, and rural areas, while Western Massachusetts is mostly rural. Massachusetts is the most populous of the six New England states and ranks third among U.S. states in GDP per capita.
http://wn.com/Massachusetts
Minnesota
Minnesota () is a U.S. state located in the Midwestern United States. The twelfth largest state of the U.S., it is the twenty-first most populous, with 5.27 million residents. Minnesota was carved out of the eastern half of the Minnesota Territory and admitted to the Union as the thirty-second state on May 11, 1858. Known as the "Land of 10,000 Lakes", the state's name comes from a Dakota word for "sky-tinted water". Those waters, together with forests, parks, and wilderness areas, offer residents and tourists a variety of outdoor recreational opportunities.
http://wn.com/Minnesota
Mississippi
Mississippi () is a U.S. state located in the Southern United States. Jackson is the state capital and largest city. The name of the state derives from the Mississippi River, which flows along its western boundary, which namesake is from the Ojibwe word misi-ziibi ("Great River"). The state is heavily forested outside of the Mississippi Delta area, and its catfish aquaculture farms produce the majority of farm-raised catfish consumed in the United States. The state symbol is the magnolia grandiflora tree.
http://wn.com/Mississippi
Moscow Kremlin
http://wn.com/Moscow_Kremlin
Muncie, Indiana
Muncie () is a city in Center Township, Delaware County in east central Indiana, best known as the home of Ball State University and the birthplace of the Ball Corporation. It is the principal city of the Muncie, Indiana, Metropolitan Statistical Area, which has a population of 118,769. The population within city limits, as of the 2000 Census, was 67,430.
http://wn.com/Muncie_Indiana
New Hampshire
New Hampshire () is a state in the New England region of the northeastern United States of America. The state was named after the southern English county of Hampshire. It borders Massachusetts to the south, Vermont to the west, Maine and the Atlantic Ocean to the east, and the Canadian province of Quebec to the north. New Hampshire ranks 44th in land area, 46th in total area of the 50 states, and 41st in population.
http://wn.com/New_Hampshire
New York
New York (; locally or ) is a state in the Northeastern region of the United States. It is the nation's third most populous state. New York is bordered by New Jersey and Pennsylvania to the south, and by Connecticut, Massachusetts and Vermont to the east. The state has a maritime border with Rhode Island east of Long Island, as well as an international border with the Canadian provinces of Ontario to the north and west, and Quebec to the north. New York is often referred to as New York State to distinguish it from New York City.
http://wn.com/New_York
Nigeria
Nigeria (), officially the Federal Republic of Nigeria, is a federal constitutional republic comprising thirty-six states and its Federal Capital Territory, Abuja. The country is located in West Africa and shares land borders with the Republic of Benin in the west, Chad and Cameroon in the east, and Niger in the north. Its coast in the south lies on the Gulf of Guinea on the Atlantic Ocean. The three largest and most influential ethnic groups in Nigeria are the Hausa, Igbo and Yoruba. In terms of religion Nigeria is roughly split half and half between Muslims and Christians with a very small minority who practice traditional religion.
http://wn.com/Nigeria
Panama
Panama (), officially the Republic of Panama (; ), is the southernmost country of Central America. Situated on the isthmus connecting North and South America, it is bordered by Costa Rica to the northwest, Colombia to the southeast, the Caribbean Sea to the north and the Pacific Ocean to the south. The capital is Panama City.
http://wn.com/Panama
Pennsylvania
The Commonwealth of Pennsylvania () is a U.S. state and Commonwealth located in the Northeastern and Middle Atlantic regions of the United States. The state borders Delaware and Maryland to the south, West Virginia to the southwest, Ohio to the west, New York and Ontario, Canada, to the north, and New Jersey to the east. The state's four most populous cities are Philadelphia, Pittsburgh, Allentown and Erie. The state capital is Harrisburg.
http://wn.com/Pennsylvania
Phoenix, Arizona
Phoenix ( , O'odham Skikik, Yavapai Wasinka, Western Apache Fiinigis, Navajo Hoozdoh, Mojave ''Hachpa 'Anya Nyava) is the capital and largest city of the U.S. state of Arizona, as well as the fifth most populated city in the United States. Phoenix is home to 1,601,587 people according to the 2009 estimate by the U.S. Census Bureau, and is the anchor of the Phoenix metropolitan area (also known as the Valley of the Sun''), the 12th largest metro area by population in the United States with more than 4.3 million people. In addition, Phoenix is the county seat of Maricopa County, and is one of the largest cities in the United States by land area.
http://wn.com/Phoenix_Arizona
Princeton University
Princeton University is a private research university located in Princeton, New Jersey, United States. The school is one of the eight universities of the Ivy League, and is one of the nine Colonial Colleges founded before the American Revolution.
http://wn.com/Princeton_University
Republic of China
The Republic of China (ROC), commonly known as Taiwan, is a state in East Asia located off the east coast of mainland China. Subject to an ongoing dispute with the People's Republic of China (PRC) that has left it with limited formal diplomatic relations, the government of the Republic of China currently governs the islands of Taiwan, Penghu, Kinmen, Matsu and other minor islands. Neighbouring states include the People's Republic of China to the west, Japan to the northeast, and the Philippines to the south.
http://wn.com/Republic_of_China
Rhode Island
The State of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, more commonly referred to as Rhode Island ( or ), is a state in the New England region of the United States. It is the smallest U.S. state by area. Rhode Island borders Connecticut to the west and Massachusetts to the north and east, and it shares a water boundary with New York's Long Island to the southwest.
http://wn.com/Rhode_Island
South Carolina
South Carolina () is a state in the United States that borders Georgia to the south and North Carolina to the north. Originally part of the Province of Carolina, the Province of South Carolina was one of the 13 colonies that declared independence from the British Crown during the American Revolution. The colony was originally named by British King Charles II in honor of his father Charles I of England, as Carolus is Latin for Charles. South Carolina was the first state to vote to secede from the Union and was the founding state of the Confederate States of America. According to an estimate by the United States Census Bureau, the state's population in 2009 was 4,561,242 and ranked 24th among the U.S. states. South Carolina contains 46 counties and its capital is Columbia.
http://wn.com/South_Carolina
Soviet Union
http://wn.com/Soviet_Union
Taiwan
Taiwan, also known (especially in the past) as Formosa (from , "Beautiful Island"), is an island situated in East Asia in the Western Pacific Ocean and located off the southeastern coast of mainland China. It comprises most (99%) of the territory of the Republic of China (ROC) since the 1950s. The term "Taiwan" is also a common name to refer to the entire country of the Republic of China.
http://wn.com/Taiwan
Texas
Texas () is the second-largest U.S. state by both area and population, and the largest state in the contiguous United States.
http://wn.com/Texas
United States
The United States of America (also referred to as the United States, the U.S., the USA, or America) is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district. The country is situated mostly in central North America, where its forty-eight contiguous states and Washington, D.C., the capital district, lie between the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans, bordered by Canada to the north and Mexico to the south. The state of Alaska is in the northwest of the continent, with Canada to the east and Russia to the west across the Bering Strait. The state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific. The country also possesses several territories in the Caribbean and Pacific.
http://wn.com/United_States

Aaron A. Sargent
Aaron Augustus Sargent (September 28, 1827 – August 14, 1887) was an American journalist, lawyer, politician and diplomat. He was sometimes called the "Senator for the Southern Pacific Railroad".
http://wn.com/Aaron_A_Sargent
Aaron H. Cragin
http://wn.com/Aaron_H_Cragin
Abraham Lincoln
http://wn.com/Abraham_Lincoln
Adlai Stevenson II
http://wn.com/Adlai_Stevenson_II
Al D'Amato
'''Alfonse Marcello "Al" D'Amato''' (born August 1, 1937) is an American lawyer and former New York politician. A Republican, he served as United States Senator from New York from 1981 to 1999.
http://wn.com/Al_D'Amato
Albert S. Porter
Albert S. Porter (November 4, 1904 – January 7, 1979) was an American politician from Ohio.
http://wn.com/Albert_S_Porter
Alf Landon
http://wn.com/Alf_Landon
Andrew Jackson
http://wn.com/Andrew_Jackson
Andrew Johnson
Andrew Johnson (December 29, 1808 – July 31, 1875) was the 17th President of the United States (1865–1869). Following the assassination of President Abraham Lincoln, Johnson presided over the Reconstruction era of the United States in the four years after the American Civil War. His tenure was controversial as his positions favoring the white South came under heavy political attack from Republicans.
http://wn.com/Andrew_Johnson
Ansel Adams
http://wn.com/Ansel_Adams
Arlen Specter
Arlen Specter (born February 12, 1930) is the senior United States senator from Pennsylvania. Specter is a Democrat, but was a Republican from 1965 until switching to the Democratic Party in 2009. Elected to the Senate in 1980, Specter staked out a spot in the political center. In April 2006, he was selected by Time as one of America's Ten Best Senators.
http://wn.com/Arlen_Specter
Arthur Summerfield
Arthur Ellsworth Summerfield (Pinconning, Michigan, 17 March 1899 – 26 April 1972 in West Palm Beach, Florida) was a U.S. political figure. He ran (unsuccessfully) for the governorship of his home state of Michigan in 1946 and served as the chairman of the Republican National Committee between 1952 and 1953. At the 1952 Republican National Convention he played a key role in winning the GOP presidential nomination for General Dwight Eisenhower. As Michigan's delegate chairman Summerfield convinced the large, uncommitted Michigan delegation to support Eisenhower, thus providing "Ike" with a major boost before the voting. As a reward for his support, in December 1952 President-Elect Eisenhower chose Summerfield as the federal Postmaster General; he served in that post from 1953 to 1961.
http://wn.com/Arthur_Summerfield
Auberon Herbert
Auberon Edward William Molyneux Herbert (Highclere, 18 June 1838 – 5 November 1906) was a writer, theorist, philosopher, and member of the Parliament of the United Kingdom, son of the 3rd Earl of Carnarvon, brother of Henry Herbert, the 4th Earl, and father of the 9th Baron Lucas. He promoted a libertarian philosophy (that several authors consider related to libertarian anarchism) and took the ideas of Herbert Spencer a stage further by advocating voluntary-funded "government" that uses force only in defense of individual liberty and property. He is known as the originator of Voluntaryism.
http://wn.com/Auberon_Herbert
Ayn Rand
http://wn.com/Ayn_Rand
B. Carroll Reece
Brazilla Carroll Reece (December 22, 1889–March 19, 1961) was a U.S. Representative from Tennessee.
http://wn.com/B_Carroll_Reece
Barry Goldwater
http://wn.com/Barry_Goldwater
Barry Goldwater, Jr
http://wn.com/Barry_Goldwater_Jr
Barry Goldwater, Jr.
Barry Morris Goldwater, Jr. (born July 15, 1938), is a former Republican member of the United States House of Representatives from California, 1969–1983. He is the son of the late Arizona Senator Barry Goldwater, the Republican nominee who ran against Lyndon B. Johnson for President of the United States during the 1964 Presidential election.
http://wn.com/Barry_Goldwater_Jr
Benjamin Harrison
Benjamin Harrison (August 20, 1833 – March 13, 1901) was the 23rd President of the United States, serving one term from 1889 to 1893. Harrison, a grandson of President William Henry Harrison, was born in North Bend, Ohio, and moved to Indianapolis, Indiana at age 21, eventually becoming a prominent politician there. During the American Civil War, he served as a Brigadier General in the XX Corps of the Army of the Cumberland. After the war he unsuccessfully ran for the governorship of Indiana, and was later appointed to the U.S. Senate from that state.
http://wn.com/Benjamin_Harrison
Benjamin Tillman
Benjamin Ryan Tillman (August 11, 1847 – July 3, 1918) was an American politician who served as the 84th Governor of South Carolina, from 1890 to 1894, and as a United States Senator, from 1895 until his death in office. Combative, vitriolic, and openly racist, Tillman's views were a matter of national controversy.
http://wn.com/Benjamin_Tillman
Benjamin Tucker
http://wn.com/Benjamin_Tucker
Bennett Cerf
http://wn.com/Bennett_Cerf
Bill Brock
William Emerson "Bill" Brock III (born November 23, 1930) is a former Republican United States senator from Tennessee, having served from 1971 to 1977. He was the grandson of William Emerson Brock I, who was a Democratic U.S. senator from Tennessee from 1929 to 1931.
http://wn.com/Bill_Brock
Bill Clinton
William Jefferson "Bill" Clinton (born William Jefferson Blythe III, August 19, 1946) is the former 42nd President of the United States and served from 1993 to 2001. At 46 he was the third-youngest president. He became president at the end of the Cold War, and was the first baby boomer president. His wife, Hillary Rodham Clinton, is currently the United States Secretary of State. Each received a Juris Doctor (J.D.) from Yale Law School.
http://wn.com/Bill_Clinton
Birch Bayh
Birch Evans Bayh II (, respell|; born January 22, 1928) is a former United States Senator from Indiana, having served from 1963 to 1981. He was a candidate for the Democratic nomination for president in the 1976 election, but lost to Jimmy Carter. He is the father of former Indiana governor and current U.S. Senator Evan Bayh.
http://wn.com/Birch_Bayh
Bob Dole
Robert Joseph "Bob" Dole (born July 22, 1923) is an American attorney and politician. He represented Kansas in the United States Senate from 1969 to 1996, served as Gerald Ford's Vice Presidential running mate in the 1976 presidential election, and was Senate Majority Leader from 1985 to 1987 and in 1995 and 1996. Dole was the Republican party nominee in the presidential election of 1996, but he lost to incumbent Democrat Bill Clinton. Dole is currently special counsel at the Washington, D.C. office of law firm Alston & Bird.
http://wn.com/Bob_Dole
Bob Graham
Daniel Robert "Bob" Graham (born November 9, 1936) is an American politician. He was the 38th Governor of Florida from 1979 to 1987 and a United States Senator from that state from 1987 to 2005. Following a failed bid for the Democratic Party nomination in the 2004 presidential race, Graham was considered a possible running mate for John Kerry.
http://wn.com/Bob_Graham
Bob Packwood
Robert William "Bob" Packwood (born September 11, 1932) is a U.S. politician from Oregon and a member of the Republican Party. He resigned from the United States Senate, under threat of expulsion, in 1995 after allegations of sexual harassment, abuse and assault of women emerged.
http://wn.com/Bob_Packwood
Businessman
http://wn.com/Businessman
C. Wesley Roberts
Charles Wesley Roberts (December 14, 1902 – 1976) was a Kansas businessman who was Chairman of the Republican National Committee for four months in 1953 under Dwight D. Eisenhower.
http://wn.com/C_Wesley_Roberts
Calvin Coolidge
John Calvin Coolidge, Jr., (July 4, 1872 January 5, 1933) was the 30th President of the United States (1923–1929). A Republican lawyer from Vermont, Coolidge worked his way up the ladder of Massachusetts state politics, eventually becoming governor of that state. His actions during the Boston Police Strike of 1919 thrust him into the national spotlight. Soon after, he was elected as the 29th Vice President in 1920 and succeeded to the Presidency upon the sudden death of Warren G. Harding in 1923. Elected in his own right in 1924, he gained a reputation as a small-government conservative.
http://wn.com/Calvin_Coolidge
Carl Levin
Carl Milton Levin (born June 28, 1934) is a Democratic United States Senator from Michigan and is the Chairman of the Senate Committee on Armed Services. In the Senate since 1979, he has been Michigan's senior senator since 1995. He has served as a U.S. Senator longer than any Senator in Michigan history. He was elected to a sixth term in 2008, which will end in January 2015. He is the younger brother of U.S. Representative Sander M. Levin.
http://wn.com/Carl_Levin
Carroll S. Page
Carroll Smalley Page (January 10, 1843 - December 3, 1925) was a United States Senator and the 43rd Governor of Vermont. Born in Westfield, Vermont, he attended the common schools, People's Academy in Morrisville and Lamoille Central Academy in Hyde Park. He was a dealer in raw calfskins at Hyde Park and was president and director of several banks and corporations. From 1869 to 1872 he was a member of the Vermont House of Representatives; from 1874 to 1876 a member of the Vermont Senate, and from 1880 to 1891 registrar of probate court. He was a savings bank examiner from 1884 to 1888, and was Governor of Vermont from 1890 to 1892.
http://wn.com/Carroll_S_Page
Charles Curtis
http://wn.com/Charles_Curtis
Charles Evans Hughes
http://wn.com/Charles_Evans_Hughes
Charles G. Dawes
Charles Gates Dawes (August 27, 1865 – April 23, 1951) was an American banker and politician who was the 30th Vice President of the United States. For his work on the Dawes Plan for World War I reparations he was a co-recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize. He served in the First World War, was U.S. Comptroller of the Currency, the first director of the Bureau of the Budget, and, in later life, the U.S. Ambassador to the United Kingdom.
http://wn.com/Charles_G_Dawes
Charles L. McNary
http://wn.com/Charles_L_McNary
Charles L. Sullivan
http://wn.com/Charles_L_Sullivan
Charles W. Fairbanks
Charles Warren Fairbanks (May 11, 1852 – June 4, 1918) was a Senator from Indiana and the 26th Vice President of the United States.
http://wn.com/Charles_W_Fairbanks
Cicero
Marcus Tullius Cicero (; Classical Latin: ; January 3, 106 BC – December 7, 43 BC; sometimes anglicized as "Tully"), was a Roman philosopher, statesman, lawyer, political theorist, and Roman constitutionalist. He came from a wealthy municipal family of the equestrian order, and is widely considered one of Rome's greatest orators and prose stylists.
http://wn.com/Cicero
Claude A. Swanson
Claude Augustus Swanson (March 31, 1862 July 7, 1939) was an American lawyer and Democratic Party politician from Virginia.
http://wn.com/Claude_A_Swanson
Clifton DeBerry
Clifton DeBerry (1924-2006) was an American communist and two-time candidate for President of the United States of the Socialist Workers Party. He was the first black American in the 20th Century to be chosen by a political party as its nominee for President.
http://wn.com/Clifton_DeBerry
Curtis LeMay
http://wn.com/Curtis_LeMay
Dan Quayle
http://wn.com/Dan_Quayle
Daniel Brewster
http://wn.com/Daniel_Brewster
Daniel Inouye
Daniel Ken "Dan" Inouye (;, Inoue Ken; born September 7, 1924) is an American politician who is the senior United States Senator from Hawaii and the President pro tempore of the United States Senate making him the highest-ranking Asian American politician in American history. A Democrat, Inouye is the chairman of the influential United States Senate Committee on Appropriations.
http://wn.com/Daniel_Inouye
David A. Reed
http://wn.com/David_A_Reed
David Bar-Illan
http://wn.com/David_Bar-Illan
David D. Friedman
David Director Friedman (born February 12, 1945) is an American writer who became a leading figure in the anarcho-capitalist community with the publication of his book The Machinery of Freedom (1973, revised 1989). He has also authored the books Price Theory: An Intermediate Text (1986), ''Law's Order (2000), Hidden Order: The Economics of Everyday Life (1996), and Future Imperfect'' (2008).
http://wn.com/David_D_Friedman
David Durenberger
David Ferdinand Durenberger (born August 19, 1934) is an American politician and a former Republican member of the U.S. Senate from Minnesota.
http://wn.com/David_Durenberger
David I. Walsh
http://wn.com/David_I_Walsh
David L. Boren
David Lyle Boren (born April 21, 1941) is an academic leader and American politician from the state of Oklahoma. A Democrat, he served as the 21st Governor of Oklahoma from 1975 to 1979 and in the United States Senate from 1979 to 1994. He is currently president of the University of Oklahoma. He was the longest serving Chairman of the U.S. Senate Select Committee on Intelligence. Currently, he serves as Co-Chair of the U.S. President's Intelligence Advisory Board.
http://wn.com/David_L_Boren
David Levy Yulee
David Levy Yulee (June 12, 1810 – October 10, 1886) was an American politician from Florida and the first Jewish member of the United States Senate.
http://wn.com/David_Levy_Yulee
Dean Burch
http://wn.com/Dean_Burch
Dennis DeConcini
Dennis Webster DeConcini (born May 8, 1937 Tucson, Arizona) is a former Democratic U.S. Senator from Arizona. Son of former Arizona Supreme Court Judge Evo Anton DeConcini, he represented Arizona in the United States Senate from 1977 until 1995.
http://wn.com/Dennis_DeConcini
Dianne Feinstein
Dianne Goldman Berman Feinstein (; born June 22, 1933) is the senior U.S. Senator from California and a member of the Democratic Party. Feinstein was first elected to the U.S. Senate in 1992, was re-elected in 1994, 2000 and in 2006 for a term ending in January 2013. She also served as Mayor of San Francisco from 1978 to 1988.
http://wn.com/Dianne_Feinstein
Dick Cheney
Richard Bruce "Dick" Cheney (born January 30, 1941) served as the 46th Vice President of the United States from 2001 to 2009 under George W. Bush. He briefly served as Acting President of the United States on two occasions during which Bush underwent medical procedures.
http://wn.com/Dick_Cheney
Don Goldwater
Donald H. "Don" Goldwater is an Arizona Republican Party activist, and the nephew of the late U.S. senator and U.S. presidential candidate Barry M. Goldwater.
http://wn.com/Don_Goldwater
Don Nickles
Donald Lee Nickles (born December 6, 1948) is an American businessman and political leader who was a Republican United States Senator from Oklahoma from 1981 until 2005. He was a fiscal and social conservative.
http://wn.com/Don_Nickles
Dwight D. Eisenhower
http://wn.com/Dwight_D_Eisenhower
Dwight M. Sabin
Dwight May Sabin (April 25, 1843 – December 22, 1902) was an American politician. He served as a Republican in the United States Senate from Minnesota from March 4, 1883, to March 3, 1889 in the 48th, 49th, and 50th congresses. He was not renominated by his party.
http://wn.com/Dwight_M_Sabin
E. Harold Munn
http://wn.com/E_Harold_Munn
Earl Warren
Earl Warren (March 19, 1891 – July 9, 1974) was the 14th Chief Justice of the United States and the only person elected Governor of California three times. Before holding these positions, Warren served as a district attorney for Alameda County, California and Attorney General of California. He is best known for the sweeping decisions of the Warren Court, which ended school segregation and transformed many areas of American law, especially regarding the rights of the accused, ending school prayer, and requiring "one-man-one vote" rules of apportionment. He made the Court a power center on a more even base with Congress and the presidency especially through four landmark decisions: Brown v. Board of Education (1954), Gideon v. Wainwright (1963), Reynolds v. Sims (1964), and Miranda v. Arizona (1966).
http://wn.com/Earl_Warren
Ed Gillespie
Edward W. Gillespie is an American Republican political strategist and former Counselor to the President in the George W. Bush White House. Gillespie, along with Jack Quinn, former Chief of Staff to Vice President Al Gore, founded Quinn Gillespie & Associates, a bipartisan lobbying firm.
http://wn.com/Ed_Gillespie
Edward C. Walthall
Edward Cary Walthall (April 4, 1831 – April 21, 1898) was a general in the Confederate States Army during the American Civil War and a postbellum United States Senator from Mississippi.
http://wn.com/Edward_C_Walthall
Edwin D. Morgan
Edwin Denison Morgan (February 8, 1811 - February 14, 1883) was the 21st Governor of New York from 1859 to 1862 and served in the United States Senate from 1863 to 1869. He was the first and longest serving chairman of the Republican National Committee. He was also a Union Army general during the American Civil War.
http://wn.com/Edwin_D_Morgan
Elbert D. Thomas
Elbert Duncan Thomas (June 17, 1883 – February 11, 1953) was a Democratic Party politician from Utah. He represented Utah in the United States Senate from 1933 until 1951.
http://wn.com/Elbert_D_Thomas
Elizabeth Dole
Mary Elizabeth Hanford "Liddy" Dole (born July 29, 1936) is an American politician who served in both the Ronald Reagan and George H. W. Bush presidential administrations, as well as a United States Senator.
http://wn.com/Elizabeth_Dole
Emma Goldman
http://wn.com/Emma_Goldman
Eric Hass
Eric Hass (March 4, 1905 - October 2, 1980) was a four-time candidate for United States President of the Socialist Labor Party of America.
http://wn.com/Eric_Hass
Ernest McFarland
http://wn.com/Ernest_McFarland
Eugene Hale
Eugene Hale (June 6, 1836 – October 27, 1918) was a Republican United States Senator from Maine.
http://wn.com/Eugene_Hale
Everett Dirksen
http://wn.com/Everett_Dirksen
Farrell Dobbs
Farrell Dobbs (July 25, 1907 – October 31, 1983) was an American Trotskyist and trade unionist.
http://wn.com/Farrell_Dobbs
Frank Knox
William Franklin "Frank" Knox (January 1, 1874 – April 28, 1944) was an American newspaper editor and publisher. He was also the Republican vice presidential candidate in 1936, and Secretary of the Navy under Franklin D. Roosevelt during most of World War II.
http://wn.com/Frank_Knox
Frederick Hale
http://wn.com/Frederick_Hale
Friedrich Hayek
Friedrich August Hayek CH (8 May 189923 March 1992), born Friedrich August von Hayek, was an Austrian-born economist and philosopher best known for his defense of classical liberalism and free-market capitalism against socialist and collectivist thought. He is considered to be one of the most important economists and political philosophers of the twentieth century. Hayek's account of how changing prices communicate signals which enable individuals to coordinate their plans is widely regarded as an important achievement in economics. Hayek also produced significant work in the fields of systems thinking, jurisprudence, neuroscience and the history of ideas.
http://wn.com/Friedrich_Hayek
Frédéric Bastiat
http://wn.com/Frédéric_Bastiat
Garret Hobart
Garret Augustus Hobart (June 3, 1844 – November 21, 1899) was the 24th Vice President of the United States and the sixth Vice President to die while in office.
http://wn.com/Garret_Hobart
George B. Cortelyou
George Bruce Cortelyou (July 26, 1862 – October 23, 1940) was an American Presidential Cabinet secretary of the early 20th century.
http://wn.com/George_B_Cortelyou
George E. Spencer
http://wn.com/George_E_Spencer
George H. W. Bush
http://wn.com/George_H_W_Bush
George M. Dallas
George Mifflin Dallas (July 10, 1792 – December 31, 1864) was a U.S. Senator from Pennsylvania and the 11th Vice President of the United States, serving under James K. Polk.
http://wn.com/George_M_Dallas
George Murphy
http://wn.com/George_Murphy
George Smathers
http://wn.com/George_Smathers
George Troup
:This article is about the U.S. politician George Troup. For other persons named George Troup see George Troup (disambiguation).
http://wn.com/George_Troup
George W. Bush
George Walker Bush (; born July 6, 1946, in New Haven, Connecticut) was the 43rd President of the United States, serving from 2001 to 2009, and the 46th Governor of Texas, serving from 1995 to 2000.
http://wn.com/George_W_Bush
George Wallace
George Corley Wallace, Jr. (August 25, 1919 – September 13, 1998) was the 45th Governor of Alabama, serving four terms: 1963–1967, 1971–1979 and 1983–1987. "The most influential loser" in 20th-century U.S. politics, according to biographers Dan T. Carter and Stephan Lesher, he ran for U.S. president four times, running officially as a Democrat three times and in the American Independent Party once. A 1972 assassination attempt left him paralyzed; he used a wheelchair for the rest of his life. He is best known for his Southern populist, pro-segregation attitudes during the American desegregation period, convictions he renounced later in life.
http://wn.com/George_Wallace
Georgia Cozzini
http://wn.com/Georgia_Cozzini
Gerald Ford
Gerald Rudolph Ford, Jr. (born Leslie Lynch King, Jr.; July 14, 1913 – December 26, 2006) was the 38th President of the United States, serving from 1974 to 1977, and the 40th Vice President of the United States serving from 1973 to 1974. As the first person appointed to the vice-presidency under the terms of the 25th Amendment, when he became President upon Richard Nixon's resignation on August 9, 1974, he also became the only President of the United States who was elected neither President nor Vice-President.
http://wn.com/Gerald_Ford
H. John Heinz III
http://wn.com/H_John_Heinz_III
Haley Barbour
Haley Reeves Barbour (born October 22, 1947) is an American politician currently serving as the 63rd Governor of Mississippi. He gained a national spotlight in August 2005 after Mississippi was hit by Hurricane Katrina. Barbour won re-election as Governor in 2007. Under Mississippi's term limits, Barbour cannot run again for Governor in 2011 when his term ends.
http://wn.com/Haley_Barbour
Hannibal Hamlin
http://wn.com/Hannibal_Hamlin
Hans J. Morgenthau
http://wn.com/Hans_J_Morgenthau
Hans-Hermann Hoppe
Hans-Hermann Hoppe (born September 2, 1949) is an Austrian school economist of the anarcho-capitalist tradition, and a Professor Emeritus of economics at the University of Nevada, Las Vegas.
http://wn.com/Hans-Hermann_Hoppe
Harold Stassen
Harold Edward Stassen (April 13, 1907March 4, 2001) was the 25th Governor of Minnesota from 1939 to 1943. After service in World War II, from 1948 to 1953 he was president of the University of Pennsylvania. In popular culture his name has become most identified with his fame as a perennial candidate for other offices, most notably and frequently President of the United States.
http://wn.com/Harold_Stassen
Harry Browne
http://wn.com/Harry_Browne
Harry F. Byrd
http://wn.com/Harry_F_Byrd
Harry Golden
Harry Lewis Golden (May 6, 1902–October 2, 1981) was an American Jewish writer and newspaper publisher. He was born Herschel Goldhirsch in the shtetl Mikulintsy, Ukraine, then part of Austria-Hungary.
http://wn.com/Harry_Golden
Harry Stewart New
Harry Stewart New (December 31, 1858 – May 9, 1937) was a U.S. politician, journalist, and Spanish-American War veteran.
http://wn.com/Harry_Stewart_New
Harry V. Jaffa
Harry V. Jaffa (born October 7, 1918) is an author, Professor Emeritus at Claremont McKenna College, and distinguished fellow of the Claremont Institute, a California think tank.
http://wn.com/Harry_V_Jaffa
Henning A. Blomen
Henning A. Blomen (September 28, 1910 - July 14, 1993) was a candidate for United States President of the Socialist Labor Party of America in 1968 and for Vice President of the United States in 1964. Blomen was also an unsuccessful candidate for Governor of Massachusetts 14 times. According to his obituary in the Boston Globe, Henning advocated a bloodless revolution, abolishment of capitalism and the establishment of a socialist industrial republic.
http://wn.com/Henning_A_Blomen
Henry A. du Pont
Henry Algernon du Pont (July 30, 1838 - December 31, 1926), known as "Colonel Henry", was an American soldier and politician from Winterthur, near Greenville, in New Castle County, Delaware. He was a veteran of the American Civil War, and a member of the Republican Party, who served two terms as U.S. Senator from Delaware.
http://wn.com/Henry_A_du_Pont
Henry David Thoreau
http://wn.com/Henry_David_Thoreau
Henry F. Ashurst
http://wn.com/Henry_F_Ashurst
Henry George
Henry George (September 2, 1839 – October 29, 1897) was an American writer, politician and political economist, who was the most influential proponent of the land value tax, also known as the "single tax" on land. He inspired the philosophy and economic ideology known as Georgism, which is that everyone owns what he or she creates, but that everything found in nature, most importantly land, belongs equally to all humanity. His most famous work is Progress and Poverty written during 1879; it is a treatise on inequality, the cyclic nature of industrial economies and possible remedies.
http://wn.com/Henry_George
Henry Jarvis Raymond
http://wn.com/Henry_Jarvis_Raymond
Henry Wilson
Henry Wilson (February 16, 1812 – November 22, 1875) was the 18th Vice President of the United States and a Senator from Massachusetts. During the American Civil War, he was a leading Republican who devoted his enormous energies to the destruction of what he called the Slave Power, which he defined as a conspiracy of slave owners to seize control of the federal government and block the progress of liberty.
http://wn.com/Henry_Wilson
Herbert Hoover
http://wn.com/Herbert_Hoover
Herbert Spencer
http://wn.com/Herbert_Spencer
Hiram Fong
http://wn.com/Hiram_Fong
Hopi
http://wn.com/Hopi
Hubert Humphrey
http://wn.com/Hubert_Humphrey
Hubert Work
Hubert Work (July 3, 1860 – December 14, 1942) was a U.S. administrator and physician. He served as the Postmaster General between 1922 and 1923 in the presidency of Warren G. Harding. He then served as the Secretary of the Interior from 1923-1928 during the administration of Calvin Coolidge.
http://wn.com/Hubert_Work
Hugh Scott
: This article is about the Pennsylvanian senator, for the U.S. Army Chief of Staff see Hugh L. Scott
http://wn.com/Hugh_Scott
Irving Babbitt
Irving Babbitt (August 2, 1865 – July 15, 1933) was an American academic and literary critic, noted for his founding role in a movement that became known as the New Humanism, a significant influence on literary discussion and conservative thought in the period between 1910 to 1930. He was a cultural critic in the tradition of Matthew Arnold, and a consistent opponent of romanticism, as represented by the writings of Jean-Jacques Rousseau. Politically he can, without serious distortion, be called a follower of Aristotle and Edmund Burke. He was an advocate of classical humanism but also offered an ecumenical defense of religion. His humanism implied a broad knowledge of various moral and religious traditions.
http://wn.com/Irving_Babbitt
Irving Kristol
http://wn.com/Irving_Kristol
Isabel Paterson
http://wn.com/Isabel_Paterson
J. B. Stoner
Jesse Benjamin "J.B." Stoner (April 13, 1924 – April 23, 2005) was an American segregationist who was convicted in 1980 of the bombing in 1958 of the Bethel Baptist Church in Birmingham, Alabama. Stoner served three and a half years of a 10-year sentence.
http://wn.com/J_B_Stoner
J. Evetts Haley
James Evetts Haley, Sr., usually known as J. Evetts Haley (July 5, 1901 – October 9, 1995), was a Texas-born political activist and historian who wrote multiple works on the American West, including an enduring biography of legendary cattleman Charles Goodnight. Haley determined Goodnight to have been a man of greatness and claimed that Goodnight's detractors were less-than-successful persons envious of Goodnight's achievement and bearing.
http://wn.com/J_Evetts_Haley
J.B. Stoner
http://wn.com/JB_Stoner
Jack Kemp
http://wn.com/Jack_Kemp
James A. Garfield
James Abram Garfield (November 19, 1831 September 19, 1881) was the 20th President of the United States, serving from March 4, 1881 until his death on September 19, 1881, a brief 200 days in office.
http://wn.com/James_A_Garfield
James G. Blaine
http://wn.com/James_G_Blaine
James M. Lloyd
James M. Lloyd was a United States Republican politician from South Dakota.
http://wn.com/James_M_Lloyd
James Pleasants
http://wn.com/James_Pleasants
James S. Clarkson
James S. Clarkson (May 17, 1842 – May 30, 1918) was born in Brookville, Indiana, but raised a native of Polk County, Iowa. Clarkson was a delegate to each Republican National Convention from 1876 to 1896; a member of the Republican National Committee from 1880 to 1896; chairman of the Committee from 1891 to 1892, and President of the Republican League of the United States from 1891 to 1893. He died at the home of his son in Newark, New Jersey with his wife by his side. Clarkson was buried in the family mausoleum in Des Moines, Iowa.
http://wn.com/James_S_Clarkson
James S. Sherman
James Schoolcraft Sherman (October 24, 1855 – October 30, 1912) was a United States Representative from New York and the 27th Vice President of the United States. He was a member of the Baldwin, Hoar, and Sherman families.
http://wn.com/James_S_Sherman
James Shields
:''This article is about the U.S. Senator. For the pitcher, see James Shields (baseball). For the U.S. representative from Ohio, see James Shields (1762-1831). For the American poet, see Shaemas O'Sheel''
http://wn.com/James_Shields
James W. Grimes
James Wilson Grimes (October 20, 1816February 7, 1872) was an American politician, serving as the third Governor of Iowa and a United States Senator from Iowa.
http://wn.com/James_W_Grimes
Jay Rockefeller
John Davison "Jay" Rockefeller IV (born June 18, 1937) is the senior United States Senator from West Virginia, which he was first elected to in 1985. He was the 29th Governor of West Virginia, from 1977 to 1985. As a great-grandson of oil tycoon John D. Rockefeller, he is the only current politician of the prominent six-generation Rockefeller family and the only Democrat in what has been a traditionally progressive Republican dynasty.
http://wn.com/Jay_Rockefeller
Jefferson Davis
Jefferson Finis Davis (June 3, 1808 – December 6, 1889) was an American statesman and leader of the Confederacy during the American Civil War, serving as the President of the Confederate States of America for its entire history, 1861 to 1865.
http://wn.com/Jefferson_Davis
Jennings Randolph
Jennings Randolph (March 8, 1902–May 8, 1998) was an American politician from West Virginia. He was a member of the Democratic Party and was the last surviving member of the United States Congress to have served during the first 100 days of Franklin D. Roosevelt's administration.
http://wn.com/Jennings_Randolph
Jerry Falwell
http://wn.com/Jerry_Falwell
Jim Gilmore
James Stuart "Jim" Gilmore III (born October 6, 1949) is an American politician from the Commonwealth of Virginia, former 68th Governor of Virginia, and a member of the Republican Party. A native Virginian, Gilmore studied at the University of Virginia, and then served in the U.S. Army as a counterintelligence agent. He later was elected to public office as a county prosecutor, as the Attorney General of Virginia from 1994 to 1998, and as the 68th Governor of Virginia from 1998 to 2002.
http://wn.com/Jim_Gilmore
Jimmy Carter
James Earl "Jimmy" Carter, Jr. (born October 1, 1924) served as the 39th President of the United States from 1977 to 1981 and was the recipient of the 2002 Nobel Peace Prize, the only U.S. President to have received the Prize after leaving office. Before he became President, Carter served two terms as a Georgia State Senator and one as Governor of Georgia, from 1971 to 1975, and was a peanut farmer and naval officer.
http://wn.com/Jimmy_Carter
John B. Weller
John B. Weller (February 22, 1812 August 17, 1875) was the fifth Governor of California from January 8, 1858 to January 9, 1860 and a Congressman from Ohio, U.S. senator from California, and minister to Mexico.
http://wn.com/John_B_Weller
John C. Frémont
http://wn.com/John_C_Frémont
John C. Stennis
John Cornelius Stennis (August 3, 1901 – April 23, 1995) was a U.S. Senator from the state of Mississippi. He was a Democrat who served in the Senate for over 41 years, becoming its most senior member by his retirement.
http://wn.com/John_C_Stennis
John Chandler Gurney
John Chandler "Chan" Gurney (May 21, 1896 – March 9, 1985) was a U.S. Senator from South Dakota.
http://wn.com/John_Chandler_Gurney
John Cornyn
John Cornyn III (born February 2, 1952) is the junior United States Senator from Texas. He is a Republican and was elected to his first term in November 2002, having defeated Democrat Ron Kirk, the former mayor of Dallas, Texas. In the general election of November 4, 2008, he defeated the Democratic State Representative Rick Noriega of Houston for his second term. He was elected Chairman of the National Republican Senatorial Committee for the 111th U.S. Congress.
http://wn.com/John_Cornyn
John Ensign
John Eric Ensign (born March 25, 1958) is the junior United States Senator from Nevada, serving since January 2001. He is a member of the Republican Party and the former chairman of the Senate Republican Policy Committee.
http://wn.com/John_Ensign
John F. Kennedy
http://wn.com/John_F_Kennedy
John Fairfield
http://wn.com/John_Fairfield
John Fremont Hill
http://wn.com/John_Fremont_Hill
John J. Crittenden
John Jordan Crittenden (September 10, 1787 July 26, 1863) was a politician from the U.S. state of Kentucky. He represented the state in both the U.S. House of Representatives and the U.S. Senate and twice served as United States Attorney General – in the administrations of William Henry Harrison and Millard Fillmore. He was also the 17th governor of Kentucky and served in the state legislature. Although frequently mentioned as a potential candidate for the U.S. presidency, he never consented to run for the office.
http://wn.com/John_J_Crittenden
John Kasper
John Kasper (1929–1998) was an American far-right activist who took a militant stand against racial integration during the civil rights movement.
http://wn.com/John_Kasper
John Kennedy
http://wn.com/John_Kennedy
John McCain
John Sidney McCain III (born August 29, 1936) is the senior United States Senator from Arizona. He was the Republican nominee for president in the 2008 United States election.
http://wn.com/John_McCain
John P. Hale
John Parker Hale (March 31, 1806 - November 19, 1873) was an American politician and lawyer from New Hampshire. He served in the United States House of Representatives from 1843 to 1845 and in the United States Senate from 1847 to 1853 and again from 1855 to 1865. Hale was a leading member of the Free Soil Party and was its presidential nominee in 1852.
http://wn.com/John_P_Hale
John R. McPherson
http://wn.com/John_R_McPherson
John Stuart Mill
John Stuart Mill (20 May 1806 – 8 May 1873) was a British philosopher and civil servant. An influential contributor to social theory, political theory, and political economy, his conception of liberty justified the freedom of the individual in opposition to unlimited state control. He was a proponent of utilitarianism, an ethical theory developed by Jeremy Bentham, although his conception of it was very different from Bentham's. Hoping to remedy the problems found in an inductive approach to science, such as confirmation bias, he clearly set forth the premises of falsification as the key component in the scientific method. Mill was also a Member of Parliament and an important figure in liberal political philosophy.
http://wn.com/John_Stuart_Mill
John T. Adams
http://wn.com/John_T_Adams
John Tower
http://wn.com/John_Tower
John W. Bricker
John William Bricker (September 6, 1893 March 22, 1986) was a United States Senator and the 54th Governor of Ohio. A member of the Republican Party, he was the Republican nominee for Vice President in 1944.
http://wn.com/John_W_Bricker
John W. Byrnes
John William Byrnes (June 12, 1913 in Green Bay, Wisconsin - January 12, 1985 in Marshfield, Wisconsin) was a Republican member of the United States House of Representatives from Wisconsin from 1945 until 1973, when he did not seek reelection. He also served in the Wisconsin State Senate.
http://wn.com/John_W_Byrnes
John Warner
John William Warner KBE (born February 18, 1927) is an American Republican politician who served as Secretary of the Navy from 1972 to 1974 and as a five-term United States Senator from Virginia from January 2, 1979, to January 3, 2009. He did not seek reelection in 2008 and has rejoined the law firm of Hogan & Hartson, where he worked before joining the Department of Defense. Warner was once married to actress Elizabeth Taylor. He is a veteran of World War II, and one of only five serving in the Senate at the time of his retirement.
http://wn.com/John_Warner
Jon Kyl
:This page is about the current Arizona Senator; for his father, a U.S. Representative from Iowa, see John Kyl; for a U.S. Representative from Mississippi with a similar name, see John Kyle.
http://wn.com/Jon_Kyl
Joseph F. Johnston
Joseph Forney Johnston (March 23, 1843–August 8, 1913) was an American Democratic politician and businessman who was the 30th Governor of Alabama from 1896 to 1900. He later served in the U.S. Senate from August 6, 1907 to his death on August 8, 1913. During his time as a senator, he served as a chairman of the Committee to Establish a University of the United States.
http://wn.com/Joseph_F_Johnston
Joseph McCarthy
Joseph Raymond McCarthy (November 14, 1908 – May 2, 1957) was an American politician who served as a Republican U.S. Senator from the state of Wisconsin from 1947 until his death in 1957. Beginning in 1950, McCarthy became the most visible public face of a period in which Cold War tensions fueled fears of widespread Communist subversion.
http://wn.com/Joseph_McCarthy
Joseph Schumpeter
Joseph Alois Schumpeter (8 February 1883 – 8 January 1950) was an Austrian economist and political scientist. He popularized the term "creative destruction" in economics.
http://wn.com/Joseph_Schumpeter
Julius Caesar
http://wn.com/Julius_Caesar
Karan English
Karan English (born March 23, 1949, in Berkeley, California) served in the U.S. House of Representatives of the 103rd United States Congress from 1993-1995.
http://wn.com/Karan_English
Karl Hess
http://wn.com/Karl_Hess
Ken Mehlman
Kenneth Brian Mehlman (born August 21, 1966, Baltimore, Maryland) is an American businessman, attorney, and political figure who served as the campaign manager for the 2004 re-election campaign of George W. Bush and Chairman of the Republican National Committee from 2005 to 2007. On August 26, 2010, Mehlman came out as gay, making him one of the most prominent openly gay figures in the Republican Party.
http://wn.com/Ken_Mehlman
Kevin Carson
http://wn.com/Kevin_Carson
Korean War
http://wn.com/Korean_War
Lar Daly
http://wn.com/Lar_Daly
Larry King
Lawrence Harvey "Larry" King (born November 19, 1933) is an American television and radio host.
http://wn.com/Larry_King
Lee Atwater
http://wn.com/Lee_Atwater
Len Munsil
Len Munsil was the Arizona Republican Party nominee for Governor of Arizona in the Arizona gubernatorial election, 2006, coming from behind to upset Don Goldwater in the Republican primary in his first run for any elective office. He lost to incumbent Janet Napolitano in the general election on November 7, 2006.
http://wn.com/Len_Munsil
Leo Tolstoy
http://wn.com/Leo_Tolstoy
Leonard W. Hall
Leonard Wood Hall (October 2, 1900 – June 2, 1979) was a United States Representative from New York. Born in Oyster Bay, Nassau County, he attended the public schools and graduated from the law department of Georgetown University in 1920. He was admitted to the bar in 1922 and commenced practice in New York City; he was a member of the New York State Assembly in 1927 and 1928 and from 1934 to 1938, and from 1929 to 1931 was sheriff of Nassau County. He was a delegate to the Republican State conventions from 1930 to 1958 and to the Republican National Conventions in 1948, 1952, 1956, and 1968.
http://wn.com/Leonard_W_Hall
Leverett Saltonstall
http://wn.com/Leverett_Saltonstall
Levi P. Morton
Levi Parsons Morton (May 16, 1824 May 16, 1920) was a Representative from New York and the 22nd Vice President of the United States. He also later served as the 31st Governor of New York.
http://wn.com/Levi_P_Morton
Lew Rockwell
Llewellyn Harrison Rockwell, Jr. (born July 1, 1944, Boston), widely known as Lew Rockwell, is an American libertarian political commentator, activist, proponent of the Austrian School of economics, and chairman of the Ludwig von Mises Institute.
http://wn.com/Lew_Rockwell
Lyndon B. Johnson
http://wn.com/Lyndon_B_Johnson
Lysander Spooner
Lysander Spooner (January 19, 1808 May 14, 1887) was an American entrepreneur, libertarian, political philosopher, abolitionist, supporter of the labor movement, and legal theorist of the nineteenth century. He is also known for competing with the U.S. Post Office with his American Letter Mail Company, which was forced out of business by the United States government.
http://wn.com/Lysander_Spooner
Marc Racicot
Marc F. Racicot (, like "Roscoe") (born July 24, 1948) is a U.S. politician and lobbyist and member of the Republican Party. He was the governor of Montana from 1993 until 2001. After leaving office, Racicot worked as a lobbyist for the law firm Bracewell & Giuliani. His notable clients included Enron, Burlington Northern Santa Fe, and the Recording Industry Association of America. He also served as chairman of the Republican National Committee from 2002 until 2003, when he was appointed as the chairman of the Bush re-election campaign. In 2000 as well as 2004 he was rumored to be Bush's choice for Attorney General. During the 2000 election some saw him as a possible running mate for Bush. The Washington Post has described him as "one of Bush's closest friends and advisers"
http://wn.com/Marc_Racicot
Marcus A. Smith
Marcus Aurelius "Mark" Smith (January 24, 1851–April 7, 1924) was an American Democratic politician, and one of the first two Senators from Arizona, the other being Henry F. Ashurst. He died in Washington, D.C. on April 7, 1924, and is interred at Battle Grove Cemetery in his hometown of Cynthiana, Kentucky.
http://wn.com/Marcus_A_Smith
Marcus Lawrence Ward
http://wn.com/Marcus_Lawrence_Ward
Margaret Chase Smith
http://wn.com/Margaret_Chase_Smith
Mark R. Shaw
http://wn.com/Mark_R_Shaw
Marshall Jewell
Marshall Jewell (October 20, 1825 February 10, 1883) was a U.S. political figure. He served as the 44th and 46th Governor of Connecticut between 1869 and 1870, and again from 1871 until 1873. Born in 1825 in Winchester, New Hampshire, he was first appointed by President Ulysses S. Grant as Minister to Russia from 1873 to 1874, but after only seven months in St. Petersburg, he left. Jewell then served as the Postmaster General between 1874 and 1876. He was also a presidential candidate at the 1876 Republican National Convention and served as the chairman of the Republican National Committee from 1880 until 1883. He died in 1883 in New Haven, Connecticut, and was interred at Cedar Hill Cemetery in Hartford, Connecticut.
http://wn.com/Marshall_Jewell
Matthew E. Welsh
Matthew Empson Welsh (September 15, 1912 - May 28, 1995) was the 41st Governor of Indiana from the Democratic Party, serving from 1961 to 1965. His term as governor saw a major increase in statewide taxation, including the first state sales tax, and the passage of a several important civil rights bills making Indiana one of the most friendly states to ethnic and religious minorities at that time. His tax hikes led to a near tax revolt in the state and people began writing "Indiana—Land of Taxes" on their license plates, at entry points into the state, in stores, and other public places. The situation killed any chance he had seeking higher office and earned him the moniker "Sales Tax Matt". Despite numerous reforms and his popularity among the Democratic Party, he had difficulty being elected in his second run for the governorship in 1972, and was defeated in a landslide. After leaving office he served as chairman of the Indiana Democratic Party, a member of the Democratic National Committee from 1964 until 1968 and as a federal commissioner on the International Joint Commission from 1966 until 1970. Throughout his life, Welsh was known for his personal motto, "It doesn't cost you anything to be a gentleman." After his retirement in 1972 he returned to Indianapolis, where he remained until his death in 1995.
http://wn.com/Matthew_E_Welsh
Matthew Quay
Matthew Stanley Quay (September 30, 1833 – May 28, 1904) was an immensely powerful Pennsylvania political boss; "kingmaker" (Benjamin Harrison, 1888). "Boss" Quay's political principles and actions stood in contrast to an unusually attractive personality. He was a resident of Beaver, northwest of Pittsburgh; today, his house is a National Historic Landmark.
http://wn.com/Matthew_Quay
Max Lerner
http://wn.com/Max_Lerner
Max Stirner
http://wn.com/Max_Stirner
Meade Alcorn
http://wn.com/Meade_Alcorn
Mel Martinez
http://wn.com/Mel_Martinez
Merritt B. Curtis
Merritt B. Curtis, (August 31, 1892 - May 16, 1966). Brigadier General, and lawyer who in 1960 ran for President of the United States in Washington with B. N. Miller and vice-president in Texas with Charles L. Sullivan under the Constitution Party banner. Curtis also ran for vice-president in Michigan with Lars Daly under the Tax Cut banner.
http://wn.com/Merritt_B_Curtis
Michael DiSalle
Michael Vincent DiSalle (January 6, 1908 - September 14, 1981) was a Democratic politician from Ohio. He served as the 60th Governor of Ohio.
http://wn.com/Michael_DiSalle
Michael Steele
Michael Stephen Steele (born October 19, 1958) is an American politician, serving since January 2009 as the first African American chairman of the Republican National Committee. From 2003 to 2007, he was the seventh Lieutenant Governor of Maryland, the first African American elected to statewide office in Maryland. During his time as Lieutenant Governor, he chaired the Minority Business Enterprise taskforce, actively promoting an expansion of affirmative action in the corporate world.
http://wn.com/Michael_Steele
Mike Duncan
Robert M. ("Mike") Duncan (born 1951 in Oneida, Tennessee) was the 62nd Chairman of the Republican National Committee. He was elected in January 2007, replacing Ken Mehlman, and served until January 30, 2009, when he withdrew from renomination to the chairmanship. He became the chairman of the board of directors of the Tennessee Valley Authority effective May 18, 2009.
http://wn.com/Mike_Duncan
Mikhail Bakunin
Mikhail Alexandrovich Bakunin ( - 1 July 1876) (; ) was a well-known Russian revolutionary and theorist of collectivist anarchism.
http://wn.com/Mikhail_Bakunin
Millard Tydings
Millard Evelyn Tydings (April 6, 1890 – February 9, 1961) was an attorney, author, soldier, state legislator, and served as a Democratic Representative and Senator in the United States Congress from Maryland.
http://wn.com/Millard_Tydings
Milton Friedman
Milton Friedman (July 31, 1912 November 16, 2006) was an American economist, statistician, a professor at the University of Chicago, and the recipient of the Nobel Prize in Economics. Among scholars, he is best known for his theoretical and empirical research, especially consumption analysis, monetary history and theory, and for his demonstration of the complexity of stabilization policy.
http://wn.com/Milton_Friedman
Mitch McConnell
Addison Mitchell "Mitch" McConnell, Jr. (born February 20, 1942) is the senior United States Senator from Kentucky. He was chosen by his Republican colleagues as the Minority Leader in November 2006, making him the top-ranking Republican in the 110th Congress, which convened January 3, 2007. He is a conservative, receiving a perfect score from the American Conservative Union in 2006. McConnell won re-election in 2008 against Democratic challenger Bruce Lunsford.
http://wn.com/Mitch_McConnell
Mitt Romney
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http://wn.com/Mitt_Romney
Morris Sheppard
John Morris Sheppard (May 28, 1875 - April 9, 1941) was a Democratic United States Congressman and United States Senator from Texas.
http://wn.com/Morris_Sheppard
Murray Bookchin
http://wn.com/Murray_Bookchin
Murray Rothbard
http://wn.com/Murray_Rothbard
Nathan Sanford
Nathan Sanford (November 5, 1777 Bridgehampton, Suffolk County, New York - October 17, 1838 Flushing, Queens County, New York) was an American politician.
http://wn.com/Nathan_Sanford
Nelson Rockefeller
Nelson Aldrich Rockefeller (July 8, 1908 January 26, 1979) was the 41st Vice President of the United States under Gerald Ford, and the 49th Governor of New York, as well as serving the Roosevelt, Truman, Eisenhower and Nixon administrations in a variety of positions. He was also a noted businessman, art collector, and philanthropist.
http://wn.com/Nelson_Rockefeller
Noam Chomsky
Avram Noam Chomsky ( or ; born December 7, 1928) is an American linguist, philosopher, cognitive scientist, and political activist. He is an Institute Professor and professor emeritus of linguistics at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Chomsky is well known in the academic and scientific community as one of the fathers of modern linguistics, and a major figure of analytic philosophy. Since the 1960s, he has become known more widely as a political dissident and an anarchist, referring to himself as a libertarian socialist. Chomsky is the author of more than 100 books and has received worldwide attention for his views, despite being typically absent from the mainstream media.
http://wn.com/Noam_Chomsky
Norman Nevills
Norman D. Nevills (April 9, 1908 - September 19, 1949) was a pioneer of commercial river-running in the American Southwest, particularly the Colorado River through the Grand Canyon. He led trips including Dr. Elzada Clover and Lois Jotter, the first two women to successfully float the Grand Canyon, and Barry Goldwater.
http://wn.com/Norman_Nevills
Orval Faubus
Orval Eugene Faubus (January 7, 1910 December 14, 1994) was the 36th Governor of Arkansas, serving from 1955 to 1967. He is best known for his 1957 stand against the desegregation of Little Rock public schools during the Little Rock Crisis, in which he defied a unanimous decision of the United States Supreme Court by ordering the Arkansas National Guard to stop African American students from attending Little Rock Central High School.
http://wn.com/Orval_Faubus
Owen Brewster
http://wn.com/Owen_Brewster
Park Trammell
http://wn.com/Park_Trammell
Pat Brown
http://wn.com/Pat_Brown
Pat Roberts
Charles Patrick "Pat" Roberts (born April 20, 1936) is the junior United States Senator from Kansas. A member of the Republican Party, he was formerly the Chairman of the Senate Intelligence Committee. He holds conservative positions on most issues.
http://wn.com/Pat_Roberts
Pat Robertson
Marion Gordon "Pat" Robertson (born March 22, 1930) is a media mogul, television evangelist, ex-Baptist minister and business man who espouses American Christian Right political views.
http://wn.com/Pat_Robertson
Paul Fannin
Paul Jones Fannin (January 29, 1907 January 13, 2002) was the 11th Governor of the U.S. state of Arizona from 1959 to 1965 and subsequently a U.S. Senator from Arizona. He was a Republican.
http://wn.com/Paul_Fannin
Peter H. Dominick
Peter Hoyt Dominick (July 7, 1915 – March 18, 1981) was a politician and lawyer from Colorado. A member of the Republican Party, he served in the United States Senate from 1963 to 1975. His uncle, Howard Alexander Smith, was a U.S. Senator from New Jersey from 1944 to 1959.
http://wn.com/Peter_H_Dominick
Phyllis Schlafly
Phyllis McAlpin Stewart Schlafly (; born August 15, 1924) is an American conservative political activist and constitutional attorney known for her opposition to feminism and the Equal Rights Amendment. Her bestselling book, A Choice, Not An Echo, was published in 1964 from her home in Alton, Illinois, across the Mississippi River from her native St. Louis. From this self-publication, she formed her Pere Marquette Publishers company. A Choice, Not an Echo decries the power of the secret kingmakers and persuaders that once included New York Governors Thomas E. Dewey and Nelson A. Rockefeller. Schlafly supported U.S. Senator Barry M. Goldwater in his unsuccessful race against President Lyndon B. Johnson. She has co-authored several books on national defense and was highly critical of arms-control agreements with the former Soviet Union.
http://wn.com/Phyllis_Schlafly
Ralph Ginzburg
Ralph Ginzburg (October 28, 1929 – July 6, 2006) was an American author, editor, publisher and photo-journalist. He was best known for publishing books and magazines on erotica and art and for his conviction in 1963 for violating federal obscenity laws.
http://wn.com/Ralph_Ginzburg
Ralph H. Cameron
http://wn.com/Ralph_H_Cameron
Ralph Yarborough
http://wn.com/Ralph_Yarborough
Ray C. Bliss
http://wn.com/Ray_C_Bliss
Raymond Massey
Raymond Hart Massey (August 30, 1896 – July 29, 1983) was a Canadian-born American actor.
http://wn.com/Raymond_Massey
Reince Priebus
http://wn.com/Reince_Priebus
Reuel Williams
Reuel Williams (June 2, 1783 – July 25, 1862) was a U.S. Senator from Maine. Born in Hallowell, Maine to Seth Williams and Zelphia Ingraham.
http://wn.com/Reuel_Williams
Richard A. Friedman
Richard Alan Friedman, M.D. is Director of Psychopharmacology at the Payne Whitney Psychiatric Clinic and the Weill Cornell Medical College, where he is a professor of psychiatry. He is an expert in the pharmacologic treatment of mood disorders, including depression and bipolar disorder. He writes regularly for the science section of the New York Times.
http://wn.com/Richard_A_Friedman
Richard Bond
Richard N. Bond (Richard Norman Bond) is a former Chairman of the Republican National Committee (RNC) and currently a government relations consultant based in Washington, D.C.. His firm, [http://www.bondandcompany.net/ Bond & Company], specializes in strategic consulting services at both the federal and state level.
http://wn.com/Richard_Bond
Richard Lugar
Richard Green "Dick" Lugar (born April 4, 1932) is the senior United States Senator from Indiana. He is a member of the Republican Party and served as the mayor of Indianapolis from 1968 to 1976 and was elected to the United States Senate in 1976 where he has been the Chairman of the Senate Committee on Foreign Relations from 1985 to 1987 and 2003 to 2007. Much of Lugar's work in the Senate is toward the dismantling of nuclear, biological, and chemical weapons around the world.
http://wn.com/Richard_Lugar
Richard M. Nixon
http://wn.com/Richard_M_Nixon
Richard Nixon
Richard Milhous Nixon (January 9, 1913 – April 22, 1994) was the 37th President of the United States from 1969 to 1974, having formerly been the 36th Vice President of the United States from 1953 to 1961. A member of the Republican Party, he was the only President to resign the office as well as the only person to be elected twice to both the Presidency and the Vice Presidency.
http://wn.com/Richard_Nixon
Richard Russell, Jr.
http://wn.com/Richard_Russell_Jr
Richard Shelby
Richard Craig Shelby (born May 6, 1934) is the senior U.S. Senator from Alabama. Originally elected to the Senate as a Democrat, Shelby switched to the Republican Party in 1994 when it gained the majority in Congress.
http://wn.com/Richard_Shelby
Robert B. Meyner
http://wn.com/Robert_B_Meyner
Robert MacNeil
Robert Breckenridge Ware MacNeil, OC, known sometimes as Robin MacNeil, (born January 19, 1931), is currently a novelist and formerly was a television news anchor and journalist who had paired with Jim Lehrer to create The MacNeil/Lehrer Report in 1975.
http://wn.com/Robert_MacNeil
Robert Nozick
http://wn.com/Robert_Nozick
Robert Rice Reynolds
Robert Rice Reynolds (June 18, 1884 – February 13, 1963) was a Democratic U.S. senator from North Carolina between 1932 and 1945. Almost from the outset of his Senate career, "Our Bob," as he was known among supporters back home, acquired distinction as a passionate isolationist and increasingly as an apologist for Nazi aggression in Europe. Even after America's entry into World War II, according to a contemporary study of subversive elements in America, he "publicly endorsed the propaganda efforts of Gerald L.K. Smith," whose scurilous publication The Cross and the Flag "violently assailed the United States war effort and America's allies." Reynolds and Smith, one of the nation's most virulent Fascists, likewise collaborated on The Defender, an anti-Semitic newspaper partly owned by Reynolds that portrayed Jews as the anti-Christ. Reynolds on occasion turned over his Senate office facilities to subversive propagandists and allowed them to use his franking privilege to mail their literature postage-free.
http://wn.com/Robert_Rice_Reynolds
Robert Y. Hayne
http://wn.com/Robert_Y_Hayne
Roderick T. Long
http://wn.com/Roderick_T_Long
Rogers Morton
Rogers Clark Ballard Morton (September 19, 1914 – April 19, 1979) was an American politician who served as Secretary of the Interior and Secretary of Commerce under Presidents Richard Nixon and Gerald Ford, respectively. He also served as a member of the House of Representatives, representing .
http://wn.com/Rogers_Morton
Ronald Reagan
http://wn.com/Ronald_Reagan
Ross Barnett
Ross Robert Barnett (January 22, 1898 November 6, 1987) was the governor of the U.S. state of Mississippi from 1960 to 1964. He was a States' Rights Democrat.
http://wn.com/Ross_Barnett
Rudy Boschwitz
Rudolph Ely "Rudy" Boschwitz (born November 7, 1930) is a former Independent-Republican United States Senator from Minnesota. He served in the Senate from December 1978 to January 1991, in the 96th, 97th, 98th, 99th, 100th, and 101st congresses. He was then defeated by Paul Wellstone.
http://wn.com/Rudy_Boschwitz
Russell Kirk
Russell Kirk (October 19, 1918 – April 29, 1994) was an American political theorist, moralist, historian, social critic, literary critic, and fiction author known for his influence on 20th century American conservatism. His 1953 book, The Conservative Mind, gave shape to the amorphous post-World War II conservative movement. It traced the development of conservative thought in the Anglo-American tradition, giving special importance to the ideas of Edmund Burke. Kirk was also considered the chief proponent of traditionalist conservatism.
http://wn.com/Russell_Kirk
Rutherford B. Hayes
http://wn.com/Rutherford_B_Hayes
Rutherford Decker
http://wn.com/Rutherford_Decker
Sam Nunn
Samuel Augustus Nunn, Jr. (born September 8, 1938) is an American lawyer and politician. Currently the co-chairman and Chief Executive Officer of the Nuclear Threat Initiative (NTI), a charitable organization working to reduce the global threats from nuclear, biological and chemical weapons, Nunn served for 24 years as a United States Senator from Georgia (1972 until 1997) as a member of the Democratic Party. His political experience and credentials on national defense reportedly put him into consideration as a potential running mate for Democratic candidate John Kerry in the 2004 Presidential election. There was speculation that he could have been the running mate of Democratic candidate Barack Obama in 2008. Nunn is an informal advisor to President Obama.
http://wn.com/Sam_Nunn
Sam Yorty
http://wn.com/Sam_Yorty
Samuel L. Southard
http://wn.com/Samuel_L_Southard
Sandra Day O'Connor
'''Sandra Day O'Connor''' (born March 26, 1930) is an American jurist who was the first female member of the Supreme Court of the United States. She served as an Associate Justice from 1981 until her retirement from the Court in 2006. O'Connor was appointed by President Ronald Reagan in 1981. During her tenure, she was regarded as the Court's leading centrist, and was the swing vote in many cases; this made her the most powerful justice for many years.
http://wn.com/Sandra_Day_O'Connor
Sarah Palin
http://wn.com/Sarah_Palin
Schuyler Colfax
Schuyler Colfax, Jr. (; March 23, 1823 – January 13, 1885) was a United States Representative from Indiana, Speaker of the House of Representatives, and the 17th Vice President of the United States.
http://wn.com/Schuyler_Colfax
Simeon D. Fess
Simeon Davison Fess (December 11, 1861 - December 23, 1936) was a Republican politician and educator from Ohio. He served in the United States House of Representatives and U.S. Senate.
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Spiro Agnew
http://wn.com/Spiro_Agnew
Stephan Kinsella
Norman Stephan Kinsella (born 1965) is an American intellectual property lawyer and libertarian legal theorist. His electronically-published works are primarily published on his blog and websites associated with the Ludwig von Mises Institute and anarcho-capitalist organizations.
http://wn.com/Stephan_Kinsella
Stephen Mallory
Stephen Russell Mallory (c. 1813 – November 9, 1873) served in the United States Senate as Senator from Florida from 1850 to the secession of his home state and the outbreak of the American Civil War. For much of that period, he was chairman of the Committee on Naval Affairs. This was a time of rapid naval reform, and he insisted that the ships of the United States Navy should be as capable as those of Great Britain and France, the foremost navies in the world at that time. He also wrote a bill and guided it through Congress that provided for compulsory retirement of officers who did not meet the standards of the profession.
http://wn.com/Stephen_Mallory
Strom Thurmond
http://wn.com/Strom_Thurmond
Stuart Symington
http://wn.com/Stuart_Symington
Styles Bridges
http://wn.com/Styles_Bridges
Taiwan
Taiwan, also known (especially in the past) as Formosa (from , "Beautiful Island"), is an island situated in East Asia in the Western Pacific Ocean and located off the southeastern coast of mainland China. It comprises most (99%) of the territory of the Republic of China (ROC) since the 1950s. The term "Taiwan" is also a common name to refer to the entire country of the Republic of China.
http://wn.com/Taiwan
Tani L. Cohen
Tani L. Cohen is an American film producer.
http://wn.com/Tani_L_Cohen
Theodore Roosevelt
http://wn.com/Theodore_Roosevelt
Thomas E. Dewey
http://wn.com/Thomas_E_Dewey
Thomas H. Carter
Thomas Henry Carter (October 30, 1854 – September 17, 1911) was a delegate, a United States Representative, and a U.S. Senator from Montana.
http://wn.com/Thomas_H_Carter
Ulysses S. Grant
http://wn.com/Ulysses_S_Grant
Vietnam War
http://wn.com/Vietnam_War
Walter Block
Walter Edward Block (born 21 August 1941) is a free market economist and anarcho-capitalist associated with the Austrian School of economics.
http://wn.com/Walter_Block
Walter Judd
Walter Henry Judd (September 25, 1898, Rising City, Nebraska – February 13, 1994, Mitchellville, Maryland) was an American politician and statesman. After serving in the United States Army in World War I, he earned his medical degree at the University of Nebraska in 1923, then was Traveling Secretary for the Student Volunteer Movement. He was medical missionary in China, 1925-31 and 1934-1938. He came back to the United States to urge Americans not to be isolationists but to support China against Japanese aggression. Elected to the U.S. Congress from Minnesota in 1942, where he became a respected and eloquent voice in support of China. He served for 20 years from 1943 until 1963 in the 78th, 79th, 80th, 81st, 82nd, 83rd, 84th, 85th, 86th, and 87th congresses. Dr. Judd gave the keynote address at the 1960 Republican National Convention in Chicago. In 1962, Judd was defeated for reelection by liberal Democrat Donald M. Fraser. In 1964 Judd's name was placed in nomination at the Republican National Convention for President and he received a smattering of votes. In 1981, he received the Presidential Medal of Freedom (the nation's highest civilian award). He was an outspoken anti-communist and critic of U.S. rapprochement with China at the expense of the Republic of China on Taiwan. Throughout the 1970s and 80s, he was actively involved in the Council Against Communist Aggression in Washington DC. He was known for his eloquent oratory and expertise in US foreign policy. He died in 1994.
http://wn.com/Walter_Judd
Warren Boroson
Warren Boroson (born January 22, 1935) is an American author and journalist. He has written over 20 books, including "How to Pick Stocks Like Warren Buffett," Keys to Investing in Mutual Funds and How to Buy a House for Nothing (or Little) Down. His most recent book is The Reverse Mortgage Advantage : The Tax-Free, House Rich Way to Retire Wealthy!
http://wn.com/Warren_Boroson
Warren G. Harding
http://wn.com/Warren_G_Harding
Wayne Morse
http://wn.com/Wayne_Morse
Wendell Willkie
Wendell Lewis Willkie (; February 18, 1892 – October 8, 1944) was a corporate lawyer in the United States and was the dark horse Republican Party nominee for the 1940 presidential election, where he crusaded against the policies of the New Deal, which he thought were inefficient and anti-business, but waffled on the issue of intervention or isolation in the world war that Nazi Germany was winning. His opponent Franklin D. Roosevelt won a third term, with 55% of the popular vote and 85% of the electoral vote. Roosevelt found Willkie to be a compatible liberal and brought him aboard as a special ambassador-at-large. Willkie criss-crossed the globe, bringing home a vision of "One World" freed from imperialism and colonialism. His liberalism lost him supporters in the GOP and he dropped out of the 1944 race, then died of a heart attack.
http://wn.com/Wendell_Willkie
Whitelaw Reid
Whitelaw Reid (October 27, 1837 – December 15, 1912) was a U.S. politician and newspaper editor, as well as the author of a popular history of Ohio in the Civil War.
http://wn.com/Whitelaw_Reid
Will H. Hays
http://wn.com/Will_H_Hays
William A. Wheeler
William Almon Wheeler (June 30, 1819 – June 4, 1887) was a Representative from New York and the 19th Vice President of the United States.
http://wn.com/William_A_Wheeler
William C. Preston
William Campbell Preston (December 27, 1794 – May 22, 1860) was a senator from the United States and a member of the Nullifier, and later Whig Parties. He was also the cousin of William Ballard Preston and William Preston.
http://wn.com/William_C_Preston
William Cabell Rives
William Cabell Rives (May 4, 1793 – April 25, 1868) was an American lawyer, politician and diplomat from Albemarle County, Virginia. He represented Virginia as a Jackson Democrat in both the U.S. House and Senate and also served as the U.S. minister to France.
http://wn.com/William_Cabell_Rives
William E. Miller
William Edward "Bill" Miller (March 22, 1914–June 24, 1983) was a New York politician. He was the Republican Party nominee for Vice President of the United States in the 1964 election. Miller is the only practicing Catholic to have been nominated for national office by the Republican Party.
http://wn.com/William_E_Miller
William Godwin
William Godwin (3 March 1756 – 7 April 1836) was a British journalist, political philosopher and novelist. He is considered one of the first exponents of utilitarianism, and the first modern proponent of anarchism. Godwin is most famous for two books that he published within the space of a year: An Enquiry Concerning Political Justice, an attack on political institutions, and Things as They Are or The Adventures of Caleb Williams, which attacks aristocratic privilege, but also is virtually the first mystery novel. Based on the success of both, Godwin featured prominently in the radical circles of London in the 1790s. In the ensuing conservative reaction to British radicalism, Godwin was attacked, in part because of his marriage to the pioneering feminist writer Mary Wollstonecraft in 1797 and his candid biography of her after her death; their child, Mary Godwin (later Mary Shelley) would go on to author Frankenstein and marry the poet Percy Bysshe Shelley. Godwin wrote prolifically in the genres of novels, history and demography throughout his lifetime. With his second wife, Mary Jane Clairmont, he wrote children's primers on Biblical and classical history, which he published along with such works as Charles and Mary Lamb's Tales from Shakespeare. Using the pseudonym Edward Baldwin, he wrote a variety of books for children, including a version of Jack and the Beanstalk. He also has had considerable influence on British literature and literary culture.
http://wn.com/William_Godwin
William Howard Taft
http://wn.com/William_Howard_Taft
William L. Dayton
William Lewis Dayton (February 17, 1807 – December 1, 1864) was an American politician.
http://wn.com/William_L_Dayton
William M. Butler
http://wn.com/William_M_Butler
William M. Gwin
William McKendree Gwin (October 9, 1805 – September 3, 1885) was an American medical doctor and politician.
http://wn.com/William_M_Gwin
William McKinley
William McKinley, Jr. (January 29, 1843 September 14, 1901) was the 25th President of the United States, and the last veteran of the American Civil War to be elected to that office.
http://wn.com/William_McKinley
William R. Wilcox
http://wn.com/William_R_Wilcox
William Rehnquist
http://wn.com/William_Rehnquist
William Scranton
William Warren Scranton (born July 19, 1917) is a former U.S. Republican Party politician. Scranton served as the 38th Governor of Pennsylvania from 1963 to 1967. From 1976 to 1977, he served as United States Ambassador to the United Nations.
http://wn.com/William_Scranton
William W. Scranton
http://wn.com/William_W_Scranton
Willie Person Mangum
Willie Person Mangum (May 10, 1792–September 7, 1861) was a U.S. Senator from the state of North Carolina between 1831 and 1836 and between 1840 and 1853. He was one of the founders and leading members of the Whig party, and was a candidate for President on a Whig ticket in 1836.
http://wn.com/Willie_Person_Mangum
Émile Armand
http://wn.com/Émile_Armand

Barry Goldwater, A True Conservative

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published: 05 May 2009

author: InternationalBrother

Mr. Conservative: Barry Goldwater's opposition to the Civil Rights Act of 1964

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published: 04 Dec 2009

author: moogrogue

Barry Goldwater explains his vote against the Civil Rights Act of 1964 - Firing Line (1966)

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published: 26 Sep 2009

author: moogrogue

Extremism In The Defense Of Liberty Is No Vice

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published: 15 Apr 2009

author: goodrichardsalmanac

Barry Goldwater: 1964 Republican National Convention

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published: 16 Jul 2010

author: ajfowler

Barry Goldwater on the role of conservatism - Firing Line with William F. Buckley

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published: 24 Sep 2009

author: moogrogue

Barry Goldwater roasts James Stewart

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published: 13 Sep 2009

author: LaffTherapy

Barry Goldwater

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published: 10 Nov 2009

author: historyaz

Mr. Conservative: Barry Goldwater vs. the Religious Right

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published: 05 Dec 2009

author: moogrogue

Barry Goldwater on Ron Paul

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published: 07 Apr 2012

author: TeresaSeina

Barry Goldwater on The Trouble w/Big Inflationary Government

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published: 29 Dec 2008

author: NeoHamiltonian

Barry Goldwater - To The Future From The Past

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published: 12 Dec 2011

author: LibertyPen

Barry Goldwater: "Extremism in the defense of liberty..."

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published: 26 May 2009

author: BiteSizedHistory

"A Time for Choosing" by Ronald Reagan

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published: 02 Apr 2009

author: ReaganFoundation

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Photo: WN / Yolanda Leyba

Virgin for sale: Website auctions off virginity of college student for $780,000 (Video)

The Examiner

26 Oct 2012

Related topics virgin auctionvirginity auction Advertisement A 20 year-old Brazilian student has sold her virginity for the sum of $780,000 through an online auction on a website simply called Virgins...

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Photo: AP / Themba Hadebe

Mine workers sing a dance during a memorial service at the Lonmin Platinum Mine near Rustenburg, South Africa, Thursday, Aug. 23, 2012. Police shot and killed 34 striking miners and wounded 78 others last week. Demands for higher wages spread to at least two other mines, raising fears of further protests at more South African mines that provide most of the world's platinum.

News Flash: Gandhi Just Murdered in South Africa

WorldNews.com

29 Oct 2012

Article by WN.com Correspondent Dallas Darling. Yesterday while protesting with striking mine workers in South Africa, Mohandas Gandhi was gunned down by heavily armed security forces. Gandhi, who...

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Photo: US Navy / MCS2 Justin Ailes

Hurricane Sandy makes landfall at Naval Station Guantanamo Bay, Cuba, October 24, 2012.

Slow-moving Hurricane Sandy marches toward East Coast

CNBC

27 Oct 2012

MIAMI (Reuters) - Hurricane Sandy pulled away from the Bahamas on Saturday after killing at least 41 people in the Caribbean, beginning a slow march toward the U.S. East Coast where it threatens to...

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Photo: AP / Robert F. Bukaty

In this May 6, 2012 file photo, Gov. Paul LePage speaks at the Maine Republican Convention in Augusta, Maine. LePage met with representatives from two Jewish groups on Friday, July 13, 2012, following comments he has made comparing the Internal Revenue Service to the Gestapo

The New Gestapo Politics

WorldNews.com

28 Oct 2012

Article by WN.com Correspondent Dallas Darling Even though Maine's Governor, Paul LePage, apologized for making comments for comparing the Affordable Health Care Act and Internal Revenue Service (IRS)...

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Photo: AP / Khin Maung Win

A Rakhine refugee lies on a bed under medical treatment at Sittwe hospital in Sittwe, Rakhine State, western Myanmar, Friday, Oct. 26, 2012.

Burma: HRW satellite images 'show Rakhine destruction'

BBC News

27 Oct 2012

A human rights group has released pictures showing what appears to be the destruction of a western Burmese district riven by ethnic unrest. Human Rights Watch says more than 800 buildings and...

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Pakistani brothers reflect country's contradictions 29 Oct 2012

The Independent One cleric is a wanted terrorist who preaches that the United States is Pakistan's worst enemy, determined to "wipe out every Muslim" with the help of his other nemesis, the Jews. His name is Hafiz Mohammad Saeed. The other cleric fondly recalls his years in the United States, where he drove a Chevy...(size: 11.7Kb)

How sweep it is: Giants finish off Tigers 29 Oct 2012

Palm Beach Post Kung Fu Panda, The Freak, The Beard and all their seed-throwing buddies are on top of baseball — again. They may be under the radar, unappreciated and unexpected. But they're unassailable, the winner of two World Series titles in the last three years. Their sweep of the Detroit Tigers,...(size: 7.3Kb)

Most Valuable Panda: Sandoval is World Series MVP 29 Oct 2012

Palm Beach Post The MVP — Most Valuable Panda — sat in the interview room and smiled. A trophy, another World Series ring and the best nickname in baseball all were his. Pablo Sandoval, the Kung Fu Panda, was voted World Series MVP following the San Francisco Giants' sweep of Detroit. He hit .500 with...(size: 4.0Kb)

>Most Valuable Panda: Sandoval is World Series MVP 29 Oct 2012

Seattle Post DETROIT (AP) — The MVP — Most Valuable Panda — sat in the interview room and smiled. A trophy, another World Series ring and the best nickname in baseball all were his. Pablo Sandoval, the Kung Fu Panda, was voted World Series MVP following the San Francisco Giants' sweep of Detroit. He hit .500...(size: 4.1Kb)

Overseas students to get discounted public transport 29 Oct 2012

Sydney Morning Herald OVERSEAS students will be offered discounts of 35 per cent on public...(size: 0.5Kb)

Real-Life Tongue-Eating Parasite Stars in New Barry Levinson Eco-Thriller 29 Oct 2012

Treehugger permanently terrified swimmers into never wanting to dip a toe in the ocean again, the new ecological horror movie, The Bay, is threatening to do the same for the Chesapeake. Directed by Barry Levinson and produced by Jason Blum and Oren Peli of Paranormal Activity fame, the eco-thriller takes on...(size: 8.7Kb)

Camaraderie, sacrifice, preparation help make Giants elite franchise 29 Oct 2012

CBS News By Scott Miller | Senior Baseball Columnist Follow Scott Oct. 29, 2012 4:12 AM ET DETROIT -- It ended the way it had to end, with Marco Scutaro (who else?) shooting a fastball onto a wide-open patch of Michigan grass....(size: 15.1Kb)

World Series Sweep - An Act of Greatness That Only One City Really Loved: TV Review 29 Oct 2012

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One valuable Panda: Sandoval is World Series MVP 29 Oct 2012

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"Goldwater" redirects here. For other uses, see Goldwater (disambiguation).

This article is about the late United States Senator and Presidential nominee. For his son, see Barry Goldwater, Jr.

Barry Goldwater

United States Senator from Arizona
In office January 3, 1969 – January 3, 1987
Preceded by	Carl Hayden
Succeeded by	John McCain
In office January 3, 1953 – January 3, 1965
Preceded by	Ernest McFarland
Succeeded by	Paul Fannin
Personal details
Born	Barry Morris Goldwater (1909-01-02)January 2, 1909 Phoenix, Arizona Territory, United States
Died	May 29, 1998(1998-05-29) (aged 89) Paradise Valley, Arizona, United States
Resting place	Christ Church of the Ascension Paradise Valley, Arizona
Political party	Republican
Spouse(s)	Margaret Johnson (1934–1985) Susan Shaffer Wechsler (1992–1998)
Children	Joanne Barry Goldwater, Jr. Michael Margaret (Peggy)
Alma mater	University of Arizona
Profession	Businessman, politician
Religion	Episcopalian
Military service
Service/branch	United States Army Air Forces United States Air Force
Rank	Lieutenant Colonel Major General
Battles/wars	World War II Korean War

Barry Morris Goldwater (January 2, 1909^[1] – May 29, 1998) was a five-term United States Senator from Arizona (1953–1965, 1969–1987) and the Republican Party's nominee for President in the 1964 election. An articulate and charismatic figure during the first half of the 1960s, he was known as "Mr. Conservative".

Goldwater is the politician most often credited for sparking the resurgence of the American conservative political movement in the 1960s. He also had a substantial impact on the libertarian movement.^[2]

Goldwater rejected the legacy of the New Deal and fought through the conservative coalition to defeat the New Deal coalition. He mobilized a large conservative constituency to win the hard-fought Republican primaries. Goldwater's right-wing campaign platform ultimately failed to gain the support of the electorate^[3] and he lost the 1964 presidential election to incumbent Democrat Lyndon B. Johnson by one of the largest landslides in history, bringing down many Republican candidates as well. The Johnson campaign and other critics painted him as a reactionary, while supporters praised his crusades against the Soviet Union, labor unions, and the welfare state. His defeat allowed Johnson and the Democrats in Congress to pass the Great Society programs, but the defeat of so many older Republicans in 1964 also cleared the way for a younger generation of American conservatives to mobilize. Goldwater was much less active as a national leader of conservatives after 1964; his supporters mostly rallied behind Ronald Reagan, who became governor of California in 1967 and the 40th President of the United States in 1981.

Goldwater returned to the Senate in 1969, and specialized in defense policy, bringing to the table his experience as a senior officer in the Air Force Reserve. His greatest accomplishment was arguably the passage of the Goldwater-Nichols Act of 1986, which restructured the higher levels of the Pentagon by increasing the power of the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff to direct military action. In 1974, as an elder statesman of the party, Goldwater successfully urged President Richard Nixon to resign when evidence of a cover-up in the Watergate scandal became overwhelming and impeachment was imminent. By the 1980s, the increasing influence of the Christian right on the Republican Party so conflicted with Goldwater's libertarian views that he became a vocal opponent of the religious right on issues such as abortion, gay rights and the role of religion in public life.^[4]

Personal life [link]

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Goldwater was born in Phoenix, in what was then the Arizona Territory, the son of Baron M. Goldwater and his wife, Hattie Josephine ("JoJo") Williams. His father's Jewish family had founded Goldwater's, the largest department store in Phoenix. The family name had been changed from Goldwasser to Goldwater at least as early as the 1860 census in Los Angeles, California. Goldwater's paternal grandparents, Michel and Sarah (Nathan) Goldwasser, had been married in the Great Synagogue of London.^[5]^[6] Goldwater's mother, who was Protestant, came from an old Yankee family that included the famous theologian, Roger Williams of Rhode Island.^[7] Goldwater's parents were married in an Episcopal church in Phoenix; for his entire life, Goldwater was an Episcopalian, though on rare occasions he referred to himself as "Jewish".^[8] While he did not often attend church, he stated that "If a man acts in a religious way, an ethical way, then he's really a religious man—and it doesn't have a lot to do with how often he gets inside a church".^[9]^[10]

The family department store made the Goldwaters comfortably wealthy. Goldwater graduated from Staunton Military Academy, an elite private school in Virginia, and attended the University of Arizona for one year, where he joined the Sigma Chi fraternity. Barry had never been close to his father, but he took over the family business after Baron's death in 1930. He became a Republican (in a heavily Democratic state), promoted innovative business practices, and opposed the New Deal, especially because it fostered labor unions. Goldwater came to know former president Herbert Hoover, whose conservative politics he admired greatly. In 1934, he married Margaret "Peggy" Johnson, wealthy daughter of a prominent industrialist from Muncie, Indiana. They had four children: Joanne (born January 1, 1936), Barry (born July 15, 1938), Michael (born March 15, 1940), and Peggy (born July 27, 1944). Barry became a widower in 1985, and in 1992 he married Susan Wechsler, a nurse 32 years his junior.^[11]

With the American entry into World War II, Goldwater received a reserve commission in the United States Army Air Forces. He became a pilot assigned to the Ferry Command, a newly formed unit that flew aircraft and supplies to war zones worldwide. He spent most of the war flying between the USA and India, via the Azores and North Africa or South America, Nigeria, and Central Africa. He also flew "the hump" over the Himalayas to deliver supplies to the Republic of China. Remaining in the Air Force Reserve after the war, he eventually retired as a command pilot with the rank of Major General.^[12] By that time, he had flown 165 different types of aircraft. Following World War II, Goldwater was a leading proponent of creating the United States Air Force Academy, and later served on the Academy's Board of Visitors. The Visitor Center at the USAF Academy is now named in his honor. As a Colonel he also founded the Arizona Air National Guard, and he would desegregate it two years before the rest of the US military. Goldwater was instrumental in pushing the Pentagon to support desegregation of the armed services.^[13] Goldwater retired as an Air Force Major General, and he continued piloting B-52 aircraft until late in his military career. To those who called him "rash", he would remind people of the old saying that "there are no old, bold pilots".

In 1940, Goldwater became one of the first people to run the Colorado River recreationally through Grand Canyon when he participated as an oarsman on Norman Nevills' second commercial river trip. Goldwater joined the trip in Green River, Utah and rowed his own boat down to Lake Mead.^[14] Goldwater ran track in high school, where he specialized in the 880 yard run. He often went by the nickname of "Rolling Thunder."

In 1970, the Arizona Historical Foundation published the daily journal that Goldwater maintained on the Grand Canyon trip, along with the photographs he took, in a 209 page volume titled "Delightful Journey" by Barry Goldwater.

Goldwater's son Barry Goldwater, Jr. served as a United States House of Representatives member from California from 1969 to 1983.

Political career [link]

Goldwater entered Phoenix politics in 1949 when he was elected to the City Council as part of a nonpartisan group of candidates who focused on "cleaning up" widespread prostitution and gambling.^[15] As a Republican he won a seat in the US Senate in 1952, when he upset veteran Democrat and Senate majority leader Ernest McFarland. He defeated McFarland again in 1958, with a strong showing in his first reelection in a year in which the Democrats picked up 13 seats in the Senate. He stepped down from the Senate in 1964 for his presidential campaign.

Policies [link]

Goldwater soon became most associated with labor-union reform and anti-communism; he was an active supporter of the conservative coalition in Congress. However, he rejected the wildest fringes of the anti-communist movement; in 1956, he sponsored the passage through the Senate of the final version of the Alaska Mental Health Enabling Act, despite vociferous opposition from opponents who claimed that the Act was a communist plot to establish concentration camps in Alaska. His work on labor issues led to Congress passing major anti-corruption reforms in 1957, and an all-out campaign by the AFL-CIO to defeat his 1958 reelection bid. He voted against the censure of Senator Joseph McCarthy in 1954, but he never actually charged any individual with being a communist/Soviet agent. Goldwater emphasized his strong opposition to the worldwide spread of communism in his 1960 book The Conscience of a Conservative. The book became an important reference text in conservative political circles.

In 1964, Goldwater ran a conservative campaign that emphasized "states' rights."^[16] Goldwater's 1964 campaign was a magnet for conservatives since he opposed interference by the federal government in state affairs. Although he had supported all previous federal civil rights legislation and had supported the original senate version of the bill, Goldwater made the decision to oppose the Civil Rights Act of 1964. His stance was based on his view that the act was an intrusion of the federal government into the affairs of states and that the Act interfered with the rights of private persons to do or not do business with whomever they chose.^[17]

All this appealed to white Southern Democrats, and Goldwater was the first Republican to win the electoral votes of the Deep South states (Louisiana, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, and South Carolina) since Reconstruction.^[18] However, Goldwater's vote on the Civil Rights Act proved devastating to his campaign everywhere outside the South (besides Dixie, Goldwater won only in Arizona, his home state), contributing to his landslide defeat in 1964.

While Goldwater had been depicted by his opponents in the Republican primaries as a representative of a conservative philosophy that was extreme and alien, his voting records show that his positions were in harmony with those of his fellow Republicans in the Congress. What distinguished him from his predecessors was, according to Hans J. Morgenthau, his firmness of principle and determination, which did not allow him to be content with mere rhetoric.^[19]

Goldwater fought in 1971 to stop US funding of the United Nations after the People's Republic of China was admitted to the organization. He said:

I suggested on the floor of the Senate today that we stop all funds for the United Nations. Now, what that'll do to the United Nations, I don't know. I have a hunch it would cause them to fold up, which would make me very happy at this particular point. I think if this happens, they can well move their headquarters to Peking or Moscow and get 'em out of this country."^[20]

Elections [link]

In 1964, he fought and won a bitterly contested, multi-candidate race for the Republican Party's presidential nomination. His main rival was New York Governor Nelson Rockefeller, whom he defeated by a narrow margin in the bitterly fought California primary. His nomination was opposed by liberal Republicans, who thought Goldwater's demand for rollback, defeat of the Soviet Union, would foment a nuclear war. Goldwater lost to President Lyndon Johnson by a massive landslide, pulling down the GOP, which lost many seats in both houses of Congress. Goldwater carried only his home state and five Deep South states.

Goldwater remained popular in Arizona, and in the 1968 Senate election he was elected (this time) to the seat of retiring Senator Carl Hayden. He was subsequently reelected in 1974 and 1980. The 1974 election saw Goldwater easily reelected. His final campaign in 1980 was close, with Goldwater winning in a near draw against Democrat challenger Bill Schulz. Goldwater said later that the close result convinced him not to run again.^[21]

Two self-published books advanced the Goldwater cause: A Choice, Not An Echo by Phyllis Schlafly and A Texan Looks at Lyndon: A Study in Illegitimate Power by the Texas historian J. Evetts Haley. Both were best-sellers but failed to bolster Goldwater's electoral prospects.

Retirement [link]

Goldwater seriously considered retirement in 1980 before deciding to run for reelection. Peggy Goldwater reportedly hoped that her husband's Senate term, due to end in January 1981, would be his last. Goldwater decided to run, planning to make the term his last in the Senate. Goldwater faced a surprisingly tough battle for reelection. He was viewed by some as out of touch and vulnerable for several reasons; most importantly, because he had planned to retire in 1981, Goldwater had not visited many areas of Arizona outside of Phoenix and Tucson. He was also challenged by a formidable opponent, Bill Schulz, a former Republican turned Democrat and a wealthy real estate developer. Schulz was able to infuse massive amounts of money into the campaign from his own fortune.

Arizona's changing population also hurt Goldwater. The state's population had soared, and a huge portion of the electorate had not lived in the state when Goldwater was previously elected; hence, many voters were less familiar with Goldwater's actual beliefs, and he was on the defensive for much of the campaign. Early returns on election night seemed to indicate that Schulz would win. The counting of votes continued through the night and into the next morning. At around daybreak, Goldwater learned that he had been reelected thanks to absentee ballots, which were among the last to be counted.^[22] Goldwater's surprisingly close victory in 1980 came despite Reagan's 61% landslide over Jimmy Carter in Arizona. Republicans regained control of the Senate, putting Goldwater in the most powerful position he ever had in the Senate.

Goldwater retired in 1987, serving as chair of the Senate Intelligence and Armed Services Committees in his final term. Despite his reputation as a firebrand in the 1960s, by the end of his career he was considered a stabilizing influence in the Senate, one of the most respected members of either major party. Though Goldwater remained staunchly anti-communist and "hawkish" on military issues, he was a key supporter of the fight for ratification of the Panama Canal Treaty in the 1970s, which would return control of the canal zone to the Republic of Panama. His most important legislative achievement may have been the Goldwater-Nichols Act, which reorganized the US military's senior-command structure.

Goldwater was an active amateur radio "ham" operator, with call letters K7UGA. Many hams were delighted to make contact with him in his retirement years.

Political relationships [link]

Goldwater was grief-stricken^[23] by the assassination of Kennedy and was greatly disappointed that his opponent in the race would not be Kennedy but instead Kennedy's Vice President, the former Senate Majority Leader Lyndon B. Johnson of Texas.^[24] Goldwater disliked Johnson (who he said "used every dirty trick in the bag"), and Richard M. Nixon of California (whom he later called "the most dishonest individual I have ever met in my life.)"^[24] Goldwater, by then again a senator, advocated for Nixon to resign at the height of Watergate, warning that fewer than ten senators would vote against conviction after Nixon was impeached by the House of Representatives.^[25] The term "Goldwater moment" has subsequently been used to describe situations when influential members of Congress disagree so strongly with a president from their own party that they rise up and take a stand against him.

His 1984 Cable Franchise Policy and Communications Act allowed local governments to require the transmission of public, educational, and government access (PEG) channels, barred cable operators from exercising editorial control over content of programs carried on PEG channels, and absolved them from liability for their content.

U.S. presidential campaign, 1964 [link]

Republican primaries results by state

No primary held

John W. Byrnes

Barry Goldwater

Henry Cabot Lodge, Jr.

James A. Rhodes

Nelson Rockefeller

William W. Scranton

Technically in South Dakota and Florida, Goldwater finished in second to "Unpledged Delegates," but he finished before all other candidates.

At the time of Goldwater's presidential candidacy, the Republican Party was split between its conservative wing (based in the West and South) and moderate/liberal wing (based in the Northeast). He alarmed even some of his fellow partisans with his brand of staunch fiscal conservatism and militant anti-communism. He was viewed by many traditional Republicans as being too far on the right wing of the political spectrum to appeal to the mainstream majority necessary to win a national election. As a result, moderate Republicans recruited a series of opponents, including New York Governor Nelson Rockefeller, Henry Cabot Lodge, Jr., of Massachusetts and Pennsylvania Governor William Scranton, to challenge Goldwater. Goldwater would defeat Rockefeller in the winner-take-all California primary and secure the nomination. He also had a solid backing from Southern Republicans. A bright young Birmingham lawyer, John Grenier, secured commitments from 271 of 279 southern convention delegates to back Goldwater. Grenier went on to serve as executive director of the national GOP during the Goldwater campaign. This was the Number 2 position to party chairman Dean Burch, Goldwater's fellow Arizonan.

Goldwater famously declared in his bold acceptance speech at the 1964 Republican Convention: "I would remind you that extremism in the defense of liberty is no vice. And let me remind you also that moderation in the pursuit of justice is no virtue." This paraphrase of Cicero was included at the suggestion of Harry V. Jaffa, though the speech was primarily written by Karl Hess. Due to President Johnson's popularity, however, Goldwater held back from attacking the president directly; he did not even mention Johnson by name in his convention speech.

Past comments came back to haunt Goldwater throughout his campaign. Once he called the Eisenhower administration "a dime-store New Deal," and the former president never fully forgave him. Eisenhower did, however, film a TV commercial with Goldwater.^[26] Eisenhower qualified his voting for Goldwater in November by remarking that he had voted not specifically for Goldwater, but for the Republican Party.^{[citation needed]} In December 1961, Goldwater told a news conference that "sometimes I think this country would be better off if we could just saw off the Eastern Seaboard and let it float out to sea". That comment boomeranged on him during the campaign in the form of a Johnson television commercial,^[27] as did remarks about making Social Security voluntary,^[28] and statements in Tennessee about selling the Tennessee Valley Authority, a large local New Deal employer.^{[citation needed]}

The Goldwater campaign spotlighted Ronald Reagan, who appeared in a campaign ad^[29] and gave a stirring, nationally televised speech, "A Time for Choosing", in support of Goldwater.^[30] The speech prompted Reagan to seek the California Governorship in 1966 and jump-started his political career. Conservative activist Phyllis Schlafly, later well known for her fight against the Equal Rights Amendment, first became known for writing a pro-Goldwater book, A Choice, Not an Echo, attacking the moderate Republican establishment.

Senator Prescott Bush (1895–1972), a moderate Republican from Connecticut, was a friend of Goldwater and supported him in the general election campaign. Bush's son, George H. W. Bush (then running for the Senate from Texas against Democrat Ralph Yarborough), was also a strong Goldwater supporter in both the nomination and general election campaigns. Future Chief Justice of the Supreme Court and fellow Arizonan William Rehnquist also first came to the attention of national Republicans through his work as a legal adviser to Goldwater's 1964 campaign. Goldwater was painted as a dangerous figure by the Johnson campaign, which countered Goldwater's slogan "In your heart, you know he's right" with the lines "In your guts, you know he's nuts," and "In your heart, you know he might" (that is, he might actually use nuclear weapons as opposed to using only deterrence). Johnson himself did not mention Goldwater in his own acceptance speech at the 1964 Democratic National Convention.

Goldwater's provocative advocacy of aggressive tactics to prevent the spread of communism in Asia led to effective counterattacks from Lyndon B. Johnson and his supporters, who claimed that Goldwater's militancy would have dire consequences, possibly even nuclear war. In a May 1964 speech, Goldwater suggested that nuclear weapons should be treated more like conventional weapons and used in Vietnam, specifically that they should have been used at Dien Bien Phu in 1954 to defoliate trees.^[31] Regarding Vietnam, Goldwater charged that Johnson's policy was devoid of "goal, course, or purpose," leaving "only sudden death in the jungles and the slow strangulation of freedom."^[32] Goldwater's rhetoric on nuclear war was viewed by many as quite uncompromising, a view buttressed by off-hand comments: "Let's lob one into the men's room at the Kremlin" is an example.^[33] He also advocated that field commanders in Vietnam and Europe should be given the authority to use tactical nuclear weapons (which he called "small conventional nuclear weapons") without presidential confirmation.^[34]

Goldwater did his best to counter the Johnson attacks, criticizing the Johnson administration for its perceived ethical lapses, and stating in a commercial that "we, as a nation, are not far from the kind of moral decay that has brought on the fall of other nations and people.... I say it is time to put conscience back in government. And by good example, put it back in all walks of American life." Goldwater campaign commercials included statements of support by actor Raymond Massey^[35] and moderate Republican senator Margaret Chase Smith.^[36]

Before the 1964 election, the muckraking Fact magazine, published by Ralph Ginzburg, ran a special issue entitled ‘The Unconscious of a Conservative: A Special Issue on the Mind of Barry Goldwater.’ The two main articles contended that Goldwater was mentally unfit to be president. The magazine attempted to support this claim with the results of an unscientific poll of psychiatrists it had conducted. Fact had mailed questionnaires to 12,356 psychiatrists, and published a ‘sampling’ of the comments made by the 2,417 psychiatrists who responded, of which 1,189 said Goldwater was unfit to be president.^[37]^[38]

After the election, Goldwater sued the publisher, the editor and the magazine for libel in Goldwater v. Ginzburg. "Although the jury awarded Goldwater only $1.00 in compensatory damages against all three defendants, it went on to [396 U.S. 1049, 1050] award him punitive damages of $25,000 against Ginzburg and $50,000 against Fact magazine, Inc."^[39] According to Warren Boroson, then-managing editor of Fact and now a financial columnist, the main biography of Goldwater in the magazine was written by David Bar-Illan, the Israeli pianist.^[40]

Daisy [link]

A Democratic campaign advertisement known as Daisy showed a young girl counting daisy petals, from one to ten. Immediately following this scene, a voiceover counted down from ten to one. The child's face was shown as a still photograph followed by images of nuclear explosions and mushroom clouds. The campaign advertisement ended with a plea to vote for Johnson, implying that Goldwater (who was not mentioned by name) would provoke a nuclear war if he was elected. The advertisement, which featured only a few spoken words of narrative and relied on imagery for its emotional impact, was one of the most provocative in American political campaign history, and many analysts credit it as being the birth of the modern style of "negative political ads" on television. The ad aired only once and was immediately pulled but was then shown many times by television stations.^[41]

Results [link]

Presidential election results by state.

Goldwater only won his home state of Arizona and five states in the Deep South, depicted in red. The Southern states, traditionally Democratic up to that time, voted Republican primarily as a statement of opposition to the Civil Rights Act, which had been passed by Johnson and the Republicans in Congress earlier that year.^[18]^[42]

In the end, Goldwater received 38.4% of the popular vote, and carried six states: Arizona (with only 50.45% of the popular vote) and the core states of the Deep South: Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, and South Carolina, where for the last time the electorate was practically all white. In all, Johnson won an overwhelming 486 electoral votes, to Goldwater's 52. Goldwater, with his customary bluntness, remarked: "We would have lost even if Abraham Lincoln had come back and campaigned with us." He maintained later in life that he would have won the election if the country had not been in a state of extended grief (referring to the assassination of John F. Kennedy), and that it was simply not ready for a third President in just 14 months.

Goldwater's poor showing pulled down many supporters. Of the 57 Republican Congressmen who endorsed Goldwater before the convention, 20 were defeated for reelection, along with many promising young Republicans. On the other hand, the defeat of so many older politicians created openings for young conservatives to move up the ladder. While the loss of moderate Republicans was temporary—they were back by 1966—Goldwater also permanently pulled many conservative Southerners and white ethnics out of the New Deal Coalition.^[43]

"In the South, Goldwater broke through and won five states—the best showing in the region for a GOP candidate since Reconstruction. In Mississippi — where Franklin D. Roosevelt had won nearly 100 percent of the vote just 28 years earlier — Goldwater claimed a staggering 87 percent." ^[44] It has frequently been argued that Goldwater's strong performance in Southern states previously regarded as Democratic strongholds foreshadowed a larger shift in electoral trends in the coming decades that would make the south a Republican bastion (an end to the "Solid South")—first in presidential politics and eventually at the congressional and state levels, as well.^[45]

Goldwater and the revival of American conservatism [link]

Although Goldwater was not as important in the American conservative movement as Ronald Reagan after 1965, he shaped and redefined the movement from the late 1950s to 1964. Arizona Senator John McCain summed up Goldwater's legacy thus: "He transformed the Republican Party from an Eastern elitist organization to the breeding ground for the election of Ronald Reagan."^[46] The columnist George Will remarked after the 1980 Presidential election that it took 16 years to count the votes from 1964 and Goldwater won.^[47]

The Republican Party recovered from the 1964 election debacle, picking up 47 seats in the House of Representatives in the mid-term election of 1966. Further Republican successes ensued, including Goldwater's return to the Senate in 1968. In January of that year, Goldwater wrote an article in the National Review "affirming that he [was] not against liberals, that liberals are needed as a counterweight to conservatism, and that he had in mind a fine liberal like Max Lerner."^[48]

Goldwater was a strong supporter of the environment. He explained his position in 1969:

"I feel very definitely that the [Nixon] administration is absolutely correct in cracking down on companies and corporations and municipalities that continue to pollute the nation’s air and water. While I am a great believer in the free competitive enterprise system and all that it entails, I am an even stronger believer in the right of our people to live in a clean and pollution-free environment. To this end, it is my belief that when pollution is found, it should be halted at the source, even if this requires stringent government action against important segments of our national economy."^[49]

Throughout the 1970s, as the conservative wing under Reagan gained control of the party, Goldwater concentrated on his Senate duties, especially in military affairs. He played little part in the election or administration of Richard Nixon, but he helped force Nixon's resignation in 1974.^[50] In 1976 he helped block Rockefeller's renomination as Vice President. When Reagan challenged Ford for the presidential nomination in 1976, Goldwater endorsed Ford, looking for consensus rather than conservative idealism. As one historian notes, "The Arizonan had lost much of his zest for battle."^[51]

In 1979, when President Carter normalized relations with Communist China, Goldwater and some other senators sued him in the Supreme Court, arguing that the president could not terminate the Sino-American Mutual Defense Treaty with Republic of China (Taiwan) without the approval of Congress. The case was known as Goldwater v. Carter, which was dismissed by the court as a political question.

Later life [link]

Signing autographs at the Fiesta Bowl parade in 1983.

By the 1980s, with Ronald Reagan as president and the growing involvement of the religious right in conservative politics, Goldwater's libertarian views on personal issues were revealed; he believed that they were an integral part of true conservatism. Goldwater viewed abortion as a matter of personal choice, not intended for government intervention.^[52]

As a passionate defender of personal liberty, he saw the religious right's views as an encroachment on personal privacy and individual liberties.^[53] In his 1980 Senate reelection campaign, Goldwater won support from religious conservatives but in his final term voted consistently to uphold legalized abortion and, in 1981, gave a speech on how he was angry about the bullying of American politicians by religious organizations, and would "fight them every step of the way".^[54] Goldwater also disagreed with the Reagan administration on certain aspects of foreign policy (for example, he opposed the decision to mine Nicaraguan harbors). Notwithstanding his prior differences with Dwight D. Eisenhower, Goldwater in a 1986 interview rated him the best of the seven Presidents with whom he had worked.

On May 12, 1986, Goldwater was presented with the Presidential Medal of Freedom by President Ronald Reagan.

After his retirement in 1987, Goldwater described the Arizona Governor Evan Mecham as "hardheaded" and called on him to resign, and two years later stated that the Republican party had been taken over by a "bunch of kooks".^[55]

In 1988, in recognition of his career, Princeton University's American Whig-Cliosophic Society awarded Goldwater the James Madison Award for Distinguished Public Service.^[56]

In a 1994 interview with the Washington Post the retired senator said,

When you say "radical right" today, I think of these moneymaking ventures by fellows like Pat Robertson and others who are trying to take the Republican party and make a religious organization out of it. If that ever happens, kiss politics goodbye.^[57]

Goldwater visited the small town of Bowen, Illinois in 1989 to see first hand where his mother was raised.

In response to Moral Majority founder Jerry Falwell's opposition to the nomination of Sandra Day O'Connor to the Supreme Court, of which Falwell had said, "Every good Christian should be concerned", Goldwater retorted: "Every good Christian ought to kick Falwell right in the ass."^[58] (According to John Dean, Goldwater actually suggested that good Christians ought to kick Falwell in the "nuts", but the news media "changed the anatomical reference." ^[59]) Goldwater also had harsh words for his one-time political protege, President Reagan, particularly after the Iran-Contra Affair became public in 1986. Journalist Robert MacNeil, a friend of Goldwater's from the 1964 Presidential campaign, recalled interviewing him in his office shortly afterward. "He was sitting in his office with his hands on his cane ... and he said to me, 'Well, aren't you going to ask me about the Iran arms sales?' It had just been announced that the Reagan administration had sold arms to Iran. And I said, 'Well, if I asked you, what would you say?' He said, 'I'd say it's the god-damned stupidest foreign policy blunder this country's ever made!'",^[60] though aside from the Iran-Contra scandal, Goldwater thought nonetheless that Reagan was a good president.^[61] In 1988 during that year's presidential campaign, he pointedly told vice-presidential nominee Dan Quayle at a campaign event in Arizona "I want you to go back and tell George Bush to start talking about the issues."^[62]

Some of Goldwater's statements in the 1990s aggravated many social conservatives. He endorsed Democrat Karan English in an Arizona congressional race, urged Republicans to lay off Bill Clinton over the Whitewater scandal, and criticized the military's ban on homosexuals:^[57] "Everyone knows that gays have served honorably in the military since at least the time of Julius Caesar."^[63] He also said, "You don't need to be 'straight' to fight and die for your country. You just need to shoot straight."^[64] A few years before his death he went so far as to address establishment Republicans by saying, "Do not associate my name with anything you do. You are extremists, and you've hurt the Republican party much more than the Democrats have."^{[citation needed]}

In 1996, he told Bob Dole, whose own presidential campaign received lukewarm support from conservative Republicans: "We're the new liberals of the Republican party. Can you imagine that?"^[65] In that same year, with Senator Dennis DeConcini, Goldwater endorsed an Arizona initiative to legalize medical marijuana against the countervailing opinion of social conservatives.^[66]

Hobbies and interests [link]

Amateur radio [link]

Goldwater was an avid amateur radio operator from the early 1920s onwards, with the call signs 6BPI, K3UIG and K7UGA.^[67]^[68] The latter is now used by an Arizona club honoring him as a commemorative call. During the Vietnam War, he spent many hours giving servicemen overseas the ability to talk to their families at home over the Military Affiliate Radio System (MARS).

Goldwater was also a prominent spokesman for amateur radio and its enthusiasts. Beginning in 1969 up to his death he appeared in numerous educational and promotional films (and later videos) about the hobby that were produced for the American Radio Relay League (the United States national society representing the interests of radio amateurs) by such producers as Dave Bell (W6AQ), ARRL Southwest Director John R. Griggs (W6KW), Alan Kaul (W6RCL), Forrest Oden (N6ENV), and the late Roy Neal (K6DUE). His first appearance was in Dave Bell's "The World of Amateur Radio" where Goldwater discussed the history of the hobby and demonstrated a live contact with Antarctica. His last on-screen appearance dealing with "ham radio" was in 1994, explaining a then-upcoming, Earth-orbiting ham radio relay satellite.

Electronics were a hobby for Goldwater beyond amateur radio. He enjoyed assembling Heathkits, completing more than 100 and often visiting their maker in Benton Harbor, Michigan to buy more, before the company exited the kit business in 1992.^[69]

Kachina dolls [link]

Over half of the kachina dolls at the Heard Museum were donated by Goldwater

In 1916, Goldwater visited the Hopi Reservation with Phoenix architect John Rinker Kibby, and obtained his first kachina doll. Eventually his doll collection included 437 items and was presented in 1969 to the Heard Museum in Phoenix.^[70]

Photography [link]

Goldwater was an accomplished amateur photographer and in his estate left some 15,000 of his images to three Arizona institutions. He was very keen on candid photography. He got started in photography after receiving a camera as a gift from his wife on their first Christmas together. He was known to use a 4x5 Graflex, Rolleiflex camera,16 MM Bell and Howell motion picture camera, and Nikon FT 35 mm. He was a member of the Royal Photographic Society from 1941 becoming a Life Member in 1948.^[71]

For decades, he contributed photographs of his home state to Arizona Highways and was best known for his Western landscapes and pictures of native Americans in the United States. Three books with his photographs are People and Places, from 1967; Barry Goldwater and the Southwest, from 1976; and Delightful Journey, first published in 1940 and reprinted in 1970. Ansel Adams wrote a foreword to the 1976 book.^[72]

Goldwater's photography interests occasionally crossed over with his political career, as well. John Kennedy, as president, was known to invite former congressional colleagues to the White House for a drink. On one occasion, Goldwater brought his camera and photographed President Kennedy. When Kennedy received the photo, he returned it to Goldwater, with the inscription, "For Barry Goldwater – Whom I urge to follow the career for which he has shown such talent – photography! – from his friend – John Kennedy." This quip became a classic of American political humor after it was made famous by humorist Bennett Cerf. The photo itself was prized by Goldwater for the rest of his life, and recently sold for $17,925 in a Heritage auction.^[73]

Son Michael Prescott Goldwater formed the Goldwater Family Foundation with the goal of making his father's photography available via the internet. (Barry Goldwater Photographs) was launched in September 2006 to coincide with the HBO documentary "Mr. Conservative", produced by granddaughter CC Goldwater.

UFOs [link]

Goldwater was one of the more prominent American politicians to openly show an interest in UFOs.

On March 28, 1975, Goldwater wrote to Shlomo Arnon: "The subject of UFOs has interested me for some long time. About ten or twelve years ago I made an effort to find out what was in the building at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base where the information has been stored that has been collected by the Air Force, and I was understandably denied this request. It is still classified above Top Secret."^[74] Goldwater further wrote that there were rumors the evidence would be released, and that he was "just as anxious to see this material as you are, and I hope we will not have to wait much longer."^[74]

The April 25, 1988, issue of The New Yorker carried an interview where Goldwater said he repeatedly asked his friend, Gen. Curtis LeMay, if there was any truth to the rumors that UFO evidence was stored in a secret room at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, and if he (Goldwater) might have access to the room. According to Goldwater, an angry LeMay gave him "holy hell" and said, "Not only can't you get into it but don't you ever mention it to me again."^[75]

In a 1988 interview on Larry King's radio show, Goldwater was asked if he thought the U.S. Government was withholding UFO evidence; he replied "Yes, I do." He added:

I certainly believe in aliens in space. They may not look like us, but I have very strong feelings that they have advanced beyond our mental capabilities....I think some highly secret government UFO investigations are going on that we don't know about – and probably never will unless the Air Force discloses them.^[76]

Goldwater Scholarship [link]

This unreferenced section requires citations to ensure verifiability.

The Barry M. Goldwater Scholarship and Excellence in Education Program was established by Congress in 1986. Its goal is to provide a continuing source of highly qualified scientists, mathematicians, and engineers by awarding scholarships to college students who intend to pursue careers in these fields.

The Scholarship is widely considered the most prestigious award in the U.S. conferred upon undergraduates studying the sciences. It is awarded to about 300 students (college sophomores and juniors) nationwide in the amount of $7500 per academic year (for their senior year, or junior and senior years). It honors Goldwater's keen interest in science and technology.

Death [link]

Goldwater's public appearances ended in late 1996 after he suffered a massive stroke; family members then disclosed he was in the early stages of Alzheimer's disease. He died on May 29, 1998, at the age of 89 at his long-time home in Paradise Valley, Arizona, of complications from the stroke.^[77] His ashes were buried at the Episcopal Christ Church of the Ascension in Paradise Valley, Arizona. A memorial statue set in a small park has been erected to honor the memory of Goldwater in that town, near his former home and current resting place.

Buildings and monuments [link]

Barry M. Goldwater Terminal 4 entrance at Phoenix Sky Harbor International Airport

Among the buildings and monuments named after Barry Goldwater are: the Barry M. Goldwater Terminal at Phoenix Sky Harbor International Airport, Goldwater Memorial Park^[78] in Paradise Valley, Arizona, the Barry Goldwater Air Force Academy Visitor Center at the United States Air Force Academy, and Barry Goldwater High School in northern Phoenix.

Documentary [link]

Goldwater's granddaughter, CC Goldwater, has co-produced with longtime friend and independent film producer Tani L. Cohen a documentary on Goldwater's life, Mr. Conservative: Goldwater on Goldwater, first shown on HBO on September 18, 2006.^[79]

Books [link]

Goldwater, Barry. The Conscience of a Conservative (1960) ISBN 0-89526-540-0
Goldwater, Barry. Why Not Victory? A fresh look at American policy (1963) OCLC 25326755
Goldwater, Barry. Conscience of a Majority (1971) ISBN 0-671-78096-4
Goldwater, Barry. The Coming Breakpoint (1976) ISBN 0-02-544611-8
Goldwater, Barry. Arizona (1977) ISBN 0-938379-04-6
Goldwater, Barry. With No Apologies: The Outspoken Political Memoirs of America's Conservative Conscience (1979) ISBN 0-425-04663-X
Goldwater, Barry. Goldwater (1988) ISBN 0-385-23947-5, autobiography

Relatives [link]

Goldwater's son, Barry Goldwater, Jr., served as a Congressman from California from 1969 to 1983. He was the first Congressman to serve while having a father in the Senate. Goldwater's nephew, Don Goldwater, sought the Arizona Republican Party nomination for Governor of Arizona in 2006, but was defeated by Len Munsil.

References [link]

^ Internet Accuracy Project, Senator Barry Goldwater. Retrieved September 23, 2010.
^ Robert Poole, In memoriam: Barry Goldwater – Obituary, Reason Magazine, August–Sept, 1998.
^ Theodore H. White, The Making of the President in 1964 (1965) p. 217
^ Goldstein, Dana (September 21, 2006). "Progressives, Meet Goldwater". CampusProgress.org. http://www.campusprogress.org/soundvision/1176/progressives-meet-goldwater?type=printer. Retrieved August 3, 2008.
^ By GEORGE ZORNICK; 700+ words. "Thoroughly modern grandmothers". Highbeam.com. http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P2-1284836.html. Retrieved March 3, 2012.
^ "Barry Goldwater". The Washington Post. May 13, 1997. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/style/longterm/books/chap1/barrygoldwater.htm. Retrieved March 30, 2010.
^ Goldberg, Barry Goldwater pp. 21
^ "Barry Goldwater, Conservative and Individualist, Dies at 89". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/books/01/04/01/specials/goldwater-obit.html. Retrieved March 30, 2010.
^ Friday, Aug. 28, 1964 (August 28, 1964). "Worship: Goldwater's Faith". Time.com. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,876116,00.html. Retrieved March 3, 2012.
^ Goldberg, Barry Goldwater pp. 22–27, quote p. 27. The Jewish essayist Harry Golden famously remarked of Goldwater, "I have always thought that if a Jew ever became President, he would turn out to be an Episcopalian."""The Taboo" Time Magazine. November 22, 1963.
^ Goldberg, Barry Goldwater pp. 41–42, 48–49, 326, 332
^ "MAJOR GENERAL BARRY M. GOLDWATER". US Air Force. http://www.af.mil/information/bios/bio.asp?bioID=5574.
^ LIFE - Google Books. Books.google.com. September 18, 1964. http://books.google.com/books?id=-EgEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA93&lpg=PA93&dq=goldwater+and+the+desegregation+of+the+arizona+air+national+guard&source=bl&ots=ZpoJA8bHRB&sig=JI8LrknD0ER1FQqg-Q7HQZim7hM&hl=en&ei=2sYsTci4JIG8lQeP1sywCw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=4&ved=0CCkQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=goldwater%20and%20the%20desegregation%20of%20the%20arizona%20air%20national%20guard&f=false. Retrieved March 3, 2012.
^ Lavender, David River Runners of the Grand Canyon ISBN 0-8165-0940-9
^ "A Look at the Life of Barry Goldwater". The Washington Post. June 5, 1998. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/politics/daily/may98/goldwaterchrono.htm. Retrieved March 30, 2010.
^ Gary Donaldson, Liberalism's last hurrah: the presidential campaign of 1964 (2003) p. 20
^ Donaldson, Liberalism's last hurrah: the presidential campaign of 1964 (2003) pp 152–79
^ ^a ^b Bernard Cosman, Five States for Goldwater: Continuity and change in Southern presidential voting patterns (1966)
^ Hans J. Morgenthau: "Goldwater-The Romantic Regression", Commentary, September 1964.
^ "Red China Admitted to UN: 1971 Year in Review". Upi.com. December 28, 1971. http://www.upi.com/Audio/Year_in_Review/Events-of-1971/12295509436546-1/#title. Retrieved March 3, 2012.
^ [1]^{[dead link]}
^ Robert Alan Goldberg, "Barry Goldwater." (1995). chapter 12.
^ "When that assassin's bullet ended the life of John Fitzgerald Kennedy in Dallas on November 22, 1963, it was for me a great personal loss." Barry Goldwater. With No Apologies (New York: Berkley, 1980), p. 161.
^ ^a ^b [2], "Mr. Conservative: Goldwater on Goldwater", HBO Documentary Films.
^ Goldberg, Barry Goldwater p 282
^ "Ike at Gettysburg", Goldwater campaign ad
^ "Eastern Seabord", Johnson campaign ad
^ "Social Security", Johnson campaign ad
^ "Goldwater ad". Livingroomcandidate.org. September 7, 1964. http://www.livingroomcandidate.org/commercials/1964/ronald-reagan. Retrieved March 3, 2012.
^ Ronald Reagan, A Time for Choosing, Televised Address on Behalf of Barry Goldwater, Delivered October 27, 1964, Los Angeles, CA.
^ Nina Tattenwald (2006). "Nuclear Weapons and the Vietnam War". The Journal of Strategic Studies 29 (4): 675-22.
^ Matthews 2002
^ "Harper's Magazine". Tentacles of Rage. http://www.mindfully.org/Reform/2004/Republican-Propaganda1sep04.htm.
^ Our Defense: a Crucial Issue for Candidates. LIFE. September 25, 1964. p. 11. http://books.google.com/books?id=rUwEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA11-IA1&dq=goldwater+1964+%22small+conventional+nuclear+weapons%22)+intitle:life&hl=en&sa=X&ei=TQxPT4KGFMmngwftxsXoDQ&ved=0CDYQ6AEwAA. Retrieved March 3, 2012.
^ "Goldwater ad". Livingroomcandidate.org. September 7, 1964. http://www.livingroomcandidate.org/commercials/1964/raymond-massey. Retrieved March 3, 2012.
^ "Goldwater ad". Livingroomcandidate.org. September 7, 1964. http://www.livingroomcandidate.org/commercials/1964/senator-margaret-chase. Retrieved March 3, 2012.
^ Richard A. Friedman (May 23, 2011). "How a Telescopic Lens Muddles Psychiatric Insights". New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2011/05/24/health/views/24mind.html?ref=science. Retrieved May 24, 2011.
^ Friday, May 17, 1968 (May 17, 1968). ""Fact, Fiction, Doubt & Barry", ''Time''. May 17, 1968. Online at". Time.com. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,838361,00.html. Retrieved March 3, 2012.
^ "Ginzburg v. Goldwater, 396 U.S. 1049 (1970)". Caselaw.lp.findlaw.com. http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?court=us&vol=396&invol=1049. Retrieved March 3, 2012.
^ "Daily Record". Wikipedia site filled with major mistakes. April 11, 2006. http://www.dailyrecord.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20060411/COLUMNISTS04/604110302/1103/COLUMNISTS.
^ ""Daisy" ad". Livingroomcandidate.org. September 7, 1964. http://www.livingroomcandidate.org/commercials/1964/peace-little-girl-daisy. Retrieved March 3, 2012.
^ Charles S Bullock III, and Mark J. Rozell, The Oxford Handbook of Southern Politics (2012) p 303
^ Goldberg, Barry Goldwater 232-37
^ Kornacki, Steve (2011-02-03) The "Southern Strategy," fulfilled, Salon.com
^ Rodriguez, Daniel; Weingast, Barry (July, 2006). "How the GOP Helped the Democrats Destroy the Solid South" (PDF). Stanford University. http://politicalscience.stanford.edu/faculty/documents/weingast-untold%20story%20of%201964%20civil%20rights%20act.pdf. Retrieved January 7, 2007.
^ Grove, Lloyd (July 28, 1994). "Barry Goldwater's Left Turn". Washington Post. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/politics/daily/may98/goldwater072894.htm. Retrieved October 25, 2008.
^ "Will, November 6, 2008". Washingtonpost.com. November 6, 2008. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/11/05/AR2008110503927.html. Retrieved March 3, 2012.
^ Rothbard, Murray N.. Confessions of a Right-Wing Liberal, Ludwig von Mises Institute
^ Barry Goldwater, The Conscience of a Majority (1969) in Brian Allen Drake, "The Skeptical Environmentalist: Senator Barry Goldwater and the Environmental Management State," Environmental History, (2010) 15#4 pp 587-611, quote p. 589
^ "The Unmaking of the President, ''Time'' August 19, 1974 online at". Time.com. August 19, 1974. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/printout/0,8816,942972,00.html. Retrieved March 3, 2012.
^ Jonathan Martin Kolkey, The New Right, 1960–1968: With Epilogue, 1969–1980. University Press of America. 1983. quote p. 254; Mary C. Brennan, Turning Right in the Sixties: The Conservative Capture of the GOP. U. of North Carolina Press. 1995. ch. 6; 1976 details in David W. Reinhard, The Republican Right since 1945. U. Press of Kentucky. 1983, p. 230.
^ Goldberg, Barry Goldwater, p. 331
^ Goldberg, Barry Goldwater, p. 315
^ Goldwater on personal religious views The quotation comes from a piece Goldwater wrote for the Los Angeles Times on September 17, 1981, "The 'New Right' Has Nothing to Do with the 'Old Conservatism'." It is also quoted on p. 39 of The God Delusion
^ Goldberg, Barry Goldwater, p. 329.
^ http://archives-trim.un.org/webdrawer/rec/552938/view/Item-in-KAA%20Schoolsuniversities%202002%20-%20oct.%20-%20dec..PDF
^ ^a ^b Lloyd Grove, "Barry Goldwater's Left Turn", The Washington Post. July 28, 1994, Page C01.
^ Ed Magnuson, Time Magazine, The Brethren's First Sister, July 20, 1981. Retrieved January 1, 2007; Goldberg, Barry Goldwater, p. 315
^ Dean, John, Broken Government, 2008, Penguin Group
^ "Archive of American Television Interview with Robert MacNeil Part 5 of 14" (video)^{[dead link]}
^ YouTube – Charlie Rose – Goldwater tribute/^{[dead link]}
^ Dowd, Maureen (June 13, 1988). "Campaign Trail; Outspoken Advice From a G.O.P. Hero". The New York Times. http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=940DEEDF123AF931A1575AC0A96E948260&n=Top%2fReference%2fTimes%20Topics%2fPeople%2fG%2fGoldwater%2c%20Barry%20M%2e. Retrieved June 13, 2008.
^ "Ban On Gays Is Senseless Attempt To Stall The Inevitable", Los Angeles Times, Washington Post. Online at [3]
^ Goldberg, Barry Goldwater, p. 332
^ "Conservative pioneer became an outcast". Azcentral.com. May 31, 1998. http://www.azcentral.com/specials/special25/articles/0531goldwater2.html. Retrieved March 3, 2012.
^ Prescription: Drugs Reason Magazine
^ "An Afternoon with Senator Goldwater". Smecc.org. http://www.smecc.org/barry_goldwater.htm. Retrieved March 3, 2012.
^ "FCC K7UGA record". Wireless2.fcc.gov. May 29, 1998. http://wireless2.fcc.gov/UlsApp/UlsSearch/license.jsp?licKey=262314. Retrieved March 3, 2012.
^ Fisher, Lawrence M. "Plug Is Pulled on Heathkits, Ending a Do-It-Yourself Era" The New York Times, March 30, 1992.
^ "Goldwater Kachinas a public treasure". Azcentral.com. December 3, 1986. http://www.azcentral.com/specials/special25/articles/1203goldwater2.html. Retrieved March 3, 2012.
^ Information provided by The Royal Photographic Society, United Kingdom, dated October 6, 2011, "Royal Photographic Society".
^ Arizona Republic, May 31, 1998
^ "Heritage Auctions description of signed Kennedy photo". Historical.ha.com. November 17, 2010. http://historical.ha.com/common/view_item.php?Sale_No=6047&Lot_No=47197. Retrieved March 3, 2012.
^ ^a ^b "FOIA documents". http://www.anomalies.net/archive/Text-Archive/txt1/469.ufo. Retrieved March 3, 2012.
^ Burton Bernstein, Profiles, "AuH2O," The New Yorker, April 25, 1988, p. 43
^ P Cooke. "UFO Quotations – The United States Congress". Bibleufo.com. http://www.bibleufo.com/quotecong.htm. Retrieved March 3, 2012.
^ Biographical Directory of the United States Congress, Goldwater, Barry Morris, (1909–1988). Retrieved January 1, 2007.
^ "Barry Goldwater Memorial in PV". Phoenixmarkettrends.com. March 4, 2008. http://www.phoenixmarkettrends.com/topics/Barry+Goldwater+Memorial+in+PV. Retrieved March 3, 2012.
^ Deborah Solomon, New York Times, Goldwater Girl (interview with CC Goldwater), Published August 27, 2006. Retrieved January 1, 2007.

External links [link]

This article's use of external links may not follow Wikipedia's policies or guidelines. Please improve this article by removing excessive or inappropriate external links, and converting useful links where appropriate into footnote references. (April 2012)

Wikisource has original works written by or about:
Barry Goldwater

Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Barry Goldwater

Barry Goldwater at the Biographical Directory of the United States Congress Retrieved on 2009-03-03
The Goldwater Institute advances the principles of free enterprise, individual responsibility, and constitutionally limited government, espoused by Senator Goldwater.
Transcript of Goldwater's 1964 Republican National Convention Acceptance Address
Goldwater's 1964 acceptance speech at the Republican Convention – the 'extremism in the defense of liberty' speech.
Extended "in memoriam" reporting from the Arizona Republic
Remarks at the Presentation Ceremony for the Presidential Medal of Freedom – May 12, 1986
Works by or about Barry Goldwater in libraries (WorldCat catalog)
Booknotes interview with Rick Perlstein on Before the Storm: Barry Goldwater and the Unmaking of the American Consensus, June 3, 2001.
"Barry Goldwater, Presidential Contender" from C-SPAN's The Contenders

4,354

United States Senate
Preceded by Ernest McFarland (D)	United States Senator (Class 1) from Arizona 1953–1965 Served alongside: Carl Hayden	Succeeded by Paul Fannin (R)
Preceded by Carl Hayden (D)	United States Senator (Class 3) from Arizona 1969–1987 Served alongside: Paul Fannin, Dennis DeConcini	Succeeded by John McCain (R)
Political offices
Preceded by Birch Bayh (D-Indiana)	Chairman of the Senate Intelligence Committee 1981–1985	Succeeded by David Durenberger (R-Minnesota)
Preceded by John Tower (R-Texas)	Chairman of the Senate Armed Services Committee 1985–1987	Succeeded by Sam Nunn (D-Georgia)
Party political offices
Preceded by Ward S. Powers	Republican nominee for United States Senator from Arizona (Class 1) 1953, 1958	Succeeded by Paul Fannin
Preceded by Styles Bridges (New Hampshire)	Chairman of the National Republican Senatorial Committee 1955–1957	Succeeded by Everett Dirksen (Illinois)
Preceded by Andrew F. Schoeppel (Kansas)	Chairman of the National Republican Senatorial Committee 1961–1963	Succeeded by Thruston B. Morton (Kentucky)
Preceded by Richard Nixon	Republican Party Presidential nominee 1964	Succeeded by Richard Nixon
Preceded by Evan Mecham	Republican nominee for United States Senator from Arizona (Class 3) 1968, 1974, 1980	Succeeded by John McCain

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United States presidential election, 1960

Democratic Party

Convention
Primaries

Nominee: John F. Kennedy

VP nominee: Lyndon B. Johnson

Candidates: Ross Barnett; Pat Brown; Michael DiSalle; Paul C. Fisher; Hubert Humphrey; Lyndon B. Johnson; George H. McLain; Robert B. Meyner; Wayne Morse; Albert S. Porter; Adlai Stevenson; George Smathers; Stuart Symington

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Nominee: Richard Nixon

VP nominee: Henry Cabot Lodge, Jr.

Candidiates: Barry Goldwater; Henry Cabot Lodge, Jr.; James M. Lloyd; Nelson Rockefeller

Third party and independent candidates

American Vegetarian Party	Nominee Symon Gould

National States' Rights Party	Nominee Orval Faubus VP nominee J. B. Stoner

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Convention · Primaries

Nominee: Lyndon B. Johnson
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Candidates: Daniel Brewster · Pat Brown · Robert F. Kennedy · Albert S. Porter · Jennings Randolph · John W. Reynolds, Jr. · George Wallace · Matthew E. Welsh · Sam Yorty

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Nominee: Barry Goldwater (campaign)
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Candidiates: Hiram Fong · Walter Judd · Henry Cabot Lodge, Jr. · Jim Rhodes · Nelson Rockefeller · William Scranton · Margaret Chase Smith · Harold Stassen

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American Vegetarian Party	Nominee: Symon Gould

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Socialist Labor Party	Nominee: Eric Hass VP Nominee: Henning A. Blomen

Socialist Workers Party	Nominee: Clifton DeBerry

Independents and other candidates:	George Lincoln Rockwell

Other 1964 elections: House · Senate

Persondata
Name	Goldwater, Barry
Alternative names
Short description	United States Air Force general and politician
Date of birth	January 1, 1909
Place of birth	Phoenix, Arizona Territory
Date of death	May 29, 1998
Place of death	Paradise Valley, Arizona, U.S.

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For other people named James Stewart, see James Stewart (disambiguation).

James Stewart
Studio publicity photo for Call Northside 777 (1948)
Born	James Maitland Stewart (1908-05-20)May 20, 1908 Indiana, Pennsylvania
Died	July 2, 1997(1997-07-02) (aged 89) Beverly Hills, California
Cause of death	Heart Attack
Resting place	Forest Lawn, Glendale, California
Residence	Beverly Hills, California
Nationality	American
Other names	Jimmy Stewart
Education	Mercersburg Academy
Alma mater	Princeton University (1932)
Occupation	Actor
Years active	1932–1991
Employer	MGM
Home town	Indiana, Pennsylvania
Spouse	Gloria Hatrick McLean (1949–1994; her death)
Children	4 children (including two adopted stepchildren)
Awards	Lifetime Achievement Award
Military career
Allegiance	United States of America
Service/branch	United States Army Air Forces United States Air Force Reserve
Years of service	1941–1968
Rank	Brigadier General
Unit	445th Bombardment Group 453rd Bombardment Group Eighth Air Force Strategic Air Command
Commands held	703rd Bombardment Squadron Dobbins Air Force Base
Battles/wars	World War II Vietnam War
Awards	Distinguished Service Medal Distinguished Flying Cross (2) Air Medal (4) Army Commendation Medal Armed Forces Reserve Medal Presidential Medal of Freedom French Croix de Guerre with Palm

James Maitland "Jimmy" Stewart (May 20, 1908 – July 2, 1997) was an American film and stage actor, known for his distinctive voice and persona. Over the course of his career, he starred in many films widely considered classics and was nominated for five Academy Awards, winning one in competition and receiving one Lifetime Achievement award. He was a major MGM contract star. He also had a noted military career and was a World War II and Vietnam War veteran, who rose to the rank of Brigadier General in the United States Air Force Reserve.

1 Early life and career
2 Pre-war success
3 Military service
4 Post-war success
5 Collaborations with Hitchcock and Mann
- 5.1 Career in the 1960s and 1970s
6 Last years and later career
7 Death
8 Personal life
- 8.1 Politics
9 Filmography
10 Broadway performances
11 Legacy
12 Honors and tributes
13 See also
14 References
15 External links

Early life and career [link]

James Maitland Stewart was born on May 20, 1908, in Indiana, Pennsylvania, the son of Elizabeth Ruth (née Jackson) and Alexander Maitland Stewart, who owned a hardware store.^[1] Stewart's parents were of Scottish descent and Presbyterians.^[2]^[3] His maternal ancestors served in the American Revolution, the War of 1812 and the American Civil War.^[4] The eldest of three children (he had two younger sisters, Virginia and Mary), he was expected to continue his father's business, which had been in the family for three generations. His mother was an excellent pianist but his father discouraged Stewart's request for lessons. But when his father accepted a gift of an accordion from a guest, young Stewart quickly learned to play the instrument, which became a fixture off-stage during his acting career. As the family grew, music continued to be an important part of family life.^[5]

Stewart attended Mercersburg Academy prep school, graduating in 1928. He was active in a variety of activities. He played on the football and track teams, was art editor of the KARUX yearbook, and a member of the choir club, glee club, and John Marshall Literary Society. During his first summer break, Stewart returned to his hometown to work as a brick loader for a local construction company and on highway and road construction jobs where he painted lines on the roads. Over the following two summers, he took a job as an assistant with a professional magician.^[6] He made his first appearance onstage at Mercersburg, as Buquet in the play The Wolves.^[7]

A shy child, Stewart spent much of his after-school time in the basement working on model airplanes, mechanical drawing and chemistry—all with a dream of going into aviation. But he abandoned visions of being a pilot when his father insisted that instead of the United States Naval Academy he attend Princeton University. Stewart enrolled at Princeton in 1928 as a member of the class of 1932. He excelled at studying architecture, so impressing his professors with his thesis on an airport design that he was awarded a scholarship for graduate studies;^[6] but he gradually became attracted to the school's drama and music clubs, including the Princeton Triangle Club.^[8] His acting and accordion talents at Princeton led him to be invited to the University Players, an intercollegiate summer stock company in West Falmouth, Massachusetts, on Cape Cod. The company had been organized in 1928 and would run until 1932, with Joshua Logan, Bretaigne Windust, and Charles Leatherbee as directors. Stewart performed in bit parts in the Players' productions in Cape Cod during the summer of 1932, after he graduated. The troupe had previously included Henry Fonda, who married Margaret Sullavan on Christmas Day 1931, while the players were in Baltimore, Maryland for an 18-week winter season.^[9] Sullavan, who had rejoined the Players in Baltimore in November 1931 at the close of the post-Broadway tour of A Modern Virgin, left the Players for good at the end of The Trial of Mary Dugan in Baltimore in March 1932. By the time Stewart joined the University Players on Cape Cod after his graduation from Princeton in 1932, Fonda and Sullavan's brief marriage had ended.^[10] Stewart and Fonda became great friends over the summer of 1932 when they shared an apartment with Joshua Logan and Myron McCormick.^[11] When Stewart came to New York at the end of the summer stock season, which had included the Broadway try-out of Goodbye Again, he shared an apartment with Fonda, who had by then finalized his divorce from Sullavan. Along with fellow University Players Alfred Dalrymple and Myron McCormick, Stewart debuted on Broadway as a chauffeur in the comedy Goodbye Again, in which he had two lines. The New Yorker noted, "Mr. James Stewart's chauffeur... comes on for three minutes and walks off to a round of spontaneous applause."^[12]

The play was a moderate success, but times were hard. Many Broadway theaters had been converted to movie houses and the Depression was reaching bottom. "From 1932 through 1934", Stewart later recalled, "I'd only worked three months. Every play I got into folded."^[13] By 1934, he had gotten more substantial stage roles, including the modest hit Page Miss Glory and his first dramatic stage role in Sidney Howard's Yellow Jack, which convinced him to continue his acting career. However, Stewart and Fonda, still roommates, were both struggling. In the fall of 1934, Fonda's success in The Farmer Takes a Wife took him to Hollywood. Finally, Stewart attracted the interest of MGM scout Bill Grady who saw Stewart on the opening night of Divided by Three, a glittering première with many luminaries in attendance, including Irving Berlin and Moss Hart and Fonda, who had returned to New York for the show. With Fonda's encouragement, Stewart agreed to take a screen test, after which he signed a contract with MGM in April 1935, as a contract player for up to seven years at $350 a week.^[14]

Stewart made four features with Margaret Sullavan, the second of which was The Shopworn Angel (1938)

Upon Stewart's arrival by train in Los Angeles, Fonda greeted him at the station and took him to Fonda's studio-supplied lodging, next door to Greta Garbo. Stewart's first job at the studio was as a participant in screen tests with newly arrived starlets. At first, he had trouble being cast in Hollywood films owing to his gangling looks and shy, humble screen presence. Aside from an unbilled appearance in a Shemp Howard comedy short called Art Trouble in 1934, his first film was the poorly received Spencer Tracy vehicle, The Murder Man (1935). Rose Marie (1936), an adaptation of a popular operetta, was more successful. After mixed success in films, he received his first substantial part in 1936's After the Thin Man.

On the romantic front, he found himself dating newly divorced Ginger Rogers.^[15] The romance soon cooled, however, and by chance Stewart encountered Margaret Sullavan again. Stewart found his footing in Hollywood thanks largely to Sullavan, who campaigned for Stewart to be her leading man in the 1936 romantic comedy Next Time We Love. She rehearsed extensively with him, having a noticeable effect on his confidence. She encouraged Stewart to feel comfortable with his unique mannerisms and boyish charm and use them naturally as his own style. Stewart was enjoying Hollywood life and had no regrets about giving up the stage, as he worked six days a week in the MGM factory.^[16] In 1936, he acquired big-time agent Leland Hayward, who would eventually marry Sullavan. Hayward started to chart Stewart's career, deciding the best path for him was through loan-outs to other studios.

Pre-war success [link]

“	You hear so much about the old movie moguls and the impersonal factories where there is no freedom. MGM was a wonderful place where decisions were made on my behalf by my superiors. What's wrong with that?	”
—James Stewart, The Leading Men of MGM^[17]

In 1938, Stewart had a brief, tumultuous romance with Hollywood queen Norma Shearer, whose husband, Irving Thalberg, head of production at MGM, had died two years earlier. Stewart began a successful partnership with director Frank Capra in 1938, when he was loaned out to Columbia Pictures to star in You Can't Take It With You. Capra had been impressed by Stewart's minor role in Navy Blue and Gold (1937). The director had recently completed several popular movies, including It Happened One Night (1934), and was looking for the right actor to suit his needs — other recent actors in Capra's films such as Clark Gable, Ronald Colman, and Gary Cooper did not quite fit. Not only was Stewart just what he was looking for, but Capra also found Stewart understood that prototype intuitively and required very little directing. Later Capra commented, "I think he's probably the best actor who's ever hit the screen."^[18]

Frank Capra's comedy You Can't Take It With You (1938) was one of the films that brought Stewart widespread attention.

You Can't Take It With You, starring Capra's "favorite actress", comedienne Jean Arthur, won the 1938 Best Picture Academy Award. The following year saw Stewart work with Capra and Arthur again in the political comedy-drama Mr. Smith Goes to Washington. Stewart replaced intended star Gary Cooper in the film, playing an idealist thrown into the political arena. Upon its October 1939 release, the film garnered critical praise and became a box-office success. Stewart was nominated for the first of five Academy Awards for Best Actor. Stewart's father was still trying to talk him into leaving Hollywood and its sinful ways and to return to his home town to lead a decent life. Stewart took a secret trip to Europe to take a break and returned home in 1939 just as Germany invaded Poland.^[18]

Destry Rides Again, also released in 1939, became Stewart's first western film, a genre with which he would become identified later in his career. In this western parody, Stewart is a pacifist lawman and Marlene Dietrich is the dancing saloon girl who comes to love him, but doesn't get him. In the film, Dietrich sings her famous song "The Boys In the Back Room". Off-screen, Dietrich did get her man, but the romance was short-lived.^[19] Made for Each Other (1939) had Stewart sharing the screen with irrepressible Carole Lombard in a melodrama that garnered good reviews for both stars, but did less well with the public. Newsweek wrote that they were "perfectly cast in the leading roles."^[20] Between movies, Stewart began a radio career and became a distinctive voice on the Lux Radio Theater's The Screen Guild Theater and other shows. So well-known had his slow drawl become that comedians began impersonating him.^[21]

Stewart won his only Academy Award for Best Actor for 1940's The Philadelphia Story. He is seen here with co-star Katharine Hepburn.

In 1940, Stewart and Sullavan reunited for two films. The first, the Ernst Lubitsch romantic comedy, The Shop Around the Corner, starred Stewart and Sullavan as co-workers unknowingly involved in a pen-pal romance but who cannot stand each other in real life (this was later remade into the musical, In the Good Old Summertime with Judy Garland and Van Johnson, and later as the romantic comedy You've Got Mail with Tom Hanks and Meg Ryan). It was Stewart's fifth film of the year and that rare film shot in sequence; it was completed in only 27 days.^[22] The Mortal Storm, directed by Frank Borzage, was one of the first blatantly anti-Nazi films to be produced in Hollywood and featured the pair as friends and then lovers caught in turmoil upon Hitler's rise to power, literally hunted down by their own friends.

Stewart also starred with Cary Grant and Katharine Hepburn in George Cukor's classic The Philadelphia Story (1940). His performance as an intrusive, fast-talking reporter earned him his only Academy Award in a competitive category (Best Actor, 1941), and he beat out his good friend Henry Fonda (The Grapes of Wrath). Stewart thought his performance "entertaining and slick and smooth" but lacking the "guts" of "Mr. Smith."^[23] Stewart gave the Oscar statuette to his father, who displayed it for many years in a case inside the front door of his hardware store, alongside other family awards and military medals.

During the months before he began military service, Stewart appeared in a series of screwball comedies with varying levels of success. He followed the mediocre No Time for Comedy (1940) and Come Live with Me (1941) with the Judy Garland musical, Ziegfeld Girl, and the George Marshall romantic comedy Pot o' Gold. Stewart was drafted in late 1940, a situation that coincided with the lapse in his MGM contract, marking a turning point in Stewart's career, with 28 movies to his credit at that point.^[24]

Military service [link]

The Stewart and Jackson families had deep military roots as both grandfathers had fought in the Civil War, and his father had served during both the Spanish-American War and World War I. Stewart considered his father to be the biggest influence on his life, so it was not surprising that, when another war came, he too was eager to serve. Members of his family had previously been in the infantry, but Stewart chose to become a military flier.^[25]

An early interest in flying led Stewart to gain his Private Pilot certificate in 1935 and Commercial Pilot certificate in 1938. He often flew cross-country to visit his parents in Pennsylvania, navigating by the railroad tracks.^[6] Nearly two years before the December 1941 attack on Pearl Harbor, Stewart had accumulated over 400 hours of flying time.^[26]

Considered a highly proficient pilot, he even entered a cross-country race as a co-pilot in 1939.^[27] Stewart, along with musician/composer Hoagy Carmichael, saw the need for trained war pilots, and joined with other Hollywood celebrities to invest in Thunderbird Field, a pilot-training school built and operated by Southwest Airways in Glendale, Arizona. This airfield became part of the United States Army Air Forces training establishment and trained more than 10,000 pilots during World War II, and is now the home of Thunderbird School of Global Management.^[28]

Later in 1940, Stewart was drafted into the United States Army but was rejected for failing to meet height and weight requirements for new recruits—Stewart was five pounds (2.3 kg) under the standard. To get up to 148 pounds, he sought out the help of Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer's muscle man and trainer Don Loomis, who was noted for his ability to add or subtract pounds in his studio gymnasium. Stewart subsequently attempted to enlist in the Army Air Corps, but still came in under the weight requirement, although he persuaded the AAC enlistment officer to run new tests, this time passing the weigh-in,^[29]^{[N 1]} with the result that Stewart enlisted in the Army in March 1941. He became the first major American movie star to wear a military uniform in World War II.^[30]

Stewart enlisted as a private^[6]^[31] and then began pilot training in the USAAC. Stewart continued his military training and earned a commission as a second lieutenant in January 1942, just after the attack on Pearl Harbor brought the US directly into the conflict. He was posted to Moffett Field and then Mather Field as an instructor pilot in single- and twin-engine aircraft.^[31]

Public appearances by Stewart were limited engagements scheduled by the Army Air Forces. "Stewart appeared several times on network radio with Edgar Bergen and Charlie McCarthy. Shortly after Pearl Harbor, he performed with Orson Welles, Edward G. Robinson, Walter Huston and Lionel Barrymore in an all-network radio program called We Hold These Truths, dedicated to the 150th anniversary of the Bill of Rights."^[32] In early 1942, Stewart was asked to appear in a propaganda film to help recruit the anticipated 100,000 airmen that the USAAF would need to win the war. The USAAC's First Motion Picture Unit shot scenes of Lieutenant Stewart in his pilot's flight suit and recorded his voice for narration. The short film, Winning Your Wings, appeared nationwide beginning in late May and was very successful, resulting in 150,000 new recruits.^[33]

Stewart was concerned that his expertise and celebrity status would relegate him to instructor duties "behind the lines."^[34] His fears were confirmed when he was stationed for six months at Kirtland Air Force Base in Albuquerque, New Mexico, to train bombardiers. He was transferred to Hobbs Army Airfield to become an instructor pilot for the four-engine B-17 Flying Fortress, where he trained B-17 pilots for nine months at Gowen Field, Boise, Idaho.^[31] For Stewart, combat duty seemed far away and unreachable and he had no clear plans for the future. But then a rumor that Stewart would be taken off flying status and assigned to making training films or selling bonds called for his immediate and decisive action, because what he dreaded most was the hope-shattering spectre of a dead end."^[35] Stewart appealed to his commander, a pre-war aviator, who understood the situation and reassigned him to a unit going overseas.^{[citation needed]}

Alongside acting, Stewart was an accomplished member of the United States Air Force, and rose to the rank of Brigadier General in 1959. Picture taken c. 1960

In August 1943, Stewart was assigned to the 445th Bombardment Group at Sioux City AAB, Iowa, first as operations officer of the 703d Bombardment Squadron and then as its commander, at the rank of captain. In December 1943, the 445th Bombardment Group flew its B-24 Liberator bombers to RAF Tibenham, Norfolk, England, and immediately began combat operations. While flying missions over Germany, Stewart was promoted to major. In March 1944, he was transferred as group operations officer to the 453rd Bombardment Group, a new B-24 unit that had been experiencing difficulties. As a means to inspire his new group, Stewart flew as command pilot in the lead B-24 on numerous missions deep into Nazi-occupied Europe. These missions went uncounted at Stewart's orders. His "official" total is listed as 20 and is limited to those with the 445th. In 1944, he twice received the Distinguished Flying Cross for actions in combat and was awarded the Croix de Guerre. He also received the Air Medal with three oak leaf clusters. In July 1944, after flying 20 combat missions, Stewart was made Chief of Staff of the 2nd Combat Bombardment Wing of the Eighth Air Force, and though he was no longer required or expected to fly missions, he continued to do so. Before the war ended, he was promoted to colonel, one of the few Americans to rise from private to colonel in four years.^[6]^[31]

At the beginning of June 1945, Stewart was the presiding officer of the court-martial of a pilot and navigator who were charged with dereliction of duty for having accidentally bombed the Swiss city of Zurich the previous March – the first instance of U.S. personnel being tried for an attack on a neutral country. The Court acquitted the defendants.^[36]

Stewart continued to play a role in the United States Air Force Reserve after the war, achieving the rank of Brigadier General on July 23, 1959.^[37] Stewart rarely spoke about his wartime service. He did appear on the TV series The World At War to discuss the October 14, 1943, bombing mission to Schweinfurt, which was the center of the German ball-bearing industry. This mission is known in USAF history as Black Thursday because of the high casualties it sustained; 60 aircraft were lost out of 291 B-17s dispatched unescorted to Schweinfurt. The available escort aircraft lacked the range to accompany them. At his request, he was identified only as "James Stewart, Squadron Commander" in the documentary.^[38]

After the war, Stewart served as Air Force Reserve commander of Dobbins Air Reserve Base in the early 1950s. In 1966, Brigadier General James Stewart flew as a non-duty observer in a B-52 on a bombing mission during the Vietnam War. At the time of his B-52 flight, he refused the release of any publicity regarding his participation, as he did not want it treated as a stunt, but as part of his job as an officer in the Air Force Reserve. After 27 years of service, Stewart retired from the Air Force on May 31, 1968.^[39] He was promoted to Major General by President Ronald Reagan.^[40]

Post-war success [link]

After the war, Stewart took time off to reassess his career.^[41] He was an early investor in Southwest Airways, founded by Leland Hayward, and considered going into the aviation industry if his re-started film career did not prosper.^[42] Upon Stewart's return to Hollywood in fall 1945, he decided not to renew his MGM contract. He signed with an MCA talent agency. His former agent Leland Hayward got out of the talent business in 1944 after selling his A-list of stars, including Stewart, to MCA.^[43]

As George Bailey, with Guardian angel Clarence, in It's a Wonderful Life (1946). Stewart was Oscar-nominated for the performance, and the film is widely considered a Christmas classic

For his first film in five years, Stewart appeared in his third and final Frank Capra production, It's a Wonderful Life.^[44]^{[N 2]} Capra paid RKO for the rights to the story and formed his own production company, Liberty Films. The female lead went to Donna Reed, after Capra's perennial first choice, Jean Arthur, was unavailable, and after turn-downs from Ginger Rogers, Olivia de Havilland, Ann Dvorak and Martha Scott.^[45] Stewart appeared as George Bailey, an upstanding small-town man who becomes increasingly frustrated by his ordinary existence and financial troubles. Driven to suicide on Christmas Eve, he is led to reassess his life by Clarence Odbody AS2,^[46] an "angel, second class", played by Henry Travers. Although the film was nominated for five Academy Awards, including Stewart's third Best Actor nomination, it received mixed reviews and only disappointingly moderate success at the box office.^[47] However, in the decades since the film's release, it grew to define Stewart's film persona and is widely considered as a sentimental Christmas film classic and, according to the American Film Institute, one of the best movies ever made. After viewing It's a Wonderful Life, President Harry S Truman concluded, "If Bess and I had a son we'd want him to be just like Jimmy Stewart."^[48] In the aftermath of the film, Capra's production company went into bankruptcy, while Stewart started to have doubts about his ability to act after his military hiatus.^[49] His father kept insisting he come home and marry a local girl. Meanwhile in Hollywood, his generation of actors were fading and a new wave of actors would soon remake the town, including Marlon Brando, Montgomery Clift and James Dean.^[50]

After a poorly received Magic Town (1947) and the completion of Rope (1948) and Call Northside 777 (1948), Stewart had two flops with On Our Merry Way (1948), a comedic musical ensemble in which Stewart and Henry Fonda played two musicians named "Slim" and "Lank," and You Gotta Stay Happy (1949), for which the posters depicted Stewart being kissed on one cheek by Joan Fontaine and on the other by a chimpanzee. In the documentary film James Stewart: A Wonderful Life (1987), hosted by Johnny Carson, Stewart said that he went back to Westerns in 1950 in part because a string of films that were flops.

He returned to the stage to star in Mary Coyle Chase's Harvey, which had opened to nearly universal praise in November 1944,^[51] as Elwood P. Dowd, a wealthy eccentric living with his sister and niece, and whose best friend is an invisible rabbit as large as a man. Dowd's eccentricity, especially the friendship with the rabbit, is ruining the niece's hopes of finding a husband. While trying to have Dowd committed to a sanatorium, his sister is committed herself while the play follows Dowd on an ordinary day in his not-so-ordinary life. Stewart took over the role from Frank Fay and gained an increased Broadway following in the unconventional play.^[51] The play, which ran for nearly three years with Stewart as its star, was successfully adapted into a 1950 film, directed by Henry Koster, with Stewart as Dowd and Josephine Hull as his sister, Veta. Bing Crosby was the first choice but he declined.^[52] Stewart received his fourth Best Actor nomination for his performance in the film. After Harvey, the comedic adventure film Malaya (1949) with Spencer Tracy and the conventional but highly successful biographical film The Stratton Story in 1949, Stewart's first pairing with "on-screen wife" June Allyson, his career took another turn.^[53] During the 1950s, he expanded into the western and suspense genres, thanks to collaborations with Alfred Hitchcock and Anthony Mann.

Other notable performances by Stewart during this time include the critically acclaimed 1950 Delmer Daves western Broken Arrow, which featured Stewart as an ex-soldier and Indian agent making peace with the Apache; a troubled clown in the 1952 Best Picture The Greatest Show on Earth; and Stewart's role as Charles Lindbergh in Billy Wilder's 1957 film The Spirit of St. Louis. He also starred in the western radio show The Six Shooter for its one-season run from 1953 to 1954. During this time Stewart wore the same cowboy hat and rode the same horse, named "Pie", in most of his Westerns.^[54]^[55]

Collaborations with Hitchcock and Mann [link]

Stewart's collaborations with director Anthony Mann increased Stewart's popularity and sent his career into the realm of the western. Stewart's first appearance in a film directed by Mann came with the 1950 western, Winchester '73. In choosing Mann (after first choice Fritz Lang declined), Stewart cemented a powerful partnership.^[56] The film, which became a massive box office hit upon its release, set the pattern for their future collaborations. In it, Stewart is a tough, revengeful sharpshooter, the winner of a prized rifle which is stolen and then passes through many hands, until the showdown between Stewart and his brother (Stephen McNally).^[56]

Stewart made eight films for director Anthony Mann. Five of them were Westerns, including The Naked Spur (1953), in which Stewart is seen here.

Other Stewart-Mann westerns, such as Bend of the River (1952), The Naked Spur (1953), The Far Country (1954) and The Man from Laramie (1955), were perennial favorites among young audiences entranced by the American West. Frequently, the films featured Stewart as a troubled cowboy seeking redemption, while facing corrupt cattlemen, ranchers and outlaws — a man who knows violence first hand and struggles to control it. The Stewart-Mann collaborations laid the foundation for many of the westerns of the 1950s and remain popular today for their grittier, more realistic depiction of the classic movie genre. Audiences saw Stewart's screen persona evolve into a more mature, more ambiguous, and edgier presence.^[57]

Stewart and Mann also collaborated on other films outside the western genre. 1954's The Glenn Miller Story was critically acclaimed, garnering Stewart a BAFTA Award nomination, and (together with The Spirit of St. Louis) cemented the popularity of Stewart's portrayals of 'American heroes'. Thunder Bay, released the same year, transplanted the plot arc of their western collaborations to a more contemporary setting, with Stewart as a Louisiana oil driller facing corruption. Strategic Air Command, released in 1955, allowed Stewart to use his experiences in the United States Air Force on film.

Stewart's starring role in Winchester '73 was also a turning point in Hollywood. Universal Studios, who wanted Stewart to appear in both that film and Harvey, balked at his $200,000 asking price. His agent, Lew Wasserman, brokered an alternate deal, in which Stewart would appear in both films for no pay, in exchange for a percentage of the profits and cast and director approval.^[58] Stewart ended up earning about $600,000 for Winchester '73 alone.^[58] Hollywood's other stars quickly capitalized on this new way of doing business, which further undermined the decaying "studio system".^[59]

The second collaboration to define Stewart's career in the 1950s was with acclaimed mystery and suspense director Alfred Hitchcock. Like Mann, Hitchcock uncovered new depths to Stewart's acting, showing a protagonist confronting his fears and his repressed desires. Stewart's first movie with Hitchcock was the technologically innovative 1948 film Rope, shot in long "real time" takes.^[60]

Rear Window (1954) was one of four films Stewart made with Alfred Hitchcock. Stewart became the highest-grossing star of 1954 as a result.

The two collaborated for the second of four times on the 1954 hit Rear Window, widely considered one of Hitchcock's masterpieces. Stewart portrays photographer L.B. "Jeff" Jeffries, loosely based on Life photographer Robert Capa, who projects his fantasies and fears onto the people he observes out his apartment window while on hiatus due to a broken leg. Jeffries gets into more than he can handle, however, when he believes he has witnessed a salesman (Raymond Burr) commit a murder, and when his glamorous girlfriend (Grace Kelly), at first disdainful of his voyeurism and skeptical about any crime, eventually is drawn in and tries to help solve the mystery. Limited by his wheelchair, Stewart is led by Hitchcock to react to what his character sees with mostly facial responses. It was a landmark year for Stewart, becoming the highest grossing actor of 1954 and the most popular Hollywood star in the world, displacing John Wayne.^[61] Hitchcock and Stewart formed a corporation, Patron Inc., to produce the film, which later became the subject of a Supreme Court case Stewart v. Abend (1990).

After starring in Hitchcock's remake of the director's earlier production, The Man Who Knew Too Much (1956), with Doris Day, Stewart starred, with Kim Novak, in what many consider Hitchcock's most personal film, Vertigo (1958).^[62] The movie starred Stewart as John "Scottie" Ferguson, a former police investigator suffering from acrophobia, who develops an obsession with a woman he is shadowing. Scottie's obsession inevitably leads to the destruction of everything he once had and believed in. Though the film is widely considered a classic today, Vertigo met with negative reviews and poor box office receipts upon its release, and marked the last collaboration between Stewart and Hitchcock.^[63] The director reportedly blamed the film's failure on Stewart looking too old to still attract audiences, and cast Cary Grant as Roger Thornhill in North by Northwest (1959), a role Stewart had very much wanted. (Grant was actually four years older than Stewart). Today, Vertigo is ranked second only to Citizen Kane in the 2002 Sight & Sound critics poll for the greatest films ever made.^{[citation needed]}

Career in the 1960s and 1970s [link]

In 1960, Stewart was awarded the New York Film Critics Circle Award for Best Actor and received his fifth and final Academy Award for Best Actor nomination, for his role in the 1959 Otto Preminger film Anatomy of a Murder. The early courtroom drama starred Stewart as Paul Biegler, the lawyer of a hot-tempered soldier (played by Ben Gazzara) who claims temporary insanity after murdering a tavern owner who raped his wife. The film featured a career-making performance by George C. Scott as the prosecutor. The film was quite explicit for its time, and it was a box office success.^[64] Stewart's nomination was one of seven for the film (Charlton Heston was the winner), and saw his transition into the final decades of his career.

On January 1, 1960, Stewart received news of the death of Margaret Sullavan (her death was later identified as apparent suicide; the county coroner, however, officially ruled the death an accident).^[65] As a friend, mentor, and focus of his early romantic urges, she had a unique influence on Stewart's life. On April 17, 1961, longtime friend Gary Cooper was too ill to attend the 33rd Academy Awards ceremony, so Stewart accepted the honorary Oscar on his behalf. Stewart's emotional speech hinted that something was seriously wrong, and the next day newspapers ran the headline, "Gary Cooper has cancer." One month later, on May 13, 1961, six days after his 60th birthday, Cooper died.

How the West Was Won (1962), shot in three-projector Cinerama, was one of Stewart's key roles in the 1960s.

In the early 1960s, Stewart took leading roles in three John Ford films, his first work with the acclaimed director. The first, Two Rode Together, paired him with Richard Widmark in a Western with thematic echoes of Ford's The Searchers. The next, 1962's The Man Who Shot Liberty Valance (with John Wayne), is a classic "psychological" western, shot in black and white film noir style featuring powerful use of shadows in the climactic sequence, with Stewart as an Eastern attorney who goes against his non-violent principles when he is forced to confront a psychopathic outlaw (played by Lee Marvin) in a small frontier town. At story's end, Stewart's character — now a rising political figure — faces a difficult ethical choice as he attempts to reconcile his actions with his personal integrity. The film's billing is unusual in that Stewart was given top billing over Wayne in the trailers and on the posters but Wayne had top billing in the film itself. The film garnered mixed reviews but was an instant hit at the box office.

How the West Was Won (which Ford co-directed, though without directing Stewart's scenes) and Cheyenne Autumn were western epics released in 1962 and 1964 respectively. One of only a handful of movies filmed in true Cinerama, shot with three cameras and exhibited with three simultaneous projectors in theatres, How the West Was Won went on to win three Oscars and reap massive box office figures. Cheyenne Autumn, in which a white-suited Stewart played Wyatt Earp in a long semi-comedic sequence in the middle of the movie, failed domestically and was quickly forgotten. The historical drama was Ford's final Western and Stewart's last feature film with Ford. Stewart's entertaining middle sequence is not directly connected with the rest of the film and was often excised in later theatrical exhibition prints and some television broadcasts.

Having played his last romantic lead in Bell, Book and Candle (1958), and silver-haired (although not all was his—he wore a partial hairpiece starting with It's a Wonderful Life and in every film thereafter), Stewart transitioned into more family-related films in the 1960s when he signed a multi-movie deal with 20th Century Fox. These included the successful Henry Koster outing Mr. Hobbs Takes a Vacation (1962), and the less memorable films Take Her, She's Mine (1963) and Dear Brigitte (1965), which featured French model Brigitte Bardot as the object of Stewart's son's mash notes. The Civil War period film Shenandoah (1965) and the western family film The Rare Breed fared better at the box office; the Civil War movie, with strong antiwar and humanitarian themes, was a smash hit in the South.^{[citation needed]}

Later in life, Stewart ventured into television. He played the lead in the CBS mystery series Hawkins in 1973, and was Golden Globe nominated for the role.

As an aviator, Stewart was particularly interested in aviation films and had pushed to appear in several in the 1950s; most notably Strategic Air Command and The Spirit of St. Louis. He continued in this vein in the 1960s, most notably in a role as a hard-bitten pilot in The Flight of the Phoenix (1965). Subbing for Stewart, famed stunt pilot and air racer Paul Mantz was killed when he crashed the "Tallmantz Phoenix P-1", the specially made, single-engine movie model, in an abortive "touch-and-go". Stewart also narrated the film X-15 in 1961.^[66] In 1964, he and several other military aviators, including Curtis LeMay, Paul Tibbets, and Bruce Sundlun were founding directors of the board of Tibbets' Executive Jet Aviation Corporation.^[67]

After a progression of lesser western films in the late 1960s and early 1970s, Stewart transitioned from cinema to television. In the 1950s he had made guest appearances on the Jack Benny Program. Stewart first starred in the NBC comedy The Jimmy Stewart Show, on which he played a college professor, and was the only time in his career in which he was formally billed in the credits as "Jimmy" instead of "James". He followed it with the CBS mystery Hawkins, in which he played a small town lawyer investigating cases. The series garnered Stewart a Golden Globe for Best Actor in a Dramatic TV Series, but failed to gain a wide audience, possibly because it rotated with Shaft, another high-quality series but with a starkly conflicting demographic, and was cancelled after one season. During this time, Stewart periodically appeared on Johnny Carson's The Tonight Show, sharing poems he had written at different times in his life. His poems were later compiled into a short collection, Jimmy Stewart and His Poems (1989).^{[citation needed]}

Stewart returned to films after an absence of five years with a major supporting role in John Wayne's final film, The Shootist (1976) where Stewart played a doctor giving Wayne's gunfighter a terminal cancer diagnosis. At one point, both Wayne and Stewart were flubbing their lines repeatedly and Stewart turned to director Don Siegel and said, "You'd better get two better actors". Stewart also appeared in supporting roles in Airport '77, the 1978 remake of The Big Sleep with Robert Mitchum as Raymond Chandler's Philip Marlowe, and The Magic of Lassie (1978). The latter film received poor reviews and flopped at the box office.^{[citation needed]}

Last years and later career [link]

Speaking at The Kennedy Center on Inauguration Day, 1981, in Washington D.C.

Following the failure of The Magic of Lassie, Stewart went into semi-retirement from acting. He donated his papers, films, and other records to Brigham Young University's Harold B. Lee Library in 1983.^[68] Stewart had diversified investments including real estate, oil wells, a charter-plane company and membership on major corporate boards, and he became a multimillionaire. In the 1980s/90s, he did voiceover work for commercials for Campbell's Soups.^[48]

Stewart's longtime friend Henry Fonda died in 1982, and former co-star and friend Grace Kelly, was killed in a car crash shortly afterwards. A few months later, Stewart starred with Bette Davis in Right of Way. He filmed several television movies in the 1980s, including Mr. Krueger's Christmas, which allowed him to fulfill a lifelong dream to conduct the Mormon Tabernacle Choir.^[69] He made frequent visits to the Reagan White House and traveled on the lecture circuit. The re-release of his Hitchcock films gained Stewart renewed recognition. Rear Window and Vertigo were particularly praised by film critics, which helped bring these pictures to the attention of younger movie-goers. He was presented an Academy Honorary Award by Cary Grant in 1985, "for his 50 years of memorable performances, for his high ideals both on and off the screen, with respect and affection of his colleagues."^{[citation needed]}

In 1988 Stewart made an impassioned plea in Congressional hearings, along with, among many others, Burt Lancaster, Katharine Hepburn, Ginger Rogers, and film director Martin Scorsese, against Ted Turner's decision to 'colorize' classic black and white films, including It's a Wonderful Life. Stewart stated, "the coloring of black-and-white films is wrong. It's morally and artistically wrong and these profiteers should leave our film industry alone".^[70]

In 1989, Stewart joined Peter F. Paul in founding the American Spirit Foundation to apply entertainment industry resources to developing innovative approaches to public education and to assist the emerging democracy movements in the former Iron Curtain countries. Paul arranged for Stewart, through the offices of President Boris Yeltsin, to send a special print of It's a Wonderful Life, translated by Lomonosov Moscow State University, to Russia as the first American program ever to be broadcast on Russian television. On January 5, 1992, coinciding with the first day of the existence of the democratic Commonwealth of Independent States and Russia, and the first free Russian Orthodox Christmas Day, Russian TV Channel 2 broadcast It's a Wonderful Life to 200 million Russians who celebrated an American holiday tradition with the American people for the first time in Russian history.^[71]

In association with politicians and celebrities such as President Ronald Reagan, Supreme Court Chief Justice Warren Burger, California Governor George Deukmejian, Bob Hope and Charlton Heston, Stewart worked from 1987 to 1993 on projects that enhanced the public appreciation and understanding of the U.S. Constitution and Bill of Rights.^[71]

In 1991, James Stewart voiced the character of Sheriff Wylie Burp in the movie An American Tail: Fievel Goes West, which was his last film role. Shortly before his 80th birthday, he was asked how he wanted to be remembered. "As someone who 'believed in hard work and love of country, love of family and love of community.'"^[48]

Death [link]

Jimmy Stewart's grave

In April 1993 he underwent heart surgery and had a pacemaker installed. On January 31, 1997, Stewart tripped over a plant in his bedroom and was rushed to a hospital for stitches to close a bloody gash in his forehead. There it was discovered that he had skin cancer which appeared to be untreatable. He was sent home.^[72]

On July 2, 1997, an embolism lodged in his lungs. The clot caused a heart attack that killed him instantly. He was 89 years old.^[73] His death came one day after the death of two-time co-star Robert Mitchum (The Big Sleep, Cape Fear). James Stewart is interred in Forest Lawn Memorial Park Cemetery, alongside his wife, Gloria, who had died from lung cancer on February 16, 1994. President Bill Clinton commented on Stewart's death, saying: "America lost a national treasure today. Jimmy Stewart was a great actor, a gentleman and a patriot."^[48]

Personal life [link]

Stewart was almost universally described by his collaborators as a kind, soft-spoken man and a true professional.^[74] Joan Crawford praised the actor as an "endearing perfectionist" with "a droll sense of humor and a shy way of watching you to see if you react to that humor."^[48]

Stewart was married to wife Gloria from 1949 to her death in 1994.

When Henry Fonda moved to Hollywood in 1934, he was again a roommate with Stewart in an apartment in Brentwood^[75] and the two gained reputations as playboys.^[76] Both men's children later noted that their favorite activity when not working seemed to be quietly sharing time together while building and painting model airplanes, a hobby they had taken up in New York, years earlier.^[77]

After World War II, Stewart settled down, at age 41, marrying former model Gloria Hatrick McLean (March 10, 1918 – February 16, 1994) on August 9, 1949. As Stewart loved to recount in self-mockery, "I, I, I pitched the big question to her last night and to my surprise she, she, she said yes!"^[78] Stewart adopted her two sons, Michael and Ronald, and with Gloria he had twin daughters, Judy and Kelly, on May 7, 1951. The couple remained married until her death from lung cancer on February 16, 1994, aged 75. Ronald McLean was killed in action on June 8, 1969, at the age of 24, while serving as a Marine Corps Lieutenant in Vietnam.^[79]^[80] Daughter Kelly Stewart is an anthropologist.^[81]

Stewart was active in philanthropic affairs over the years. His signature charity event, "The Jimmy Stewart Relay Marathon Race", held each year since 1982, has raised millions of dollars for the Child and Family Development Center at St. John's Health Center in Santa Monica, California.^[6] He was a lifelong supporter of Scouting, having been a Second Class Scout when he was a youth, an adult Scout leader, and a recipient of the prestigious Silver Buffalo Award from the Boy Scouts of America (BSA). In later years, he made advertisements for the BSA, which led to his being sometimes "incorrectly" identified as an Eagle Scout.^[82] An award for Boy Scouts, "The James M. Stewart Good Citizenship Award" has been presented since May 17, 2003.^[83]

One of Stewart's lesser-known talents was his homespun poetry. He once read a poem that he had written about his dog, entitled "Beau", while on The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson. By the end of this reading, Carson's eyes were welling with tears.^[84] This was later parodied on a late 1980s episode of the NBC sketch show Saturday Night Live, with Dana Carvey as Stewart reciting the poem on Weekend Update and bringing anchor Dennis Miller to tears. He was also an avid gardener. Stewart purchased the house next door to his own home at 918 North Roxbury Drive, razed the house, and installed his garden in the lot.^{[citation needed]}

Politics [link]

Stewart was a staunch supporter of the Republican Party^[85] and actively campaigned for Richard Nixon and Ronald Reagan. He was a hawk on the Vietnam War, and maintained that his adopted son, Ronald, did not die in vain.^{[citation needed]}

Following the assassination of Senator Robert F. Kennedy in 1968, Stewart, Charlton Heston, Kirk Douglas and Gregory Peck issued a statement calling for support of President Johnson's Gun Control Act of 1968.^[86]

One of his best friends was fellow actor Henry Fonda, despite the fact that the two had very different political ideologies. A political argument in 1947 resulted in a fist fight between them, but they maintained their friendship by never discussing politics again.^[87]^{[N 3]} There is a brief reference to their political differences in character in their movie The Cheyenne Social Club.^[88] In the last years of his life, he donated to the campaign of Bob Dole in the 1996 presidential election and to Democratic Florida governor Bob Graham in his successful run for the Senate.^[85]

In Frank Borzage's The Mortal Storm

Filmography [link]

Main article: James Stewart filmography

From the beginning of Stewart's film career in 1935, through his final theatrical project in 1991, he appeared in 92 films, television programs and shorts. Five of his movies were included on the American Film Institute's list of the 100 greatest American films: Mr. Smith Goes to Washington, The Philadelphia Story, It's a Wonderful Life, Rear Window and Vertigo. His roles in Mr. Smith Goes to Washington, The Philadelphia Story, It's a Wonderful Life, Harvey, and Anatomy of a Murder earned him Academy Award nominations — with one win for The Philadelphia Story.

Broadway performances [link]

Carry Nation (October – November 1932)
Goodbye Again (December 1932 – July 1933)
Spring in Autumn (October – November 1933)
All Good Americans (December 1933 – January 1934)
Yellow Jack (May 1934)
Divided By Three (October 1934)
Page Miss Glory (November 1934 – March 1935)
A Journey By Night (April 1935)
Harvey (July – August 1947, July – August 1948, replacing vacationing Frank Fay, who created the role on Broadway)
Harvey (revival, February – May 1970)

Legacy [link]

Stewart's star on The Hollywood Walk of Fame

Throughout his seven decades in Hollywood, Stewart cultivated a versatile career and recognized screen image in such classics as Mr. Smith Goes to Washington, The Mortal Storm, The Philadelphia Story, Harvey, It's a Wonderful Life, Shenandoah, Rear Window, Rope, The Man Who Knew Too Much, The Shop Around the Corner, The Man Who Shot Liberty Valance and Vertigo. He is the most represented leading actor on the AFI's 100 Years…100 Movies (10th Anniversary Edition) and AFI's 10 Top 10 lists. He is the most represented leading actor on the 100 Greatest Movies of All Time list presented by Entertainment Weekly. As of 2007, ten of his films have been inducted into the United States National Film Registry.

Stewart left his mark on a wide range of film genres, including westerns, suspense thrillers, family films, biographies, and screwball comedies. He worked for many renowned directors during his career, most notably Frank Capra, George Cukor, Henry Hathaway, Cecil B. DeMille, Ernst Lubitsch, Frank Borzage, George Stevens, Alfred Hitchcock, John Ford, Billy Wilder, Don Siegel, and Anthony Mann. He won many of the industry's highest honors and earned Lifetime Achievement awards from every major film organization.^{[citation needed]} He was named the third Greatest Male Star of All Time by the American Film Institute.

Honors and tributes [link]

Main article: List of awards and nominations received by James Stewart

James Stewart was presented various kinds of film industry awards, military and civilian medals, honorary degrees, memorials and tributes over the years for his contribution to performing arts, humanitarianism, and military service.

References [link]

Notes

^ Stewart later confided that he had a 'friend' operating the weight scales.^[29]
^ Although Stewart was always Capra's first choice, in an interview later in life, he conceded that "Henry Fonda was in the running."^[44]
^ This tale may be apocryphal as Jhan Robbins quotes Stewart as saying: "Our views never interfered with our feelings for each other, We just didn't talk about certain things. I can't remember ever having an argument with him—ever!"

Citations

^ "James Stewart profile." FilmReference.com. Retrieved: January 11, 2011.
^ "Movies: Best Pictures." The New York Times. Retrieved: March 7, 2012.
^ "Jimmy Stewart profile." adherents.com. Retrieved: March 7, 2012.
^ Eliot 2006, p. 11.
^ Eliot 2006, p. 15.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f "Biography." The Jimmy Stewart Museum. Retrieved: January 11, 2011.
^ Eliot 2006, p. 31.
^ "Princeton Triangle Club." princeton.edu. Retrieved: January 11, 2011.
^ Eliot 2006, p. 43.
^ Houghton 1951, pp. 300–310.
^ Fonda and Teichmann 1981, p. 74.
^ Eliot 2006, p. 57.
^ Eliot 2006, p. 58.
^ Eliot 2006, p. 65.
^ Eliot 2006, p. 74.
^ Eliot 2006, pp. 84, 87.
^ Wayne 2004, p. 447.
^ ^a ^b Eliot 2006, p. 105.
^ Eliot 2006, p. 139.
^ Jones, McClure and Twomey 1970, p. 67.
^ Eliot 2006, p. 112.
^ Eliot 2006, p. 144.
^ Eliot 2006, p. 167.
^ Eliot 2006, p. 168.
^ Smith 2005, pp. 25–26.
^ "Brigadier General James Stewart." National Museum of the United States Air Force. Retrieved: November 2, 2011.
^ Smith 2005, p. 26.
^ "Thunderbird Field." airfields-freeman.com. Retrieved: November 2, 2011.
^ ^a ^b Smith 2005, p. 30.
^ "Stewart's profile." IMDb. Retrieved: November 2, 2011.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d "Brigadier General James Stewart." Something About Everything Military. Retrieved: September 7, 2008.
^ Smith 2005, pp. 31–32.
^ Biederman, Patricia Ward. "Winning the war, one frame at a time." Los Angeles Times, October 30, 2002. Retrieved: September 7, 2008.
^ Smith 2005, p. 31.
^ Smith 2005, pp. 49–50.
^ Helmreich, Dr. Jonathan E. "The Bombing of Zurich." Maxwell Air Force Base. Retrieved: March 28, 2010.
^ "FBI Award." FBI. Retrieved: March 7, 2012.
^ Smith 2005, p. 60.
^ "Stewart profile." togetherweserved.com. Retrieved: March 7, 2012.
^ "Awards." Military Times Hall of Valor. Retrieved: March 7, 2012.
^ Eliot 2006, p. 196.
^ Eliot 2006, p. 199.
^ Eliot 2006, p. 197.
^ ^a ^b Cox 2005, p. 6.
^ Eliot 2006, p. 203.
^ Cox 2005, p. 70.
^ Eliot 2006, p. 209.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e "Obituary: James Stewart, the Hesitant Hero, Dies at 89." The New York Times, July 3, 1997.
^ Eliot 2006, p. 211.
^ Eliot 2006, pp. 208, 211.
^ ^a ^b Eliot 2006, p. 214.
^ Eliot 2006, pp. 208, 213.
^ Eliot 2006, p. 237.
^ "James Stewart's Horse." Wild West net. Retrieved: March 13, 2010.
^ "James Stewart profile." Film Reference.com. Retrieved: March 13, 2010.
^ ^a ^b Eliot 2006, p. 248.
^ Eliot 2006, p. 251.
^ ^a ^b Eliot 2006, p. 245.
^ Eliot 2006, p. 254.
^ Eliot 2006, p. 220.
^ Eliot 2006, p. 278.
^ Eliot 2006, p. 310.
^ Eliot 2006, p. 321.
^ Eliot 2006, p. 332.
^ Eliot 2006, p. 337.
^ "X-15 (film) Full credits." IMDb. Retrieved: March 7, 2012.
^ "Paul Tibbets: A Rendezvous With History, Part 3." Airport Journals, June 2003.
^ Giles, Aly. "Memories of Stewart Live at Y." The Daily Universe, May 22, 2008.
^ "Utah-Hollywood connection runs deep." Deseret News, January 26, 2009, p. B2.
^ Eliot 2006, p. 405.
^ ^a ^b "James Stewart profile." IMDb. Retrieved: March 7, 2012.
^ Eliot 2006^{[page needed]}
^ Jackson, et al. 1998, p. 562.
^ Eliot 2006, pp. 164–68.
^ Fonda and Teichmann 1981, p. 106.
^ Fonda and Teichmann 1981, pp. 107–08
^ Fonda and Teichmann 1981, p. 97.
^ Eliot 2006, p. 239.
^ "Gloria Stewart obituary." The New York Times, February 18, 1994.
^ "Casualty Record for Ronald Walsh McLean." nopquarter.com. Retrieved: March 7, 2012.
^ "Kelly Stewart." anthro.ucdavis.edu. Retrieved: March 7, 2012.
^ Lawson, Terry C. Erroneous Eagle Scouts Letter. Eagle Scout Service, National Eagle Scout Association, Boy Scouts of America (2005); retrieved June 9, 2005.
^ "James M. Stewart Good Citizenship Award," jimmy.org. Retrieved: March 7, 2012.
^ McMahon, Ed. "Ed McMahon says farewell to Johnny Carson." MSNBC, September 12, 2006, p. 3.
^ ^a ^b "Political Donations." newsmeat.com. Retrieved: March 7, 2012.
^ "Charlton Heston, Gun-Controller!" slate.com. Retrieved: March 7, 2012.
^ Robbins 1985, p. 99.
^ The Cheyenne Social Club at the Internet Movie Database.

Bibliography

Beaver, Jim. "James Stewart." Films in Review, October 1980.
Coe, Jonathan. James Stewart: Leading Man. London: Bloomsbury, 1994. ISBN 0-7475-1574-3.
Collins, Thomas W. Jr. "Stewart, James." American National Biography Online. "Stewart, James." Retrieved: February 18, 2007.
Cox, Stephen. It's a Wonderful Life: A Memory Book. Nashville, Tennessee: Cumberland House, 2003. ISBN 1-58182-337-1.
Eliot, Mark. Jimmy Stewart: A Biography. New York: Random House, 2006. ISBN 1-4000-5221-1.
The Jimmy Stewart Museum Home Page. The Jimmy Stewart Museum Home Page, Access date: February 18, 2007.
Fonda, Henry as told to Howard Teichmann. Fonda: My Life. New York: A Signet Book, New American Library, 1981. ISBN 0-451-11858-8.
Houghton, Norris. But Not Forgotten: The Adventure of the University Players. New York: William Sloane Associates, 1951.
Jackson, Kenneth T., Karen Markoe and Arnie Markoe. The Scribner Encyclopedia of American Lives (5). New York: Simon and Schuster, 1998. ISBN 0-684-80663-0.
Jones, Ken D., Arthur F. McClure and Alfred E. Twomey. The Films of James Stewart. New York: Castle Books, 1970.
McGowan, Helene. James Stewart. London: Bison Group, 1992, ISBN 0-86124-925-9.
Pickard, Roy. Jimmy Stewart: A Life in Film. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1992. ISBN 0-312-08828-0.
Prendergast, Tom and Sara, eds. "Stewart, James". International Dictionary of Films and Filmmakers, 4th edition. London: St. James Press, 2000. ISBN 1-55862-450-3.
Prendergast, Tom and Sara, eds. "Stewart, James". St. James Encyclopedia of Popular Culture, 5th edition. London: St. James Press, 2000. ISBN 1-55862-529-1.
Robbins, Jhan. Everybody's Man: A Biography of Jimmy Stewart. New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1985. ISBN 0-399-12973-1.
Smith, Starr. Jimmy Stewart: Bomber Pilot. St. Paul, Minnesota: Zenith Press, 2005. ISBN 0-7603-2199-X.
Thomas, Tony. A Wonderful Life: The Films and Career of James Stewart. Secaucus, New Jersey: Citadel Press, 1988. ISBN 0-8065-1081-1.
Wayne, Jane Ellen.The Leading Men of MGM. New York: Carroll & Graf Publishers, 2004. ISBN 0-7867-1475-1.
Wright, Stuart J. An Emotional Gauntlet: From Life in Peacetime America to the War in European Skies – A History of 453rd Bomb Group Crews. Milwaukee, Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin Press, 2004. ISBN 0-299-20520-7.

External links [link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: James Stewart

Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Jimmy Stewart

James Stewart at the Internet Broadway Database
James Stewart at the Internet Movie Database
Jimmy Stewart at the TCM Movie Database
The American Spirit Foundation
Feaster, Felicia. James Stewart Profile at Turner Classic Movies
Kronenberg, Harold. "Flying with Jimmy Stewart"
Obituary: "James Stewart, the Hesitant Hero, Dies at 89," The New York Times (July 3, 1997)
Obituary: "Hollywood legend Jimmy Stewart dead at 89", CNN, (July 2, 1997)
"Princeton to Honor Famed Alumnus Jimmy Stewart '32 With Tribute and Theater Dedication", Princeton University (1997)
Centennial Tribute to James Stewart
The Jimmy Stewart Museum
Brig. Gen. James M. Stewart at the National Museum of the United States Air Force
A Kennedy Center Honors: James Stewart
Entertainment Weekly's 100 Greatest Movies of All Time
Interview at the National Film Theatre in 1972, British Film Institute
Mr. Stewart Goes to Vietnam, article from Vietnam magazine about Stewart's B-52 mission in 1966
Images: Stewart Pictures. Telecommunication & Film Department, University of Alabama
Images: "Col. James M. Stewart stands with his father outside of the family's hardware store", Life Magazine (1945)
A Wonderful Life: Jimmy Stewart, Actor and B-24 Bomber Pilot
James Stewart in the 1910 US Census, 1920 US Census, 1930 US Census, and the Social Security Death Index.

Awards for James Stewart

v t e Academy Award for Best Actor (1928–1940)

Emil Jannings (1928) Warner Baxter (1929) George Arliss (1930) Lionel Barrymore (1931) Fredric March / Wallace Beery (1932) Charles Laughton (1933) Clark Gable (1934) Victor McLaglen (1935) Paul Muni (1936) Spencer Tracy (1937) Spencer Tracy (1938) Robert Donat (1939) James Stewart (1940)

Complete list (1928–1940) (1941–1960) (1961–1980) (1981–2000) (2001–2020)

v t e Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Television Series Drama (1969–1989)

Mike Connors (1969) Peter Graves (1970) Robert Young (1971) Peter Falk (1972) James Stewart (1973) Telly Savalas (1974) Robert Blake/Telly Savalas (1975) Richard Jordan (1976) Edward Asner (1977) Michael Moriarty (1978) Edward Asner (1979) Richard Chamberlain (1980) Daniel J. Travanti (1981) John Forsythe (1982) John Forsythe (1983) Tom Selleck (1984) Don Johnson (1985) Edward Woodward (1986) Richard Kiley (1987) Ron Perlman (1988) Ken Wahl (1989)

Complete list (1969–1989) (1990–2009) (2010–2029)

v t e Cecil B. DeMille Award (1952–1975)

Cecil B. DeMille (1952) Walt Disney (1953) Darryl F. Zanuck (1954) Jean Hersholt (1955) Jack Warner (1956) Mervyn LeRoy (1957) Buddy Adler (1958) Maurice Chevalier (1959) Bing Crosby (1960) Fred Astaire (1961) Judy Garland (1962) Bob Hope (1963) Joseph E. Levine (1964) James Stewart (1965) John Wayne (1966) Charlton Heston (1967) Kirk Douglas (1968) Gregory Peck (1969) Joan Crawford (1970) Frank Sinatra (1971) Alfred Hitchcock (1972) Samuel Goldwyn (1973) Bette Davis (1974) Hal B. Wallis (1975)

Complete list (1952–1975) (1976–2000) (2001–2020)

v t e Kennedy Center Honorees (1980s)

1980	Leonard Bernstein James Cagney Agnes de Mille Lynn Fontanne Leontyne Price

1981	Count Basie Cary Grant Helen Hayes Jerome Robbins Rudolf Serkin

1982	George Abbott Lillian Gish Benny Goodman Gene Kelly Eugene Ormandy

1983	Katherine Dunham Elia Kazan Frank Sinatra James Stewart Virgil Thomson

1984	Lena Horne Danny Kaye Gian Carlo Menotti Arthur Miller Isaac Stern

1985	Merce Cunningham Irene Dunne Bob Hope Alan Jay Lerner & Frederick Loewe Beverly Sills

1986	Lucille Ball Hume Cronyn & Jessica Tandy Yehudi Menuhin Antony Tudor Ray Charles

1987	Perry Como Bette Davis Sammy Davis, Jr. Nathan Milstein Alwin Nikolais

1988	Alvin Ailey George Burns Myrna Loy Alexander Schneider Roger L. Stevens

1989	Harry Belafonte Claudette Colbert Alexandra Danilova Mary Martin William Schuman

complete list 1970s 1980s 1990s 2000s 2010s

National Football Foundation Distinguished American Award recipients

1966: Carpenter
1969: MacLeish
1970: Lombardi
1971: Boyden
1972: Holland
1973: No award
1974: Hope
1975: Hesburgh
1976: Van Fleet
1977: Joyce
1978: No award
1979: Galbreath
1980: Russell
1981: Werblin
1982: Silver Anniversary (all honored) – Brown, Davis, Kemp, Ron Kramer, Swink
1983: Hess & Stewart
1984: Nelson
1985: Flynn
1986: Toner
1987: Sewell
1988: Rodgers
1989: Krause
1990: Rozelle
1991: Paterno
1992: Mara
1993: Kazmaier
1994: Bolden, Jr.
1995: Osborne
1996: Monan, S.J
1997: No award
1998: Roy Kramer
1999: No award
2000: Decio
2001: Frank
2002: Young
2003: Khayat
2004: Casciola
2005: Page
2006: Tillman
2007: Bleier
2008: Pickens
2009: Payne
2010: Brokaw
2011: Roberts

AFI Life Achievement Award

John Ford (1973)
James Cagney (1974)
Orson Welles (1975)
William Wyler (1976)
Bette Davis (1977)
Henry Fonda (1978)
Alfred Hitchcock (1979)
James Stewart (1980)
Fred Astaire (1981)
Frank Capra (1982)
John Huston (1983)
Lillian Gish (1984)
Gene Kelly (1985)
Billy Wilder (1986)
Barbara Stanwyck (1987)
Jack Lemmon (1988)
Gregory Peck (1989)
David Lean (1990)
Kirk Douglas (1991)
Sidney Poitier (1992)
Elizabeth Taylor (1993)
Jack Nicholson (1994)
Steven Spielberg (1995)
Clint Eastwood (1996)
Martin Scorsese (1997)
Robert Wise (1998)
Dustin Hoffman (1999)
Harrison Ford (2000)
Barbra Streisand (2001)
Tom Hanks (2002)
Robert De Niro (2003)
Meryl Streep (2004)
George Lucas (2005)
Sean Connery (2006)
Al Pacino (2007)
Warren Beatty (2008)
Michael Douglas (2009)
Mike Nichols (2010)
Morgan Freeman (2011)
Shirley MacLaine (2012)

Film Society of Lincoln Center Gala Tribute Honorees

Charlie Chaplin (1972) · Fred Astaire (1973) · Alfred Hitchcock (1974) · Joanne Woodward and Paul Newman (1975) · George Cukor (1978) · Bob Hope (1979) · John Huston (1980) · Barbara Stanwyck (1981) · Billy Wilder (1982) · Laurence Olivier (1983) · Claudette Colbert (1984) · Federico Fellini (1985) · Elizabeth Taylor (1986) · Alec Guinness (1987) · Yves Montand (1988) · Bette Davis (1989) · James Stewart (1990) · Audrey Hepburn (1991) · Gregory Peck (1992) · Jack Lemmon (1993) · Robert Altman (1994) · Shirley MacLaine (1995) · Clint Eastwood (1996) · Sean Connery (1997) · Martin Scorsese (1998) · Mike Nichols (1999) · Al Pacino (2000) · Jane Fonda (2001) · Francis Ford Coppola (2002) · Susan Sarandon (2003) · Michael Caine (2004) · Dustin Hoffman (2005) · Jessica Lange (2006) · Diane Keaton (2007) · Meryl Streep (2008) · Tom Hanks (2009) · Michael Douglas (2010) · Sidney Poitier (2011) · Catherine Deneuve (2012)

v t e Screen Actors Guild Life Achievement Award (1960–1979)

1962: Eddie Cantor 1963: Stan Laurel 1965: Bob Hope 1966: Barbara Stanwyck 1967: William Gargan 1968: James Stewart 1969: Edward G. Robinson 1970: Gregory Peck 1971: Charlton Heston 1972: Frank Sinatra 1973: Martha Raye 1974: Walter Pidgeon 1975: Rosalind Russell 1976: Pearl Bailey 1977: James Cagney 1978: Edgar Bergen 1979: Katharine Hepburn

Complete list (1960–1979) (1980–1999) (2000–2019)

v t e Hosts of the Academy Awards ceremonies (1941–1960)

Bob Hope (1941) None (1942) Bob Hope (1943) Jack Benny (1944) Bob Hope / John Cromwell (1945) Bob Hope / James Stewart (1946) Jack Benny (1947) Dick Powell / Agnes Moorehead (1948) Robert Montgomery (1949) Paul Douglas (1950) Fred Astaire (1951) Danny Kaye (1952) Bob Hope / Conrad Nagel (1953) Donald O'Connor / Fredric March (1954) Bob Hope / Thelma Ritter (1955) Jerry Lewis / Claudette Colbert / Joseph L. Mankiewicz (1956) Jerry Lewis / Celeste Holm (1957) Bob Hope / David Niven / James Stewart / Jack Lemmon / Rosalind Russell (1958) Bob Hope / David Niven / Tony Randall / Mort Sahl / Laurence Olivier / Jerry Lewis (1959) Bob Hope (1960)

Complete list (1927–1940) (1941–1960) (1961–1980) (1981–2000) (2001–2020)

v t e AFI's 100 Years...100 Stars

Male Legends	Humphrey Bogart Cary Grant James Stewart Marlon Brando Fred Astaire Henry Fonda Clark Gable James Cagney Spencer Tracy Charlie Chaplin Gary Cooper Gregory Peck John Wayne Laurence Olivier Gene Kelly Orson Welles Kirk Douglas James Dean Burt Lancaster The Marx Brothers Buster Keaton Sidney Poitier Robert Mitchum Edward G. Robinson William Holden

Female Legends	Katharine Hepburn Bette Davis Audrey Hepburn Ingrid Bergman Greta Garbo Marilyn Monroe Elizabeth Taylor Judy Garland Marlene Dietrich Joan Crawford Barbara Stanwyck Claudette Colbert Grace Kelly Ginger Rogers Mae West Vivien Leigh Lillian Gish Shirley Temple Rita Hayworth Lauren Bacall Sophia Loren Jean Harlow Carole Lombard Mary Pickford Ava Gardner

AFI 100 Years...

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This is a Chinese name; the family name is Yu.

Yu Dafu

Born	(1896-12-07)December 7, 1896 Fuyang, Zhejiang, China
Died	September 17, 1945(1945-09-17) (aged 48)
Occupation	Short Story writer and Poet

Yu Dafu (simplified Chinese: 郁达夫; traditional Chinese: 郁達夫; pinyin: Yù Dáfū; Wade–Giles: Yu Ta-fu) (December 7, 1896—September 17, 1945). Born in Fuyang, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, was a modern Chinese short story writer and poet.

1 Early years
2 Second Sino-Japanese war
3 Works
4 References
5 External links

Early years [link]

Yu Dafu's father died when he was three, leaving the family poverty-stricken and destitute. He received a number of scholarships through the Chinese government and went on to receive a traditional Chinese education in Hangzhou. Chronologically he studied in Jiangxing-Fu Middle School (before he came to Hangzhou), Hangzhou-Fu Middle School, Yuying Academy^[1] (育英学堂, formerly of Zhejiang University).

In 1912, he entered Hangchow University (later its major part merged into Zhejiang University) preparatory through examination. He was there only for a short period before he was expelled for participation in a student strike.^[2]

He then moved to Japan, where he studied economics at the Tokyo Imperial University between 1913 and 1922, where he met other Chinese intellectuals (namely, Guo Moruo, Zhang Ziping and Tian Han). Together, in 1921 they founded the Chuangzao she 創造社 ("Creation Society"), which promoted vernacular and modern literature. One of his earlier works Chenlun 沉淪, also his most famous, published in Japan in 1921. The work had gained immense popularity in China, shocking the world of Chinese literature with its frank dealing with sex, as well as grievances directed at the incompetence of Chinese government at the time.

In 1922, he returned to China as a literary celebrity and worked as the editor of Creation Quarterly, editing journals and writing short stories. In 1923, after an attack of tuberculosis, Yu Dafu directed his attention to the welfare of the masses.

In 1927, he worked as an editor of the Hongshui literary magazine. He later came in conflict with the Communist Party of China and fled back to Japan.

Second Sino-Japanese war [link]

After the start of the Second Sino-Japanese war, he returned to China and worked as a writer of anti-Japanese propaganda in Hangzhou, and later in Zhejiang. From 1938 to 1942, he worked as a literary editor for the newspaper Sin Chew Jit Poh in Singapore.

In 1942 when the Imperial Japanese Army invaded Singapore, he was forced to flee to Sumatra. Known under a different identity, he settled there among other overseas Chinese and began a brewery business with the help of the locals. Later he was forced to help the Japanese military police as an interpreter when it was discovered that he was one of the few "locals" in the area who could speak Japanese.

In 1945, he was arrested by the Kempeitai when his true identity was finally discovered. It is believed that he was executed by the Japanese shortly after the surrender of Japan.

Works [link]

Chenlun 沉淪 "Sinking" (1921)
Riji jiuzhong 日記九種 “Nine Diaries” (1927)
Guoqu 過去 “The Past" (1927)
his first novel?? (1928) (moderately successful)
his second novel?? (1932)
Chuben 出奔 "Flight" (1935)

His most popular work, breaking all Chinese sales records, was Jih-chi chiu-chung "Nine Diaries", which detailed his affair with the writer Wang Ying-hsin. The most critically acclaimed work is Kuo-ch'u or "The Past", written in 1927.^{[citation needed]}

References [link]

^ [1]
^ [2]

Encyclopædia Britannica 2005 Ultimate Reference Suite DVD, article- "Yü Ta-fu"

External links [link]

Works by Yu Dafu at Project Gutenberg

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"Reagan" redirects here. For other uses, see Reagan (disambiguation).

Ronald Reagan

40th President of the United States
In office January 20, 1981 – January 20, 1989
Vice President	George H. W. Bush
Preceded by	Jimmy Carter
Succeeded by	George H. W. Bush
33rd Governor of California
In office January 2, 1967 – January 6, 1975
Lieutenant	Robert Finch Edwin Reinecke John Harmer
Preceded by	Pat Brown
Succeeded by	Jerry Brown
Personal details
Born	Ronald Wilson Reagan (1911-02-06)February 6, 1911 Tampico, Illinois, U.S.
Died	June 5, 2004(2004-06-05) (aged 93) Los Angeles, California, U.S.
Resting place	Ronald Reagan Presidential Library, Simi Valley, California, U.S. 34°15′35.5896″N 118°49′11.301″W / 34.259886°N 118.81980583°W / 34.259886; -118.81980583
Political party	Republican (1962–2004)
Other political affiliations	Democratic (Before 1962)
Spouse(s)	Jane Wyman (1940–1949) Nancy Davis (1952–2004)
Children	Maureen Christine Michael Patti Ron
Alma mater	Eureka College
Religion	Disciples of Christ later Presbyterian
Signature
Military service
Service/branch	United States Army United States Army Air Forces
Years of service	1937–45
Rank	Captain

Ronald Wilson Reagan ( /ˈrɒnəld ˈwɪlsən ˈreɪɡən/; February 6, 1911 – June 5, 2004) was the 40th President of the United States, serving from 1981 to 1989. Prior to that, he was the 33rd Governor of California from 1967 to 1975 and a radio, film and television actor.

Born in Tampico, Illinois and raised in Dixon, Reagan was educated at Eureka College, earning a Bachelor of Arts degree in economics and sociology. After his graduation, Reagan moved first to Iowa to work as a radio broadcaster and then in to Los Angeles in 1937 where he began a career as an actor, first in films and later television. Some of his most notable films include Knute Rockne, All American, Kings Row, and Bedtime for Bonzo. Reagan served as president of the Screen Actors Guild, and later as a spokesman for General Electric (GE); his start in politics occurred during his work for GE. Originally a member of the Democratic Party, his positions began shifting rightward in the late 1950s, and he switched to the Republican Party in 1962. After delivering a rousing speech in support of Barry Goldwater's presidential candidacy in 1964, he was persuaded to seek the California governorship, winning two years later and again in 1970. He was defeated in his run for the Republican presidential nomination in 1968 as well as 1976, but won both the nomination and general election in 1980, defeating incumbent Jimmy Carter.

As president, Reagan implemented sweeping new political and economic initiatives. His supply-side economic policies, dubbed "Reaganomics", advocated reducing tax rates to spur economic growth, controlling the money supply to reduce inflation, deregulation of the economy, and reducing government spending. In his first term he survived an assassination attempt, took a hard line against labor unions, and ordered an invasion of Grenada. He was reelected in a landslide in 1984, proclaiming that it was "Morning in America." His second term was primarily marked by foreign matters, such as the ending of the Cold War, the 1986 bombing of Libya, and the revelation of the Iran-Contra affair. Publicly describing the Soviet Union as an "evil empire,"^[1] he supported anti-communist movements worldwide and spent his first term forgoing the strategy of détente by ordering a massive military buildup in an arms race with the USSR. Reagan negotiated with Soviet General Secretary Mikhail Gorbachev, culminating in the INF Treaty and the decrease of both countries' nuclear arsenals.

Reagan left office in 1989. In 1994, the former president disclosed that he had been diagnosed with Alzheimer's disease earlier in the year; he died ten years later at the age of 93. He ranks highly in public opinion polls of U.S. Presidents and is credited for generating an ideological renaissance on the American political right.

1 Early life
2 Entertainment career
3 Marriages and children
4 Early political career
5 Governor of California, 1967–1975
6 1976 presidential campaign
7 1980 presidential campaign
8 Presidency, 1981–1989
9 Post-presidential years, 1989–2004
- 9.1 Alzheimer's disease
  - 9.1.1 Announcement and reaction
  - 9.1.2 Progression
10 Death
11 Legacy
12 See also
13 Citations
14 References
15 Further reading
16 External links

Early life [link]

Ronald Reagan as a teenager in Dixon, Illinois

Ronald Wilson Reagan was born in an apartment on the second floor of a commercial building in Tampico, Illinois on February 6, 1911, to Jack Reagan and Nelle Wilson Reagan.^[2] Reagan's father was a salesman and a storyteller, the grandson of Irish Catholic immigrants from County Tipperary^[3] while his mother had Scots and English ancestors.^[4] Reagan had one sibling, his older brother, Neil (1908–1996), who became an advertising executive.^[5] As a boy, Reagan's father nicknamed his son "Dutch", due to his "fat little Dutchman"-like appearance, and his "Dutchboy" haircut;^[6] the nickname stuck with him throughout his youth.^[6] Reagan's family briefly lived in several towns and cities in Illinois, including Monmouth, Galesburg and Chicago, until 1919, when they returned to Tampico and lived above the H.C. Pitney Variety Store.^[2] After his election as president, residing in the upstairs White House private quarters, Reagan would quip that he was "living above the store again".^[7]

According to Paul Kengor, author of God and Ronald Reagan, Reagan had a particularly strong faith in the goodness of people, which stemmed from the optimistic faith of his mother, Nelle,^[8] and the Disciples of Christ faith,^[8] which he was baptized into in 1922.^[9] For the time, Reagan was unusual in his opposition to racial discrimination, and recalled a time in Dixon when the local inn would not allow black people to stay there. Reagan brought them back to his house, where his mother invited them to stay the night and have breakfast the next morning.^[10]

Following the closure of the Pitney Store in late 1920, the Reagans moved to Dixon;^[11] the midwestern "small universe" had a lasting impression on Reagan.^[12] He attended Dixon High School,^[13] where he developed interests in acting, sports, and storytelling.^[14] His first job was as a lifeguard at the Rock River in Lowell Park, near Dixon, in 1927. Reagan performed 77 rescues as a lifeguard, noting that he notched a mark on a wooden log for every life he saved.^[14] Reagan attended Eureka College, where he became a member of the Tau Kappa Epsilon fraternity, a cheerleader,^[15] and majored in economics and sociology. He developed a reputation as a jack of all trades, excelling in campus politics, sports and theater. He was a member of the football team, captain of the swim team and was elected student body president. As student president, Reagan led a student revolt against the college president after he tried to cut back the faculty.^[16]

Entertainment career [link]

Further information: Ronald Reagan filmography

Radio and film [link]

26YearOld Ronald Reagan in Hollywood 1937.ogv

Trailer from Love is on the Air starring Reagan, 1937

After graduating from Eureka in 1932, Reagan drove himself to Iowa, where he auditioned for a job at many small-town radio stations.^[17] The University of Iowa hired him to broadcast home football games for the Hawkeyes. He was paid $10 per game.^[17] Soon after, a staff announcer's job opened at radio station WOC in Davenport, and Reagan was hired, now earning $100 per month.^[17] Aided by his persuasive voice,^[17] he moved to WHO radio in Des Moines as an announcer for Chicago Cubs baseball games.^[18] His specialty was creating play-by-play accounts of games that the station received by wire.^[17]

While traveling with the Cubs in California, Reagan took a screen test in 1937 that led to a seven-year contract with Warner Brothers studios.^[19] He spent the first few years of his Hollywood career in the "B film" unit, where, Reagan joked, the producers "didn't want them good, they wanted them Thursday".^[17] While sometimes overshadowed by other actors, Reagan's screen performances did receive many good reviews.^[17]

Reagan in Kings Row, which gave a brief boost to his career, in 1942. Trailer from the film.

His first screen credit was the starring role in the 1937 movie Love Is on the Air, and by the end of 1939 he had already appeared in 19 films,^[20] including Dark Victory. Before the film Santa Fe Trail in 1940, he played the role of George "The Gipper" Gipp in the film Knute Rockne, All American; from it, he acquired the lifelong nickname "the Gipper".^[21] In 1941 exhibitors voted him the fifth most popular star from the younger generation in Hollywood.^[22]

Reagan's favorite acting role was as a double amputee in 1942's Kings Row,^[23] in which he recites the line, "Where's the rest of me?", later used as the title of his 1965 autobiography. Many film critics considered Kings Row to be his best movie,^[24] though the film was condemned by New York Times critic Bosley Crowther.^[25]^[26]

Although, Reagan called Kings Row the film that "made me a star",^[27] he was unable to capitalize on his success because he was ordered to active duty with the U.S. Army at San Francisco two months after its release, and never regained "star" status in motion pictures.^[27] In the post-war era, after being separated from almost four years of World War II stateside service with the 1st Motion Picture Unit in December 1945, Reagan co-starred in such films as, The Voice of the Turtle, John Loves Mary, The Hasty Heart, Bedtime for Bonzo, Cattle Queen of Montana, Tennessee's Partner, Hellcats of the Navy and The Killers (his final film) in a 1964 remake.^[28] Throughout his film career, his mother often answered much of his fan mail.^[29]

Military service [link]

After completing fourteen home-study Army Extension Courses, Reagan enlisted in the Army Enlisted Reserve^[30] on April 29, 1937, as a private assigned to Troop B, 322nd Cavalry at Des Moines, Iowa.^[31] He was commissioned a Second Lieutenant in the Officers Reserve Corps of the Cavalry on May 25, 1937.^[32]

Reagan was ordered to active duty for the first time on April 18, 1942. Due to his nearsightedness, he was classified for limited service only, which excluded him from serving overseas.^[33] His first assignment was at the San Francisco Port of Embarkation at Fort Mason, California, as a liaison officer of the Port and Transportation Office.^[34] Upon the approval of the Army Air Force (AAF), he applied for a transfer from the Cavalry to the AAF on May 15, 1942, and was assigned to AAF Public Relations and subsequently to the First Motion Picture Unit (officially, the "18th AAF Base Unit") in Culver City, California.^[34] On January 14, 1943 he was promoted to First Lieutenant and was sent to the Provisional Task Force Show Unit of This Is The Army at Burbank, California.^[34] He returned to the First Motion Picture Unit after completing this duty and was promoted to Captain on July 22, 1943.^[31]

In January 1944, Captain Reagan was ordered to temporary duty in New York City to participate in the opening of the sixth War Loan Drive. He was re-assigned to the First Motion Picture Unit on November 14, 1944, where he remained until the end of World War II.^[31] He was recommended for promotion to Major on February 2, 1945, but this recommendation was disapproved on July 17 of that year.^[35] He returned to Fort MacArthur, California, where he was separated from active duty on December 9, 1945.^[35] By the end of the war, his units had produced some 400 training films for the AAF.^[31]

Reagan never left the United States during the war, though he kept a film reel, obtained while in the service, depicting the liberation of Auschwitz, as he believed that someday doubts would arise as to whether the Holocaust had occurred.^[36] It has been alleged that he was overheard telling Israeli foreign minister Yitzhak Shamir in 1983 that he had filmed that footage himself and helped liberate Auschwitz,^[36]^[37] though this purported conversation was disputed by Secretary of State George Shultz.^[38]

SAG president and television [link]

Television star Ronald Reagan as the host of General Electric Theater

Reagan was first elected to the Board of Directors of the Screen Actors Guild in 1941, serving as an alternate. Following World War II, he resumed service and became 3rd vice-president in 1946.^[39] The adoption of conflict-of-interest bylaws in 1947 led the SAG president and six board members to resign; Reagan was nominated in a special election for the position of president and subsequently elected.^[39] He was subsequently chosen by the membership to serve seven additional one-year terms, from 1947 to 1952 and in 1959.^[39] Reagan led SAG through eventful years that were marked by labor-management disputes, the Taft-Hartley Act, House Committee on Un-American Activities (HUAC) hearings and the Hollywood blacklist era.^[39]

Amid the Red Scare in the late 1940s, Reagan provided the FBI with names of actors whom he believed to be communist sympathizers within the motion picture industry.^[40] Reagan testified before the House Un-American Activities Committee on the subject as well.^[41] A fervent anti-communist, he reaffirmed his commitment to democratic principles, stating, "I never as a citizen want to see our country become urged, by either fear or resentment of this group, that we ever compromise with any of our democratic principles through that fear or resentment."^[41]

Though an early critic of television, Reagan landed fewer film roles in the late 1950s and decided to join the medium.^[17] He was hired as the host of General Electric Theater, a series of weekly dramas that became very popular.^[17] His contract required him to tour GE plants sixteen weeks out of the year, often demanding of him fourteen speeches per day.^[17] He earned approximately $125,000 per year (about $1.07 million in 2010 dollars) in this role. His final work as a professional actor was as host and performer from 1964 to 1965 on the television series Death Valley Days.^[28]^{[better source needed]} Reagan and Nancy Davis appeared together several times, including an episode of GE Theater in 1958 called A Turkey for the President.^[42]^{[better source needed]}

Marriages and children [link]

In 1938, Reagan co-starred in the film Brother Rat with actress Jane Wyman (1917–2007). They were engaged at the Chicago Theatre,^[43] and married on January 26, 1940, at the Wee Kirk o' the Heather church in Glendale, California.^[44] Together they had two biological children, Maureen (1941–2001) and Christine (who was born in 1947 but only lived one day), and adopted a third, Michael (born 1945).^[45] Following arguments about Reagan's political ambitions, Wyman filed for divorce in 1948,^[46] citing a distraction due to her husband's Screen Actors Guild union duties; the divorce was finalized in 1949.^[21] He is the only US president to have been divorced.^[47]

Ronald and Nancy Reagan aboard a boat in California in 1964

Reagan met actress Nancy Davis (born 1921)^[48] in 1949 after she contacted him in his capacity as president of the Screen Actors Guild to help her with issues regarding her name appearing on a communist blacklist in Hollywood (she had been mistaken for another Nancy Davis). She described their meeting by saying, "I don't know if it was exactly love at first sight, but it was pretty close."^[49] They were engaged at Chasen's restaurant in Los Angeles and were married on March 4, 1952, at the Little Brown Church in the San Fernando Valley.^[50] Actor William Holden served as best man at the ceremony. They had two children: Patti (born October 21, 1952) and Ron (born May 20, 1958).

Observers described the Reagans' relationship as close, authentic and intimate.^[51] During his presidency they were reported to frequently display their affection for one another; one press secretary said, "They never took each other for granted. They never stopped courting."^[49]^[52] He often called her "Mommy" she called him "Ronnie".^[52] He once wrote to her, "Whatever I treasure and enjoy ... all would be without meaning if I didn't have you."^[53] When he was in the hospital in 1981, she slept with one of his shirts to be comforted by his scent.^[54] In a letter to U.S. citizens written in 1994, Reagan wrote "I have recently been told that I am one of the millions of Americans who will be afflicted with Alzheimer's disease.... I only wish there was some way I could spare Nancy from this painful experience,"^[49] and in 1998, while Reagan was stricken by Alzheimer's, Nancy told Vanity Fair, "Our relationship is very special. We were very much in love and still are. When I say my life began with Ronnie, well, it's true. It did. I can't imagine life without him."^[49]

Early political career [link]

Reagan began his political career as a liberal Democrat, admirer of Franklin D. Roosevelt, and an active supporter of New Deal policies. In the early 1950s, as his relationship with Republican actress Nancy Davis grew,^[55]^[56] he shifted to the right and, while remaining a Democrat, endorsed the presidential candidacies of Dwight D. Eisenhower in 1952 and 1956 as well as Richard Nixon in 1960.^[57] The last time Reagan actively supported a Democratic candidate was in 1950 when he helped Helen Gahagan Douglas in her unsuccessful Senate campaign against Richard Nixon.^[58] After being hired in 1954 to host the General Electric Theater, a TV drama series,^[59] Reagan soon began to embrace the conservative views of the sponsoring company's officials.^[59]^[60] His many GE speeches—which he wrote himself—were non-partisan but carried a conservative, pro-business message; he was influenced by Lemuel Boulware, a senior GE executive. Boulware, known for his tough stance against unions and his innovative strategies to win over workers, championed the core tenets of modern American conservatism: free markets, anticommunism, lower taxes, and limited government.^[61] Eventually, the ratings for Reagan's show fell off and GE dropped Reagan in 1962.^[62] In August of that year Reagan formally switched to the Republican Party, stating, "I didn't leave the Democratic Party. The party left me."^[63]

In the early 1960s Reagan opposed certain civil rights legislation, saying that "if an individual wants to discriminate against Negroes or others in selling or renting his house, it is his right to do so."^[64] In his rationale, he cited his opposition to government intrusion into personal freedoms, as opposed to racism; he strongly denied having racist motives and later reversed his opposition to voting rights and fair housing laws.^[65] When legislation that would become Medicare was introduced in 1961, Reagan created a recording for the American Medical Association warning that such legislation would mean the end of freedom in America. Reagan said that if his listeners did not write letters to prevent it, "we will awake to find that we have socialism. And if you don't do this, and if I don't do it, one of these days, you and I are going to spend our sunset years telling our children, and our children's children, what it once was like in America when men were free."^[66]^[67]^[68] He also joined the National Rifle Association and would become a lifetime member.^[69]

Reagan endorsed the campaign of conservative presidential contender Barry Goldwater in 1964. Speaking for Goldwater, Reagan stressed his belief in the importance of smaller government. He revealed his ideological motivation in a famed speech delivered on October 27, 1964: "The Founding Fathers knew a government can't control the economy without controlling people. And they knew when a government sets out to do that, it must use force and coercion to achieve its purpose. So we have come to a time for choosing."^[70] He also said, "You and I are told we must choose between a left or right, but I suggest there is no such thing as a left or right. There is only an up or down. Up to man's age-old dream – the maximum of individual freedom consistent with order – or down to the ant heap of totalitarianism."^[70]^[71] This "A Time for Choosing" speech raised $1 million for Goldwater's campaign^[17] and is considered the event that launched Reagan's political career.^[72]

Governor of California, 1967–1975 [link]

Main article: Governorship of Ronald Reagan

Ronald and Nancy Reagan celebrate Reagan's gubernatorial victory at the Biltmore Hotel in Los Angeles.

California Republicans were impressed with Reagan's political views and charisma after his "Time for Choosing" speech,^[73] and nominated him for Governor of California in 1966. In Reagan's campaign, he emphasized two main themes: "to send the welfare bums back to work", and, in reference to burgeoning anti-war and anti-establishment student protests at the University of California at Berkeley, "to clean up the mess at Berkeley".^[74] He was elected, defeating two-term governor Edmund G. "Pat" Brown, and was sworn in on January 2, 1967. In his first term, he froze government hiring and approved tax hikes to balance the budget.^[75]

Shortly after the beginning of his term, Reagan tested the presidential waters in 1968 as part of a "Stop Nixon" movement, hoping to cut into Nixon's Southern support^[76] and be a compromise candidate^[77] if neither Nixon nor second-place Nelson Rockefeller received enough delegates to win on the first ballot at the Republican convention. However, by the time of the convention Nixon had 692 delegate votes, 25 more than he needed to secure the nomination, followed by Rockefeller with Reagan in third place.^[76]

Reagan was involved in high-profile conflicts with the protest movements of the era. On May 15, 1969, during the People's Park protests at UC Berkeley, Reagan sent the California Highway Patrol and other officers to quell the protests, in an incident that became known as "Bloody Thursday", resulting in the death of student James Rector and the blinding of carpenter Alan Blanchard.^[78]^[79] Reagan then called out 2,200 state National Guard troops to occupy the city of Berkeley for two weeks in order to crack down on the protesters.^[78] A year after "Bloody Thursday", Reagan responded to questions about campus protest movements saying, "If it takes a bloodbath, let's get it over with. No more appeasement."^[80] When the Symbionese Liberation Army kidnapped Patty Hearst in Berkeley and demanded the distribution of food to the poor, Reagan joked, "It's just too bad we can't have an epidemic of botulism."^[81]

The Reagans meeting with then-President Richard Nixon and First Lady Pat Nixon in July 1970

Early in 1967, the national debate on abortion was beginning. Democratic California state senator Anthony Beilenson introduced the "Therapeutic Abortion Act," in an effort to reduce the number of "back-room abortions" performed in California.^[78] The State Legislature sent the bill to Reagan's desk where, after many days of indecision, he signed it.^[82] About two million abortions would be performed as a result, most because of a provision in the bill allowing abortions for the well-being of the mother.^[82] Reagan had been in office for only four months when he signed the bill, and stated that had he been more experienced as governor, it would not have been signed. After he recognized what he called the "consequences" of the bill, he announced that he was pro-life.^[82] He maintained that position later in his political career, writing extensively about abortion.^[83]

Despite an unsuccessful attempt to recall him in 1968,^[84] Reagan was re-elected in 1970, defeating "Big Daddy" Jesse Unruh. He chose not to seek a third term in the following election cycle. One of Reagan's greatest frustrations in office concerned capital punishment, which he strongly supported.^[23] His efforts to enforce the state's laws in this area were thwarted when the Supreme Court of California issued its People v. Anderson decision, which invalidated all death sentences issued in California prior to 1972, though the decision was later overturned by a constitutional amendment. The only execution during Reagan's governorship was on April 12, 1967, when Aaron Mitchell's sentence was carried out by the state in San Quentin's gas chamber.^[85]

In 1969, Reagan, as Governor, signed the Family Law Act which was the first no fault divorce legislation in the United States.^[86]

Reagan's terms as governor helped to shape the policies he would pursue in his later political career as president. By campaigning on a platform of sending "the welfare bums back to work", he spoke out against the idea of the welfare state. He also strongly advocated the Republican ideal of less government regulation of the economy, including that of undue federal taxation.^[87]

Reagan did not seek re-election to a third term as governor in 1974 and was succeeded by Democratic California Secretary of State Jerry Brown on January 6, 1975.

1976 presidential campaign [link]

Main article: Republican Party (United States) presidential primaries, 1976

Ronald Reagan on the podium with Gerald Ford at the 1976 Republican National Convention after narrowly losing the presidential nomination.

In 1976, Reagan challenged incumbent President Gerald Ford in a bid to become the Republican Party's candidate for president. Reagan soon established himself as the conservative candidate with the support of like-minded organizations such as the American Conservative Union which became key components of his political base, while President Ford was considered a more moderate Republican.^[88]

Reagan's campaign relied on a strategy crafted by campaign manager John Sears of winning a few primaries early to damage the inevitability of Ford's likely nomination. Reagan won North Carolina, Texas, and California, but the strategy failed, as^[89] he ended up losing New Hampshire, Florida, and his native Illinois.^[90] The Texas campaign lent renewed hope to Reagan, when he swept all ninety-six delegates chosen in the May 1 primary, with four more awaiting at the state convention. Much of the credit for that victory came from the work of three co-chairmen, including Ernest Angelo, the mayor of Midland, and Ray Barnhart of Houston, whom President Reagan tapped in 1981 as director of the Federal Highway Administration.^[91]

However, as the GOP convention neared, Ford appeared close to victory. Acknowledging his party's moderate wing, Reagan chose moderate Senator Richard Schweiker of Pennsylvania as his running mate if nominated. Nonetheless, Ford prevailed with 1,187 delegates to Reagan's 1,070.^[90] Ford would go on to lose the 1976 Presidential election to the Democrat Jimmy Carter.

Reagan's concession speech emphasized the dangers of nuclear war and the threat posed by the Soviet Union. Though he lost the nomination, he received 307 write-in votes in New Hampshire, 388 votes as an Independent on Wyoming's ballot, and a single electoral vote from a faithless elector in the November election from the state of Washington,^[92] which Ford had won over Democratic challenger Jimmy Carter.

1980 presidential campaign [link]

Main articles: Ronald Reagan presidential campaign, 1980 and United States presidential election, 1980

Reagan campaigns with Nancy and Senator Strom Thurmond (right) in South Carolina, 1980

The 1980 presidential campaign between Reagan and incumbent President Jimmy Carter was conducted during domestic concerns and the ongoing Iran hostage crisis. His campaign stressed some of his fundamental principles: lower taxes to stimulate the economy,^[93] less government interference in people's lives,^[94] states' rights,^[95] a strong national defense,^[94] and restoring the U.S. Dollar to a gold standard.^[96]^[97]

Reagan launched his campaign by declaring "I believe in states' rights," in Philadelphia, Mississippi, known at the time for the murder of three civil rights workers who had been trying to register African-Americans to vote during the civil rights movement.^[98]^[99]^[100] After receiving the Republican nomination, Reagan selected one of his primary opponents, George H.W. Bush, to be his running mate. His showing in the October televised debate boosted his campaign. Reagan won the election, carrying 44 states with 489 electoral votes to 49 electoral votes for Carter (representing six states and Washington, D.C.). Reagan received 50.7% of the popular vote while Carter took 41%, and Independent John B. Anderson (a liberal Republican) received 6.7%.^[101] Republicans captured the Senate for the first time since 1952, and gained 34 House seats, but the Democrats retained a majority.

During the presidential campaign, questions were raised by reporters on Reagan's stance on the Briggs Initiative, also known as Proposition 6, a ballot initiative in Reagan's home state of California where he was governor, which would have banned gays, lesbians, and supporters of LGBT rights from working in public schools in California. His opposition to the initiative was instrumental in its landslide defeat by Californian voters. Reagan published an editorial in which he stated "homosexuality is not a contagious disease like the measles..." and that prevailing scientific opinion was that a child's sexual orientation cannot be influenced by someone else.^[102]

Presidency, 1981–1989 [link]

Main articles: Electoral history of Ronald Reagan, Domestic policy of the Ronald Reagan administration, Foreign policy of the Ronald Reagan administration, Presidency of Ronald Reagan, and Reagan Doctrine

The Reagans wave from the limousine taking them down Pennsylvania Avenue to the White House, right after the president's inauguration

During his Presidency, Reagan pursued policies that reflected his personal belief in individual freedom, brought changes domestically, both to the U.S. economy and expanded military, and contributed to the end of the Cold War.^[103] Termed the Reagan Revolution, his presidency would reinvigorate American morale^[104]^[105] and reduce the people's reliance upon government.^[103] As president, Reagan kept a series of diaries in which he commented on daily occurrences of his presidency and his views on the issues of the day. The diaries were published in May 2007 in the bestselling book, The Reagan Diaries.^[106]

First term, 1981–1985 [link]

To date, Reagan is the oldest man elected to the office of the presidency (at 69). In his first inaugural address on January 20, 1981, which Reagan himself wrote,^[107] he addressed the country's economic malaise arguing: "In this present crisis, government is not the solution to our problems; government is the problem."

The Reagan Presidency began in a dramatic manner; as Reagan was giving his inaugural address, 52 U.S. hostages, held by Iran for 444 days were set free.^[108]

Assassination attempt [link]

Main article: Reagan assassination attempt

On March 30, 1981, only 69 days into the new administration, Reagan, his press secretary James Brady, Washington police officer Thomas Delahanty, and Secret Service agent Timothy McCarthy were struck by gunfire from would-be assassin John Hinckley, Jr. outside the Washington Hilton Hotel. Although "close to death" during surgery,^[109] Reagan recovered and was released from the hospital on April 11, becoming the first serving U.S. President to survive being shot in an assassination attempt.^[110] The attempt had great influence on Reagan's popularity; polls indicated his approval rating to be around 73%.^[111] Reagan believed that God had spared his life so that he might go on to fulfill a greater purpose.^[112]

Air traffic controllers' strike [link]

Main article: Professional Air Traffic Controllers Organization (1968)

In summer 1981 PATCO, the union of federal air traffic controllers went on strike, violating a federal law prohibiting government unions from striking.^[113] Declaring the situation an emergency as described in the 1947 Taft Hartley Act, Reagan stated that if the air traffic controllers "do not report for work within 48 hours, they have forfeited their jobs and will be terminated."^[114] They did not return and on August 5, Reagan fired 11,345 striking air traffic controllers who had ignored his order, and used supervisors and military controllers to handle the nation's commercial air traffic until new controllers could be hired and trained.^[115] As a leading reference work on public administration concluded, "The firing of PATCO employees not only demonstrated a clear resolve by the president to take control of the bureaucracy, but it also sent a clear message to the private sector that unions no longer needed to be feared."^[116]

"Reaganomics" and the economy [link]

Main article: Reaganomics

During Jimmy Carter's last year in office (1980), inflation averaged 12.5%, compared with 4.4% during Reagan's last year in office (1988).^[117] During Reagan's administration, the unemployment rate declined from 7.5% to 5.4%, with the rate reaching highs of 10.8% in 1982 and 10.4% in 1983, averaging 7.5% over the eight years.^[118]^[119]

Reagan gives a televised address from the Oval Office, outlining his plan for Tax Reduction Legislation in July 1981

Reagan implemented policies based on supply-side economics and advocated a classical liberal and laissez-faire philosophy,^[120] seeking to stimulate the economy with large, across-the-board tax cuts.^[121]^[122] He also supported returning the U.S. to some sort of gold standard, and successfully urged Congress to establish the U.S. Gold Commission to study how one could be implemented. Citing the economic theories of Arthur Laffer, Reagan promoted the proposed tax cuts as potentially stimulating the economy enough to expand the tax base, offsetting the revenue loss due to reduced rates of taxation, a theory that entered political discussion as the Laffer curve. Reaganomics was the subject of debate with supporters pointing to improvements in certain key economic indicators as evidence of success, and critics pointing to large increases in federal budget deficits and the national debt. His policy of "peace through strength" (also described as "firm but fair") resulted in a record peacetime defense buildup including a 40% real increase in defense spending between 1981 and 1985.^[123]

During Reagan's presidency, federal income tax rates were lowered significantly with the signing of the bipartisan Economic Recovery Tax Act of 1981^[124] which lowered the top marginal tax bracket from 70% to 50% and the lowest bracket from 14% to 11%, however other tax increases passed by Congress and signed by Reagan, ensured that tax revenues over his two terms were 18.2% of GDP as compared to 18.1% over the 40 year period 1970-2010.^[125] Then, in 1982 the Job Training Partnership Act of 1982 was signed into law, initiating one of the nation's first public/private partnerships and a major part of the president's job creation program. Reagan's Assistant Secretary of Labor and Chief of Staff, Al Angrisani, was a primary architect of the bill. The Tax Reform Act of 1986, another bipartisan effort championed by Reagan, further reduced the top rate to 28%, raised the bottom bracket from 11% to 15%, and, cut the number of tax brackets to 4.

Conversely, Congress passed and Reagan signed into law tax increases of some nature in every year from 1981 to 1987 to continue funding such government programs as Tax Equity and Fiscal Responsibility Act of 1982 (TEFRA), Social Security, and the Deficit Reduction Act of 1984 (DEFRA).^[126]^[127] Despite the fact that TEFRA was the "largest peacetime tax increase in American history," Reagan is better known for his tax cuts and lower-taxes philosophy.^[127]^[128]^[129]^[130] Real gross domestic product (GDP) growth recovered strongly after the early 1980s recession ended in 1982, and grew during his eight years in office at an annual rate of 3.85% per year.^[131] Unemployment peaked at 10.8% monthly rate in December 1982—higher than any time since the Great Depression—then dropped during the rest of Reagan's presidency.^[132] Sixteen million new jobs were created, while inflation significantly decreased.^[133] The net effect of all Reagan-era tax bills was a 1% decrease in government revenues when compared to Treasury Department revenue estimates from the Administration's first post-enactment January budgets.^[134] However, federal Income Tax receipts increased from 1980 to 1989, rising from $308.7 billion to $549 billion.^[135]

During the Reagan Administration, federal receipts grew at an average rate of 8.2% (2.5% attributed to higher Social Security receipts), and federal outlays grew at an annual rate of 7.1%.^[136]^[137] Reagan also revised the tax code with the bipartisan Tax Reform Act of 1986.^[138]

President Reagan delivers a special address to Congress on the Program for Economic Recovery from the U.S. Capitol, April 28, 1981

Reagan's policies proposed that economic growth would occur when marginal tax rates were low enough to spur investment,^[139] which would then lead to increased economic growth, higher employment and wages. Critics labeled this "trickle-down economics"—the belief that tax policies that benefit the wealthy will create a "trickle-down" effect to the poor.^[140] Questions arose whether Reagan's policies benefited the wealthy more than those living in poverty,^[141] and many poor and minority citizens viewed Reagan as indifferent to their struggles.^[141] These views were exacerbated by the fact that Reagan's economic regimen included freezing the minimum wage at $3.35 an hour, slashing federal assistance to local governments by 60%, cutting the budget for public housing and Section 8 rent subsidies in half, and eliminating the antipoverty Community Development Block Grant program.^[142] The widening gap between the rich and poor had already begun during the 1970s before Reagan's economic policies took effect.^[143] Along with Reagan's 1981 cut in the top regular tax rate on unearned income, he reduced the maximum capital gains rate to only 20% – its lowest level since the Hoover administration.^[144] Reagan later set tax rates on capital gains at the same level as the rates on ordinary income like salaries and wages, with both topping out at 28%.^[145] President Reagan, has remained popular as an antitax hero despite raising taxes eleven times over the course of his presidency, all in the name of fiscal responsibility.^[146] According to Paul Krugman, "Over all, the 1982 tax increase undid about a third of the 1981 cut; as a share of G.D.P., the increase was substantially larger than Mr. Clinton's 1993 tax increase."^[147] According to historian and domestic policy adviser Bruce Bartlett, Reagan's tax increases over the course of his presidency took back half of the 1981 tax cut.^[148]

Further following his less-government intervention views, Reagan cut the budgets of non-military^[149] programs^[150] including Medicaid, food stamps, federal education programs^[149] and the EPA.^[151] While he protected entitlement programs, such as Social Security and Medicare,^[152] his administration attempted to purge many people with disabilities from the Social Security disability rolls.^[153]

The administration's stance toward the Savings and Loan industry contributed to the Savings and loan crisis.^[154] It is also suggested, by a minority of Reaganomics critics, that the policies partially influenced the stock market crash of 1987,^[155] but there is no consensus regarding a single source for the crash.^[156] In order to cover newly spawned federal budget deficits, the United States borrowed heavily both domestically and abroad, raising the national debt from $997 billion to $2.85 trillion.^[157] Reagan described the new debt as the "greatest disappointment" of his presidency.^[133]

He reappointed Paul Volcker as Chairman of the Federal Reserve, and in 1987 he appointed monetarist Alan Greenspan to succeed him. Reagan ended the price controls on domestic oil which had contributed to energy crises in the early 1970s.^[158]^[159] The price of oil subsequently dropped, and the 1980s did not see the fuel shortages that the 1970s had.^[160] Reagan also fulfilled a 1980 campaign promise to repeal the Windfall profit tax in 1988, which had previously increased dependence on foreign oil.^[161] Some economists, such as Nobel Prize winners Milton Friedman and Robert A. Mundell, argue that Reagan's tax policies invigorated America's economy and contributed to the economic boom of the 1990s.^[162] Other economists, such as Nobel Prize winner Robert Solow, argue that the deficits were a major reason why Reagan's successor, George H. W. Bush, reneged on a campaign promise and raised taxes.^[162]

During Reagan's presidency, a program was initiated within the US intelligence community to ensure America's economic strength. The program, Project Socrates, developed and demonstrated the means required for the US to generate and lead the next evolutionary leap in technology acquisition and utilization for a competitive advantage—automated innovation. To ensure that the US acquired the maximum benefit from automated innovation, President Reagan, during his second term, had an executive order drafted to create a new Federal agency to implement the Project Socrates results on a nation-wide basis. However, President Reagan's term came to end before the executive order could be coordinated and signed, and the incoming Bush administration, labeling Project Socrates as "industrial policy", had it terminated.^[163]^[164]

Lebanon and Operation Urgent Fury (Grenada), 1983 [link]

Main articles: Beirut barracks bombing and Invasion of Grenada

Reagan meets with Prime Minister Eugenia Charles of Dominica in the Oval Office about ongoing events in Grenada

American peacekeeping forces in Beirut, a part of a multinational force during the Lebanese Civil War who had been earlier deployed by Reagan, were attacked on October 23, 1983. The Beirut barracks bombing resulted in the deaths of 241 American servicemen and the wounding of more than 60 others by a suicide truck bomber. Reagan sent a White House team to the site four days later, led by his Vice President, George H.W. Bush. Reagan called the attack "despicable", pledged to keep a military force in Lebanon, and planned to target the Sheik Abdullah barracks in Baalbek, Lebanon, training ground for Hezbollah fighters,^[165]^[166] but the mission was later aborted. On February 7, 1984, President Reagan ordered the Marines to begin withdrawal from Lebanon. In April 1984, as his keynote address to the 20,000 attendees of the Rev. Jerry Falwell's "Baptist Fundamentalism '84" convention in Washington, D.C., he read a first hand account of the bombing, written by Navy Chaplain (Rabbi) Arnold Resnicoff, who had been asked to write the report by Bush and his team.^[167] Osama bin Laden would later cite Reagan's withdrawal of forces as a sign of American weakness.^[168]

On October 25, 1983, only two days later, Reagan ordered U.S. forces to invade Grenada, code named Operation Urgent Fury, where a 1979 coup d'état had established an independent non-aligned Marxist-Leninist government. A formal appeal from the Organization of Eastern Caribbean States (OECS) led to the intervention of U.S. forces; President Reagan also cited an allegedly regional threat posed by a Soviet-Cuban military build-up in the Caribbean and concern for the safety of several hundred American medical students at St. George's University as adequate reasons to invade. Operation Urgent Fury was the first major military operation conducted by U.S. forces since the Vietnam War, several days of fighting commenced, resulting in a U.S. victory,^[169] with 19 American fatalities and 116 wounded American soldiers.^[170] In mid-December, after a new government was appointed by the Governor-General, U.S. forces withdrew.^[169]

Escalation of the Cold War [link]

See also: Cold War and Cold War (1979–1985)

Reagan escalated the Cold War, accelerating a reversal from the policy of détente which began in 1979 following the Soviet war in Afghanistan.^[171] Reagan ordered a massive buildup of the United States Armed Forces^[123] and implemented new policies towards the Soviet Union: reviving the B-1 Lancer program that had been canceled by the Carter administration, and producing the MX missile.^[172] In response to Soviet deployment of the SS-20, Reagan oversaw NATO's deployment of the Pershing missile in West Germany.^[173]

Reagan, the first American president ever to address the British Parliament, predicts Marxism-Leninism will be left on the "ash-heap of history".^[174]

Together with the United Kingdom's prime minister Margaret Thatcher, Reagan denounced the Soviet Union in ideological terms.^[175] In a famous address on June 8, 1982 to the British Parliament in the Royal Gallery of the Palace of Westminster, Reagan said, "the forward march of freedom and democracy will leave Marxism-Leninism on the ash-heap of history."^[176]^[177] On March 3, 1983, he predicted that communism would collapse, stating, "Communism is another sad, bizarre chapter in human history whose last pages even now are being written."^[178] In a speech to the National Association of Evangelicals on March 8, 1983, Reagan called the Soviet Union "an evil empire".^[179]

After Soviet fighters downed Korean Air Lines Flight 007 near Moneron Island on September 1, 1983, carrying 269 people, including Georgia congressman Larry McDonald, Reagan labeled the act a "massacre" and declared that the Soviets had turned "against the world and the moral precepts which guide human relations among people everywhere".^[180] The Reagan administration responded to the incident by suspending all Soviet passenger air service to the United States, and dropped several agreements being negotiated with the Soviets, wounding them financially.^[180] As result of the shootdown, and the cause of KAL 007's going astray thought to be inadequacies related to its navigational system, Reagan announced on September 16, 1983 that the Global Positioning System would be made available for civilian use, free of charge, once completed in order to avert similar navigational errors in future.^[181]^[182]

Under a policy that came to be known as the Reagan Doctrine, Reagan and his administration also provided overt and covert aid to anti-communist resistance movements in an effort to "rollback" Soviet-backed communist governments in Africa, Asia, and Latin America.^[183] Reagan deployed the CIA's Special Activities Division to Afghanistan and Pakistan. They were instrumental in training, equipping and leading Mujaheddin forces against the Soviet Army.^[184]^[185] President Reagan's Covert Action program has been given credit for assisting in ending the Soviet occupation of Afghanistan,^[186] though the US funded armaments introduced then would later pose a threat to US troops in the 2000s (decade) war in Afghanistan.^[187] However, in a break from the Carter policy of arming Taiwan under the Taiwan Relations Act. Reagan also agreed with the communist government in China to reduce the sale of arms to Taiwan.^[188]

In March 1983, Reagan introduced the Strategic Defense Initiative, a defense project^[189] that would have used ground and space-based systems to protect the United States from attack by strategic nuclear ballistic missiles.^[190] Reagan believed that this defense shield could make nuclear war impossible,^[189]^[191] but disbelief that the technology could ever work led opponents to dub SDI "Star Wars" and argue that the technological objective was unattainable.^[189] The Soviets became concerned about the possible effects SDI would have;^[192] leader Yuri Andropov said it would put "the entire world in jeopardy".^[193] For those reasons, David Gergen, former aide to President Reagan, believes that in retrospect, SDI hastened the end of the Cold War.^[194]

Critics labeled Reagan's foreign policies as aggressive, imperialistic, and chided them as "warmongering," though they were supported by leading American conservatives who argued that they were necessary to protect U.S. security interests.^[192] A reformer, Mikhail Gorbachev, would later rise to power in the Soviet Union in 1985, implementing new policies for openness and reform that were called glasnost and perestroika.

1984 presidential campaign [link]

Main article: United States presidential election, 1984

1984 presidential electoral votes by state. Reagan (red) won every state except for Mondale's home state of Minnesota (and Washington, D.C.)

Reagan accepted the Republican nomination in Dallas, Texas, on a wave of positive feeling. He proclaimed that it was "morning again in America,"^[17] regarding the recovering economy and the dominating performance by the U.S. athletes at the 1984 Summer Olympics, among other things. He became the first American president to open an Olympic Games held in the United States.^[195]

Reagan's opponent in the 1984 presidential election was former Vice President Walter Mondale. With questions about Reagan's age, and a weak performance in the first presidential debate, his ability to perform the duties of president for another term was questioned. His apparent confused and forgetful behavior was evident to his supporters; they had previously known him clever and witty. Rumors began to circulate that he had Alzheimer's disease.^[196]^[197] Reagan rebounded in the second debate, and confronted questions about his age, quipping, "I will not make age an issue of this campaign. I am not going to exploit, for political purposes, my opponent's youth and inexperience," which generated applause and laughter, even from Mondale himself.^[198]

That November, Reagan was re-elected, winning 49 of 50 states.^[199] The president's overwhelming victory saw Mondale carry only his home state of Minnesota (by 3800 votes) and the District of Columbia. Reagan won a record 525 electoral votes, the most of any candidate in United States history,^[200] and received 58.8% of the popular vote to Mondale's 40.6%.^[199]

Second term, 1985–1989 [link]

Reagan was sworn in as president for the second time on January 20, 1985, in a private ceremony at the White House. Because January 20 fell on a Sunday, a public celebration was not held but took place in the Capitol Rotunda the following day. January 21 was one of the coldest days on record in Washington, D.C.; due to poor weather, inaugural celebrations were held inside the Capitol. In the coming weeks he shook up his staff somewhat, moving White House Chief of Staff James Baker to Secretary of the Treasury and naming Treasury Secretary Donald Regan, a former Merrill Lynch officer, Chief of Staff.^[201]^[201]

Ronald Reagan is sworn in for a second term as president in the Capitol Rotunda

In 1985, Reagan visited a German military cemetery in Bitburg to lay a wreath with West German Chancellor Helmut Kohl. It was determined that the cemetery held the graves of forty-nine members of the Waffen-SS. Reagan issued a statement that called the Nazi soldiers buried in that cemetery as themselves "victims," a designation which ignited a stir over whether Reagan had equated the SS men to victims of the Holocaust; Pat Buchanan, Reagan's Director of Communications, argued that the president did not equate the SS members with the actual Holocaust.^[202] Now strongly urged to cancel the visit,^[203] the president responded that it would be wrong to back down on a promise he had made to Chancellor Kohl. He ultimately attended the ceremony where two military generals laid a wreath.^[204]

The disintegration of the Space Shuttle Challenger on January 28, 1986, proved a pivotal moment in Reagan's presidency. All seven astronauts aboard were killed.^[205] On the night of the disaster, Reagan delivered a speech, written by Peggy Noonan, in which he said:

The future doesn't belong to the fainthearted; it belongs to the brave... We will never forget them, nor the last time we saw them, this morning, as they prepared for their journey and waved goodbye and 'slipped the surly bonds of Earth' to 'touch the face of God.'^[206]

War on Drugs [link]

Main article: War on Drugs

Midway into his second term, Reagan declared more militant policies in the War on Drugs. He said that "drugs were menacing our society" and promised to fight for drug-free schools and workplaces, expanded drug treatment, stronger law enforcement and drug interdiction efforts, and greater public awareness.^[207]^[208]

In 1986, Reagan signed a drug enforcement bill that budgeted $1.7 billion to fund the War on Drugs and specified a mandatory minimum penalty for drug offenses.^[209] The bill was criticized for promoting significant racial disparities in the prison population^[209] and critics also charged that the policies did little to reduce the availability of drugs on the street, while resulting in a great financial burden for America.^[210] Defenders of the effort point to success in reducing rates of adolescent drug use.^[211]^[212] First Lady Nancy Reagan made the War on Drugs her main priority by founding the "Just Say No" drug awareness campaign, which aimed to discourage children and teenagers from engaging in recreational drug use by offering various ways of saying "no". Mrs. Reagan traveled to 65 cities in 33 states, raising awareness about the dangers of drugs including alcohol.^[213]

Libya bombing [link]

Main article: 1986 Bombing of Libya

Relations between Libya and the U.S. under President Reagan were continually contentious, beginning with the Gulf of Sidra incident in 1981; by 1982, Gaddafi was considered by the CIA to be, along with USSR leader Leonid Brezhnev and Cuban leader Fidel Castro,^[214] part of a group known as the "unholy trinity"^[214] and was also labeled as "our international public enemy number one" by a CIA official.^[214] These tensions were later revived in early April 1986, when a bomb exploded in a Berlin discothèque, resulting in the injury of 63 American military personnel and death of one serviceman.^[215] Stating that there was "irrefutable proof" that Libya had directed the "terrorist bombing", Reagan authorized the use of force against the country.^[215] In the late evening of April 15, 1986, the U.S. launched a series of air strikes on ground targets in Libya.^[215]^[216] The UK Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher allowed the US Air Force to use Britain's air bases to launch the attack, on the justification that the UK was supporting America's right to self-defense under Article 51 of the United Nations Charter.^[216] The attack was designed to halt Libyan leader Muammar Gaddafi's "ability to export terrorism", offering him "incentives and reasons to alter his criminal behavior".^[215] The president addressed the nation from the Oval Office after the attacks had commenced, stating, "When our citizens are attacked or abused anywhere in the world on the direct orders of hostile regimes, we will respond so long as I'm in this office."^[216] As early as 1981, Reagan had referred to Gaddafi as "the mad dog of the Middle East"^[217] and considered him to be public enemy number one.^[218]

Immigration [link]

Reagan signed the Immigration Reform and Control Act in 1986. The act made it illegal to knowingly hire or recruit illegal immigrants, required employers to attest to their employees' immigration status, and granted amnesty to approximately three million illegal immigrants who entered the United States prior to January 1, 1982, and had lived in the country continuously. Critics argue that the employer sanctions were without teeth and failed to stem illegal immigration.^[219] Upon signing the act at a ceremony held beside the newly refurbished Statue of Liberty, Reagan said, "The legalization provisions in this act will go far to improve the lives of a class of individuals who now must hide in the shadows, without access to many of the benefits of a free and open society. Very soon many of these men and women will be able to step into the sunlight and, ultimately, if they choose, they may become Americans."^[220] Reagan also said, "The employer sanctions program is the keystone and major element. It will remove the incentive for illegal immigration by eliminating the job opportunities which draw illegal aliens here."^[220]

Iran-Contra affair [link]

Main articles: Iran-Contra affair, Reagan administration scandals, and Nicaragua v. United States

President Reagan receives the Tower Report in the Cabinet Room of the White House, 1987

In 1986, a scandal shook the administration stemming from the use of proceeds from covert arms sales to Iran to fund the Contras in Nicaragua, which had been specifically outlawed by an act of Congress.^[221]^[222] The Iran-Contra affair became the largest political scandal in the United States during the 1980s.^[223] The International Court of Justice, whose jurisdiction to decide the case was disputed,^[224] ruled that the U.S. had violated international law in Nicaragua due to its obligations not to intervene in the affairs of other states.^[225]

President Reagan professed ignorance of the plot's existence. He appointed two Republicans and one Democrat (John Tower, Brent Scowcroft and Edmund Muskie, known as the "Tower Commission") to investigate the scandal. The commission could not find direct evidence that Reagan had prior knowledge of the program, but criticized him heavily for his disengagement from managing his staff, making the diversion of funds possible.^[226] A separate report by Congress concluded that "If the president did not know what his national security advisers were doing, he should have."^[226] Reagan's popularity declined from 67% to 46% in less than a week, the greatest and quickest decline ever for a president.^[227] The scandal resulted in fourteen indictments within Reagan's staff, and eleven convictions.^[228]

Many Central Americans criticize Reagan for his support of the Contras, calling him an anti-communist zealot, blinded to human rights abuses, while others say he "saved Central America".^[229] Daniel Ortega, Sandinistan and president of Nicaragua, said that he hoped God would forgive Reagan for his "dirty war against Nicaragua".^[229] In 1986 the USA was found guilty by the International Court of Justice (World Court) of war crimes against Nicaragua.^[230]

End of the Cold War [link]

Health [link]

Early in his presidency, Reagan started wearing a custom, technologically advanced hearing aid, first in his right ear^[247] and later in his left as well.^[248] His decision to go public in 1983 regarding his wearing the small, audio-amplifying device boosted their sales.^[249]

On July 13, 1985, Reagan underwent surgery at Bethesda Naval Hospital to remove cancerous polyps from his colon. He relinquished presidential power to the Vice President for eight hours in a similar procedure as outlined in the 25th Amendment, which he specifically avoided invoking.^[250] The surgery lasted just under three hours and was successful.^[251] Reagan resumed the powers of the presidency later that day.^[252] In August of that year, he underwent an operation to remove skin cancer cells from his nose.^[253] In October, additional skin cancer cells were detected on his nose and removed.^[254]

In January 1987, Reagan underwent surgery for an enlarged prostate which caused further worries about his health. No cancerous growths were found, however, and he was not sedated during the operation.^[255] In July of that year, aged 76, he underwent a third skin cancer operation on his nose.^[256]

Judiciary [link]

Main articles: Ronald Reagan Supreme Court candidates and Ronald Reagan judicial appointments

During his 1980 campaign, Reagan pledged that, if given the opportunity, he would appoint the first female Supreme Court Justice.^[257] That opportunity came in his first year in office when he nominated Sandra Day O'Connor to fill the vacancy created by the retirement of Justice Potter Stewart. In his second term, Reagan elevated William Rehnquist to succeed Warren Burger as Chief Justice, and named Antonin Scalia to fill the vacant seat. Reagan nominated conservative jurist Robert Bork to the high court in 1987. Senator Ted Kennedy, a Democrat of Massachusetts, strongly condemned Bork, and great controversy ensued.^[258] Bork's nomination was rejected 58–42.^[259] Reagan then nominated Douglas Ginsburg, but Ginsburg withdrew his name from consideration after coming under fire for his cannabis use.^[260] Anthony Kennedy was eventually confirmed in his place.^[261] Along with his three Supreme Court appointments, Reagan appointed 83 judges to the United States Courts of Appeals, and 290 judges to the United States district courts.

Reagan also nominated Vaughn R. Walker, who would later be revealed to be the earliest known gay federal judge,^[262] to the United States District Court for the Central District of California. However, the nomination stalled in the Senate, and Walker was not confirmed until he was renominated by Reagan's successor, George H. W. Bush.^[263]

Post-presidential years, 1989–2004 [link]

Ronald and Nancy Reagan in Los Angeles after leaving the White House, early 1990s

After leaving office in 1989, the Reagans purchased a home in Bel Air, Los Angeles in addition to the Reagan Ranch in Santa Barbara. They regularly attended Bel Air Presbyterian Church^[264] and occasionally made appearances on behalf of the Republican Party; Reagan delivered a well-received speech at the 1992 Republican National Convention.^[265] Previously on November 4, 1991, the Ronald Reagan Presidential Library was dedicated and opened to the public. At the dedication ceremonies, five presidents were in attendance, as well as six first ladies, marking the first time five presidents were gathered in the same location.^[266] Reagan continued publicly to speak in favor of a line-item veto; the Brady Bill;^[267] a constitutional amendment requiring a balanced budget; and the repeal of the 22nd Amendment, which prohibits anyone from serving more than two terms as president.^[268] In 1992 Reagan established the Ronald Reagan Freedom Award with the newly formed Ronald Reagan Presidential Foundation.^[269] His final public speech was on February 3, 1994 during a tribute to him in Washington, D.C., and his last major public appearance was at the funeral of Richard Nixon on April 27, 1994.

Alzheimer's disease [link]

Announcement and reaction [link]

In August 1994, at the age of 83, Reagan was diagnosed with Alzheimer's disease,^[270] an incurable neurological disorder which destroys brain cells and ultimately causes death.^[270]^[271] In November he informed the nation through a handwritten letter,^[270] writing in part:

I have recently been told that I am one of the millions of Americans who will be afflicted with Alzheimer's Disease... At the moment I feel just fine. I intend to live the remainder of the years God gives me on this earth doing the things I have always done... I now begin the journey that will lead me into the sunset of my life. I know that for America there will always be a bright dawn ahead. Thank you, my friends. May God always bless you.^[272]

After his diagnosis, letters of support from well-wishers poured into his California home,^[273] but there was also speculation over how long Reagan had demonstrated symptoms of mental degeneration.^[274] In her memoirs, former CBS White House correspondent Lesley Stahl recounts her final meeting with the president, in 1986: "Reagan didn't seem to know who I was. ... Oh, my, he's gonzo, I thought. I have to go out on the lawn tonight and tell my countrymen that the president of the United States is a doddering space cadet." But then, at the end, he regained his alertness. As she described it, "I had come that close to reporting that Reagan was senile."^[275] However, Dr. Lawrence K. Altman, a physician employed as a reporter for The New York Times, noted that "the line between mere forgetfulness and the beginning of Alzheimer's can be fuzzy"^[276] and all four of Reagan's White House doctors said that they saw no evidence of Alzheimer's while he was president.^[276] Dr. John E. Hutton, Reagan's primary physician from 1984 to 1989, said the president "absolutely" did not "show any signs of dementia or Alzheimer's."^[276] Reagan did experience occasional memory lapses, though, especially with names.^[276] Once, while meeting with Japanese Prime Minister Yasuhiro Nakasone, he repeatedly referred to Vice President Bush as "Prime Minister Bush."^[277] Reagan's doctors, however, note that he only began exhibiting overt symptoms of the illness in late 1992^[278] or 1993,^[276] several years after he had left office. His former Chief of Staff James Baker considered "ludicrous" the idea of Reagan sleeping during cabinet meetings.^[279] Other staff members, former aides, and friends said they saw no indication of Alzheimer's while he was President.^[276]

The Reagans with a model of USS Ronald Reagan, May 1996. At left is Newport News Shipbuilding Chairman and CEO Bill Fricks.

Complicating the picture, Reagan suffered an episode of head trauma in July 1989, five years prior to his diagnosis. After being thrown from a horse in Mexico, a subdural hematoma was found and surgically treated later in the year.^[270]^[271] Nancy Reagan asserts that her husband's 1989 fall hastened the onset of Alzheimer's disease,^[271] citing what doctors told her,^[271] although acute brain injury has not been conclusively proven to accelerate Alzheimer's or dementia.^[280]^[281] Reagan's one-time physician Dr. Daniel Ruge has said it is possible, but not certain, that the horse accident affected the course of Reagan's memory.^[278]

Progression [link]

As the years went on, the disease slowly destroyed Reagan's mental capacity.^[276] He was only able to recognize a few people, including his wife, Nancy.^[276] He remained active, however; he took walks through parks near his home and on beaches, played golf regularly, and until 1999 he often went to his office in nearby Century City.^[276]

Reagan suffered a fall at his Bel Air home on January 13, 2001, resulting in a broken hip.^[282] The fracture was repaired the following day^[283] and the 89 year old Reagan returned home later that week, although he faced difficult physical therapy at home.^[284] On February 6, 2001, Reagan reached the age of 90, becoming the third former president to do so (the other two being John Adams and Herbert Hoover, with Gerald Ford later reaching 90).^[285] Reagan's public appearances became much less frequent with the progression of the disease, and as a result, his family decided that he would live in quiet semi-isolation with his wife Nancy. Nancy Reagan told CNN's Larry King in 2001 that very few visitors were allowed to see her husband because she felt that "Ronnie would want people to remember him as he was."^[286] Following her husband's diagnosis and death, Mrs. Reagan became a stem-cell research advocate, urging Congress and President George W. Bush to support federal funding for embryonic stem-cell research, something Bush opposed. In 2009, she praised President Barack Obama for lifting restrictions on such research.^[287] Mrs. Reagan has said that she believes that it could lead to a cure for Alzheimer's.^[288]

Death [link]

Main article: Death and state funeral of Ronald Reagan

Reagan's casket lying in state in the United States Capitol Rotunda

Reagan died of pneumonia, brought on by Alzheimer's disease^[289] at his home in Bel Air, California on the afternoon of June 5, 2004.^[290] A short time after his death, Nancy Reagan released a statement saying: "My family and I would like the world to know that President Ronald Reagan has died after 10 years of Alzheimer's disease at 93 years of age. We appreciate everyone's prayers."^[290] President George W. Bush declared June 11 a National Day of Mourning,^[291] and international tributes came in from around the world.^[292] Reagan's body was taken to the Kingsley and Gates Funeral Home in Santa Monica, California later in the day, where well-wishers paid tribute by laying flowers and American flags in the grass.^[293] On June 7, his body was removed and taken to the Ronald Reagan Presidential Library, where a brief family funeral was held conducted by Pastor Michael Wenning. His body lay in repose in the Library lobby until June 9; over 100,000 people viewed the coffin.^[294]

On June 9, Reagan's body was flown to Washington, D.C. where he became the tenth United States president to lie in state; in thirty-four hours, 104,684 people filed past the coffin.^[295]

On June 11, a state funeral was conducted in the Washington National Cathedral, and presided over by President George W. Bush. Eulogies were given by former British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher,^[296] former Canadian Prime Minister Brian Mulroney, and both Presidents Bush. Also in attendance were Mikhail Gorbachev, and many world leaders, including British Prime Minister Tony Blair, German Chancellor Gerhard Schröder, Italian Prime Minister Silvio Berlusconi, and interim presidents Hamid Karzai of Afghanistan, and Ghazi al-Yawer of Iraq.

After the funeral, the Reagan entourage was flown back to the Ronald Reagan Presidential Library in California, where another service was held, and President Reagan was interred.^[297] At the time of his death, Reagan was the longest-lived president in U.S. history, having lived 93 years and 120 days (2 years, 8 months, and 23 days longer than John Adams, whose record he surpassed). He is now the second longest-lived president, just 45 days fewer than Gerald Ford. He was the first United States president to die in the 21st century, and his was the first state funeral in the United States since that of President Lyndon B. Johnson in 1973.

His burial site is inscribed with the words he delivered at the opening of the Ronald Reagan Presidential Library: "I know in my heart that man is good, that what is right will always eventually triumph and that there is purpose and worth to each and every life."^[298]

Legacy [link]

Ronald Reagan in 1976 at his home at Rancho del Cielo

Since Reagan left office in 1989, substantial debate has occurred among scholars, historians, and the general public surrounding his legacy. Supporters have pointed to a more efficient and prosperous economy as a result of Reaganomics,^[299] foreign policy triumphs including a peaceful end to the Cold War after Reagan's eight years in office,^[300] and a restoration of American pride and morale.^[105] Critics contend that Reagan's economic policies resulted in huge budget deficits,^[133] a wider gap in wealth, and an increase in homelessness^[142] and that the Iran-Contra affair lowered American credibility.^[301] Despite the ongoing debates, Reagan has ranked among the most popular of all modern U.S. presidents in public opinion polls.^[302]

Opinions of Reagan's legacy among the country's leading policy makers and journalists differ as well. Edwin Feulner, President of The Heritage Foundation, said that Reagan "helped create a safer, freer world" and said of his economic policies: "He took an America suffering from 'malaise'... and made its citizens believe again in their destiny."^[303] However, Mark Weisbrot, co-Director of the Center for Economic and Policy Research, contended that Reagan's "economic policies were mostly a failure"^[304] while Howard Kurtz of The Washington Post opined that Reagan was "a far more controversial figure in his time than the largely gushing obits on television would suggest."^[305]

Despite the continuing debate surrounding his legacy, many conservative and liberal scholars agree that Reagan has been the most influential president since Franklin D. Roosevelt, leaving his imprint on American politics, diplomacy, culture, and economics. Since he left office, historians have reached a consensus,^[306] as summarized by British historian M. J. Heale, who finds that scholars now concur that Reagan rehabilitated conservatism, turned the nation to the right, practiced a considerably pragmatic conservatism that balanced ideology and the constraints of politics, revived faith in the presidency and in American self-respect, and contributed to victory in the Cold War.^[307]

Cold War [link]

The Cold War was a major political and economic endeavor for over four decades, but the confrontation between the two superpowers had decreased dramatically by the end of Reagan's presidency.^[308] The significance of Reagan's role in ending the Cold War has spurred contentious and opinionated debate.^[309]^[310]^[311] That Reagan had some role in contributing to the downfall of the Soviet Union is collectively agreed, but the extent of this role is continuously debated,^[235] with many believing that Reagan's defense policies, hard line rhetoric against the Soviet Union and Communism, as well as summits with General Secretary Gorbachev played a significant part in ending the War.^[141]^[235]

United States President Ronald Reagan (left) and President of the Soviet Union Mikhail Gorbachev meet in 1985.

He was notable amongst post–World War II presidents as being convinced that the Soviet Union could be defeated rather than simply negotiated with,^[235] a conviction that was vindicated by Gennadi Gerasimov, the Foreign Ministry spokesman under Gorbachev, who said that Star Wars was "very successful blackmail. ... The Soviet economy couldn't endure such competition."^[312] Reagan's strong rhetoric toward the nation had mixed effects; Jeffery W. Knopf, PhD observes that being labeled "evil" probably made no difference to the Soviets but gave encouragement to the East-European citizens opposed to communism.^[235] That Reagan had little or no effect in ending the Cold War is argued with equal weight; that Communism's internal weakness had become apparent, and the Soviet Union would have collapsed in the end regardless of who was in power.^[235] President Harry Truman's policy of containment is also regarded as a force behind the fall of the U.S.S.R., and the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan undermined the Soviet system itself.^[310]

General Secretary Gorbachev said of his former rival's Cold War role: "[He was] a man who was instrumental in bringing about the end of the Cold War,"^[313] and deemed him "a great President."^[313] Gorbachev does not acknowledge a win or loss in the war, but rather a peaceful end; he said he was not intimidated by Reagan's harsh rhetoric.^[314] Margaret Thatcher, former Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, said of Reagan, "he warned that the Soviet Union had an insatiable drive for military power... but he also sensed it was being eaten away by systemic failures impossible to reform."^[315] She later said, "Ronald Reagan had a higher claim than any other leader to have won the Cold War for liberty and he did it without a shot being fired."^[316] Said Brian Mulroney, former Prime Minister of Canada: "He enters history as a strong and dramatic player [in the Cold War]."^[317] Former President Lech Wałęsa of Poland acknowledged, "Reagan was one of the world leaders who made a major contribution to communism's collapse."^[318]

Domestic and political legacy [link]

Ronald Reagan reshaped the Republican party, led the modern conservative movement, and altered the political dynamic of the United States.^[319] More men voted Republican under Reagan, and Reagan tapped into religious voters.^[319] The so-called "Reagan Democrats" were a result of his presidency.^[319]

After leaving office, Reagan became an iconic influence within the Republican party.^[320] His policies and beliefs have been frequently invoked by Republican presidential candidates since 1989.^[17] The 2008 Republican presidential candidates were no exception, for they aimed to liken themselves to him during the primary debates, even imitating his campaign strategies.^[321] Republican nominee John McCain frequently stated that he came to office as "a foot soldier in the Reagan Revolution".^[322] Lastly, Reagan's most famous statement that "Government is not a solution to our problem, government is the problem", has become the unofficial slogan for the rise of conservative commentators like Glenn Beck and Rush Limbaugh; as well as the emergence of the Tea Party Movement.^[142]

Cultural and political image [link]

According to columnist Chuck Raasch, "Reagan transformed the American presidency in ways that only a few have been able to."^[323] He redefined the political agenda of the times, advocating lower taxes, a conservative economic philosophy, and a stronger military.^[324] His role in the Cold War further enhanced his image as a different kind of leader.^[325]^[326] Reagan's "avuncular style, optimism, and plain-folks demeanor" also helped him turn "government-bashing into an art form."^[142]

Ronald Reagan's approval ratings
Date	Event	Approval (%)	Disapproval (%)
March 30, 1981	Shot by Hinckley	73	19
January 22, 1983	High unemployment	42	54
April 26, 1986	Libya bombing	70	26
February 26, 1987	Iran-Contra affair	44	51
January 20, 1989	End of presidency	64
n/a	Career Average	57	39
July 30, 2001	(Retrospective)^[302]	64	27

As a sitting president, Reagan did not have the highest approval ratings,^[327] but his popularity has increased since 1989. Gallup polls in 2001 and 2007 ranked him number one or number two when correspondents were asked for the greatest president in history, and third of post–World War II presidents in a 2007 Rasmussen Reports poll, fifth in an ABC 2000 poll, ninth in another 2007 Rasmussen poll, and eighth in a late 2008 poll by United Kingdom newspaper The Times.^[328]^[329]^[330] In a Siena College survey of over 200 historians, however, Reagan ranked sixteenth out of 42.^[331]^[332] While the debate about Reagan's legacy is ongoing, the 2009 Annual C-SPAN Survey of Presidential Leaders ranked Reagan the 10th greatest president. The survey of leading historians rated Reagan number 11 in 2000.^[333]

Ronald Reagan's approval ratings (Gallup 1981–89)

In 2011, the Institute for the Study of the Americas released the first ever U.K. academic survey to rate U.S. presidents. This poll of U.K. specialists in U.S. history and politics placed Reagan as the 8th greatest U.S. president.^[334]

Reagan's ability to connect with the American people^[335] earned him the laudatory moniker "The Great Communicator".^[336] Of it, Reagan said, "I won the nickname the great communicator. But I never thought it was my style that made a difference—it was the content. I wasn't a great communicator, but I communicated great things."^[337] His age and soft-spoken speech gave him a warm grandfatherly image.^[338]^[339]^[340]

Reagan also earned the nickname "the Teflon President," in that public perceptions of him were not tarnished by the controversies that arose during his administration.^[341] According to Congresswoman Patricia Schroeder, who coined the phrase, and reporter Howard Kurtz, the epithet referred to Reagan's ability to "do almost anything wrong^[341] and not get blamed for it."^[335]^[342]

Public reaction to Reagan was always mixed; the oldest president was supported by young voters, and began an alliance that shifted many of them to the Republican party.^[343] Reagan did not fare well with minority groups, especially African-Americans.^[200] This was largely due to his opposition to affirmative action policies.^[344] However, his support of Israel throughout his presidency earned him support from many Jews, and he became the first Republican ever to win the Jewish vote.^[345] He emphasized family values in his campaigns and during his presidency, although he was the first president to have been divorced.^[346] The combination of Reagan's speaking style, unabashed patriotism, negotiation skills, as well as his savvy use of the media, played an important role in defining the 1980s and his future legacy.^[347]

Reagan was known to joke frequently during his lifetime, displayed humor throughout his presidency,^[348] and was famous for his storytelling.^[349] His numerous jokes and one-liners have been labeled "classic quips" and "legendary".^[350] Among the most notable of his jokes was one regarding the Cold War. As a sound check prior to his weekly radio address in August 1984, Reagan made the following joke as a way to test the microphone: "My fellow Americans, I'm pleased to tell you today that I've signed legislation that will outlaw Russia forever. We begin bombing in five minutes."^[351] Former aide David Gergen commented, "It was that humor... that I think endeared people to Reagan."^[194]

Honors [link]

Further information: List of honors named for Ronald Reagan

Reagan received a number of awards in his pre- and post-presidential years. Following his election as president, Reagan received a lifetime gold membership in the Screen Actors Guild, was inducted into the National Speakers Association Speaker Hall of Fame^[352] and received the United States Military Academy's Sylvanus Thayer Award.^[353]

In 1989, Reagan was made an Honorary Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath, one of the highest British orders (this entitled him to the use of the post-nominal letters "GCB" but, by not being the citizen of a Commonwealth realm, not to be known as "Sir Ronald Reagan"); only two American presidents have received this honor, Reagan and George H.W. Bush.^[354] Reagan was also named an honorary Fellow of Keble College, Oxford. Japan awarded him the Grand Cordon of the Order of the Chrysanthemum in 1989; he was the second American president to receive the order and the first to have it given to him for personal reasons (Dwight D. Eisenhower received it as a commemoration of U.S.-Japanese relations).^[355]

Former President Ronald Reagan returns to the White House to receive the Presidential Medal of Freedom from President George H.W. Bush in 1993

On January 18, 1993, Reagan's former Vice-President and sitting President George H. W. Bush awarded him the Presidential Medal of Freedom, the highest honor that the United States can bestow.^[356] Reagan was also awarded the Republican Senatorial Medal of Freedom, the highest honor bestowed by Republican members of the Senate.^[357]

On Reagan's 87th birthday, in 1998, Washington National Airport was renamed Ronald Reagan Washington National Airport by a bill signed into law by President Bill Clinton. That year, the Ronald Reagan Building and International Trade Center was dedicated in Washington, D.C.^[358] He was among 18 included in Gallup's List of Widely Admired People of the 20th century, from a poll conducted of the American people in 1999; two years later, USS Ronald Reagan was christened by Nancy Reagan and the United States Navy. It is one of few Navy ships christened in honor of a living person and the first aircraft carrier to be named in honor of a living former president.^[359]

A bronze statue of Reagan stands in the Capitol rotunda as part of the National Statuary Hall Collection.

Congress authorized the creation of the Ronald Reagan Boyhood Home National Historic Site in Dixon, Illinois in 2002, pending federal purchase of the property.^[360] On May 16 of that year, Nancy Reagan accepted the Congressional Gold Medal, the highest civilian honor bestowed by Congress, on behalf of the president and herself.^[361]

Following Reagan's death, the United States Postal Service issued a President Ronald Reagan commemorative postage stamp in 2005.^[362] Later in the year, CNN, along with the editors of Time magazine, named him the "most fascinating person" of the network's first 25 years;^[363] Time listed Reagan one of the 100 Most Important People of the 20th century as well.^[364] The Discovery Channel asked its viewers to vote for The Greatest American in an unscientific poll on June 26, 2005; Reagan received the honorary title.^[365]

In 2006, Reagan was inducted into the California Hall of Fame, located at The California Museum for History, Women, and the Arts.^[366] Every year since 2002, California Governors Gray Davis and Arnold Schwarzenegger have proclaimed February 6 "Ronald Reagan Day" in the state of California in honor of their most famous predecessor.^[367] In 2010, Schwarzenegger signed Senate Bill 944, authored by Senator George Runner, to make every February 6 Ronald Reagan Day in California.^[368]

In 2007, Polish President Lech Kaczyński posthumously conferred on Reagan the highest Polish distinction, the Order of the White Eagle, saying that Reagan had inspired the Polish people to work for change and helped to unseat the repressive communist regime; Kaczyński said it "would not have been possible if it was not for the tough-mindedness, determination, and feeling of mission of President Ronald Reagan".^[369] Reagan backed the nation of Poland throughout his presidency, supporting the anti-communist Solidarity movement, along with Pope John Paul II.^[370]

On June 3, 2009, Nancy Reagan unveiled a statue of her late husband in the United States Capitol rotunda. The statue represents the state of California in the National Statuary Hall Collection. Following Reagan's death, both major American political parties agreed to erect a statue of Reagan in the place of that of Thomas Starr King.^[371] The day before, President Obama signed the Ronald Reagan Centennial Commission Act into law, establishing a commission to plan activities to mark the upcoming centenary of Reagan's birth.^[372]

Independence Day 2011 saw the unveiling of another statue to Reagan this time in the British capital of London, outside the American Embassy, Grosvenor Square. The unveiling was supposed to be attended by Reagan's wife Nancy, but she did not attend; former Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice took her place and read a statement on her behalf; further to the former First Lady's absence President Reagan's friend and the British Prime Minister during Reagan's presidency Baroness Thatcher was also unable to attend due to frail health.^[373]

Citations [link]

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^ ^a ^b Ward, Michael. "Main Street Historic District", National Register of Historic Places Nomination Form, April 1, 1982, HAARGIS Database, Illinois Historic Preservation Agency. Retrieved July 27, 2007.
^ Terry Golway, Ronald Reagan's America (2008) p. 1
^ Kengor, p. 4
^ Lynette Holloway (December 13, 1996). "Neil Reagan, 88, Ad Executive And Jovial Brother of President". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/1996/12/13/us/neil-reagan-88-ad-executive-and-jovial-brother-of-president.html. Retrieved March 22, 2009.
^ ^a ^b "Ronald Reagan Facts". Ronald Reagan Presidential Foundation. http://www.reagan.utexas.edu/archives/reference/facts.html. Retrieved June 9, 2007.
^ Schribman, David (June 6, 2004). "Reagan, all-American, dies at 93". The Boston Globe. http://www.boston.com/news/nation/articles/2004/06/06/reagan_all_american_dies_at_93/. Retrieved January 17, 2008.
^ ^a ^b Kengor, p. 16
^ Lewis, Warren and Rollmann, Hans, ed. (2005). Restoring the First-century Church in the Twenty-first Century. Wipf and Stock. pp. 181–192. ISBN 1-59752-416-6.
^ Kengor, p. 15
^ Cannon (2001), p. 2
^ Reagan (1990), p. 27
^ "School House to White House: The Education of the Presidents". National Archives and Records Administration. http://www.archives.gov/publications/prologue/2007/spring/schoolhouse.html. Retrieved December 30, 2007.
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^ "Ronald Reagan > Hollywood Years". Ronald Reagan Presidential Foundation. Archived from the original on March 12, 2007. http://web.archive.org/web/20070312120428/http://www.reaganfoundation.org/reagan/biography/hollywood_years.asp. Retrieved March 28, 2007.
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^ Affirmative Action. U-s-history.com. Retrieved on October 18, 2010.
^ Geffen, David. "Reagan, Ronald Wilson". Jewish Virtual Library. http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/judaica/ejud_0002_0017_0_16521.html. Retrieved July 8, 2009.
^ Hendrix, Anastasia (June 6, 2004). "Trouble at home for family values advocate". San Francisco Chronicle. http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2004/06/06/MNG7771M4A1.DTL. Retrieved March 4, 2008.
^ Morning in America: how Ronald .... Google Books. 2005. ISBN 978-0-691-09645-2. http://books.google.com/?id=oVzvhP5J5dQC&printsec=frontcover. Retrieved March 8, 2010.
^ Marinucci, Carla and Carolyn Lochhead (June 12, 2004). "Last Goodbye: Ex-president eulogized in D.C. before final ride into California sunset; Laid to Rest: Ceremony ends weeklong outpouring of grief". San Francisco Chronicle. http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file=/c/a/2004/06/12/MNGOB7598N1.DTL. Retrieved October 15, 2009.
^ "Ronald Reagan, Master Storyteller". CBS. June 6, 2004. http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2004/06/07/48hours/main621459.shtml. Retrieved March 4, 2008.
^ McCuddy, Bill (June 6, 2004). "Remembering Reagan's Humor". Fox News. http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,121908,00.html. Retrieved July 2, 2008.
^ "Remembering President Reagan For His Humor-A Classic Radio Gaffe". About. http://radio.about.com/od/funradiothingstodo/a/aa060503a.htm. Retrieved January 22, 2007.
^ "Zig Ziglar Bio". Zig Ziglar. http://www.ziglar.com/aboutus_zig_ziglar_bio.html. Retrieved September 6, 2011.
^ "Association of Graduates USMA: Sylvanus Thayer Award Recipients". Association of Graduates, West Point, New York. Archived from the original on July 3, 2007. http://web.archive.org/web/20070703122530/http://www.aogusma.org/aog/awards/TA/awardees.htm. Retrieved March 22, 2007.
^ "Order of the Bath". The Official website of the British Monarchy. Archived from the original on April 26, 2007. http://web.archive.org/web/20070426184003/http://www.royal.gov.uk/output/Page4883.asp. Retrieved March 22, 2007.
^ Weisman, Steven R (October 24, 1989). "Reagan Given Top Award by Japanese". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/1989/10/24/world/reagan-given-top-award-by-japanese.html. Retrieved March 21, 2008.
^ "Remarks on presenting the Presidential Medal of Freedom to President Ronald Reagan-President George Bush-Transcript". The White House: Weekly Compilation of Presidential Documents. January 18, 1993. http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2889/is_n2_v29/ai_13975210. Retrieved December 31, 2007.
^ "Julio E. Bonfante". LeBonfante International Investors Group. Archived from the original on January 30, 2008. http://web.archive.org/web/20080130170642/http://www.lebonfante.com/principals1.html. Retrieved January 26, 2008.
^ "Ronald Reagan Building and International Trade Center". U.S. General Services Administration. http://www.itcdc.com. Retrieved March 22, 2007.
^ "USS Ronald Reagan Commemorates Former President's 90th Birthday". CNN. July 12, 2003. http://transcripts.cnn.com/TRANSCRIPTS/0103/04/sm.06.html. Retrieved January 25, 2008.
^ "Public Law 107-137" (PDF). United States Government Printing Office. February 6, 2002. http://frwebgate.access.gpo.gov/cgi-bin/getdoc.cgi?dbname=107_cong_public_laws&docid=f:publ137.107.pdf. Retrieved December 31, 2007.
^ "Congressional Gold Medal Recipients 1776 to present". Office of the Clerk, US House of Representatives. http://clerk.house.gov/art_history/house_history/goldMedal.html. Retrieved March 22, 2007.
^ "Postmaster General, Nancy Reagan unveil Ronald Reagan stamp image, stamp available next year" (Press release). USPS. November 9, 2004. http://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/postmaster-general-nancy-reagan-unveil-ronald-reagan-stamp-image-stamp-available-next-year-75312827.html. Retrieved May 13, 2007.
^ "Top 25: Fascinating People". CNN. June 19, 2005. http://www.cnn.com/2005/US/05/02/cnn25.top.fascinating/index.html. Retrieved June 19, 2005.
^ "Time 100: The Most Important People of the Century". Time. 2003. http://www.time.com/time/time100/index_2000_time100.html. Retrieved March 7, 2007.
^ "Greatest American". Discovery Channel. http://dsc.discovery.com/convergence/greatestamerican/greatestamerican.html. Retrieved March 21, 2007.
^ Geiger, Kimberly (August 1, 2006). "California: State to establish a Hall of Fame; Disney, Reagan and Alice Walker among 1st inductees". San Francisco Chronicle. http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2006/08/01/BAGFLK8OKG1.DTL. Retrieved March 21, 2008.
^ "Governor Davis Proclaims February 6, 2002 "Ronald Reagan Day" in California". Office of the Governor, State of California. February 5, 2002. http://governor.ca.gov/state/govsite/gov_htmldisplay.jsp?BV_SessionID=@@@@0603947949.1234151628@@@@&BV_EngineID=ccccadegfmdjifmcfngcfkmdffidfnf.0&sCatTitle=Previous+Administration%2fProclamation&sFilePath=/govsite/proclamation/20020206_proc_ronaldreaganday.html&sTitle=Ronald+Reagan+Day+&iOID=29384.
^ "Governor Schwarzenegger Signs Legislation Honoring President Ronald Reagan". Office of Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger. July 19, 2010. http://gov.ca.gov/press-release/15616/. ^{[dead link]}
^ "President Kaczyński Presents Order of the White Eagle to Late President Ronald Reagan". United States Department of State. July 18, 2007. http://poland.usembassy.gov/events_2007/president-kaczynski-presents-order-of-the-white-eagle-to-late-president-ronald-reagan--18-july-2007.html. Retrieved February 10, 2008. ^{[dead link]}
^ Bernstein, Carl (February 24, 1992). "The Holy Alliance". Time. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,974931,00.html?iid=chix-sphere. Retrieved August 18, 2007.
^ "Reagan statue unveiled in Capitol Rotunda". Associated Press. msnbc.com. June 3, 2009. http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/31087271/. Retrieved February 8, 2011.
^ "Obama creates Reagan centennial commission". Associated Press. msnbc.com. June 2, 2009. http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/31070972/ns/politics-white_house/. Retrieved February 8, 2011.
^ "Ronald Reagan statue unveiled at US Embassy in London". BBC News Online. July 4, 2011. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-14009137. Retrieved August 12, 2011.

References [link]

Beschloss, Michael (2008). Presidential Courage: Brave Leaders and How they Changed America 1789–1989. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-7432-5744-8.
Bumgarner, John R. (1994). The Health of the Presidents: The 41 United States Presidents Through 1993 from a Physician's Point of View. Jefferson, NC: MacFarland & Company. ISBN 0-89950-956-8.
Cannon, Lou (1991, 2000). President Reagan: The Role of a Lifetime. New York: PublicAffairs. ISBN 1-891620-91-6. http://books.google.com/books?id=vkUbP1G1hmkC.
Cannon, Lou; Beschloss, Michael (2001). Ronald Reagan: The Presidential Portfolio: A History Illustrated from the Collection of the Ronald Reagan Library and Museum. PublicAffairs. ISBN 1-891620-84-3.
Cannon, Lou (2003). Governor Reagan: His Rise to Power. PublicAffairs. ISBN 978-1-58648-284-8.
Hayward, Steven F. (2009). The Age of Reagan: The Conservative Counterrevolution: 1980–1989. ISBN 0-307-45369-3.
Kengor, Paul (2005). God and Ronald Reagan: A Spiritual Life. HarperCollins. ISBN 0-06-057142-X.
Morris, Edmund (1999). Dutch, A memoir of Ronald Reagan. New York: Random House. ISBN 0-394-55508-2.
Pemberton, William E. (1998). Exit With Honor: The Life and Presidency of Ronald Reagan. ISBN 0-7656-0096-X. http://books.google.com/books?id=pvQtMzEa890C&printsec=frontcover.
Reagan, Nancy (2002). I Love You, Ronnie: The Letters of Ronald Reagan to Nancy Reagan. New York: Random House. ISBN 0-375-76051-2.
Reagan, Ronald (2003). Kiron K. Skinner, Annelise Anderson, Martin Anderson. ed. Reagan: A Life in Letters. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-7432-1967-8.
Reagan, Ronald (2003). An American Life. New York: Free Press, A Division of Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-7434-0025-9.
Reeves, Richard (2005). President Reagan: The Triumph of Imagination. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-7432-3022-1.
Sullivan, John'O (2006). The President, the Pope, the Prime Minister. Regnery Publishing.
Troy, Gil (2009). The Reagan Revolution: A Very Short Introduction.
Wills, Garry (1987). Reagan's America: Innocents at Home. Garden City, NY: Doubleday. ISBN 0-385-18286-4.

External links [link]

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Official sites [link]

Essays and historiographies [link]

Site directories [link]

Ronald Reagan in the Newseum archive of front page images from 2004-06-06.
Ronald Reagan at the Internet Movie Database
Ronald Reagan at AllRovi
Works by or about Ronald Reagan in libraries (WorldCat catalog)

Offices and distinctions

Non-profit organization positions
Preceded by Robert Montgomery	President of the Screen Actors Guild 1947–1952	Succeeded by Walter Pidgeon
Preceded by Howard Keel	President of the Screen Actors Guild 1959–1960	Succeeded by George Chandler
Party political offices
Preceded by Richard Nixon	Republican nominee for Governor of California 1966, 1970	Succeeded by Houston Flournoy
Preceded by Gerald Ford	Republican nominee for President of the United States 1980, 1984	Succeeded by George H. W. Bush
Political offices
Preceded by Pat Brown	Governor of California 1967–1975	Succeeded by Jerry Brown
Preceded by Jimmy Carter	President of the United States 1981–1989	Succeeded by George H. W. Bush
Diplomatic posts
Preceded by François Mitterrand	Chairperson of the Group of 8 1983	Succeeded by Margaret Thatcher
Awards and achievements
Preceded by Ruhollah Khomeini	Time Person of the Year 1980	Succeeded by Lech Wałęsa
Preceded by The Computer	Time Person of the Year 1983 Served alongside: Yuri Andropov	Succeeded by Peter Ueberroth
Honorary titles
Preceded by Richard Nixon	Oldest living President of the United States 1981–2004	Succeeded by Gerald Ford
Preceded by John Gibson	Persons who have lain in state or honor in the United States Capitol rotunda 2004	Succeeded by Rosa Parks
Preceded by Jacob Chestnut		Succeeded by Rosa Parks

v t e Ronald Reagan

February 6, 1911 – June 5, 2004

Life and politics	Birthplace · Pitney Store · Boyhood home · Films · Presidential Library · Death and state funeral · Political positions · Governship of California · Honors

Presidency	Domestic policy · Economic policy · Economic Recovery Tax Act of 1981 · Tax Reform Act of 1986 · Assassination attempt · Strategic Defense Initiative · Foreign policy · Reagan Doctrine · Cold War: first term, second term · Iran–Contra · Judicial appointments

Speeches	"A Time for Choosing" · "States' rights" · First inaugural address · "Tear down this wall!" · "Ash heap of history" · "Evil empire" · Speech opposing socialized medicine · State of the Union Address: 1982, 1983, 1984, 1985, 1986, 1987, 1988

Books	An American Life (autobiography) · The Reagan Diaries · Biographical works

Elections	Governor: 1966 · 1970 · President: 1968 · 1976 · 1980 (campaign) · 1984 · Electoral history

Family	Nancy Davis Reagan (wife) · Jane Wyman (first wife) · Maureen Reagan Revell (daughter) · Michael Edward Reagan (son) · Patricia Reagan Davis (daughter) · Ronald Prescott "Ron" Reagan (son) · John "Jack" Reagan (father) · Nelle Wilson Reagan (mother) · Neil Reagan (brother)

Conservatism Portal · Book:Ronald Reagan · Category:Ronald Reagan

v t e Presidents of the United States

	George Washington John Adams Thomas Jefferson James Madison James Monroe John Quincy Adams Andrew Jackson Martin Van Buren William Henry Harrison John Tyler James K. Polk Zachary Taylor Millard Fillmore Franklin Pierce James Buchanan Abraham Lincoln Andrew Johnson Ulysses S. Grant Rutherford B. Hayes James A. Garfield Chester A. Arthur Grover Cleveland Benjamin Harrison Grover Cleveland William McKinley Theodore Roosevelt William Howard Taft Woodrow Wilson Warren G. Harding Calvin Coolidge Herbert Hoover Franklin D. Roosevelt Harry S. Truman Dwight D. Eisenhower John F. Kennedy Lyndon B. Johnson Richard Nixon Gerald Ford Jimmy Carter Ronald Reagan George H. W. Bush Bill Clinton George W. Bush Barack Obama

Cabinet of President Ronald Reagan (1981–1989)

Cabinet

Secretary of State	Alexander M. Haig, Jr. (1981–1982) George P. Shultz (1982–1989)

Secretary of the Treasury	Donald T. Regan (1981–1985) James A. Baker, III (1985–1988) Nicholas F. Brady (1988–1989)

Secretary of Defense	Caspar Weinberger (1981–1987) Frank C. Carlucci (1987–1989)

Attorney General	William French Smith (1981–1985) Edwin Meese III (1985–1988) Richard L. Thornburgh (1988–1989)

Secretary of the Interior	James G. Watt (1981–1983) William P. Clark, Jr. (1983–1985) Donald P. Hodel (1985–1989)

Secretary of Agriculture	John R. Block (1981–1986) Richard E. Lyng (1986–1989)

Secretary of Commerce	Malcolm Baldrige, Jr. (1981–1987) C. William Verity, Jr. (1987–1989)

Secretary of Labor	Raymond J. Donovan (1981–1985) William E. Brock (1985–1987) Ann Dore McLaughlin (1987–1989)

Secretary of Health and Human Services	Richard S. Schweiker (1981–1983) Margaret M. Heckler (1983–1985) Otis R. Bowen (1985–1989)

Secretary of Education	T. H. Bell (1981–1985) William J. Bennett (1985–1988) Lauro F. Cavazos (1988–1989)

Secretary of Housing and Urban Development	Samuel R. Pierce, Jr. (1981–1989)

Secretary of Transportation	Andrew L. Lewis, Jr. (1981–1983) Elizabeth H. Dole (1983–1987) James H. Burnley IV (1988–1989)

Secretary of Energy	James B. Edwards (1981–1983) Donald P. Hodel (1983–1985) John S. Herrington (1985–1989)

Cabinet-level

Vice President	George H. W. Bush (1981–1989)

Director of Central Intelligence	William J. Casey (1981–1987) William H. Webster (1987–1989)

Ambassador to the United Nations	Jeane Kirkpatrick (1981–1985) Vernon A. Walters (1985–1989)

Trade Representative	William E. Brock, III (1981–1985) Clayton K. Yeutter (1985–1989)

Republican Party

Chairpersons
of the RNC

Presidential tickets

Parties by state
and territory

State	Alabama Alaska Arizona Arkansas California Colorado Connecticut Delaware Florida Georgia Hawaii Idaho Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri Montana Nebraska Nevada New Hampshire New Jersey New Mexico New York North Carolina North Dakota Ohio Oklahoma Oregon Pennsylvania Rhode Island South Carolina South Dakota Tennessee Texas Utah Vermont Virginia Washington West Virginia Wisconsin Wyoming

Territory	District of Columbia Guam Northern Mariana Islands Puerto Rico Virgin Islands

Conventions
(List)

Affiliated
organizations

Conservatism Portal

v t e Governors of California

Pre-statehood	de Portolà Fages Rivera de Neve Fages Roméu Arrillaga Borica Alberní Arrillaga J. Argüello Solá L. Argüello Echeandía Victoria P. Pico Zamorano / Echeandía Figueroa Castro Gutierrez Chico Gutierrez Alvarado Carrillo Alvarado Micheltorena P. Pico Flores A. Pico Ide Sloat Stockton Frémont Kearny Mason Smith Riley

Statehood	Burnett McDougall Bigler J. Johnson Weller Latham Downey Stanford Low Haight Booth Pacheco Irwin Perkins Stoneman Bartlett Waterman Markham Budd Gage Pardee Gillett H. Johnson Stephens Richardson Young Rolph Merriam Olson Warren Knight P. Brown Reagan J. Brown Deukmejian Wilson Davis Schwarzenegger J. Brown

Pre-Statehood list Statehood list Statehood list by time in office Statehood list by age

United States presidential election, 1968

Republican Party
Convention · Primaries

Nominee: Richard Nixon (campaign)
VP Nominee: Spiro Agnew
Candidiates: Frank Carlson · Clifford Case · Hiram L. Fong · John Lindsay · Ronald Reagan · Jim Rhodes · Nelson Rockefeller · Winthrop Rockefeller · George W. Romney · (campaign) · Harold Stassen · John A. Volpe

Democratic Party
Convention · Primaries

Nominee: Hubert Humphrey (campaign)
VP Nominee: Edmund Muskie
Candidates: Roger D. Branigin · John G. Crommelin · Paul C. Fisher · Lyndon B. Johnson · Robert F. Kennedy (campaign) · Thomas C. Lynch · Eugene McCarthy (campaign) · George McGovern · Dan K. Moore · Channing E. Phillips · George Smathers · Stephen M. Young

American Independent Party

Nominee: George Wallace (campaign)
VP Nominee: Curtis LeMay

Other Third party and independent candidates

Communist Party USA	Nominee: Charlene Mitchell VP Nominee: Michael Zagarell

Peace and Freedom Party	Nominee: Eldridge Cleaver VP Nominee: Douglas Fitzgerald Dowd

Prohibition Party	Nominee: E. Harold Munn

Socialist Labor Party	Nominee: Henning A. Blomen

Socialist Workers Party	Nominee: Fred Halstead VP Nominee: Paul Boutelle

Independents and other candidates:	Dick Gregory

Other 1968 elections: House · Senate

United States presidential election, 1976

Democratic Party
Convention · Primaries

Nominee: Jimmy Carter
VP Nominee: Walter Mondale
Candidates: Birch Bayh · Lloyd Bentsen · Jerry Brown · Robert Byrd · Hugh Carey · Frank Church · Fred R. Harris · Hubert Humphrey · Henry M. Jackson · Leon Jaworski · Barbara Jordan · Eugene McCarthy · Ellen McCormack · Walter Mondale · Jennings Randolph · Terry Sanford · Milton Shapp · Sargent Shriver · Adlai Stevenson III · Mo Udall · George Wallace

Republican Party
Convention · Primaries

Nominee: Gerald Ford
VP Nominee: Bob Dole
Candidiates: James L. Buckley · Ronald Reagan · Harold Stassen

Third party and independent candidates

American Party	Nominee: Thomas J. Anderson

American Independent Party	Nominee: Lester Maddox

Communist Party USA	Nominee: Gus Hall VP Nominee: Jarvis Tyner

Libertarian Party	Nominee: Roger MacBride VP Nominee: David Bergland

People's Party	Nominee: Margaret Wright VP Nominee: Benjamin Spock

Prohibition Party	Nominee: Ben Bubar VP Nominee: Earl Dodge

Socialist Workers Party	Nominee: Peter Camejo VP Nominee: Willie Mae Reid

U.S. Labor Party	Nominee: Lyndon LaRouche

Other 1976 elections: House · Senate · Gubernatorial

United States presidential election, 1980

Republican Party
Convention • Primaries •
Primary results

Nominee: Ronald Reagan
VP Nominee: George H. W. Bush

Candidates: John B. Anderson · Howard Baker · George H. W. Bush · John Connally · Phil Crane · Bob Dole · Ben Fernandez · Harold Stassen

Democratic Party
Convention • Primaries •
Primary results

Nominee: Jimmy Carter
VP Nominee: Walter Mondale

Candidates: Jerry Brown · Ted Kennedy · Ron Dellums · William Proxmire

Independent

Candidate: John B. Anderson
VP candidate: Patrick Lucey

Other independent and third party candidates

Citizens Party	Nominee: Barry Commoner VP Nominee: LaDonna Harris

Libertarian Party	Nominee: Ed Clark VP Nominee: David Koch

Prohibition Party	Nominee: Ben Bubar VP Nominee: Earl Dodge

Socialist Party USA	Nominee: David McReynolds VP Nominee: Diane Drufenbrock

Socialist Workers Party	Nominee: Andrew Pulley · Alternate nominees: Richard Congress, Clifton DeBerry

Workers World Party	Nominee: Deirdre Griswold VP Nominee: Gavrielle Holmes

Independents and other candidates	Lyndon LaRouche • Maureen Smith/ Running mate: Elizabeth Cervantes Barron • Warren Spannaus

Other 1980 elections: House • Senate • Gubernatorial

United States presidential election, 1984

Republican Party
Convention • Primaries •
Primary results

Nominee: Ronald Reagan
VP Nominee: George H. W. Bush

Candidates: Ben Fernandez · Harold Stassen

Democratic Party
Convention • Primaries •
Primary results

Nominee: Walter Mondale
VP Nominee: Geraldine Ferraro

Candidates: Reubin Askew · Alan Cranston · John Glenn · Gary Hart · Ernest Hollings · Jesse Jackson · George McGovern

Third party and independent candidates

Citizens Party	Nominee: Sonia Johnson VP Nominee: Richard Walton

Communist Party USA	Nominee: Gus Hall VP Nominee: Angela Davis

Libertarian Party	Nominee: David Bergland VP Nominee: Jim Lewis Candidates: Gene Burns · Earl Ravenal · Mary Ruwart

Prohibition Party	Nominee: Earl Dodge

Socialist Equality Party	Nominee: Edward Winn VP Nominee: Helen Halyard

Socialist Party USA	Nominee: Sonia Johnson VP Nominee: Richard Walton

Socialist Workers Party	Nominee: Melvin T. Mason VP Nominee: Matilde Zimmermann

Workers World Party	Nominee: Larry Holmes • Alternate nominee: Gavrielle Holmes VP Nominee: Gloria La Riva

Independents and other candidates:	Charles Doty · Larry Flynt · Lyndon LaRouche/ Running mate: Billy Davis

Other 1984 elections: House • Senate • Gubernatorial

Fall of communism

Internal background

International background

Reforms of socialism

Regime leaders

Opposition methods

Opposition leaders

Opposition movements

Events by location

Eastern Bloc	Albania Bulgaria Czechoslovakia East Germany Hungary Poland Romania Soviet Union Yugoslavia

Soviet Union	Armenia Azerbaijan Belarus Chechnya Estonia Georgia Latvia Lithuania Kazakhstan Kirghistan Moldova Russia Tajikstan Turkmenistan Ukraine Uzbekistan

Elsewhere	Afghanistan Angola Benin Cambodia China People's Republic of the Congo Cuba Ethiopia Mongolia Mozambique Somalia South Yemen

Individual events

Later events

v t e Cold War

Participants and notable figures ANZUS NATO Non-Aligned Movement SEATO Warsaw Pact

1940s	Yalta Conference Operation Unthinkable Potsdam Conference Gouzenko Affair War in Vietnam (1945–1946) Iran crisis of 1946 Greek Civil War Corfu Channel Incident Restatement of Policy on Germany First Indochina War Truman Doctrine Asian Relations Conference Marshall Plan Czechoslovak coup d'état of 1948 Tito–Stalin split Berlin Blockade Western betrayal Iron Curtain Eastern Bloc Chinese Civil War (Second round)

1950s	Korean War 1953 Iranian coup d'état Uprising of 1953 in East Germany 1954 Guatemalan coup d'état Partition of Vietnam First Taiwan Strait Crisis Geneva Summit (1955) Poznań 1956 protests Hungarian Revolution of 1956 Suez Crisis Sputnik crisis Second Taiwan Strait Crisis Cuban Revolution Kitchen Debate Asian–African Conference Bricker Amendment McCarthyism Operation Gladio Hallstein Doctrine

1960s	Congo Crisis Sino–Soviet split 1960 U-2 incident Bay of Pigs Invasion Berlin Wall Portuguese Colonial War (Angolan War of Independence Guinea-Bissau War of Independence Mozambican War of Independence) Cuban Missile Crisis Vietnam War 1964 Brazilian coup d'état United States occupation of the Dominican Republic (1965–1966) South African Border War Transition to the New Order Domino theory ASEAN Declaration Laotian Civil War Greek military junta of 1967–1974 USS Pueblo incident Six-Day War War of Attrition Cultural Revolution Sino-Indian War Prague Spring Goulash Communism Sino-Soviet border conflict Bunkers in Albania

1970s	Détente Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty Black September in Jordan Cambodian Civil War Realpolitik Ping Pong Diplomacy Four Power Agreement on Berlin 1972 Nixon visit to China 1973 Chilean coup d'état Yom Kippur War Carnation Revolution Strategic Arms Limitation Talks Rhodesian Bush War Angolan Civil War Mozambican Civil War Ogaden War Sino-Albanian split Cambodian–Vietnamese War Sino-Vietnamese War Iranian Revolution Operation Condor Bangladesh Liberation War Korean Air Lines Flight 902

1980s	Soviet war in Afghanistan 1980 and 1984 Summer Olympics boycotts Solidarity Soviet reaction Contras Central American crisis RYAN Korean Air Lines Flight 007 Able Archer 83 Star Wars Invasion of Grenada People Power Revolution Tiananmen Square protests of 1989 United States invasion of Panama Fall of the Berlin Wall Revolutions of 1989 Glasnost Perestroika

1990s	Democratic Revolution in Mongolia Breakup of Yugoslavia Dissolution of the Soviet Union Dissolution of Czechoslovakia

Foreign policy	Truman Doctrine Marshall Plan Containment Eisenhower Doctrine Domino theory Kennedy Doctrine Peaceful coexistence Ostpolitik Johnson Doctrine Brezhnev Doctrine Nixon Doctrine Ulbricht Doctrine Carter Doctrine Reagan Doctrine Rollback

Ideologies	Capitalism Chicago school Keynesianism Monetarism Neoclassical economics Reaganomics Supply-side economics Thatcherism Communism Marxism–Leninism Castroism Eurocommunism Guevarism Hoxhaism Juche Left communism Maoism Stalinism Titoism Trotskyism Liberal democracy Social democracy

Organizations	ASEAN CIA Comecon EEC KGB MI6 Stasi

Propaganda	Active measures Izvestia Pravda Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty Red Scare TASS Voice of America Voice of Russia

Races	Arms race Nuclear arms race Space Race

See also	Brinkmanship NATO–Russia relations Soviet and Russian espionage in U.S. Soviet Union–United States relations US–Soviet summits

Category Portal Timeline

v t e Notable figures of the Cold War

Soviet Union	Joseph Stalin Vyacheslav Molotov Andrei Gromyko Nikita Khrushchev Anatoly Dobrynin Leonid Brezhnev Alexei Kosygin Yuri Andropov Konstantin Chernenko Mikhail Gorbachev Nikolai Ryzhkov Eduard Shevardnadze Gennady Yanayev Boris Yeltsin

United States	Harry S. Truman George Marshall Joseph McCarthy Dwight D. Eisenhower John Foster Dulles John F. Kennedy Robert F. Kennedy Henry Cabot Lodge, Jr. Robert McNamara Lyndon B. Johnson Richard Nixon Henry Kissinger Gerald Ford Jimmy Carter Ronald Reagan George Shultz Caspar Weinberger George H. W. Bush

People's Republic of China	Mao Zedong Zhou Enlai Hua Guofeng Deng Xiaoping Zhao Ziyang

Japan	Hirohito Shigeru Yoshida Ichirō Hatoyama Nobusuke Kishi Eisaku Satō Kakuei Tanaka Takeo Miki Takeo Fukuda Masayoshi Ōhira Zenko Suzuki Yasuhiro Nakasone Noboru Takeshita Sōsuke Uno Toshiki Kaifu

West Germany	Konrad Adenauer Walter Hallstein Willy Brandt Helmut Schmidt Helmut Kohl

United Kingdom	Winston Churchill Clement Attlee Ernest Bevin Anthony Eden Harold Macmillan Alec Douglas-Home Kim Philby Harold Wilson Edward Heath James Callaghan Margaret Thatcher

Italy	Alcide De Gasperi Palmiro Togliatti Giulio Andreotti Aldo Moro Enrico Berlinguer Francesco Cossiga Bettino Craxi

France	Charles de Gaulle Alain Poher Georges Pompidou Valéry Giscard d'Estaing François Mitterrand

Finland	Urho Kekkonen

Spain	Francisco Franco Luis Carrero-Blanco Juan Carlos I Adolfo Suárez Felipe González

Portugal	António de Oliveira Salazar Marcelo Caetano Álvaro Cunhal Salgueiro Maia Otelo Saraiva de Carvalho António de Spínola Vasco Gonçalves António Ramalho Eanes Mário Soares Francisco de Sá Carneiro Aníbal Cavaco Silva

People's Republic of Poland	Bolesław Bierut Władysław Gomułka Edward Gierek Wojciech Jaruzelski Pope John Paul II Lech Wałęsa

Canada	William Lyon Mackenzie King Louis St. Laurent John Diefenbaker Lester Pearson Pierre Trudeau Joe Clark John Turner Brian Mulroney Kim Campbell

Philippines	Benigno Aquino, Jr. Corazon Aquino Juan Ponce Enrile Gringo Honasan Nur Misuari Jose Maria Sison Diosdado Macapagal Ferdinand Marcos Imelda Marcos Fidel V. Ramos

Africa	José Eduardo dos Santos Jonas Savimbi (Angola) Patrice Lumumba Mobutu Sese Seko (Congo/Zaire) Agostinho Neto Mengistu Haile Mariam (Ethiopia) Kwame Nkrumah (Ghana) Julius Nyerere (Tanzania) Idi Amin (Uganda) Muammar Gaddafi (Libya) Siad Barre (Somalia)

Eastern Bloc	Enver Hoxha (Albania) Todor Zhivkov (Bulgaria) Alexander Dubček (Czechoslovakia) Walter Ulbricht Erich Honecker (East Germany) Mátyás Rákosi Imre Nagy János Kádár (Hungary) Nicolae Ceauşescu (Romania) Josip Broz Tito (Yugoslavia)

Latin America	Juan Domingo Perón Jorge Rafael Videla Leopoldo Galtieri (Argentina) Getúlio Vargas Luís Prestes Leonel Brizola João Goulart Castelo Branco (Brazil) Salvador Allende Augusto Pinochet (Chile) Fidel Castro Che Guevara (Cuba) Daniel Ortega (Nicaragua) Marcos Pérez Jiménez Rómulo Betancourt (Venezuela) Omar Torrijos Manuel Noriega (Panama) Jacobo Árbenz Guzmán (Guatemala)

Middle East	Nur Muhammad Taraki Hafizullah Amin Babrak Karmal Mohammad Najibullah Ahmad Shah Massoud (Afghanistan) Gamal Abdel Nasser Anwar Sadat (Egypt) Mohammad Reza Pahlavi Mohammad Mosaddegh Ayatollah Khomeini (Iran) Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr Saddam Hussein (Iraq) Menachem Begin (Israel) Michel Aflaq Salah Jadid Hafez al-Assad (Syria)

South and East Asia	Sheikh Mujibur Rahman (Bangladesh) U Nu Ne Win (Burma) Pol Pot (Cambodia) Indira Gandhi Jawaharlal Nehru (India) Sukarno Suharto Mohammad Hatta Adam Malik (Indonesia) Kim Il-sung (North Korea) Syngman Rhee Park Chung-hee (South Korea) Muhammad Ayub Khan Zulfikar Ali Bhutto Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq (Pakistan) Chiang Kai-shek Chiang Ching-kuo (Taiwan) Ho Chi Minh Le Duan (Vietnam) Ngo Dinh Diem (South Vietnam)

Category Portal Timeline of events

v t e Time Persons of the Year (1976-2000)

Jimmy Carter (1976) Anwar Sadat (1977) Deng Xiaoping (1978) Ayatollah Khomeini (1979) Ronald Reagan (1980) Lech Wałęsa (1981) The Computer (1982) Ronald Reagan / Yuri Andropov (1983) Peter Ueberroth (1984) Deng Xiaoping (1985) Corazon Aquino (1986) Mikhail Gorbachev (1987) The Endangered Earth (1988) Mikhail Gorbachev (1989) George H. W. Bush (1990) Ted Turner (1991) Michal Jordan Bill Clinton (1992) “The Peacemakers”: Yitzhak Rabin / Nelson Mandela / F. W. de Klerk / Yasser Arafat (1993) Pope John Paul II (1994) Newt Gingrich (1995) David Ho (1996) Andrew Grove (1997) Bill Clinton / Ken Starr (1998) Jeffrey P. Bezos (1999) George W. Bush (2000)

Complete roster 1927–1950 1951–1975 1976–2000 2001–present

NCAA Theodore Roosevelt Award winners

1967: Eisenhower
1968: Saltonstall
1969: White
1970: Hovde
1971: Kraft, Jr.
1972: Holland
1973: Bradley
1974: Owens
1975: Ford
1976: Hamilton
1977: Bradley
1978: Zornow
1979: Chandler
1980: Cooley
1981: Linkletter
1982: Cosby
1983: Palmer
1984: Lawrence
1985: Fleming
1986: Bush
1987: Zable
1988: Not presented
1989: Ebert
1990: Reagan
1991: Gibson
1992: Kemp
1993: Alexander
1994: Johnson
1995: Mathias
1996: Wooden
1997: Payne
1998: Dole
1999: Richardson
2000: Staubach
2001: Cohen
2002: Shriver
2003: de Varona
2004: Page
2005: Ride
2006: Kraft
2007: Tagliabue
2008: Glenn
2009: Albright
2010: Mitchell
2011: Dunwoody

National Football Foundation Gold Medal Winners

1958: Dwight D. Eisenhower
1959: Douglas MacArthur
1960: Herbert Hoover & Amos Alonzo Stagg
1961: John F. Kennedy
1962: Byron "Whizzer" White
1963: Roger Q. Blough
1964: Donold B. Lourie
1965: Juan T. Trippe
1966: Earl H. "Red" Blaik
1967: Frederick L. Hovde
1968: Chester J. LaRoche
1969: Richard Nixon
1970: Thomas J. Hamilton
1971: Ronald Reagan
1972: Gerald Ford
1973: John Wayne
1974: Gerald B. Zornow
1975: David Packard
1976: Edgar B. Speer
1977: Louis H. Wilson
1978: Vincent dePaul Draddy
1979: William P. Lawrence
1980: Walter J. Zable
1981: Justin W. Dart
1982: Silver Anniversary Awards (NCAA) - All Honored Jim Brown, Willie Davis, Jack Kemp, Ron Kramer, Jim Swink
1983: Jack Kemp
1984: John F. McGillicuddy
1985: William I. Spencer
1986: William H. Morton
1987: Charles R. Meyer
1988: Clinton E. Frank
1989: Paul Brown
1990: Thomas H. Moorer
1991: George H. W. Bush
1992: Donald R. Keough
1993: Norman Schwarzkopf
1994: Thomas S. Murphy
1995: Harold Alfond
1996: Gene Corrigan
1997: Jackie Robinson
1998: John H. McConnell
1999: Keith Jackson
2000: Fred M. Kirby II
2001: Billy Joe "Red" McCombs
2002: George Steinbrenner
2003: Tommy Franks
2004: William V. Campbell
2005: Jon F. Hanson
2006: Joe Paterno & Bobby Bowden
2007: Pete Dawkins & Roger Staubach
2008: John Glenn
2009: Phil Knight & Bill Bowerman
2010: Bill Cosby

Presidents of the Screen Actors Guild

Ralph Morgan (1933) · Eddie Cantor (1933) · Robert Montgomery (1935) · Ralph Morgan (1938) · Edward Arnold (1940) · James Cagney (1942) · George Murphy (1944) · Robert Montgomery (1946) · Ronald Reagan (1947) · Walter Pidgeon (1952) · Leon Ames (1957) · Howard Keel (1958) · Ronald Reagan (1959) · George Chandler (1960) · Dana Andrews (1963) · Charlton Heston (1965) · John Gavin (1971) · Dennis Weaver (1973) · Kathleen Nolan (1975) · William Schallert (1979) · Edward Asner (1981) · Patty Duke (1985) · Barry Gordon (1988) · Richard Masur (1995) · William Daniels (1999) · Melissa Gilbert (2001) · Alan Rosenberg (2005) · Ken Howard (2009)

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Curtis LeMay

Birth name	Curtis Emerson LeMay
Nickname	"Old Iron Pants", "Bombs Away" LeMay
Born	(1906-11-15)November 15, 1906 Columbus, Ohio, United States
Died	October 1, 1990(1990-10-01) (aged 83) March Air Force Base, California, United States
Allegiance	United States
Service/branch	United States Air Force United States Army Air Forces United States Army Air Corps United States Army Ohio National Guard
Years of service	1928–65
Rank	General
Commands held	Twentieth Air Force Strategic Air Command USAF Chief of Staff
Battles/wars	World War II Pacific Theatre
Awards	Distinguished Service Cross Army Distinguished Service Medal (3) Silver Star Distinguished Flying Cross (3) Air Medal (4) Distinguished Flying Cross (United Kingdom) Légion d'honneur (France) Grand Cordon, Order of the Rising Sun (Japan)
Other work	Politician, candidate for U.S. vice president

LeMay became known for his massive incendiary attacks against Japanese cities during the war using hundreds of planes flying at low altitudes.

Curtis Emerson LeMay (November 15, 1906 – October 1, 1990) was a general in the United States Air Force and the vice presidential running mate of American Independent Party presidential candidate George Wallace in 1968.

He is credited with designing and implementing an effective, but also controversial, systematic strategic bombing campaign in the Pacific theater of World War II. During the war, he was known for planning and executing a massive bombing campaign against cities in Japan and a crippling minelaying campaign of Japan's internal waterways. After the war, he headed the Berlin airlift, then reorganized the Strategic Air Command (SAC) into an effective instrument of nuclear war.

Early life and career [link]

Curtis Emerson LeMay was born in Columbus, Ohio, on November 15, 1906. His father, Erving LeMay, was at times an ironworker and general handyman, but he never held a job longer than a few months. His mother, Arizona Carpenter LeMay, did her best to hold her family together. With very limited income, his family moved around the country as his father looked for work, going as far as Montana and California. Eventually they returned to his native city of Columbus. LeMay attended Columbus public schools, graduating from Columbus South High School, and studied civil engineering at Ohio State University. Working his way through college, he graduated with a bachelor's degree in civil engineering. While at Ohio State he was a member of the National Society of Pershing Rifles and the Professional Engineering Fraternity Theta Tau. He was commissioned a second lieutenant in the Air Corps Reserve in October 1929. He received a regular commission in the United States Army Air Corps in January 1930. While finishing at Ohio State, he took flight training at Norton Field in Columbus, in 1931–32.^[1] On June 9, 1934, he married Helen E. Maitland (died 1992), with whom he had one child, Patricia Jane LeMay Lodge, known as Janie.

LeMay became a pursuit pilot and, while stationed in Hawaii, became one of the first members of the Air Corps to receive specialized training in aerial navigation. In August 1937, as navigator under pilot and commander Caleb V. Haynes on a Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress, he helped locate the battleship Utah despite being given the wrong coordinates by Navy personnel, in exercises held in misty conditions off California, after which the group of B-17s bombed it with water bombs. For Haynes again, in May 1938 he navigated three B-17s over 610 miles (980 km) of the Atlantic Ocean to intercept the Italian liner Rex to illustrate the ability of land-based airpower to defend the American coasts. In 1940 he was navigator for Haynes on the prototype Boeing XB-15 heavy bomber, flying a survey from Panama over the Galapagos islands.^[2] War brought rapid promotion and increased responsibility.

When his crews were not flying missions, they were being subjected to his relentless training, as he believed that training was the key to saving their lives. LeMay was widely and fondly known among his troops as "Old Iron Pants" throughout his career.^[3]

World War II [link]

When the U.S. entered World War II in December 1941, LeMay was a major in the United States Army Air Forces (he had been a 1st lieutenant as recently as 1940), and the commander of a newly created B-17 Flying Fortress unit, the 305th Bomb Group. He took this unit to England in October 1942 as part of the Eighth Air Force, and led it in combat until May 1943, notably helping to develop the combat box formation.^[4]^[5] He led the 4th Bombardment Wing and was its first commander when it was reorganized into the 3rd Air Division in September 1943. He personally led several dangerous missions, including the Regensburg section of the Schweinfurt-Regensburg mission of August 17, 1943. In that mission he led 146 B-17s to Regensburg, Germany, beyond the range of escorting fighters, and, after bombing, continued on to bases in North Africa, losing 24 bombers in the process.^[4]^[5] The heavy losses in veteran crews on this and subsequent deep penetration missions in the autumn of 1943 led the Eighth Air Force to limit missions to targets within escort range. Finally, with the deployment in the European theater of the P-51 Mustang in January 1944, the 8th Air Force gained an escort fighter with range to match the bombers.^{[citation needed]}

Robert McNamara described LeMay's character, in a discussion of a report into high abort rates in bomber missions during World War II:

One of the commanders was Curtis LeMay—Colonel in command of a B-24 group. He was the finest combat commander of any service I came across in war. But he was extraordinarily belligerent, many thought brutal. He got the report. He issued an order. He said, 'I will be in the lead plane on every mission. Any plane that takes off will go over the target, or the crew will be court-martialed.' The abort rate dropped overnight. Now that's the kind of commander he was.^[6]

In August 1944, LeMay transferred to the China-Burma-India theater and directed first the XX Bomber Command in China and then the XXI Bomber Command in the Pacific. LeMay was later placed in charge of all strategic air operations against the Japanese home islands.^[4]^[5]

LeMay soon concluded that the techniques and tactics developed for use in Europe against the Luftwaffe were unsuitable against Japan. His bombers flying from China were dropping their bombs near their targets only 5% of the time. Operational losses of aircraft and crews were unacceptably high owing to Japanese daylight air defenses and continuing mechanical problems with the B-29. In January 1945 LeMay was transferred from China to relieve Brig. Gen. Haywood S. Hansell as commander of the XXI Bomber Command in the Marianas.^[4]^[5]

He became convinced that high-altitude precision bombing would be ineffective, given the usually cloudy weather over Japan. Furthermore, bombs dropped from the B-29s at high altitude (20,000+ feet) were often blown off of their trajectories by a consistently powerful jet stream over the Japanese home islands, which dramatically reduced the effectiveness of the high-altitude raids. Because Japanese air defenses made daytime bombing below jet stream-affected altitudes too perilous, LeMay finally switched to low-altitude nighttime incendiary attacks on Japanese targets, a tactic senior commanders had been advocating for some time.^[4]^[5] Japanese cities were largely constructed of combustible materials such as wood and paper. Precision high-altitude daylight bombing was ordered to proceed only when weather permitted or when specific critical targets were not vulnerable to area bombing. General Lemay was informed by a senior staff member, Colonel William P. Fisher, that bomber pilots were turning back from these low altitude bombing runs due to heavy anti-air craft fire from Japanese defense forces. Col. Fisher suggested to Lemay that crews who achieved successful strike rates should be rewarded by being released from their deployment. Lemay implemented this unorthodox plan and the strike rate went up to eighty percent.^[7]

LeMay commanded subsequent B-29 Superfortress combat operations against Japan, including massive incendiary attacks on 64 Japanese cities. This included the fire-bombing of Tokyo on March 9–10, 1945, the most destructive bombing raid of the war.^[8] For this first attack, LeMay ordered the defensive guns removed from 325 B-29s, loaded each plane with Model E-46 incendiary clusters, magnesium bombs, white phosphorus bombs, and napalm, and ordered the bombers to fly in streams at 5,000 to 9,000 feet over Tokyo.^[4]^[5]

The first pathfinder planes arrived over Tokyo just after midnight on March 10. Following British bombing practice, they marked the target area with a flaming "X." In a three-hour period, the main bombing force dropped 1,665 tons of incendiary bombs, killing some 100,000 civilians, destroying 250,000 buildings and incinerating 16 square miles (41 km²) of the city. Aircrews at the tail end of the bomber stream reported that the stench of burned human flesh permeated the aircraft over the target.^[9]

A "LeMay Bombing Leaflet" from the war, which warned Japanese civilians that "Unfortunately, bombs have no eyes. So, in accordance with America's humanitarian policies, the American Air Force, which does not wish to injure innocent people, now gives you warning to evacuate the cities named and save your lives."

The New York Times reported at the time, "Maj. Gen. Curtis E. LeMay, commander of the B-29s of the entire Marianas area, declared that if the war is shortened by a single day, the attack will have served its purpose."^[4]^[5] Precise figures are not available, but the fire-bombing campaign against Japan, directed by LeMay between March 1945 and the Japanese surrender in August 1945, may have killed more than 500,000 Japanese civilians and left 5 million homeless.^[10] Official estimates from the United States Strategic Bombing Survey put the figures at 220,000 people killed.^[8] Some 40% of the built-up areas of 66 cities were destroyed, including much of Japan's war industry.^[8]

The remaining Allied prisoners of war in Japan who had survived imprisonment to that time were frequently subjected to additional reprisals and torture after an air raid.^{[citation needed]} The massive bombing also hit a number of prisons and directly killed a number of allied war prisoners. LeMay was quite aware of the Japanese opinion of him: he once remarked that had the U.S. lost the war, he fully expected to be tried for war crimes, especially in view of Japanese executions of uniformed American flight crews during the 1942 Doolittle raid. He argued that it was his duty to carry out the attacks in order to end the war as quickly as possible, sparing further loss of life.

Presidents Roosevelt and Truman justified these tactics by referring to an estimate of one million Allied casualties if Japan had to be invaded. The Japanese had intentionally decentralized 90 percent of their war-related production into small subcontractor workshops in civilian districts, making remaining Japanese war industry largely immune to conventional precision bombing with high explosives.^[11]

As the fire-bombing campaign took effect, Japanese war planners were forced to expend significant resources to relocate vital war industries to remote caves and mountain bunkers, reducing production of war material. As an officer who served under LeMay, Lieutenant Colonel Robert McNamara was in charge of evaluating the effectiveness of American bombing missions. Later McNamara, as secretary of defense under Kennedy and Johnson, would often clash with LeMay.

LeMay also oversaw Operation Starvation, an aerial mining operation against Japanese waterways and ports that disrupted Japanese shipping and food distribution. Although his superiors were unsupportive of this naval objective, LeMay gave it a high priority by assigning the entire 313th Bombardment Wing (four groups, about 160 planes) to the task. Aerial mining supplemented a tight Allied submarine blockade of the home islands, drastically reducing Japan's ability to supply its overseas forces to the point that postwar analysis concluded that it could have defeated Japan on its own had it begun earlier.^[4]^[5]

Japan–Washington flight [link]

LeMay piloted one of three specially modified B-29s flying from Japan to the U.S. in September 1945, in the process breaking several aviation records at that date, including the greatest USAAF takeoff weight, the longest USAAF non-stop flight, and the first ever non-stop Japan–Chicago flight. One of the pilots was of higher rank: Lieutenant General Barney Giles. The other two aircraft used up more fuel than LeMay's in fighting headwinds, and they could not fly to Washington, DC, the original goal.^[12] They decided to land in Chicago to refuel. LeMay's aircraft had sufficient fuel to reach Washington, but he was directed by the War Department to join the others by refueling at Chicago. The order was ostensibly given because of borderline weather conditions in Washington, but according to First Lieutenant Ivan J. Potts who was aboard, the order came because LeMay had one fewer general's stars and should not be seen to outperform his superior.^[13]

Cold War [link]

Berlin Airlift [link]

General Curtis E. LeMay

After World War II, LeMay was briefly transferred to The Pentagon as deputy chief of Air Staff for Research & Development. In 1947, he returned to Europe as commander of USAF Europe, heading operations for the Berlin Airlift in 1948 in the face of a blockade by the Soviet Union and its satellite states that threatened to starve the civilian population of the Western occupation zones of Berlin. Under LeMay's direction, C-54 cargo planes that could each carry 10 tons of cargo began supplying the city on July 1. By the fall, the airlift was bringing in an average of 5,000 tons of supplies a day. The airlift continued for 11 months—213,000 flights that brought in 1.7 million tons of food and fuel to Berlin. Faced with the failure of their blockade, the Soviet Union relented and reopened land corridors to the West. Though LeMay is sometimes publicly credited with the success of the Berlin Airlift, it was, in fact, instigated by General Lucius D. Clay when General Clay called LeMay about the problem. LeMay initially started flying supplies into Berlin, but then decided that it was a job for a logistics expert and he found that person in Lt. General William H. Tunner,^[14] who took over the operational end of the Berlin Airlift.

Strategic Air Command [link]

In 1948, he returned to the US to head the Strategic Air Command (SAC) at Offutt Air Force Base, replacing Gen George Kenney. When LeMay took over command of SAC, it consisted of little more than a few understaffed B-29 bombardment groups left over from WWII. Less than half of the available aircraft were operational, and the crews were undertrained. Base and aircraft security standards were minimal. Upon inspecting a SAC hangar full of US nuclear strategic bombers, LeMay found a single Air Force sentry on duty, armed only with a ham sandwich.^[15] After ordering a mock bombing exercise on Dayton, Ohio, LeMay was shocked to learn that most of the strategic bombers assigned to the mission missed their targets by one mile or more. "We didn't have one crew, not one crew, in the entire command who could do a professional job"^[16] noted LeMay.

In 1949, LeMay was first to propose that a nuclear war be conducted by delivering the nuclear arsenal in a single overwhelming blow, going as far as "killing a nation".^[17]

In 1952 the 1st Missile Division was activated, having operational control over strategic missiles.

Upon receiving his fourth star in 1951 at age 44, LeMay became the youngest four-star general in American history since Ulysses S. Grant and was the youngest four-star general in modern history as well as the longest serving in that rank.^[18] In 1956 and 1957 LeMay implemented tests of 24-hour bomber and tanker alerts, keeping some bomber forces ready at all times. LeMay headed SAC until 1957, overseeing its transformation into a modern, efficient, all-jet force. LeMay's tenure was the longest over an American military command in close to 100 years.^[19]

Despite popular claims that LeMay advanced the notion of preventive nuclear war, the historical record indicates LeMay actually advocated justified preemptive nuclear war. Several documents show LeMay advocating preemptive attack of the Soviet Union, had it become clear the Soviets were preparing to attack SAC or the US. In these documents, which were often the transcripts of speeches before groups such as the National War College or events such as the 1955 Joint Secretaries Conference at the Quantico Marine Corps Base, LeMay clearly advocated using SAC as a preemptive weapon, if and when such was necessary.^[20]

The “Airpower Battle”[link]

General LeMay was instrumental in SAC's acquisition of a large fleet of new strategic bombers, establishment of a vast aerial refueling system, the formation of many new units and bases, development of a strategic ballistic missile force, and establishment of a strict command and control system with an unprecedented readiness capability. All of this was protected by a greatly enhanced and modernized security force, the Strategic Air Command Elite Guard. LeMay insisted on rigorous training and very high standards of performance for all SAC personnel, be they officers, enlisted men, aircrews, mechanics, or administrative staff, and reportedly commented, "I have neither the time nor the inclination to differentiate between the incompetent and the merely unfortunate."

A famous legend often used by SAC flight crews to illustrate LeMay's command style concerned his famous ever-present cigar.^[21] In the first known published account of the story, Life Magazine reporter Ernest Havemann related that LeMay once took the co-pilot's seat of a SAC bomber to observe the mission, complete with lit cigar.^[22] When asked by the pilot to put the cigar out, LeMay demanded to know why. When the pilot explained that fumes inside the fuselage could ignite the plane, LeMay reportedly growled, "It wouldn't dare."^[22] The incident in the article was later used as the basis for a fictional scene in the 1955 film Strategic Air Command. In his highly controversial and factually disputed^[23]^[24] memoir War's End, Major General Charles Sweeney related an alleged 1944 incident that may have been the basis for the "It wouldn't dare" comment.^[25]

Despite his uncompromising attitude regarding performance of duty, LeMay was also known for his concern for the physical well-being and comfort of his men.^[26] LeMay found ways to encourage morale, individual performance, and the reenlistment rate through a number of means: encouraging off-duty group recreational activities,^[27]^[28] instituting spot promotions based on performance, and authorizing special uniforms, training, equipment, and allowances for ground personnel^[29] as well as flight crews.

On LeMay's departure, SAC was composed of 224,000 airmen, close to 2,000 heavy bombers, and nearly 800 tanker aircraft.^[19]

LeMay was an active amateur radio operator and held a succession of call signs; K0GRL, K4FRA, and W6EZV. He held these calls respectively while stationed at Offutt AFB, Washington, D.C. and when he retired in California. K0GRL is still the call sign of the Strategic Air Command Memorial Amateur Radio Club.^[30] He was famous for being on the air on amateur bands while flying on board SAC bombers. LeMay became aware that the new single sideband (SSB) technology offered a big advantage over amplitude modulation (AM) for SAC aircraft operating long distances from their bases. In conjunction with Art Collins (W0CXX) of Collins Radio, he established SSB as the radio standard for SAC bombers in 1957.^[31]

LeMay was appointed Vice Chief of Staff of the United States Air Force in July 1957, serving until 1961, when he was made the fifth Chief of Staff of the United States Air Force on the retirement of Gen Thomas White. His belief in the efficacy of strategic air campaigns over tactical strikes and ground support operations became Air Force policy during his tenure as chief of staff.

As chief of staff, LeMay clashed repeatedly with Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara, Air Force Secretary Eugene Zuckert, and the chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, Army General Maxwell Taylor. At the time, budget constraints and successive nuclear war fighting strategies had left the armed forces in a state of flux. Each of the armed forces had gradually jettisoned realistic appraisals of future conflicts in favor of developing its own separate nuclear and nonnuclear capabilities. At the height of this struggle, the U.S. Army had even reorganized its combat divisions to fight land wars on irradiated nuclear battlefields, developing short-range atomic cannon and mortars in order to win appropriations. The United States Navy in turn proposed delivering strategic nuclear weapons from supercarriers intended to sail into range of the Soviet air defense forces. Of all these various schemes, only LeMay's command structure of SAC survived complete reorganization in the changing reality of postwar conflicts.

Though LeMay lost significant appropriation battles for the Skybolt ALBM and the B-52 Stratofortress replacement, the XB-70 Valkyrie, he was largely successful at expanding Air Force budgets. He advocated the introduction of satellite technology and pushed for the development of the latest electronic warfare techniques. By contrast, the U.S. Army and Navy frequently suffered budgetary cutbacks and program cancellations by Congress and Secretary McNamara.

During the Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962, LeMay clashed again with U.S. President John F. Kennedy and Defense Secretary McNamara, arguing that he should be allowed to bomb nuclear missile sites in Cuba. He opposed the naval blockade and, after the end of the crisis, suggested that Cuba be invaded anyway, even after the Russians agreed to withdraw. LeMay called the peaceful resolution of the crisis "the greatest defeat in our history".^[32] Unknown to the US, the Soviet field commanders in Cuba had been given authority to launch—the only time such authority was delegated by higher command.^[33] They had twenty nuclear warheads for medium-range R-12 ballistic missiles capable of reaching US cities (including Washington) and nine tactical nuclear missiles. If Soviet officers had launched them, many millions of US citizens would have been killed.^{[citation needed]} The ensuing SAC retaliatory thermonuclear strike would have killed roughly one hundred million Soviet citizens, and brought nuclear winter to much of the Northern Hemisphere. Kennedy refused LeMay's requests, however, and the naval blockade was successful.^[33]

The memorandum from LeMay, Chief of Staff, USAF, to the Joint Chiefs of Staff, January 4, 1964, illustrates LeMay's reasons for keeping bomber force along ballistic missiles: "It is important to recognize, however, that ballistic missile forces represent both the U.S. and Soviet potential for strategic nuclear warfare at the highest, most indiscriminate level, and at a level least susceptible to control. The employment of these weapons in lower level conflict would be likely to escalate the situation, uncontrollably, to an intensity which could be vastly disproportionate to the original aggravation. The use of ICBMs and SLBMs is not, therefore, a rational or credible response to provocations which, although serious, are still less than an immediate threat to national survival. For this reason, among others, I consider that the national security will continue to require the flexibility, responsiveness, and discrimination of manned strategic weapon systems throughout the range of cold, limited, and general war."^[34]

LeMay's dislike for tactical aircraft and training backfired in the low-intensity conflict of Vietnam, where existing Air Force fighter aircraft and standard attack profiles proved incapable of carrying out sustained tactical bombing campaigns in the face of hostile North Vietnamese antiaircraft defenses. LeMay said, "Flying fighters is fun. Flying bombers is important."^[35] Aircraft losses on tactical attack missions soared, and Air Force commanders soon realized that their large, missile-armed jet fighters were exceedingly vulnerable not only to antiaircraft shells and missiles but also to cannon-armed, maneuverable Soviet fighters.

LeMay advocated a sustained strategic bombing campaign against North Vietnamese cities, harbors, ports, shipping, and other strategic targets. His advice was ignored. Instead, an incremental policy was implemented that focused on limited interdiction bombing of fluid enemy supply corridors in Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia. This limited campaign failed to destroy significant quantities of enemy war supplies or diminish enemy ambitions. Bombing limitations were imposed by President Lyndon Johnson for geopolitical reasons, as he surmised that bombing Soviet and Chinese ships in port and killing Soviet advisers would bring the Soviets more directly into the war and destabilize the European Cold War.^{[citation needed]}

Evidence of LeMay's thinking is that in his 1965 autobiography, co-written with MacKinlay Kantor, LeMay is quoted as saying his response to North Vietnam would be to demand that "they’ve got to draw in their horns and stop their aggression, or we’re going to bomb them back into the Stone Age. And we would shove them back into the Stone Age with Air power or Naval power—not with ground forces."

Some military historians have argued that LeMay's theories were eventually proven correct. Near the war's end in December 1972, President Richard Nixon ordered Operation Linebacker II, a high-intensity Air Force, Navy, and Marine Corps aerial bombing campaign, which included hundreds of B-52 bombers that struck previously untouched North Vietnamese strategic targets, including heavy populated areas in Hanoi and Haiphong. Linebacker II, despite being one of the most intense bombing operations of the conflict, greatly weakened but did not cause the collapse of the communist regime, although it forced the communist government back into peace talks and shortly after the operation was called off.^{[citation needed]} The Paris Peace Agreement was signed, and some of it clearly benefited the government of North Vietnam. During the operation, the U.S Air Force and Navy lost 17 strategic bombers.

Post-military career [link]

Owing to his unrelenting opposition to the Johnson administration's Vietnam policy and what was widely perceived as his hostility to Secretary McNamara, LeMay was essentially forced into retirement in February 1965 and seemed headed for a political career.^{[citation needed]} Moving to California, he was approached by conservatives to challenge moderate Republican Thomas Kuchel for his seat in the United States Senate in 1968, but he declined. For the presidential race that year, LeMay originally supported Richard Nixon; he turned down two requests by George Wallace to join his American Independent Party that year on the grounds that a third-party candidacy might hurt Nixon's chances at the polls (by coincidence, Wallace had served as a sergeant in a unit commanded by LeMay during WWII). LeMay gradually became convinced that Nixon planned to pursue a conciliatory policy with the Soviets and accept nuclear parity rather than retain America's first-strike supremacy. LeMay felt that Lyndon Johnson had lied to him on several occasions, and Hubert Humphrey, if elected, would do the same.^{[citation needed]} Consequently LeMay, while being fully aware of Wallace's segregationist platform, decided to throw his support to Wallace and eventually became Wallace's running mate. The general was dismayed to find himself attacked in the press as a racial segregationist because he was running with Wallace; he had never considered himself a bigot. When Wallace announced his selection in October 1968, LeMay opined that he, unlike many Americans, clearly did not fear using nuclear weapons. His saber rattling did not help the Wallace campaign.

During the 1968 campaign, LeMay became widely associated with the "Stone Age" comment, especially because he had suggested use of nuclear weapons as a strategy to quickly resolve a deeply protracted conventional war which eventually claimed over 50,000 American and millions of Vietnamese lives. This reputation did nothing to diminish perceptions of extremism in the Wallace-LeMay ticket. General LeMay disclaimed the comment, saying in a later interview: “I never said we should bomb them back to the Stone Age. I said we had the capability to do it."^{[citation needed]}

The Wallace-LeMay AIP ticket received 13.5 percent of the popular vote, higher than most third-party candidacies in the US, and carried 5 states for a total of 46 electoral votes, but this was not enough to deny Nixon his election as 37th President of the US. It was enough to stop Hubert Humphrey, and Nixon's ground breaking success as a Republican winning electoral votes from Democratic southern states was partly due to Democrats not voting for the Democratic ticket. Following the 1968 election, LeMay returned to private life, including pursuing several charitable projects. He declined further suggestions to run for political office.

He was honored by several countries, receiving the Air Medal with three oak leaf clusters, the Distinguished Flying Cross with two oak leaf clusters, the Distinguished Service Cross, Distinguished Service Medal with two oak leaf clusters, the French Legion of Honor and the Silver Star. On December 7, 1964 the Japanese government conferred on him the First Order of Merit with the Grand Cordon of the Order of the Rising Sun. He was elected to the Alfalfa Club in 1957 and served as a general officer for 21 years.

According to historian Warren Kozak, Wallace's defeat left LeMay's public reputation in tatters. LeMay was commonly assumed to share Wallace's widely unpopular racist views, even though LeMay had enthusiastically supported racial integration in the US military publicly and privately. He fought segregation in the Air Force before Executive Order 9981 systemically banned the practice.^[36]

Death [link]

General LeMay died on October 1, 1990, at March Air Force Base in Riverside County, California, and is buried in the United States Air Force Academy Cemetery^[37] at Colorado Springs, Colorado. He was survived by his wife Helen, who died in 1992 and is buried next to the general.

Miscellany [link]

LeMay and UFOs [link]

The April 25, 1988 issue of The New Yorker carried an interview with retired Air Force Reserve Major General and former US Senator from Arizona, Barry Goldwater, who said he repeatedly asked his friend General LeMay if he (Goldwater) might have access to the secret "Blue Room" at Wright Patterson Air Force Base, alleged by numerous Goldwater constituents to contain UFO evidence. According to Goldwater, an angry LeMay gave him "holy hell" and said, "Not only can't you get into it but don't you ever mention it to me again."^[38]

LeMay and sports car racing [link]

General LeMay was also a sports car owner and enthusiast (he owned an Allard J2); as the "SAC era" began to wind down, LeMay loaned out facilities of SAC bases for use by the Sports Car Club of America,^[39] as the era of early street races began to die out. He was awarded the Woolf Barnato Award, SCCA's highest award for contributions to the Club, in 1954.^[39] In November 2006, it was announced that General LeMay would be one of the inductees into the SCCA Hall of Fame in 2007.^[39]

Lemay and the Randall Firearms Company [link]

In 1984, as a result of the friendship between Lemay and the company's chief designer, Randall began producing the first of what would be two different models of compact .45 ACP pistol with the Lemay 4-Star designation.^[40]

Air Force Academy Exemplar [link]

On March 13, 2010, LeMay was named the exemplar for the United States Air Force Academy class of 2013.^[41]

Rank history [link]

Curtis LeMay’s first contact with military service occurred in September 1924 when he enrolled as a student in the ROTC program at Ohio State University. By his senior year, LeMay was listed on the ROTC rolls as a "cadet lieutenant colonel" but had not actually received an appointment in the regular United States military.

On June 14, 1928, the summer before the start of his senior year, LeMay accepted a commission as a second lieutenant in the Field Artillery Reserve of the United States Army. In September 1928, LeMay was approached by the Ohio National Guard and asked to accept a state commission, also as a second lieutenant, which LeMay accepted. This created a unique situation in LeMay's service record since in 1928 it was unusual for a person to hold a commission both in the National Guard and the Army Reserve.

On September 29, 1928, LeMay enlisted in the Army Air Corps as an aviation cadet under the service number 6650359. For the next 13 months, LeMay was not only on the enlisted rolls of the Regular Army but also still held a commission in the National Guard and Army Reserve. Thus, for this short period in LeMay’s career, he was technically an officer and enlisted soldier at the same time, a practice no longer permitted in the U.S. military. The matter was resolved on October 2, 1929, when LeMay’s Guard and Reserve commission were terminated. According to his service record, these commissions were revoked "by telephone" after an Army personnel officer, realizing that LeMay was holding officer and enlisted status simultaneously, called him to discuss the matter.

On October 12, 1929, LeMay finished his flight training and was commissioned a second lieutenant in the Air Corps Reserve. This was the third time he had been appointed a second lieutenant in just under two years. He held this reserve commission until June 1930, when he was appointed as a Regular Army officer in the Air Corps.

LeMay experienced slow advancement throughout the 1930s, as did most officers of the seniority-driven regular army. At the start of 1940 he was still a first lieutenant but, beginning in 1941, began to receive temporary advancement in grade in the expanding Army Air Forces. LeMay advanced from captain to brigadier general in less than four years and by 1944 was a major general. When World War II ended, he was appointed to the permanent rank of brigadier general in the Regular Army but held his temporary rank of major general in the Army until promotion to lieutenant general in the now separate United States Air Force in 1948. He then was promoted to full general in 1951 and held this rank until his retirement in 1965.

Dates of rank [link]

Army ROTC Cadet: September 1924
Second Lieutenant, Field Artillery Reserve: June 14, 1928
Second Lieutenant, Ohio National Guard: September 22, 1928
Flight Cadet, Army Air Corps: September 28, 1928
Officer Commissions Terminated: October 2, 1929
Second Lieutenant, Air Corps Reserve: October 12, 1929
Second Lieutenant, Army Air Corps: February 1, 1930
First Lieutenant, Army Air Corps: March 12, 1935
Captain, Army Air Corps: January 26, 1940
Major, Army Air Corps: March 21, 1941
Lieutenant Colonel, Army of the United States: January 23, 1942
Colonel, Army of the United States: June 17, 1942
Brigadier General, Army of the United States: September 28, 1943
- Permanent in the Regular Army: June 22, 1946
Major General, Army of the United States: March 3, 1944
Lieutenant General, United States Air Force: January 26, 1948
General, United States Air Force: October 29, 1951
General, USAF (Retired): February 1, 1965

Further promotion [link]

According to letters in Curtis LeMay's service record, while he was in command of SAC during the 1950s several petitions were made by Air Force service members to have LeMay promoted to the rank of General of the Air Force (five stars). The Air Force leadership, however, felt that such a promotion would lessen the prestige of this rank, which was seen as a wartime rank to be held only in times of extreme national emergency.

Per the Chief of the Air Force General Officers Branch, in a letter dated February 28, 1962:

It is clear that a grateful nation, recognizing the tremendous contributions of the key military and naval leaders in World War II, created these supreme grades as an attempt to accord to these leaders the prestige, the clear-cut leadership, and the emolument of office befitting their service to their country in war. It is the conviction of the Department of the Air Force that this recognition was and is appropriate. Moreover, appointments to this grade during periods other than war would carry the unavoidable connotation of downgrading of those officers so honored in World War II.

Thus, no serious effort was ever made to promote LeMay to the rank of General of the Air Force, and the matter was eventually dropped after his retirement from active service in 1965.

Awards and decorations [link]

LeMay received recognition for his work from thirteen countries, receiving twenty-two medals and decorations.

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		106px


	106px	106px

United States

Command pilot
Distinguished Service Cross
Distinguished Service Medal plus 2 oak leaf clusters
Silver Star
Distinguished Flying Cross plus 2 oak leaf clusters
Air Medal plus 3 oak leaf clusters
Presidential Unit Citation plus oak leaf cluster
American Defense Service Medal
American Campaign Medal
European-African-Middle Eastern Campaign Medal plus 3 bronze campaign stars
Asiatic-Pacific Campaign Medal plus 4 bronze campaign stars
World War II Victory Medal
Army of Occupation Medal with Airlift Device
Medal for Humane Action
National Defense Service Medal
Air Force Longevity Service Award, 6 oak leaf clusters

Other countries

British Distinguished Flying Cross
French Croix de Guerre with Palm
Belgian Croix de Guerre, with Palm
Japanese Order of the Rising Sun, Grand Cordon
Brazilian Order of the Southern Cross
Brazilian Order of Aeronautical Merit
Moroccan Order of Ouissam Alaouite
Swedish Commander Grand Cross of the Royal Order of the Sword
Argentina – Order of Aeronautical Merit – Grades of Grand Official and Grand Cross
Chile – Order of the Merit
Chile – Medalla Militar de Primera Clase
Ecuador – Order of Aeronautical Merit (Knight Commander)
Uruguay – Aviador Militar Honoris Causa (Piloto Commandante)
U.S.S.R – Order of the Patriotic War – 1st Degree

Works [link]

Books [link]

LeMay, Curtis; Kantor, MacKinlay (1965), Mission with LeMay: My Story, Doubleday, B00005WGR2 .
LeMay, Curtis; Smith, Dale O (1968), America is in Danger, Funk & Wagnalls, B00005VCVX .
LeMay, Curtis; Yenne, William ‘Bill’ (1988), Superfortress: The Story of the B-29 and American Air Power, McGraw-Hill, ISBN 0-07-037160-1 .

LeMay, Curtis, Warren Kozak, The Life and Wars of General Curtis LeMay, Regnery Publishing Inc, 2009, ISBN 978-1-59698-569-8

Film and television appearances [link]

The Last Bomb (documentary, 1945)
In the Year of the Pig (documentary, 1968)
The World at War (documentary TV series, 1974)
Race for the Superbomb (documentary, 1999)
JFK (film, 1991; featured in archival footage)
Roots of the Cuban Missile Crisis (documentary, 2001)
The Fog of War: Eleven Lessons from the Life of Robert S. McNamara (documentary, 2003)
DC3:ans Sista Resa (Swedish documentary, 2004)

In popular culture [link]

Above and Beyond – LeMay is portrayed by Jim Backus (film, 1952)
Strategic Air Command – the character of General Ennis C. Hawkes, based on LeMay, is played by Frank Lovejoy (film, 1955)
Dr. Strangelove or: How I Learned to Stop Worrying and Love the Bomb – the character of General Buck Turgidson, played by George C. Scott, is based in part on LeMay (film, 1964)^[42]
The Missiles of October – LeMay is played by Robert P. Lieb (TV, 1974)^[43]
Enola Gay: The Men, the Mission, the Atomic Bomb – LeMay is portrayed by Than Wyenn (TV, 1980)
Kennedy – played by Barton Heyman (TV series, 1983)^[43]
Race for the Bomb – played by Lloyd Bochner (TV series, 1987)^[43]
Hiroshima played by Cedric Smith (TV, 1995)^[43]
Thirteen Days – LeMay is played by Kevin Conway (film, 2000)^[43]
Roots of the Cuban Missile Crisis – played by Kevin Conway (video, 2001)^[43]
Black Wind by F. Paul Wilson (fiction), in which LeMay appears in connection with the Hiroshima bombing.^[44]

Public buildings [link]

Gen. Curtis E. LeMay Building,
U.S. Strategic Command Headquarters

The headquarters building of U.S. Strategic Command at Offutt AFB in Nebraska is named for the general.
It was erected in the late 1950s and was the headquarters of the Strategic Air Command until its disbandment in 1992.
LeMay Elementary School opened in 1968 in the Capehart housing area of Offutt AFB and is operated by the Bellevue Public Schools.^[45]

	Biography portal
	United States Air Force portal

References [link]

Notes [link]

^ Ohio History Central, http://www.ohiohistorycentral.org/entry.php?rec=773 .
^ Boniface, Patrick (Jan–Feb. 1999), "Boeing's Forgotten Monster: XB-15, a Giant in Search of a Cause", Air Enthusiast, pp. 64–7 .
^ Harper, CB (Red). "March 1944 and Berlin". With The Mighty Eighth And The Fifteenth Air Forces In Action Over Europe In World War II. http://www.buffalogal.org/MarchBerliln.htm.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h Coffey, Iron Eagle
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h Tillman, LeMay
^ Errol Morris, The Fog of War: Eleven Lessons from the Life of Robert S. McNamara, Documentary Film, 2003
^ December 24, 1985 recorded interview with Major General William P. Fisher, USAF, Retired. Conducted by granddaughter Dorothy Danaher White
^ ^a ^b ^c United States Strategic Bombing Survey. Summary Report (Pacific War). Washington DC, July 1, 1946.
^ Buckley, John (2001) [1998]. Air Power in the Age of Total War. London: Taylor & Francis. p. 193. ISBN 0-203-00722-0.
^ Bradley, F. J. No Strategic Targets Left. "Contribution of Major Fire Raids Toward Ending WWII", Turner Publishing Company, limited edition. ISBN 1-56311-483-6. p. 38.
^ John Toland, The Rising Sun: The Decline and Fall of the Japanese Empire 1936–1945, Random House, 1970, p. 671.
^ 40th Bombardment Group (VH) history. Turner Publishing. 1989. pp. 45–47. ISBN 0‐938021‐28‐1. http://books.google.com/books?id=EB-0VUI11NsC&pg=PA46.
^ Potts, J. Ivan, Jr. "The Japan to Washington Flight: September 18–19, 1945" (PDF). 40th Bomb Group. http://www.40thbombgroup.org/DCFlight.pdf. Retrieved October 19, 2010.
^ Cherny, Andrei, The Candy Bombers: The Untold Story of the Berlin Airlift and America's Finest Hour, Putnam Press, ISBN 978‐0‐399‐15496‐6 (2008)
^ Watson, George M., Secretaries and Chiefs of Staff of the United States Air Force, Washington, D.C.: Air Force History and Museums Program, USAF (2001) p. 132: LeMay recorded the incident in a memo to staff the same day, stating "this afternoon I found a man guarding a hangar with a ham sandwich. There will be no more of that."
^ Ford, Daniel (April 1, 1996). "History of Flight – B-36: Bomber at the Crossroads". Air & Space Magazine. http://www.airspacemag.com/history-of-flight/B-36-Bomber-at-the-Crossroads.html?c=y&page=5.
^ DeGroot, Gerard J. (2004). The bomb: a life (1st, pbk. ed.). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. p. 153. ISBN 0‐674‐01724‐2. http://books.google.com/books?id=6VQCsAZpPrgC&lpg=PA153&dq=the%20entire%20stockpile%20of%20atomic%20bombs%20in%20a%20single%20massive%20attack&pg=PA153#v=onepage&q&f=false.
^ Kozak, Warren. "LeMay: The Life And Wars Of General Curtis LeMay". http://www.warrenkozak.com/basics.html. Retrieved 2009-05-08.
^ ^a ^b AIR FORCE Magazine. October 2008.
^ Library of Congress, Manuscript Reading Room, Papers of Curtis E. LeMay, Box B-205, Remarks by General Curtis E. LeMay at Quantico, 15 July 1955.
^ Havemann, Ernest, Toughest Cop of The Western World, Life Magazine, 14 June 1954, p. 136
^ ^a ^b Havemann, p. 136
^ Puttré, Michael, Nagasaki Revisited, retrieved 8 April 2011
^ Coster-Mullen, John, Atom Bombs: The Top Secret Inside Story of Little Boy and Fat Man, publ. J. Coster-Mullen, End Notes (2004): Gen. Paul Tibbets, Major Dutch Van Kirk (Enola Gay's navigator), and other surviving members of the 509th Composite Group were reportedly outraged at many of the factual assertions by Sweeney in War's End.
^ Sweeney, Charles (Maj. Gen., ret.), Antonucci, James A., and Antonucci, Marion K., War's End: an Eyewitness Account of America's Last Atomic Mission, New York: Avon Books, ISBN 0-380-97349-9 (1997), p. 75: Sweeney stated that a similar incident occurred in 1944 when a B-29 crew chief reminded General LeMay of his lit cigar while LeMay was undergoing B-29 familiarization with (then-Colonel) Paul Tibbets' 509th Composite Group.
^ Watson, George M., Secretaries and Chiefs of Staff of the United States Air Force, Washington, DC: Air Force History and Museums Program, USAF (2001) p. 132.
^ Sport: Red for Ferrari, Time Magazine, 20 April 1953.
^ Judo In SAC Air Force, Black Belt Magazine, April 1962, pp. 37–38: These ranged from basketball courts and pool tables to judo tournaments and even assembling and tuning engines in SAC workshops for sports car races on SAC air bases.
^ Armed Forces: The Finish Flag, Time Magazine, 2 August 1954: This included new innerspring mattresses, fans, pool tables, and TV sets for enlisted mens quarters.
^ "Surfin': More Hamming at 1600 Pennsylvania Avenue". National Association for Amateur Radio. http://www.arrl.org/news/features/2005/02/18/1/.
^ "Amateur Radio and the Rise of SSB" (PDF). National Association for Amateur Radio. http://www.arrl.org/qst/2003/01/McElroy.pdf.
^ Feltus, Pamela. "Curtis E. LeMay". Centennial of Flight. US Centennial of Flight Commission. http://www.centennialofflight.gov/essay/Air_Power/LeMay/AP36.htm. Retrieved 10 April 2010.
^ ^a ^b Rhodes, 1995, pp. 574–76
^ National Archives and Records Administration, RG 200, Defense Programs and Operations, LeMay's Memo to President and JCS Views, Box 83. Secret.
^ Robert Coram, “Boyd. Back Bay Books/Little, Brown, and Company, 2002, p. 59.
^ Glazov, James ‘Jamie’ (2009‐10‐6), "LeMay: the life and wars of General Curtis LeMay", Front Page Magazine, http://frontpagemag.com/2009/10/06/lemay-the-life-and-wars-of-general-curtis-lemay-by-jamie-glazov/ .
^ "Curtis Emerson LeMay". Find-A-Grave. http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&GRid=9654. Retrieved June 22, 2010.
^ The New Yorker (April 25, 1988)
^ ^a ^b ^c "SCCA Announces 2007 Hall of Fame Class". Sports Car Club of America. November 22, 2006. Archived from the original on 2006-12-05. http://web.archive.org/web/20061205225745/http://www.scca.com/News/News.asp?Ref=729.
^ url=http://www.sightm1911.com/lib/history/randall_history.htm
^ Class exemplar, http://69.199.231.171/wiki/index.php/Class_exemplar .
^ Carter, Dan T. (1995). The Politics of Rage: George Wallace, the Origins of the New Conservatism, and the Transformation of American Politics. New York: Simon & Schuster. p. 357. ISBN 0‐8071‐2597‐0.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f "General Curtis LeMay (character)" on Internet Movie Database
^ Wilson, F. Paul (2009). Black Wind (F. Paul Wilson novel). Tor Books. ISBN 0-7653-6292-9. [1]
^ "LeMay Elementary", Bellevue public schools, http://www.bellevuepublicschools.org/lemay/index.cfm?action=202&id=423&tab=8, retrieved 2011-09-08 .

Bibliography [link]

Atkins, Albert Air Marshall Sir Arthur Harris and General Curtis E. Lemay: A Comparative Analytical Biography. AuthorHouse, 2001. ISBN 0-7596-5940-0.
Craig, William The Fall of Japan. The Dial Press, 1967. Library of Congress Catalog Card No. 67-10704.
Coffey, Thomas M. Iron Eagle: The Turbulent Life of General Curtis LeMay. Random House, 1986. ISBN 0-517-55188-8.
Kozak, Warren LeMay: The Life and Wars of Curtis LeMay. Regnery, 2009.
LeMay, Curtis E. "Mission with LeMay: My Story". Doubleday, 1965
LeMay, Curtis E., Yenne, Bill Superfortress: The Boeing B-29 and American Airpower in World War II. Westholme Publishing 2006, originally published by Berkley, 1988
McNamara, Robert S. In Retrospect: The Tragedy and Lessons of Vietnam. Vintage Press, 1995. ISBN 0-679-76749-5.
Moscow, Warren "City’s Heart Gone". The New York Times. March 11, 1945: 1, 13.
Narvez, Alfonso A. "Gen. Curtis LeMay, an Architect of Strategic Air Power, Dies at 83". The New York Times. October 2, 1990.
Allison, Graham. Essence of Decision: Explaining the Cuban Missile Crisis (1971 – updated 2nd edition, 1999). Longman. ISBN 0-321-01349-2.
Rhodes, Richard Dark Sun: The Making of the Hydrogen Bomb. Simon & Schuster, 1995. ISBN 0-684-80400-X
Tillman, Barrett. LeMay. Palgrave's Great Generals Series, 2007. ISBN 1-4039-7135-8
USAF National Museum, "Gen. Curtis E. LeMay, Awards and Decorations"
USAF Service Record of Curtis LeMay, Military Personnel Records Center, St. Louis, MO
"Curtis E LeMay", 456 Fighter Interceptor Squadron, http://www.456fis.org/CURTIS_E._LAMAY.htm .

External links [link]

Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Curtis LeMay

"LeMay", Air Force Magazine, USA, March 1998, http://www.afa.org/magazine/March1998/0398lemay.asp .
Meilinger, Colonel Phillip S, "LeMay", American Airpower Biography: A Survey of the Field, USAF, http://www.airpower.maxwell.af.mil/airchronicles/cc/lemay.html .
Rhodes, Richard, General Curtis LeMay, Head of Strategic Air Command, USA: PBS, http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/bomb/filmmore/reference/interview/rhodes06.html .
Rhodes, Richard, LeMay's Vision of War, USA: PBS, http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/bomb/filmmore/reference/interview/rhodes07.html .
Annotated bibliography of Curtis LeMay, Alsos Digital Library, http://alsos.wlu.edu/qsearch.aspx?browse=people/LeMay,+Curtis .
"Gen. Curtis E. LeMay", National Museum, USAF, http://www.nationalmuseum.af.mil/factsheets/factsheet.asp?id=1115 .
Nutter, Ralph H, With the Possum and the Eagle, http://books.google.com/books?id=v3D0_vLaPu8C&pg=PA7&lpg=PA7&dq=%22navigator's+wings&source=bl&ots=lt341XM21N&sig=YHRLEI9z95-_Qh_LqQ8_Tu5CJZ0&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=7&ct=result#PPP1,M1http://books.google.com/books?id=v3D0_vLaPu8C&pg=PA7&lpg=PA7&dq=%22navigator's+wings&source=bl&ots=lt341XM21N&sig=YHRLEI9z95-_ . A view of working with LeMay, by his lead navigator in Europe.
"Curtis LeMay". Find a Grave. http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&GRid=9654. Retrieved 2008-02-17.

Military offices
Preceded by Gen. George C. Kenney	Commander, Strategic Air Command 1948—1957	Succeeded by Gen. Thomas S. Power
Preceded by Gen. Thomas D. White	Chief of Staff of the United States Air Force 1961–1965	Succeeded by Gen. John P. McConnell
Party political offices
Preceded by (none)	American Independent Party Vice Presidential Candidate 1968 (3rd)	Succeeded by Thomas J. Anderson

v t e Chiefs of Staff of the Air Force

	Spaatz Vandenberg Twining White LeMay McConnell Ryan Brown Jones Allen Gabriel Welch Dugan Loh (acting) McPeak Fogleman Eberhart (acting) Ryan Jumper Moseley McNabb (acting) Schwartz

Strategic Air Command (SAC)

Bases

Active
(MAJCOM)

CONUS	Altus (AETC) Andersen (PACAF) Andrews (AMC) Barksdale (ACC) Beale (ACC) Bolling (AFDW) Cannon (AFSOC) Columbus (AETC) Davis-Monthan (ACC) Dyess (ACC) Eielson (PACAF) Ellsworth (ACC) Eglin (AFMC) F. E. Warren (AFSPC) Fairchild (AMC) Forbes (ANG) Grand Forks (AMC) Grissom (AFRC) Homestead (AFRC) Lincoln (ANG) Little Rock (AETC) MacDill (AMC) Malmstrom (AFSPC) March (AFRC) McChord (AMC) McConnell (AMC) McGuire (AMC) Minot (ACC) Mountain Home (ACC) Nellis (ACC) Offutt (ACC) Patrick (AFSPC) Pease (ANG) Rickenbacker (ANG) Robins (AFMC) Seymour Johnson (ACC) Sheppard (AETC) Selfridge (ANG) Travis (AMC) Vandenburg (AFSPC) Westover (AFRC) Whiteman (ACC) Wright-Patterson (AFMC)

Overseas	RAF Alconbury (USAFE) Diego Garcia (RAF) Kadena (PACAF) RAF Fairford (USAFE) RAF Lakenheath (USAFE) RAF Mildenhall (USAFE) Thule (AFSPC)

Inactive

CONUS	Amarillo Bergstrom Biggs Calumet Air Force Base Carswell Castle Chennault Clinton-Sherman Dow Eaker Glasgow Grand Island (AAF) Griffiss Hunter K. I. Sawyer Kearney Kincheloe Larson Loring Lowry Mather McCoy Plattsburgh Presque Isle Ramey R.I. Bong (unbuilt) Shilling Stead Turner Walker Wurtsmith

Overseas	RAF Bassingbourn Ben Guerir Boulhaut RAF Brize Norton RAF Bruntingthorpe RAF Burtonwood RAF Chelveston RAF Greenham Common Goose Bay Ernest Harmon RAF High Wycombe RAF Upper Heyford Torrejón RAF Manston Morón Nouasseur RAF Scampton RAF Sculthorpe Sidi Slimane RAF South Ruislip U-Tapao RAF Waddington RAF Woodbridge RAF Wyton Zaragoza

Units

Air Forces

Divisions

Air	3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 12th 14th 17th 19th 21st 36th 40th 42d 45th 47th 57th 100th 311th 801st 802d 806th 817th 822d 823d 4310th

Strategic Aerospace	1st 18th 22d 810th 813th 816th 818th 819th 820th 821st 825th

Strategic Missile	13th

Reconnaissance

Aerospace	310th 385th 462d

AFCON	95th 98th 306th 307th 376th

MAJCOM	3918th 3920th 3960th 3970th 3973d 4026th 4038th 4039th 4042d 4043d 4047th 4080th 4081st 4082d 4083d 4123d 4126th 4128th 4130th 4133d 4134th 4135th 4136th 4137th 4138th 4141st 4157th 4158th 4170th 4228th 4238th 4239th 4241st 4245th 4252nd 4258th 4321st

Support

40th

USAAF
Groups
*=Initial Assigned
Unit Upon SAC's
Activation

Bombardment	2d (7/47) 7th (10/46) 28th (8/46) 40th (3/46) 43rd (10/46) 44th (3/46) 92nd (10/46) 93d (3/46) 97th (8/46) 98th (7/47) 301st (8/46) 307th (8/46) 444th (3/46) 448th (3/46) 449th (3/46) 467th (3/46) 485th (3/46) 498th (3/46) 509th Composite (3/46)

Fighter	27th (6/47) 55th (2/47)

Reconnaissance	91st Strategic Reconnaissance (1/47)

Major
weapon
systems

Bombers	B-1B B-2 B-17 B-26 B-29 B-36 B-45 B-47 B-50 B-52 B-57 B-58 FB-111

Command & Control	DC-130 E-4 EC-135 RC-135

Fighters	F-51 F-82 F-84 F-86 F-102 F-111

Missiles	ADM-20 AGM-28 AGM-69 AGM-84 AGM-86 AGM-129 HGM-16 LGM-30A/B LGM-30F LGM-30G LGM-118A SM-62 PGM-17A PGM-19A

Reconnaissance	SR-71 TR-1 U-2

Tankers	KB-29 KB-50 KC-10 KC-97 HC-130 KC-130 KC-135

Transport	C-45 C-47 C-54 C-82 C-97 C-118 C-119 C-124 C-131 C-135

Commanders

Emblems

Strategic Air Command Emblem Gallery (On Wikimedia Commons)

United States presidential election, 1968

Republican Party
Convention · Primaries

Nominee: Richard Nixon (campaign)
VP Nominee: Spiro Agnew
Candidiates: Frank Carlson · Clifford Case · Hiram L. Fong · John Lindsay · Ronald Reagan · Jim Rhodes · Nelson Rockefeller · Winthrop Rockefeller · George W. Romney · (campaign) · Harold Stassen · John A. Volpe

Democratic Party
Convention · Primaries

American Independent Party

Nominee: George Wallace (campaign)
VP Nominee: Curtis LeMay

Other Third party and independent candidates

Communist Party USA	Nominee: Charlene Mitchell VP Nominee: Michael Zagarell

Peace and Freedom Party	Nominee: Eldridge Cleaver VP Nominee: Douglas Fitzgerald Dowd

Prohibition Party	Nominee: E. Harold Munn

Socialist Labor Party	Nominee: Henning A. Blomen

Socialist Workers Party	Nominee: Fred Halstead VP Nominee: Paul Boutelle

Independents and other candidates:	Dick Gregory

Other 1968 elections: House · Senate

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Persondata
Name	Stewart, James Maitland
Alternative names	Stewart, Jimmy
Short description	American actor and military veteran
Date of birth	(1908-05-20)May 20, 1908
Place of birth	Indiana, Pennsylvania, U.S.
Date of death	July 2, 1997(1997-07-02)
Place of death	Beverly Hills, California, U.S.

Persondata
Name	Yu, Dafu
Alternative names
Short description	Chinese writer
Date of birth	1896
Place of birth	Fuyang, Zhejiang, China
Date of death	1945
Place of death

Persondata
Name	Reagan, Ronald Wilson
Alternative names	Ronald Reagan
Short description	American actor and politician, 33rd Governor of California, 40th President of the United States
Date of birth	1911-02-06
Place of birth	Tampico, Illinois, U.S.
Date of death	2004-06-05
Place of death	Bel-Air, Los Angeles, California, U.S.

Persondata
Name	Lemay, Curtis
Alternative names
Short description	United States general
Date of birth	November 15, 1906
Place of birth	Columbus, Ohio, United States
Date of death	October 1, 1990
Place of death	March Air Force Base, California, United States

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