The city of London (Latin: Londinium) was established by the Romans around AD 43. It served as a major imperial commercial centre until its abandonment during the 5th century.

Origins and language[link]

Map of Roman London, c. 400 AD

Londinium was established as a town by the Romans after the invasion of AD 43 led by the Roman Emperor Claudius. Archaeologists now believe that Londinium was founded as a civilian settlement or civitas by AD 50. A wooden drain by the side of the main Roman road excavated at No 1 Poultry^[1] has been dated by dendrochronology to AD 47, which is likely to be the foundation date.

Prior to the arrival of the Roman legions, the area was almost certainly lightly rolling open countryside traversed by streams such as Walbrook.^[2] Londinium was established at the point where the Thames was narrow enough to build a bridge, but deep enough to handle sea-going marine vessels. Remains of a massive Roman pier base for a bridge were found in 1981, close to the modern London Bridge.

It was traditionally thought that Londinium started as a civilian settlement, although there is also slight evidence that there was a Roman fortress. However, archaeological excavation undertaken since the 1970s by the Department of Urban Archaeology of the Museum of London, now called MOLAS, has failed to unearth any convincing traces of military occupation on the site, so many archeologists now believe that Londinium was the product of private enterprise.^[3] Its site on a busy river-crossing made it a perfect place for traders from across the Roman Empire to set up business.

The name Londinium is thought to be pre-Roman (and possibly pre-Celtic) in origin, although there has been no consensus on what it means. It was common practice for Romans to adopt native names for new settlements. A common theory is that the name derives from a hypothetical Celtic placename, Londinion^[4] which may have been derived from the personal name Londinos, from the word lond, meaning 'wild'.

A theory proposed by Richard Coates,^[5] which does not have widespread acceptance, suggests that the name derives from a Celticised Old European river-name forming part of the oldest stratum of European toponymy, in the sense established by Hans Krahe; Coates suggested a derivation from a pre-Celtic Plowonida — from two roots, plew and nejd, possibly meaning "the flowing river" or "the wide flowing river". Therefore, Londinium would mean "the settlement on the wide river". He suggests that the river was called the Thames upriver where it was narrower, and Plowonida downriver, where it was too wide to ford.^[6]

Inscriptions and graffiti found by archaeologists confirm that Latin was the local language. It has been implied by modern scholars that many of the local people spoke the Celtic language now termed Brythonic, called lingua Gallica (Gaulish) by the Romans; this language is ancestral to Welsh, Cornish and Breton.

Status of Londinium[link]

The status of Londinium is uncertain. It was not the capital of a civitas, though Ptolemy lists it as one of the cities of the Cantiaci. Starting as a small fort guarding the northern end of the new bridge across the River Thames, it grew to become an important port for trade between Britain and the Roman provinces on the continent. The lack of private Roman villas (plentiful elsewhere) suggests military or even Imperial ownership. At the time of the uprising of Boudica, Tacitus writes that "Londinium ... though undistinguished by the name of a colonia, was much frequented by a number of merchants and trading vessels." In the years after the uprising, the provincial administration of Britain moved from Camulodunum (modern Colchester in Essex) to Londinium. The time of the move is not recorded, though 2nd century roofing tiles have been found marked P.PR.BR.LON – "The provincial procurator of Britain, at Londinium". Londinium is not recorded as being called the 'capital city' of Britain, but there are several strong indications for this proposition, such as the building of a Roman Governor's palace, the building of a military camp at the beginning of the 2nd century AD^[7] and several tombstones belonging to members of a governor's staff. It has been assumed that the city became a colonia, as the early 4th century Verona List describes a bishop Adelphius as Adelphius episcopus de civitate colonia Londiniensium. In the 4th century the name of Londinium was changed to Augusta.

History and development[link]

First century AD[link]

Model of London in AD 85–90 on display in the Museum of London, depicting the first bridge over the Thames.

Following its foundation in the mid first century, early Roman London occupied a relatively small area, roughly equivalent in size to Hyde Park at 350 acres (1.4 km²). The 19th-century antiquarian Roach Smith estimated its length from the Tower west to Ludgate at about one mile; and from London Wall in the north to the Thames bank around half a mile.

Archeologists have uncovered numerous goods imported from across the Roman Empire in this period, suggesting that early Roman London was a highly cosmopolitan community of merchants from across the Empire and implying that there was a local market for such objects.

Boudica's uprising[link]

In around AD 60, little more than ten years after Londinium was founded, it was sacked by the Iceni led by their queen Boudica. Excavation has revealed extensive evidence of destruction by fire in the form of a layer of red ash beneath the city at this date.

Boudica's forces, rebelling against Roman rule, first destroyed Camulodunum and then defeated the Roman legion sent from Lindum (Lincoln) to retrieve the city. They then turned their attention towards Londinium. The Roman general Gaius Suetonius Paulinus managed to send some troops to London before Boudica's much larger forces arrived. What happened next was recorded by the Roman historian Tacitus, in what was the first written record of London.

At first, he [Gaius Suetonius Paulinus] hesitated as to whether to stand and fight there [Londinium]. Eventually, his numerical inferiority – and the price only too clearly paid by the divisional commander's rashness – decided him to sacrifice the single city of Londinium to save the province as a whole. Unmoved by lamentations and appeals, Suetonius gave the signal for departure. The inhabitants were allowed to accompany him. But those who stayed because they were women, or old, or attached to the place, were slaughtered by the enemy.

Tacitus then states that the Romans responded to Boudica's attack by slaughtering as many as 70,000 Britons in the Battle of Watling Street. There is a longstanding folklore belief that this battle took place at King’s Cross, simply because as a medieval village it was known as Battle Bridge; Tacitus describes the site: "Suetonius chose a place with narrow jaws, backed by a forest" but does not mention the River Fleet, which flowed here.^[8]

After being sacked, the city was quickly rebuilt as a planned Roman town and recovered after perhaps ten years. During the later decades of the 1st century Londinium expanded rapidly and quickly became Roman Britain's largest city. By the end of the century, Londinium had replaced Colchester as the capital of Roman Britain.

Bronze head of Hadrian, found in London

Second and third centuries[link]

During the 2nd century, Londinium was at its height. Emperor Hadrian visited in 122, and probably as a result a number of impressive public buildings were constructed. At some point soon afterwards, a major fire^[9] destroyed much of the city. Archeologists have discovered significant amounts of burnt debris from this period, although there is no mention of a fire by any classical writers.

Londinium appears to have recovered, however, and by about 140 AD it had reached its estimated population height of around 45,000 to 60,000 inhabitants. By the middle of the century it boasted major public buildings, including the largest basilica north of the Alps, a governor's palace, temples, bath houses, and a large fort for the city garrison.

Excavations during the 1980s uncovered a large Roman port complex near the present-day London Bridge as well as on the other side of the river at Southwark, confirming that, during this period, Londinium was an important commercial and trading centre.

In the second half of the 2nd century Londinium appears to have shrunk in both size and population. The cause is unknown, but plague is considered a likely culprit, as it is known that between AD 165 and 190 the so-called Antonine Plague severely affected Western Europe. Another explanation put forward is that Emperor Hadrian's decision not to extend the empire any further may have caused London merchants to lose valuable contracts, causing the economy to slump.

Although Londinium remained important for the rest of the Roman period, it appears never to have recovered fully from this slump, as archeologists have found that much of the city after this date was covered in dark earth, which remained undisturbed for centuries.

London Wall[link]

Some time between 190 and 225, the Romans built the London Wall, a defensive wall around the landward side of the city. Along with Hadrian's Wall and the road network, the London Wall was one of the largest construction projects carried out in Roman Britain. The wall was about 5 kilometres (nearly 3 miles) long, 6 metres (20 ft) high, and 2.5 metres (8 ft) thick.

A surviving fragment of the London Wall

Although the exact reason for the wall's construction is unknown, it may have been connected with the invasion of northern Britain by Picts, who overran Hadrian's Wall in the 180s.^[10] Alternatively, many historians link the building of London Wall with the political crisis that had emerged in the 190s when two men—Septimius Severus, and the governor of Britain (and usurper) Clodius Albinus—both claimed the right to succeed as Emperor. The wall may have been constructed in the 190s on the orders of Albinus, who, in a power struggle with his rival, may have felt the need to protect his capital. Septimius eventually defeated his rival in 197.

The economic stimulus provided by the Wall and Septimius's campaigns of conquest in Caledonia appear to have revived London's fortunes somewhat in the early 3rd century. Archeological evidence points to renewed construction activity from this period. One of the reforms introduced by Severus in around 200 AD was the division of Roman Britain into two provinces: Britannia Superior and Britannia Inferior, or Upper and Lower Britain. Londinium remained the capital of Britannia Superior, while Eboracum (York) became capital of Britannia Inferior.

The wall would survive for another 1,600 years and define the City of London's perimeters for centuries to come. The perimeters of the present City are roughly defined by the line of the ancient wall.

In the late 3rd century, London was raided on several occasions by Saxon pirates. This led, from around 255 onwards, to the construction of an additional riverside wall.

Carausian Revolt[link]

Carausius coin from Londinium mint.

In 286 the usurper Carausius rebelled against Rome's rule and declared himself the Emperor of Roman Britain. His rule lasted for seven years before he was murdered by his treasurer Allectus, who assumed his position.

In 296 the general Constantius Chlorus invaded Britain to reclaim Britain for Rome. At this point, Frankish mercenaries employed by Allectus started to sack Londinium. They were interrupted in this task when a flotilla of Roman warships sailed up the Thames. According to the 4th century writer Eumenius "the ships reached London, found survivors of the barbarian mercenaries plundering the city, and when these began to seek flight, landed and slew them in the street".

The event was commemorated by a gold medallion known as the Trier medallion, which shows Constantius Chlorus on one side and on the other side a woman kneeling at the city wall welcoming a mounted Roman soldier. The medallion is so named because it was minted at Trier in what is now Germany. It was discovered in Arras in France in the 1920s.

Another memorial to the return of Londinium to Roman control was the construction of a new set of Forum baths, ca 300. Recognised only recently as bath structures,^[11] the buildings are thought to have been instrumental in restoring peace to the area. The scale of the building was not very grand, but it incorporated many elaborate and luxurious necessities of bath structures. The favoured room in the bath is the frigidarium which has two southern pools, and an Eastern natatio.

Fourth century[link]

The first half of the 4th century appears to have been a prosperous time for Britain, for the villa estates surrounding London appear to have flourished during this period. It is certain that a Christian metropolitan bishop was seated in the city by this time. The asserted antiquity of the see of London depends upon the traditional names of sixteen archbishops listed in the 12th century by Jocelyne of Furness in his work Bishops, the sole source of these names; however, the earlier of the two bishops named Restitutus in Jocelyne's list is known to have existed, as he is named as attending the Council of Arles in 314.

By the middle of the century, however, Britain had become increasingly troubled by the incursions of barbarian invaders. From 340 onwards, northern Britain was attacked by Picts and Scots. In 360 a large-scale attack forced the Emperor Julian the Apostate to send troops to deal with the problem. In London at about this time, large efforts were made to improve the city's defences. At least twenty bastions were added to the city walls.

In 367 the Great Conspiracy – another large scale invasion by Picts, Scots and Saxons – occurred. This time the commander Count Theodosius was sent to deal with the problem and restore order, using Londinium as his base. In around 368 Londinium was renamed as Augusta.^[12] In the same century, Roman Britain was divided again, and Londinium became the capital of the province of Maxima Caesariensis.

However, the troubles in the empire continued, and in 382 British troops rebelled and elected their own "emperor", Magnus Maximus. He soon gathered all of the British-based troops he could and crossed the channel. He gained control of the western part of the empire before being defeated by Theodosius I in 388. Unfortunately this left few troops remaining to defend Britain.

By the end of the 4th century, many Romano-British towns, including London, were in decline. Evidence shows that many of London's public buildings had fallen into disrepair by this point.

Decline and abandonment[link]

During the early 5th century the Roman Empire continued its decline. Between 407 and 409 large numbers of barbarians penetrated Gaul and Spain and seriously weakened communication between Rome and Britain, on the western edge of the Empire. British troops elected their own leaders - the last of these, Constantine III, declared himself to be emperor of the Western Roman Empire and took an expeditionary force across the Channel, leaving Britain short of troops. In 410, the Romano-British authorities dropped their allegiance to Constantine and appealed to Emperor Honorius for help. He told them that the Britons would have to look after their own defences, meaning effectively that the Roman occupation of Britain officially came to an end (see End of Roman rule in Britain).

After the fall of the Roman Empire, Britain became increasingly vulnerable to attack by Germanic invaders, namely Angles, Saxons, Jutes and Frisii. There is very little evidence – either historical or archaeological – of what happened to London in this sub-Roman period. However, chaos in the collapsing Roman Empire and Roman Britain meant that long distance trade broke down, wages of Imperial officials were not paid, and London declined drastically.

According to early historians such as the Venerable Bede and Gildas, whose writings were later brought together in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, in 449 Angles, Saxons and Jutes were invited to Britain by King Vortigern as mercenaries to help defend Britain against Picts and Scots. Bede, writing in the 8th century, stated that Jutes settled in Kent, and in 457, led by brothers Hengist and Horsa, turned against the Britons who had invited them and defeated them at the Battle of Crecganford (Crecganford is thought to be modern Crayford) and the Britons fled to London in terror. After this, it is very unclear as to what happened to London, as the historical records are very patchy.

Archeologists have found evidence that a small number of wealthy families managed to maintain a Roman lifestyle until the middle of the 5th century, inhabiting villas in the southeastern corner of the city. By the end of the century however, the city was largely an uninhabited ruin.^[13]

The area of the Roman city remained largely uninhabited for the next 400 years, until the site was resettled by Anglo-Saxons (see Anglo-Saxon London).

Important buildings[link]

The city limits[link]

The Roman city covered about the area of the City of London. In the east from the London Tower to Ludgate (about Ludgate Hill in modern London) in the west, being around 1.5 kilometres (1,600 yd) along the Thames. In the north the city limits were at Bishopsgate and Cripplegate (near the Museum of London). The modern street London Wall marks that site. Outside the limits of the city wall there were suburbs and cemeteries. South of the river there was a substantial suburb at Southwark.

Buildings[link]

Around the area of modern day Cannon Street station, the remains of a large building have been found, often assumed to be the palace of the governor (praetorium). It had a garden, water pools and several large halls, some of them decorated with mosaic floors. The plan of the building is only partly preserved. The building was erected in the second part of the 1st century and was in use until around AD 300. It was rebuilt and renovated several times.^[14]

In the middle of the Roman town, the Forum was the largest marketplace building north of the Alps, measuring an almost perfect square 168 x 167 m. Two main building phases have been distinguished. The early forum, built after the time of the rebellion of Boudicca, had an open courtyard and several shops around it. The identification of this building as a forum has been disputed, and it has been argued that these were merely large warehouses. At the beginning of the 2nd century the complex was significantly enlarged. The forum still had an open courtyard with shops around, but also a large Basilica. The forum was in use until around AD 300.^[15]

In the north of the city remains of the amphitheatre have been found, some still visible under the modern Guildhall. Roman London had several bath houses or Thermae. It is often unclear whether the remains found belonged to public baths or private houses. A well-preserved public bath was excavated at Huggin Hill (near the Thames). It dates into the second part of the 1st century and was demolished around AD 200.

Temples[link]

Remains of the Mithras temple

The city had several important temples. The restoration of a Jupiter temple is mentioned in an inscription, although this building has not yet been identified. Inscriptions mentioning a temple of Isis were found in Southwark. Temple buildings have been excavated near the oldest forum, a round temple west of the city, and perhaps at Peter's Hill, where strong foundations typical of temple buildings were found. The name of a god did not survive in any of these buildings. The only exception is the Temple of Mithras found in 1954 which still contains many high quality miniature votive sculptures.

Living quarters[link]

Mosaic floor from a house in Roman London

In the 1st century AD most houses of the city were built of wood; only in the 2nd century were they partly replaced by stone buildings. In the 2nd century the city reached its highpoint; parts of Roman London were packed with dwellings such as Domus or townhouses. At the end of the 2nd century when many buildings were made of stone, the building density became lower. Instead of many small wooden houses, there were big, well-equipped stone buildings in at least some parts of the city. Excavations have shown that many of the buildings were richly adorned with wall paintings, floor mosaics and sub-floor hypocausts, demonstrating the wealth of the elite.

The port of Londinium[link]

Construction of the port[link]

The bulk of the Roman port was rebuilt after Boudicca’s rebellion when the waterfront was extended using gravel to allow a sturdy wharf to be built perpendicular to the shore. The port was built in four sections, starting upstream of the London Bridge and working down towards the Walbrook. The waterfront was constructed in three main phases, from the 1st to the 3rd century. Armor scraps, leather straps and military stamps on building timbers suggest that the site was constructed using military labor (Brigham).

Port usage[link]

Londinium was a prosperous community that relied heavily on its trade networks to support the lavish lifestyles of its inhabitants. Imports of fine pottery, jewelry and wine were in high demand because of the lack of native craftsmanship and materials for these goods (Hall & Merrifield). Only two large ancient buildings discovered at the waterfront are known to be warehouse structures. This find encourages the idea that Londinium was a large trade center, rather than a distribution center with holding areas like Ostia. Instead, goods moved in and out quickly and nothing needing to be stored (Brigham).

Modern discovery[link]

The first extensive archaeological review of the roman city of London was done in the 17th century after the Great fire of 1666. The extensive rebuilding of London in the 19th century which continued into the 20th century allowed for large parts of the old London to be recorded and preserved while modern updates were made. Major finds from Roman London, including mosaics, wall fragments, and old buildings, have been housed in the British Museum and the Guildhall Museum (Hall & Merrifield). In the 1970s archaeologists began the first intensive excavation of the waterfront sites of Roman London. Their discoveries revealed that the port was built and expanded rapidly, flourished, and quickly declined in the 5th century (Milne). What was not found during this time has been built over making it very difficult to study or discover anything new (Haverfield).

See also[link]

• Anglo-Saxon London
• History of London
• Temple of Mithras
• Museum of London Archaeology Service

Notes[link]

Bibliographic references[link]

• Billings, Malcolm (1994), London: a companion to its history and archaeology, ISBN 1-85626-153-0
• Brigham, Trevor. 1998. “The Port of Roman London.” In Roman London Recent Archeological Work, edited by B. Watson, 23–34. Michigan: Cushing–Malloy Inc. Paper read at a seminar held at The Museum of London, 16 November.
• Hall, Jenny, and Ralph Merrifield. Roman London. London: HMSO Publications, 1986.
• Haverfield, F. "Roman London." The Journal of Roman Studies 1 (1911): 141–72.
• Inwood, Stephen. A History of London (1998) ISBN 0-333-67153-8
• John Wacher: The Towns of Roman Britain, London/New York 1997, p. 88–111. ISBN 0-415-17041-9
• Gordon Home: Roman London: A D 43–457 Illustrated with black and white plates of artefacts. diagrams and plans. Published by Eyre and Spottiswoode (London) in 1948 with no ISBN.
• Milne, Gustav. The Port of Roman London. London: B.T. Batsford, 1985.

External links[link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Londinium

• Roman London - From Britannia.com
• The eastern cemetery of Roman London: excavations 1983–1990 Museum of London Archive
• The eastern cemetery of Roman London: excavations 1983–1990 Museum of London Archive

v t e History of London Evolution Londinium Lundenwic City of London City of Westminster Middlesex County of London Greater London Periods Roman London Anglo-Saxon London Norman and Medieval London Tudor London Stuart London 18th century London 19th century London 1900–1939 The Blitz 1945–2000 21st century Events Peasants' Revolt Black Death Great Plague Great Fire 1854 cholera outbreak Great Stink Great Exhibition 1908 Franco-British Exhibition The Battle of Cable Street Festival of Britain Great Smog Swinging London London Plan 7/7 bombings Olympic Games (1908 1948 2012) Government Metropolitan Board of Works London County Council Greater London Council Greater London Authority London Assembly Mayor of London Services Bow Street Runners Metropolitan Police Service London Ambulance Service London Fire Brigade Port of London Authority London sewerage system London Underground City of London City of London Corporation Lord Mayor of the City of London Wards of the City of London Guildhall Livery Companies Lord Mayor's Show City of London Police Bank of England Structures St Paul's Cathedral Tower of London Palace of Whitehall Westminster Hall London Bridge Tower Bridge Westminster Abbey Big Ben The Monument Fortifications Category Commons

Coordinates: 51°30′45.00″N 0°05′26.16″W / 51.5125°N 0.0906°W / 51.5125; -0.0906

London
From upper left: City of London, Tower Bridge and London Eye, Palace of Westminster
London region in the United Kingdom
Coordinates: 51°30′26″N 0°7′39″W / 51.50722°N 0.1275°W / 51.50722; -0.1275Coordinates: 51°30′26″N 0°7′39″W / 51.50722°N 0.1275°W / 51.50722; -0.1275
Sovereign state	United Kingdom
Country	England
Region	London
Ceremonial counties	City and Greater London
Districts	City and 32 boroughs
Settled by Romans	as Londinium, c. AD 43
Headquarters	City Hall
Government
• Regional authority	Greater London Authority
• Regional assembly	London Assembly
• Mayor of London	Boris Johnson
• UK Parliament  - London Assembly  - European Parliament	74 constituencies 14 constituencies London constituency
Area
• London	1,570 km2 (607 sq mi)
Elevation[1]	24 m (79 ft)
Population (July 2010 est.)[2]
• London	7,825,200
• Density	4,978/km2 (12,892/sq mi)
• Urban	8,278,251
• Metro	13,709,000
• Demonym	Londoner
• Ethnicity (June 2009 estimates)	Ethnic groups 69.7% White 59.5% White British 2.2% White Irish 8.0% Other White   3.5% Mixed 1.0% Black Caribbean & White 0.5% Black African & White 1.0% South Asian & White 1.0% Other mixed   13.2% South Asian 6.2% Indian 2.8% Pakistani 2.2% Bangladeshi 2.0% Other South Asian   10.1% Black 5.3% Black African 4.0% Black Caribbean 0.8% Other Black   3.5% East Asian or Other 1.5% Chinese 2.0% Other
Time zone	GMT (UTC±0)
• Summer (DST)	BST (UTC+1)
Postcode areas	E , EC , N , NW , SE , SW , W , WC , BR , CM , CR , DA , EN , HA , IG , KT , RM , SM , TN , TW , UB , WD
Area code(s)	020, 01322, 01689, 01708, 01737, 01895, 01923, 01959, 01992
Website	london.gov.uk

London ⁱ/ˈlʌndən/ is the capital city of England and the United Kingdom, the largest metropolitan area in the United Kingdom, and the largest urban zone in the European Union by most measures.^{[note 1]} Located on the River Thames, London has been a major settlement for two millennia, its history going back to its founding by the Romans, who named it Londinium.^[3] London's ancient core, the City of London, largely retains its square-mile mediaeval boundaries. Since at least the 19th century, the name London has also referred to the metropolis developed around this core.^[4] The bulk of this conurbation forms the London region^[5] and the Greater London administrative area,^{[6][note 2]} governed by the elected Mayor of London and the London Assembly.^[7]

London is a leading global city, with strengths in the arts, commerce, education, entertainment, fashion, finance, healthcare, media, professional services, research and development, tourism and transport all contributing to its prominence.^[8] It is the world's leading financial centre alongside New York City^[9][10][11] and has the fifth-largest city GDP in the world (and the largest in Europe).^[12] London has been described as a world cultural capital.^{[13][14][15][16]} It was the world's most visited city during 2011 ^[17][18] and London Heathrow is the world's busiest airport by number of international passengers.^[19] London's 43 universities form the largest concentration of higher education in Europe.^[20] In 2012 London will become the first city to host the modern Summer Olympic Games three times.^[21]

London has a diverse range of peoples and cultures, and more than 300 languages are spoken within its boundaries.^[22] In July 2010 Greater London had an official population of 7,825,200, making it the most populous municipality in the European Union,^[2][23] and accounting for 12.5% of the UK population.^[24] The Greater London Urban Area is the second-largest in the EU with a population of 8,278,251,^[25] while London's metropolitan area is the largest in the EU with an estimated total population of between 12 million^[26] and 14 million.^[27] London had the largest population of any city in the world from around 1831 to 1925.^[28]

London contains four World Heritage Sites: the Tower of London; Kew Gardens; the site comprising the Palace of Westminster, Westminster Abbey, and St Margaret's Church; and the historic settlement of Greenwich (in which the Royal Observatory marks the Prime Meridian (0° longitude) and GMT).^[29] Other famous landmarks include Buckingham Palace, the London Eye, Piccadilly Circus, St Paul's Cathedral, Tower Bridge, Trafalgar Square, Wembley Stadium, and Shard London Bridge. London is home to numerous museums, galleries, libraries, sporting events and other cultural institutions, including the British Museum, Natural History Museum, National Gallery, Tate Modern, British Library, Wimbledon, and 40 West End theatres.^[30] The London Underground is the oldest underground railway network in the world^[31] and the second-most extensive (after the Shanghai Metro).^[32]

History[link]

Toponymy[link]

The name London may derive from the River Thames

The etymology of London is uncertain.^[33] It is an ancient name and can be found in sources from the 2nd century. It is recorded c. 121 as Londinium, which points to Romano-British origin.^[33] The earliest attempted explanation, now disregarded, is attributed to Geoffrey of Monmouth in Historia Regum Britanniae.^[33] This had it that the name originated from a supposed King Lud, who had allegedly taken over the city and named it Kaerlud.^[34]

From 1898 it was commonly accepted that the name was of Celtic origin and meant place belonging to a man called *Londinos; this explanation has since been rejected.^[33] Richard Coates put forward an explanation in 1998 that it is derived from the pre-Celtic Old European *(p)lowonida, meaning 'river too wide to ford', and suggested that this was a name given to the part of the River Thames which flows through London; from this, the settlement gained the Celtic form of its name, *Lowonidonjon.^[35]

Until 1889 the name "London" officially only applied to the City of London but since then it has also referred to the County of London and now Greater London.^[4]

Prehistory and antiquity[link]

In 1300 the City was still confined within the Roman walls.

Although there is evidence of scattered Brythonic settlements in the area, the first major settlement was founded by the Romans in 43 AD.^[36] This lasted for just seventeen years and around 61, the Iceni tribe led by Queen Boudica stormed it, burning it to the ground.^[37] The next, heavily planned incarnation of the city prospered and superseded Colchester as the capital of the Roman province of Britannia in 100. At its height during the 2nd century, Roman London had a population of around 60,000. By the 7th century, the Anglo-Saxons had created a new settlement called Lundenwic over a mile (2 km) upstream from the old Roman city, around what is now Covent Garden.^[38]

It is likely that there was a harbour at the mouth of the River Fleet for fishing and trading, and this trading grew, until the city was overcome by the Vikings and forced to move east, back to the location of the Roman Londinium, in order to use its walls for protection.^[39] Viking attacks continued to increase, until 886 when Alfred the Great recaptured London and made peace with the Danish leader, Guthrum.^[40] The original Saxon city of Lundenwic became Ealdwic ("old city"), a name surviving to the present day as Aldwych, which is in the modern City of Westminster.^[41]

Two recent discoveries indicate that London could be much older than previously thought. In 1999 the remains of a Bronze Age bridge were found on the foreshore north of Vauxhall Bridge.^[42] This bridge either crossed the Thames, or went to a (lost) island in the river. Dendrology dated the timbers to 1500BC.

In 2010 the foundations of a large timber structure, dated to 4500BC, were found on the Thames foreshore, South of Vauxhall Bridge.^[43] The function of the mesolithic structure is not known, but it covers at least 50m x 10m, and numerous 30 cm posts are visible at low tides. Both structures are on South Bank, at a natural crossing point where the River Effra flows into the River Thames, and 4 km upstream from the Roman City of London. The effort required to construct these structures implies trade, stability, and a community size of several hundred people at least.

Middle Ages[link]

The Lancastrian siege of London in 1471 is attacked by a Yorkist sally.

With the collapse of Roman rule in the early 5th century, London was effectively abandoned. However, from the 6th century an Anglo-Saxon settlement known as Lundenwic developed slightly to the west of the old Roman city, around what is now Covent Garden and the Strand, rising to a likely population of 10–12,000.^[38] In the 9th century London was repeatedly attacked by Vikings, leading to a relocation of the city back to the location of Roman Londinium, in order to use its walls for protection.^[39] Following the unification of England in the 10th century London, already the country's largest city and most important trading centre, became increasingly important as a political centre, although it still faced competition from Winchester, the traditional centre of the kingdom of Wessex.

In the 11th century King Edward the Confessor re-founded and rebuilt Westminster Abbey and Westminster, a short distance upstream from London became a favoured royal residence. From this point onward Westminster steadily supplanted the City of London itself as a venue for the business of national government.^[44]

Westminster Abbey is a World Heritage Site and one of London's oldest and most important buildings as seen in this painting (Canaletto, 1749 A.D.)

Following his victory in the Battle of Hastings, William, Duke of Normandy, was crowned King of England in the newly finished Westminster Abbey on Christmas Day 1066.^[45] William constructed the Tower of London, the first of the many Norman castles in England to be rebuilt in stone, in the southeastern corner of the city to intimidate the native inhabitants.^[46] In 1097, William II began the building of Westminster Hall, close by the abbey of the same name. The hall became the basis of a new Palace of Westminster.^[47][48]

During the 12th century the institutions of central government, which had hitherto accompanied the royal court as it moved around the country, grew in size and sophistication and became increasingly fixed in one place. In most cases this was Westminster, although the royal treasury, having been moved from Winchester, came to rest in the Tower. While the City of Westminster developed into a true capital in governmental terms, its distinct neighbour, the City of London, remained England's largest city and principal commercial centre and flourished under its own unique administration, the Corporation of London. In 1100 its population was around 18,000; by 1300 it had grown to nearly 100,000.^[49]

Disaster struck during the Black Death in the mid-14th century, when London lost nearly a third of its population.^[50] London was the focus of the Peasants' Revolt in 1381.^[51]

Early modern[link]

The Great Fire of London destroyed many parts of the city in 1666.

London in 1806

During the Tudor period the Reformation produced a gradual shift to Protestantism, with much of London passing from church to private ownership.^[52] The traffic in woollen cloths shipped undyed and undressed from London to the nearby shores of the Low Countries, for use by well-to-do wearers chiefly in the interior of the continent. But the tentacles of English maritime enterprise hardly extended beyond the seas of north-west Europe. The commercial route to Italy and the Mediterranean Sea normally lay through Antwerp and over the Alps; any ship passing through the Strait of Gibraltar to or from England were likely to be Italian or Ragusan. Upon the re-opening of the Netherlands to English shipping in January 1565 there at once ensued a strong outburst of commercial activity.^[53] The Royal Exchange was founded.^[54] Mercantilism grew and monopoly trading companies such as the East India Company were established, with trade expanding to the New World. London became the principal North Sea port, with migrants arriving from England and abroad. The population rose from an estimated 50,000 in 1530 to about 225,000 in 1605.^[52]

In the 16th century William Shakespeare and his contemporaries lived in London at a time of hostility to the development of the theatre. By the end of the Tudor period in 1603, London was still very compact. There was an assassination attempt on James I in Westminster, through the Gunpowder Plot on 5 November 1605.^[55] London was plagued by disease in the early 17th century,^[56] culminating in the Great Plague of 1665–1666, which killed up to 100,000 people, or a fifth of the population.^[57]

The Great Fire of London broke out in 1666 in Pudding Lane in the city and quickly swept through the wooden buildings.^[58] Rebuilding took over ten years and was supervised by Robert Hooke^[59][60][61] as Surveyor of London.^[62] In 1708 Christopher Wren's masterpiece, St Paul's Cathedral was completed. During the Georgian era new districts such as Mayfair were formed in the west; and new bridges over the Thames encouraged development in South London. In the east, the Port of London expanded downstream.

In 1762 George III acquired Buckingham House and it was enlarged over the next 75 years. During the 18th century, London was dogged by crime and the Bow Street Runners were established in 1750 as a professional police force.^[63] In total, more than 200 offences were punishable by death,^[64] and women and children were hanged for petty theft.^[65] Over 74 per cent of children born in London died before they were five.^[66] The coffeehouse became a popular place to debate ideas, with growing literacy and the development of the printing press making news widely available; and Fleet Street became the centre of the British press.

According to Samuel Johnson:

Late modern and contemporary[link]

A London street hit during the Blitz of World War II

London was the world's largest city from about 1831 to 1925.^[68] London's overcrowded conditions led to cholera epidemics,^[69] claiming 14,000 lives in 1848, and 6,000 in 1866.^[70] Rising traffic congestion led to the creation of the world's first local urban rail network. The Metropolitan Board of Works oversaw infrastructure expansion. It was replaced in 1889 by the London County Council, London's first elected city-wide administration. The Blitz and other bombing by the German Luftwaffe during World War II killed over 30,000 Londoners and destroyed large tracts of housing and other buildings across London. Immediately after the war, the 1948 Summer Olympics were held at the original Wembley Stadium, at a time when the city had barely recovered from the war.

In 1951 the Festival of Britain was held on the South Bank. The Great Smog of 1952 led to the Clean Air Act 1956, which ended the "pea-souper" fogs for which London had been notorious. From the 1940s onwards, London became home to a large number of immigrants, largely from Commonwealth countries such as Jamaica, India, Bangladesh and Pakistan, making London one of the most diverse cities in Europe.

Primarily starting in the mid-1960s, London became a centre for the worldwide youth culture, exemplified by the Swinging London subculture associated with the King's Road, Chelsea and Carnaby Street. The role of trendsetter was revived during the punk era. In 1965 London's political boundaries were expanded to take into account the growth of the urban area and a new Greater London Council was created. During The Troubles in Northern Ireland, London was subjected to bombing attacks by the Provisional IRA. Racial inequality was highlighted by the 1981 Brixton riot. Greater London's population declined steadily in the decades after World War II, from an estimated peak of 8.6 million in 1939 to around 6.8 million in the 1980s. The principal ports for London moved downstream to Felixstowe and Tilbury, with the London Docklands area becoming a focus for regeneration as the Canary Wharf development. This was borne out of London's ever-increasing role as a major international financial centre during the 1980s.

The Thames Barrier was completed in the 1980s to protect London against tidal surges from the North Sea. The Greater London Council was abolished in 1986, which left London as the only large metropolis in the world without a central administration. In 2000, London-wide government was restored, with the creation of the Greater London Authority. To celebrate the start of the 21st century, the Millennium Dome, London Eye and Millennium Bridge were constructed. On 7 July 2005, three London Underground trains and a double-decker bus were bombed in a series of terrorist attacks.^[71]

Government[link]

London

This article is part of the series: Politics and government of London

Sovereign Elizabeth II Greater London Authority Mayor Boris Johnson Deputy Richard Barnes London Assembly Mayoral elections Constituencies City of London Corporation Lord Mayor Sheriff Wards Court of Aldermen Parliament of the United Kingdom 1998 referendum GLA Act 1999 GLA Act 2007 Elections Constituencies European Parliament Elections European Parliament constituency Committee of the Regions Subsidiarity Boroughs Middle Temple Inner Temple

Other countries · Atlas Politics portal view talk edit

Local government[link]

The Greater London Authority is based in City Hall, Southwark

The administration of London is formed of two tiers—a city-wide, strategic tier and a local tier. City-wide administration is coordinated by the Greater London Authority (GLA), while local administration is carried out by 33 smaller authorities.^[72] The GLA consists of two elected components; the Mayor of London, who has executive powers, and the London Assembly, who scrutinise the mayor's decisions and can accept or reject his budget proposals each year. The headquarters of the GLA is City Hall, Southwark; the current mayor is Boris Johnson. The mayor's statutory planning strategy is published as the London Plan, which was most recently revised in 2011.^[73] The local authorities are the councils of the 32 London boroughs and the City of London Corporation.^[74] They are responsible for most local services, such as local planning, schools, social services, local roads and refuse collection. Certain functions, such as waste management, are provided through joint arrangements. In 2009–2010 the combined revenue expenditure by London councils and the GLA amounted to just over 22 billion ₤ (14.7 billion ₤ for the boroughs and 7.4 billion ₤ for the GLA)^[75]

Policing in Greater London, with the exception of the City of London, is provided by the Metropolitan Police Force, overseen by the Metropolitan Police Authority. The City of London has its own police force – the City of London Police.^[76] The British Transport Police are responsible for police services on National Rail and London Underground services in the capital.^[77]

The London Fire Brigade is the statutory fire and rescue service for Greater London. It is run by the London Fire and Emergency Planning Authority and is the third-largest fire service in the world.^[78] National Health Service ambulance services are provided by the London Ambulance Service (LAS) NHS Trust, the largest free at the point of use emergency ambulance service in the world.^[79] The London Air Ambulance charity operates in conjunction with the LAS where required. Her Majesty's Coastguard and the Royal National Lifeboat Institution operate on the River Thames.^[80][81]

National government[link]

London is the seat of the Government of the United Kingdom, which is located around the Palace of Westminster. Many government departments are located close to Parliament, particularly along Whitehall, including the Prime Minister's residence at 10 Downing Street.^[82] The British Parliament is often referred to as the "Mother of Parliaments" (although this sobriquet was first applied to England itself by John Bright)^[83] because it has been the model for most other parliamentary systems, and its Acts have created many other parliaments.

Geography[link]

Scope[link]

Greater London is the top-level administrative subdivision covering London. The small, ancient City of London at its core once contained the whole settlement, but as the urban area grew the City Corporation resisted attempts to amalgamate it with its suburbs, causing "London" to be defined in a number ways for different purposes; and the situation was once open to legal debate.^[84] Forty per cent of Greater London is covered by the London post town, within which 'LONDON' forms part of postal addresses.^[85][86]

Satellite view of London

Map of central London

The London telephone area code (020) covers a larger area, similar in size to Greater London, although some outer districts are omitted and some places just outside are included. The area within the orbital M25 motorway is normally what is referred to as 'London'.^[87] and the Greater London boundary has been aligned to it in places.^[88]

Outward urban expansion is now prevented by the Metropolitan Green Belt,^[89] although the built-up area extends beyond the boundary in places, resulting in a separately defined Greater London Urban Area. Beyond this is the vast London commuter belt.^[90] Greater London is split for some purposes into Inner London and Outer London.^[91] The city is split by the River Thames into North and South, with an informal central London area in its interior. The coordinates of the nominal centre of London, traditionally considered to be the original Eleanor Cross at Charing Cross near the junction of Trafalgar Square and Whitehall, are approximately 51°30′26″N 00°07′39″W / 51.50722°N 0.1275°W / 51.50722; -0.1275.^[92]

Status[link]

Within London, both the City of London and the City of Westminster have city status and both the City of London and the remainder of Greater London are the ceremonial counties.^[93] The current area of Greater London has incorporated areas that were once part of the counties of Middlesex, Kent, Surrey, Essex and Hertfordshire.^[94] London's status as the capital of England, and later the United Kingdom, has never been granted or confirmed officially—by statute or in written form.^{[note 3]}

Its position was formed through constitutional convention, making its status as de facto capital a part of the UK's unwritten constitution. The capital of England was moved to London from Winchester as the Palace of Westminster developed in the 12th and 13th centuries to become the permanent location of the royal court, and thus the political capital of the nation.^[98] More recently, Greater London has been defined as a region of England and in this context known as London.^[5]

Topography[link]

Primrose Hill

Greater London covers an area of 1,583 square kilometres (611 sq mi), an area which had a population of 7,172,036 in 2001 and a population density of 4,542 inhabitants per square kilometre (11,760 /sq mi). A larger area, referred to as the London Metropolitan Region or the London Metropolitan Agglomeration covers an area of 8,382 square kilometres (3,236 sq mi) has a population of 12,653,500 and a population density of 1,510 inhabitants per square kilometre (3,900 /sq mi).^[99] Modern London stands on the Thames, its primary geographical feature, a navigable river which crosses the city from the south-west to the east. The Thames Valley is a floodplain surrounded by gently rolling hills including Parliament Hill, Addington Hills, and Primrose Hill. The Thames was once a much broader, shallower river with extensive marshlands; at high tide, its shores reached five times their present width.^[100]

Since the Victorian era the Thames has been extensively embanked, and many of its London tributaries now flow underground. The Thames is a tidal river, and London is vulnerable to flooding.^[101] The threat has increased over time due to a slow but continuous rise in high water level by the slow 'tilting' of Britain (up in the north and down in the south) caused by post-glacial rebound.^[102]

In 1974, a decade of work began on the construction of the Thames Barrier across the Thames at Woolwich to deal with this threat. While the barrier is expected to function as designed until roughly 2070, concepts for its future enlargement or redesign are already being discussed.^[103]

Climate[link]

London has a temperate oceanic climate, similar to much of southern Britain. Despite its reputation as being a rainy city, London receives less precipitation in a year than Rome at 834 mm (32.8 in), or Bordeaux at 923 mm (36.3 in).^[104] Winters are generally chilly to cold with frost usually occurring in the suburbs on average twice a week from November to March. Snow usually occurs about 4 or 5 times a year mostly from December to February. Snowfall during March and April is rare but does occur every 2–3 years. Winter temperatures seldom fall below −4 °C (24.8 °F) or rise above 14 °C (57.2 °F). During the winter of 2010, London experienced its lowest temperature on record (−14 °C (6.8 °F)) in Northolt and the heaviest snow seen for almost two decades, a huge strain on London's transport infrastructure. Summers are generally warm and sometimes hot, the heat being boosted by the urban heat island effect making the centre of London at times 5 °C (9 °F) warmer than the suburbs and outskirts. London's summer average is 24 °C (75.2 °F). On average there are 7 days a year above 30 °C (86.0 °F) and 2 days a year above 32 °C (89.6 °F). Temperatures of 26 °C (80 °F) usually occur on a weekly basis from mid- June to late August. During the 2003 European heat wave there were 14 consecutive days above 30 °C (86.0 °F) and 2 consecutive days where temperatures soared up to 38 °C (100.4 °F), leading to hundreds of heat related deaths. Rain generally occurs on around 2 out of 10 summer days. Spring and Autumn are mixed seasons and can be pleasant. On 1 October 2011, the air temperature attained 30 °C (86.0 °F) and in April 2011 it reached 28 °C (82.4 °F). However in recent years both of these months have also had snowfall. Temperature extremes range from −10 °C (14.0 °F) to 37.9 °C (100.2 °F).

Districts[link]

The City of London and the 32 London boroughs

City of London City of Westminster Kensington and Chelsea Hammersmith and Fulham Wandsworth Lambeth Southwark Tower Hamlets Hackney Islington Camden Brent Ealing Hounslow Richmond Kingston Merton

Sutton Croydon Bromley Lewisham Greenwich Bexley Havering Barking and Dagenham Redbridge Newham Waltham Forest Haringey Enfield Barnet Harrow Hillingdon

London's vast urban area is often described using a set of district names, such as Bloomsbury, Mayfair, Wembley and Whitechapel. These are either informal designations, reflect the names of villages that have been absorbed by sprawl, or are superseded administrative units such as parishes or former boroughs.

Such names have remained in use through tradition, each referring to a local area with its own distinctive character, but without current official boundaries. Since 1965 Greater London has been divided into 32 London boroughs in addition to the ancient City of London.^[110][111] The City of London is the main financial district^[112] and Canary Wharf has recently developed into a new financial and commercial hub, in the Docklands to the east.

The West End is London's main entertainment and shopping district, attracting tourists.^[113] West London includes expensive residential areas where properties can sell for tens of millions of pounds.^[114] The average price for properties in Kensington and Chelsea is £894,000 with similar average outlay in most of central London.^[115]

The East End is the area closest to the original Port of London, known for its high immigrant population, as well as for being one of the poorest areas in London.^[116] The surrounding East London area saw much of London's early industrial development; now, brownfield sites throughout the area are being redeveloped as part of the Thames Gateway including the London Riverside and Lower Lea Valley, which is being developed into the Olympic Park for the 2012 Olympics and Paralympics.^[116]

Architecture[link]

30 St Mary Axe, also known as the Gherkin, towers over St Andrew Undershaft

London's buildings are too diverse to be characterised by any particular architectural style, partly due to their varying ages. Many grand houses and public buildings, such as the National Gallery, are constructed from Portland stone. Some areas of the city, particularly those just west of the centre, are characterised by white stucco or whitewashed buildings. Few structures in Central London pre-date the Great Fire of 1666, these being a few trace Roman remains, the Tower of London and a few scattered Tudor survivors in the City. Further out is, for example, the Tudor period Hampton Court Palace, England's oldest surviving Tudor palace, built by Cardinal Thomas Wolsey circa 1515.^[117] Wren's late 17th century churches and the financial institutions of the 18th and 19th centuries such as the Royal Exchange and the Bank of England, to the early 20th century Old Bailey and the 1960s Barbican Estate form part of the varied architectural heritage.

The disused, but soon to be rejuvenated, 1939 Battersea Power Station by the river in the southwest is a local landmark, while some railway termini are excellent examples of Victorian architecture, most notably St. Pancras and Paddington.^[118] The density of London varies, with high employment density in the central area, high residential densities in inner London and lower densities in the suburbs.

The Monument in the City of London provides views of the surrounding area while commemorating the Great Fire of London, which originated nearby. Marble Arch and Wellington Arch, at the north and south ends of Park Lane respectively, have royal connections, as do the Albert Memorial and Royal Albert Hall in Kensington. Nelson's Column is a nationally recognised monument in Trafalgar Square, one of the focal points of the city centre.

Buckingham Palace is the official residence of the British monarch

High-rise development is restricted at certain sites if it would obstruct protected views of St Paul's Cathedral. Nevertheless, there are plans for more skyscrapers in central London (see Tall buildings in London), including the 72-storey Shard London Bridge which is currently under construction. Development temporarily stalled as a result of the recent financial crisis, but is reported to be recovering.^[119] Older buildings are mainly brick built, most commonly the yellow London stock brick or a warm orange-red variety, often decorated with carvings and white plaster mouldings.^[120]

In the dense areas, most of the concentration is achieved with medium- and high-rise buildings. London's skyscrapers such as 30 St Mary Axe, Tower 42, the Broadgate Tower and One Canada Square are usually found in the two financial districts, the City of London and Canary Wharf. Other notable modern buildings include City Hall in Southwark with its distinctive oval shape,^[121] and the British Library in Somers Town/Kings Cross. What was formerly the Millennium Dome, located by the Thames to the east of Canary Wharf, is now used as an entertainment venue called The O2 Arena.

Parks and gardens[link]

Aerial view of Hyde Park

The largest parks in the central area of London are the Royal Parks of Hyde Park, its neighbour Kensington Gardens at the western edge of central London and Regent's Park on the northern edge.^[122] Regent's Park contains London Zoo, the world's oldest scientific zoo, and is located near the tourist attraction of Madame Tussauds Wax Museum.^[123][124]

Closer to central London are the smaller Royal Parks of Green Park and St. James's Park.^[125] Hyde Park in particular is popular for sports and sometimes hosts open-air concerts. A number of large parks lie outside the city centre, including the remaining Royal Parks of Greenwich Park to the south-east^[126] and Bushy Park and Richmond Park to the south-west,^[127][128] as well as Victoria Park, London to the east. Primrose Hill to the north of Regent's Park is a popular spot to view the city skyline.

Some more informal, semi-natural open spaces also exist, including the 320-hectare (790-acre) Hampstead Heath of North London.^[129] This incorporates Kenwood House, the former stately home and a popular location in the summer months where classical musical concerts are held by the lake, attracting thousands of people every weekend to enjoy the music, scenery and fireworks.^[130]

Demography[link]

2001 United Kingdom Census[131]
Country of birth	Population
United Kingdom	5,230,155
India	172,162
Republic of Ireland	157,285
Bangladesh	84,565
Jamaica	80,319
Nigeria	68,907
Pakistan	66,658
Kenya	66,311
Sri Lanka	49,932
Ghana	46,513
Cyprus	45,888
South Africa	45,506
United States	44,622
Australia	41,488
Germany	39,818
Turkey	39,128
Italy	38,694
France	38,130
Somalia	33,831
Uganda	32,082
New Zealand	27,494

2009–10 ONS estimates[132]
Country of birth	Population
India	248,000
Poland	122,000
Republic of Ireland	110,000
Bangladesh	107,000
Nigeria	95,000