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- A. A. Long
- Abdication
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Achaemenid Empire
http://wn.com/Achaemenid_Empire -
Acropolis of Athens
The Acropolis of Athens or Citadel of Athens is the best known acropolis (Gr. akros, akron, edge, extremity + polis, city, pl. acropoleis) in the world. Although there are many other acropoleis in Greece, the significance of the Acropolis of Athens is such that it is commonly known as The Acropolis without qualification. The Acropolis was formally proclaimed as the pre-eminent monument on the European Cultural Heritage list of monuments on 26 March 2007. The Acropolis is a flat-topped rock that rises above sea level in the city of Athens, with a surface area of about 3 hectares. It was also known as Cecropia, after the legendary serpent-man, Cecrops, the first Athenian king.
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Aegean Sea
The Aegean Sea (, Egeo Pelagos ; ) is an elongated embayment of the Mediterranean Sea located between the southern Balkan and Anatolian peninsulas, i.e., between the mainlands of Greece and Turkey respectively. In the north, it is connected to the Marmara Sea and Black Sea by the Dardanelles and Bosporus. The Aegean Islands are within the sea and some bound it on its southern periphery, including Crete and Rhodes. The Aegean Region consists of nine provinces in southwestern Turkey, in part bordering on the Aegean sea.
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Alexandria
http://wn.com/Alexandria -
Antioch
http://wn.com/Antioch -
Areopagus
:This article concerns the place where a classical judicial body met. It is also the term for the judicial body which met there. For the 16th century literary movement, see Areopagus (poetry). For the regional government during the Greek War of Independence, see Areopagus of Eastern Continental Greece. For the modern Greek Supreme Court, see Court of Cassation (Greece).
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Asia Minor
http://wn.com/Asia_Minor -
Attalid dynasty
The Attalid dynasty was a Hellenistic dynasty that ruled the city of Pergamon after the death of Lysimachus, a general of Alexander the Great. The Attalid kingdom was the rump state left after the collapse of the Lysimachian Empire. One of Lysimachus' officers, Philetaerus, took control of the city in 282 BC. The later Attalids were descended from his father, and they expanded the city into a kingdom. Attalus I proclaimed himself King in the 230s BC, following his victories over the Galatians. The Attalids ruled Pergamon until Attalus III bequeathed the kingdom to the Roman Republic in 133 BC to avoid a likely succession crisis.
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Classical Athens
The city of Athens during the classical period of Ancient Greece (508-322 BC) was a notable polis (city-state) of Attica, Greece, leading the Delian League in the Peloponnesian War against Sparta and the Peloponnesian League. Athenian democracy was established in 508 BC under Cleisthenes following the tyranny of Hippias. This system remained remarkably stable, and with a few brief interruptions remained in place for 180 years, until 322 BC (aftermath of Lamian War) . The peak of Athenian hegemony was achieved in the 440s to 430s BC, known as the Age of Pericles.
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Crete
http://wn.com/Crete -
Cyprus
http://wn.com/Cyprus -
Dardanelles
The Dardanelles (, ), formerly known as the Hellespont
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Ephesus
http://wn.com/Ephesus -
Ionian Sea
The Ionian Sea is an arm of the Mediterranean Sea, south of the Adriatic Sea. It is bounded by southern Italy including Calabria, Sicily and the Salento peninsula to the west, and by southwestern Albania, including Saranda and Himara, and a large number of Greek islands, including Corfu, Zante, Kephalonia, Ithaka, and Lefkas to the east. The islands are collectively referred to as the Ionian Islands, and other islands include the Strophades, Sphagia, Schiza, Sapientza and Kythira. The sea is one of the most seismic areas in the world.
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Milan
Milan (, ; Western Lombard: Milan, ) is a city in Italy and the capital of the region of Lombardy and of the province of Milan. The city proper has a population of about 1,310,000, while the urban area is the first in Italy and the fifth largest in the European Union with a population of 4,345,000 over an area of . The Milan metropolitan area, by far the largest in Italy, is estimated by the OECD to have a population of 7,400,000.
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Miletus
http://wn.com/Miletus -
Parthenon
The Parthenon (Ancient Greek: ) is a temple in the Athenian Acropolis, Greece, dedicated to the Greek goddess Athena, whom the people of Athens considered their protector. Its construction began in 447 BCE and was completed in 438 BCE, although decorations of the Parthenon continued until 431 BCE. It is the most important surviving building of Classical Greece, generally considered to be the culmination of the development of the Doric order. Its decorative sculptures are considered some of the high points of Greek art. The Parthenon is regarded as an enduring symbol of Ancient Greece and of Athenian democracy and one of the world's greatest cultural monuments. The Greek Ministry of Culture is currently carrying out a programme of selective restoration and reconstruction to ensure the stability of the partially ruined structure.
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Peloponnese
http://wn.com/Peloponnese -
Pergamon
http://wn.com/Pergamon -
Platonic Academy
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Sparta
http://wn.com/Sparta -
Temple of Hephaestus
http://wn.com/Temple_of_Hephaestus -
Temple of Zeus
The Temple of Zeus at Olympia, was an ancient Greek temple in Olympia, Greece, dedicated to the chief of the gods, Zeus. It was the very model of the fully-developed classical Greek temple of the Doric order. The temple, built between 472 and 456 BC, stood in the most famous sanctuary of Greece, which had been dedicated to local and Pan-Hellenic deities and had probably been established towards the end of the Mycenaean period. The Altis, the enclosure with its sacred grove, open-air altars and the tumulus of Pelops, was first formed during the tenth and ninth centuries BCE, when the cult of Zeus was joined the already establish cult here of Hera.
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Thermopylae
http://wn.com/Thermopylae -
Troy
http://wn.com/Troy -
Zeus
http://wn.com/Zeus
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A. A. Long
Anthony A. Long (born 17 August 1937) is a British and naturalised American classical scholar and Professor of Classics and Irving Stone Professor of Literature at the University of California, Berkeley.
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Aeschylus
http://wn.com/Aeschylus -
Aesop
http://wn.com/Aesop -
Alcaeus of Mytilene
http://wn.com/Alcaeus_of_Mytilene -
Alcibiades
http://wn.com/Alcibiades -
Alcmaeon of Croton
http://wn.com/Alcmaeon_of_Croton -
Alexander the Great
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Alvin Plantinga
Alvin Carl Plantinga (born 1932) is an American analytic philosopher, formerly the John A. O'Brien Professor of Philosophy at the University of Notre Dame. He is known for his work in philosophy of religion, epistemology, metaphysics, and Christian apologetics. Plantinga is a Christian and known for applying the methods of analytic philosophy to defend orthodox Christian beliefs. Notably, he has argued that some people can know that God exists as a basic belief, requiring no argument, similar to how people usually claim to know that other minds exist. He has also argued that there is no logical inconsistency between the existence of evil and the existence of an all-powerful, all-knowing, wholly good God.
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Anaxagoras
Anaxagoras (, "lord of the assembly"; c. 500 BC – 428 BC) was a Pre-Socratic Greek philosopher. Born in Clazomenae in Asia Minor, Anaxagoras was the first philosopher to bring philosophy from Ionia to Athens. He attempted to give a scientific account of eclipses, meteors, rainbows, and the sun, which he described as a fiery mass larger than the Peloponnese. He was accused of contravening the established religion and was forced to flee to Lampsacus.
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Anaximander
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Anthony Kenny
Sir Anthony John Patrick Kenny FBA (born 16 March 1931 in Liverpool) is an English philosopher whose interests lie in the philosophy of mind, ancient and scholastic philosophy, the philosophy of Wittgenstein and the philosophy of religion. With Peter Geach, he has made a significant contribution to Analytical Thomism, a movement whose aim is to present the thought of St Thomas Aquinas in the style of modern philosophy by clearing away the trappings and obscurities of traditional Thomism. He is one of the executors of Wittgenstein's literary estate. He is a former President of the British Academy and current President of the Royal Institute of Philosophy.
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Antisthenes
Antisthenes (; c. 445-c. 365 BCE) was a Greek philosopher and a pupil of Socrates. Antisthenes first learned rhetoric under Gorgias before becoming an ardent disciple of Socrates. He adopted and developed the ethical side of Socrates' teachings, advocating an ascetic life lived in accordance with virtue. Later writers regarded him as the founder of Cynic philosophy.
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Antony Flew
http://wn.com/Antony_Flew -
Archilochus
:For the hummingbird genus, see ''Archilochus.
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Archimedes
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Archytas
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Aristophanes
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Aristotle
http://wn.com/Aristotle -
Arius Didymus
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Aspasia
Aspasia (ca. 470 BC–ca. 400 BC, Greek: ) was a Milesian woman who was famous for her involvement with the Athenian statesman Pericles. Very little is known about the details of her life. She spent most of her adult life in Athens, and she may have influenced Pericles and Athenian politics. She is mentioned in the writings of Plato, Aristophanes, Xenophon, and other authors of the day.
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Augustine of Hippo
: For other uses, see Augustine, Augustinus and Saint Augustine.
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Averroes
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Bacchylides
Bacchylides () (5th century BC) was an Ancient Greek lyric poet. Later Greeks included him in the canonical list of nine lyric poets which included his uncle Simonides. The elegance and polished style of his lyrics have been a commonplace of Bacchylidean scholarship since at least Longinus (De Sublimitate 33,5). Some scholars however have associated these qualities with superficial charm. He has often been compared unfavourably with his contemporary, Pindar, as "a kind of Boccherini to Pindar's Haydn", yet the differences in their styles doesn't allow for easy comparison and "to blame Bacchylides for not being Pindar is as childish a judgement as to condemn...Marvel for missing the grandeur of Milton." His career coincided with the ascendency of dramatic styles of poetry, as embodied in the works of Aeschylus or Sophocles, and he is in fact one of the last poets of major significance within the more ancient tradition of purely lyric poetry. The most notable features of his lyrics are their clarity in expression and simplicity of thought, making them an ideal introduction to the study of Greek lyric poetry in general and to Pindar's verse in particular.
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Baron d'Holbach
http://wn.com/Baron_d'Holbach -
Baruch Spinoza
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Bertrand Russell
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Blaise Pascal
http://wn.com/Blaise_Pascal -
Boethius
http://wn.com/Boethius -
Cicero
Marcus Tullius Cicero (; Classical Latin: ; January 3, 106 BC – December 7, 43 BC; sometimes anglicized as "Tully"), was a Roman philosopher, statesman, lawyer, political theorist, and Roman constitutionalist. He came from a wealthy municipal family of the equestrian order, and is widely considered one of Rome's greatest orators and prose stylists.
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Cornelis van Haarlem
Cornelis Corneliszoon van Haarlem (1562 - November 11, 1638), Dutch Golden Age painter and draughtsman, was one of the leading Northern Mannerist artists in The Netherlands, and an important forerunner of Frans Hals as a portraitist.
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Cratylus
Cratylus (ancient Greek: , Kratylos) was an ancient Athenian philosopher from late 5th century BC, mostly known through his portrayal in Plato's dialogue Cratylus. Little is known of Cratylus or his mentor Heraclitus (of Ephesus, Asia Minor). According to Cratylus at 402a, Heraclitus proclaimed that one cannot step twice into the same stream. According to Aristotle (Metaphysics, 4.5 1010a10-15), his disciple Cratylus went a step further to proclaim that it cannot even be done once. Such was his thorough-going skepticism.
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David Hume
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Democritus
http://wn.com/Democritus -
Demosthenes
http://wn.com/Demosthenes -
Desiderius Erasmus
http://wn.com/Desiderius_Erasmus -
Diogenes Laërtius
Diogenes Laertius (ancient Greek: , Diogenes Laertios; fl. c. 3rd century) was a biographer of the Greek philosophers. Nothing is known about his life, but his surviving Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers is one of the principal surviving sources for the history of Greek philosophy.
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Diogenes of Sinope
Diogenes of Sinope ( Diogenes ho Sinopeus), was a Greek philosopher and one of the founders of Cynic philosophy. Also known as Diogenes the Cynic, he was born in Sinope (modern-day Sinop, Turkey) in 412 or 404 BCE
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Donato Bramante
http://wn.com/Donato_Bramante -
Emil Brunner
Heinrich Emil Brunner (December 23, 1889 – April 6, 1966) was a Swiss Protestant (Reformed) theologian. Along with Karl Barth (see Relationship with Karl Barth), he is commonly associated with neo-orthodoxy or the dialectical theology movement.
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Empedocles
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Engels
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Epaminondas
Epaminondas (Greek: ) (ca. 410 BC – 362 BC) or Epameinondas was a Theban general and statesman of the 4th century BC who transformed the Ancient Greek city-state of Thebes, leading it out of Spartan subjugation into a preeminent position in Greek politics. In the process he broke Spartan military power with his victory at Leuctra and liberated the Messenian helots, a group of Peloponnesian Greeks who had been enslaved under Spartan rule for some 230 years, having been defeated in the Messenian War ending in 600 BC. Epaminondas reshaped the political map of Greece, fragmented old alliances, created new ones, and supervised the construction of entire cities. He was militarily influential as well, inventing and implementing several major battlefield tactics.
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Epicurus
http://wn.com/Epicurus -
Ernst Haeckel
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Ernst Troeltsch
http://wn.com/Ernst_Troeltsch -
Euclid
http://wn.com/Euclid -
Eugen Fink
http://wn.com/Eugen_Fink -
Euripides
http://wn.com/Euripides -
Friedrich Nietzsche
Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche (; in English , ) (October 15, 1844 August 25, 1900) was a 19th-century German philosopher and classical philologist. He wrote critical texts on religion, morality, contemporary culture, philosophy and science, displaying a fondness for metaphor, irony and aphorism.
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Gorgias
Gorgias (, ca. 485-c.380 BCE) "the Nihilist", Greek sophist, pre-socratic philosopher and rhetorician, was a native of Leontini in Sicily. Along with Protagoras, he forms the first generation of Sophists. Several doxographers report that he was a pupil of Empedocles, although he would only have been a few years younger. "Like other Sophists he was an itinerant, practicing in various cities and giving public exhibitions of his skill at the great pan-Hellenic centers of Olympia and Delphi, and charged fees for his instruction and performances. A special feature of his displays was to invite miscellaneous questions from the audience and give impromptu replies."
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Guy Davenport
http://wn.com/Guy_Davenport -
Hegel
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Heidegger
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Heraclitus
Heraclitus of Ephesus (Ancient Greek: — ; c. 535–c. 475 BCE) was a pre-Socratic Greek philosopher, a native of the Greek city Ephesus, Ionia, on the coast of Asia Minor. He was of distinguished parentage. Little is known about his early life and education, but he regarded himself as self-taught and a pioneer of wisdom. From the lonely life he led, and still more from the riddling nature of his philosophy and his contempt for humankind in general, he was called "The Obscure," and the "Weeping Philosopher."
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Herodotus
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Hesiod
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Hipparchus
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Hippasus
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Hippias
Hippias of Elis (; late 5th century BCE) was a Greek Sophist, and a contemporary of Socrates. With an assurance characteristic of the later sophists, he claimed to be regarded as an authority on all subjects, and lectured on poetry, grammar, history, politics, mathematics, and much else. Most of our knowledge of him is derived from Plato, who characterizes him as vain and arrogant.
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Hippo (philosopher)
Hippo (or Hippon, ; 5th century BC) was a Presocratic Greek philosopher. He is variously described as coming from Rhegium, Metapontum, Samos, and Croton, and it is possible that there was more than one philosopher with this name.
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Hippocrates
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Hippolytus of Rome
For places named after the saint, see Saint-Hippolyte
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Hipponax
Hipponax of Ephesus was an Ancient Greek iambic poet.
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Homer
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Hypatia
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Ibycus
Ibycus (Ancient Greek: ) (6th century BC), was an Ancient Greek lyric poet. He was included in the canonical list of nine lyric poets by the scholars of Hellenistic Alexandria. The extant fragments of his work contain the earliest-known example of the triadic choral lyric and epinician poetry.
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Immanuel Kant
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J. L. Mackie
John Leslie Mackie (25 August 1917–12 December 1981) was an Australian philosopher, originally from Sydney. He made significant contributions to the philosophy of religion, metaphysics, and the philosophy of language, and is perhaps best known for his views on meta-ethics, especially his defence of moral skepticism.
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James Hillman
James Hillman (born 1926) is an American psychologist. He studied at the C.G. Jung Institute in Zurich, developed archetypal psychology and is now retired as a private practitioner.
http://wn.com/James_Hillman -
Jean-Luc Marion
Jean-Luc Marion (born 3 July 1946) is among the best-known living philosophers in France, former student of Jacques Derrida and one of the leading Catholic thinkers of modern times. Marion's take on the postmodern is richly enhanced by his expertise in patristic and mystical theology, phenomenology, and modern philosophy. Although much of his academic work has dealt with Descartes and phenomenologists like Martin Heidegger and Edmund Husserl, it is rather his explicitly religious works that have garnered much recent attention. God Without Being, for example, is concerned predominantly with an analysis of idolatry, a theme strongly linked in Marion's work with love and the gift, which is a concept also explored at length by Derrida. To a certain extent, Marion also takes up the mantle of Emmanuel Levinas in directing our thought beyond being. There is a widespread but possibly dubious designation of Jean-Luc Marion as a leading contributor to postmodern theology.
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Johannes Moreelse
Johannes Paulus Moreelse, or Johan Pauwelszon Moreelse, (c. 1603, Utrecht - 1634, Utrecht) was a Dutch baroque painter belonging to the school of Utrecht Caravaggism during the Dutch Golden Age. His father, Paulus Moreelse, was at that time a famous Portrait painter. Of his life little is known. Johan Moreelse studied in Utrecht, in the studio of its father, and then in Rome (1627), where he was appointed into a papal knight order. Moreelse died in his hometown during a plague epidemic. His small number of works were only assigned to him since the 1970s.
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Jonathan Barnes
http://wn.com/Jonathan_Barnes -
Juvenal
Decimus Iunius Iuvenalis, known in English as Juvenal, was a Roman poet active in the late 1st and early 2nd century AD, author of the Satires. The details of the author's life are unclear, although references within his text to known persons of the late 1st and early 2nd centuries AD fix his terminus post quem (earliest date of composition).
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Karl Barth
Karl Barth ( – ) (pronounced "Bart") was a Swiss Reformed theologian whom critics hold to be among the most important Christian thinkers of the 20th century; Pope Pius XII described him as the most important theologian since Thomas Aquinas. Beginning with his experience as a pastor, he rejected his training in the predominant liberal theology typical of 19th-century European Protestantism. Instead he embarked on a new theological path initially called dialectical theology, due to its stress on the paradoxical nature of divine truth (e.g., God's relationship to humanity embodies both grace and judgment). Other critics have referred to Barth as the father of neo-orthodoxy — a term emphatically rejected by Barth himself. The most accurate description of his work might be "a theology of the Word." Barth's theological thought emphasized the sovereignty of God, particularly through his innovative doctrine of election.
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Karl Marx
http://wn.com/Karl_Marx -
Karl Popper
http://wn.com/Karl_Popper -
Leonidas I
http://wn.com/Leonidas_I -
Leucippus
http://wn.com/Leucippus -
Lev Shestov
Lev Isaakovich Shestov (), born Yehuda Leyb Schwarzmann (), was a Ukrainian/Russian existentialist philosopher. Born in Kiev (Russian Empire) on , he emigrated to France in 1921, fleeing from the aftermath of the October Revolution. He lived in Paris until his death on November 19, 1938.
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Loyal Rue
Dr. Loyal D. Rue is professor of religion and philosophy at Luther College of Decorah, Iowa , and focuses on naturalistic theories of religion.
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Lycurgus of Sparta
http://wn.com/Lycurgus_of_Sparta -
Lysander
http://wn.com/Lysander -
Maimonides
http://wn.com/Maimonides -
Marcel Conche
Marcel Conche is a french philosopher.
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Marcus Aurelius
http://wn.com/Marcus_Aurelius -
Martin Buber
http://wn.com/Martin_Buber -
Martin Heidegger
http://wn.com/Martin_Heidegger -
Melissus of Samos
http://wn.com/Melissus_of_Samos -
Michel de Montaigne
http://wn.com/Michel_de_Montaigne -
Michelangelo
http://wn.com/Michelangelo -
Milo of Croton
http://wn.com/Milo_of_Croton -
Mircea Eliade
http://wn.com/Mircea_Eliade -
Nietzsche
http://wn.com/Nietzsche -
Norman Melchert
Norman Melchert (1933-) is a philosopher and author. He was Selfridge Professor of Philosophy at Lehigh University from 1962 until his retirement in 1995. He is the author of several books, the most notable of which is his introduction to philosophy, The Great Conversation.
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Parmenides
Parmenides of Elea (Greek: ; fl. early 5th century BCE) was an ancient Greek philosopher born in Elea, a Greek city on the southern coast of Italy. He was the founder of the Eleatic school of philosophy. The single known work of Parmenides is a poem which has survived only in fragmentary form. In this poem, Parmenides describes two views of reality. In The Way of Truth (a part of the poem), he explains how reality is one, change is impossible, and existence is timeless, uniform, and unchanging. In The Way of Opinion, he explains the world of appearances, which is false and deceitful. These thoughts strongly influenced Plato, and through him, the whole of Western philosophy.
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Paul Tillich
http://wn.com/Paul_Tillich -
Pausanias (general)
http://wn.com/Pausanias_(general) -
Pavel Florensky
http://wn.com/Pavel_Florensky -
Pericles
http://wn.com/Pericles -
Peter Geach
Peter Thomas Geach (; born March 29, 1916) is a British philosopher. His areas of interest are the history of philosophy, philosophical logic, and the theory of identity.
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Pherecydes of Syros
:''See also Pherecydes of Leros
http://wn.com/Pherecydes_of_Syros -
Philip II of Macedon
http://wn.com/Philip_II_of_Macedon -
Philo
http://wn.com/Philo -
Pindar
http://wn.com/Pindar -
Plato
:For other uses, see Plato (disambiguation) and Platon (disambiguation).
http://wn.com/Plato -
Plutarch
http://wn.com/Plutarch -
Polybius
http://wn.com/Polybius -
Prodicus
http://wn.com/Prodicus -
Protagoras
Protagoras (Greek: ) (ca. 490– 420 BC) was a pre-Socratic Greek philosopher and is numbered as one of the sophists by Plato. In his dialogue Protagoras, Plato credits him with having invented the role of the professional sophist or teacher of virtue. He is also believed to have created a major controversy during ancient times through his statement that man is the measure of all things. This idea was very revolutionary for the time and contrasting to other philosophical doctrines that claimed the universe was based on something objective, outside the human influence.
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Ptolemy
http://wn.com/Ptolemy -
Pyrrhus of Epirus
Pyrrhus or Pyrrhos (, Pyrros; 319-272 BC) was a Greek general of the Hellenistic era. He was king of the Greek tribe of Molossians, of the royal Aeacid house (from ca. 297 BC), and later he became King of Epirus (306-302, 297-272 BC) and Macedon (288-284, 273-272 BC). He was one of the strongest opponents of early Rome. Some of his battles, though successful, cost him heavy losses, from which the term "Pyrrhic victory" was coined. He is the subject of one of Plutarch's Parallel Lives.
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Pythagoras
Pythagoras of Samos (, O Pythagoras o Samios, "Pythagoras the Samian", or simply ; c. 570-c. 495 BC) was an Ionian Greek philosopher and founder of the religious movement called Pythagoreanism. Most of our information about Pythagoras was written down centuries after he lived, thus very little reliable information is known about him. He was born on the island of Samos, and may have travelled widely in his youth, visiting Egypt and other places seeking knowledge. Around 530 BC, he moved to Croton, a Greek colony in southern Italy, and there set up a religious sect. His followers pursued the religious rites and practices developed by Pythagoras, and studied his philosophical theories. The society took an active role in the politics of Croton, but this eventually led to their downfall. The Pythagorean meeting-places were burned, and Pythagoras was forced to flee the city. He is said to have ended his days in Metapontum.
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Raphael Sanzio
http://wn.com/Raphael_Sanzio -
Reinhold Niebuhr
Karl Paul Reinhold Niebuhr (; June 21, 1892 – June 1, 1971) was an American theologian and commentator on public affairs. Niebuhr was the archetypal American intellectual of the Cold War era. Starting as a leftist minister in the 1920s indebted to theological liberalism, he shifted to the new Neo-Orthodox theology in the 1930s, explaining how the sin of pride created evil in the world. He attacked utopianism as useless for dealing with reality, writing in The Children of Light and the Children of Darkness (1944):
http://wn.com/Reinhold_Niebuhr -
René Descartes
http://wn.com/René_Descartes -
René Guénon
http://wn.com/René_Guénon -
Richard Swinburne
Richard G. Swinburne (born 26 December 1934) is an Emeritus Professor of Philosophy at the University of Oxford. Over the last 50 years Swinburne has been a very influential proponent of natural theology, that is, philosophical arguments for the existence of God. His philosophical contributions are primarily in philosophy of religion and philosophy of science. He aroused much discussion with his early work in the philosophy of religion, a trilogy of books consisting of The Coherence of Theism, The Existence of God, and Faith and Reason.
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Robert Drew Hicks
http://wn.com/Robert_Drew_Hicks -
Sappho
Sappho ( in English; Attic Greek ' , Aeolic Greek ' ) was an Ancient Greek poet, born on the island of Lesbos. Later Greeks included her in the list of nine lyric poets. Her birth was sometime between 630 and 612 BC, and it is said that she died around 570 BC, but little is known for certain about her life. The bulk of her poetry, which was well-known and greatly admired throughout antiquity, has been lost, but her immense reputation has endured through surviving fragments.
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Seneca the younger
http://wn.com/Seneca_the_younger -
Sergei Bulgakov
Fr. Sergei Nikolaevich Bulgakov () ( - July 12, 1944) was a Russian Orthodox theologian, philosopher and economist.
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Simonides of Ceos
http://wn.com/Simonides_of_Ceos -
Socrates
http://wn.com/Socrates -
Solon
Solon (ancient Greek: , c. 638 BC–558 BC) was an Athenian statesman, lawmaker, and poet. He is remembered particularly for his efforts to legislate against political, economic and moral decline in archaic Athens. His reforms failed in the short term yet he is often credited with having laid the foundations for Athenian democracy.
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Sophocles
http://wn.com/Sophocles -
Stesichorus
Stesichorus (Ancient Greek: , circa 640 - 555 BC) was the first great poet of the Greek West. He is best known for telling epic stories in lyric metres but he is also famous for some ancient traditions about his life, such as his opposition to the tyrant Phalaris, and the blindness he is said to have incurred and cured by composing verses first insulting and then flattering to Helen of Troy. He was ranked among the nine lyric poets esteemed by the scholars of Hellenistic Alexandria and yet his work attracted relatively little interest among ancient commentators, which in turn left a disproportionate number of gaps in the modern record as one scholar observed in 1967: "Time has dealt more harshly with Stesichorus than with any other major lyric poet." Recent discoveries, recorded on Egyptian papyrus (notably and controversially, the Lille papyrus, in 1974), have enhanced modern understanding of his work, confirming his role as a link between Homer's epic narrative and the lyric narrative of poets like Pindar.
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Stobaeus
Joannes Stobaeus (), so called from his native place Stobi in North Macedonia (Roman province), was the compiler of a valuable series of extracts from Greek authors.
http://wn.com/Stobaeus -
Strabo
http://wn.com/Strabo -
Søren Kierkegaard
http://wn.com/Søren_Kierkegaard -
Terence McKenna
http://wn.com/Terence_McKenna -
Thales
http://wn.com/Thales -
Thales of Miletus
http://wn.com/Thales_of_Miletus -
Themistocles
Themistocles (Greek: ; "Glory of the Law"); c. 524–459 BC, was an Athenian politician and general. He was one of a new breed of politicians who rose to prominence in the early years of the Athenian democracy, along with his great rival Aristides. As a politician, Themistocles was a populist, having the support of lower class Athenians, and generally being at odds with the Athenian nobility. Elected archon in 493 BC, he took steps to increase the naval power of Athens, which would be a recurring theme in his political career. During the first Persian invasion of Greece, he fought at the Battle of Marathon, and was possibly one of the 10 Athenian strategoi (generals) in that battle.
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Theophrastus
http://wn.com/Theophrastus -
Thucydides
http://wn.com/Thucydides -
Timocreon
Timocreon, of Ialysus in Rhodes, was a Greek lyric poet who flourished about 480 BC.
http://wn.com/Timocreon -
Timon of Phlius
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W. K. C. Guthrie
William Keith Chambers Guthrie (1 August 1906 – 17 May 1981) was a Scottish classical scholar, best known for his History of Greek Philosophy, published in six volumes between 1962 and his death.
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William Alston
http://wn.com/William_Alston -
William James
:This article is about the American psychologist and philosopher. For other people named William James see William James (disambiguation)
http://wn.com/William_James -
William L. Rowe
William Leonard Rowe (born 26 July 1931) is a professor emeritus of philosophy at Purdue University who specialises in the philosophy of religion. His work has played a leading role in the "remarkable revival of analytic philosophy of religion since the 1970s". He is most notable for his formulation of the evidential argument from evil.
http://wn.com/William_L_Rowe -
William Lane Craig
William Lane Craig (born August 23, 1949) is an American Evangelical Christian apologist, theologian, and analytic philosopher known for his contributions to the philosophy of religion, historical Jesus studies, and the philosophy of time. He is one of the most visible contemporary proponents of natural theology, often participating in debates on the existence of God. In 1979, Craig authored The Kalam Cosmological Argument, a modern defense of the kalam cosmological argument—which is today the most published-on contemporary argument for theism in the philosophy of religion.
http://wn.com/William_Lane_Craig -
William Shakespeare
William Shakespeare (baptised 26 April 1564; died 23 April 1616) was an English poet and playwright, widely regarded as the greatest writer in the English language and the world's pre-eminent dramatist. He is often called England's national poet and the "Bard of Avon". His surviving works, including some collaborations, consist of about 38 plays, 154 sonnets, two long narrative poems, and several other poems. His plays have been translated into every major living language and are performed more often than those of any other playwright.
http://wn.com/William_Shakespeare -
William Whewell
William Whewell (24 May 1794 – 6 March 1866) was an English polymath, scientist, Anglican priest, philosopher, theologian, and historian of science. His surname is .
http://wn.com/William_Whewell -
William Wollaston
http://wn.com/William_Wollaston -
Xenophanes
:For the skipper butterfly genus, see Xenophanes (butterfly).
http://wn.com/Xenophanes -
Xenophon
http://wn.com/Xenophon -
Zeno of Citium
http://wn.com/Zeno_of_Citium -
Zeno of Elea
http://wn.com/Zeno_of_Elea
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Three Minute Philosophy: Heraclitus & Parmenides
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:04
- Published: 22 Aug 2010
- Updated: 25 Oct 2012
The Pre-Socratic philosophers, Heraclitus and Parmenides. Metaphysics, determinism, fatalism, and the unreality of free will.
http://wn.com/Three_Minute_Philosophy_Heraclitus_Parmenides
The Pre-Socratic Philosophers: 2 (Anaximander, Heraclitus)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 10:01
- Published: 15 Sep 2011
- Updated: 13 Oct 2012
A documentary about the ideas of the first philosophers of early Greece. Thanks to all whose footage I used to make this possible!
http://wn.com/The_Pre-Socratic_Philosophers_2_Anaximander,_Heraclitus
Heraclitus - The Great Intrusion
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 29:43
- Published: 18 Aug 2012
- Updated: 13 Oct 2012
plato.stanford.edu
http://wn.com/Heraclitus_The_Great_Intrusion
Heraclitus and the Buddha on Impermanence
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 9:24
- Published: 06 Jul 2008
- Updated: 19 Sep 2012
by Cale Bakken through Professor Rev. Dr. James Kenneth Powell II, opensourcebuddhism.org This project investigates the similarities and differences between the Buddhist and Heraclitean views of impermanence. Heraclitus was that ancient Greek who said one never steps into the same river twice. Buddha saw impermanence as at the heart of human tragedy: we grasp at the impermanent, always wishing for permanence. You decide whose view is more profound
http://wn.com/Heraclitus_and_the_Buddha_on_Impermanence
Heraclitus
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 15:37
- Published: 05 Aug 2011
- Updated: 16 Sep 2012
www.PiousFabrications.com "Like" Pious Fabrications on Facebook www.facebook.com Book study round-up page: www.piousfabrications.com
http://wn.com/Heraclitus
Change and Heraclitus
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:24
- Published: 29 Oct 2007
- Updated: 16 Oct 2012
Catholic priest reflects on the nature of change and urges the viewer to change for the better.
http://wn.com/Change_and_Heraclitus
King's College London: History of Philosophy's Greatest Hits: Heraclitus
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:56
- Published: 10 Aug 2012
- Updated: 17 Oct 2012
Episode One: Heraclitus: You can't step into the same river twice Peter Adamson, Professor of Ancient and Medieval Philosophy at King's College London and host of the History of Philosophy podcast (www.historyofphilosophy.net), discusses the Presocratic philosopher Heraclitus and asks whether he really believed that all things are in flux like a river.
http://wn.com/King's_College_London_History_of_Philosophy's_Greatest_Hits_Heraclitus
Heraclitus Warrior Speech by Dr. Paul Whitesell
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:57
- Published: 05 Jul 2011
- Updated: 02 Oct 2012
Speech given by Indiana State Police Superintendent Dr. Paul Whitesell to fellow police officers.
http://wn.com/Heraclitus_Warrior_Speech_by_Dr_Paul_Whitesell
Heraclitus vs Parmenides
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:38
- Published: 24 Feb 2010
- Updated: 18 Sep 2012
In which JR attempts to make sense of two great Greek philosphers.
http://wn.com/Heraclitus_vs_Parmenides
Dave on Heraclitus Part 1
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 14:08
- Published: 18 Jun 2011
- Updated: 02 Sep 2012
I gave a presentation on Heraclitus for Greek Philosophy. 2008
http://wn.com/Dave_on_Heraclitus_Part_1
Heraclitus | History in Minutes #4
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:20
- Published: 30 Aug 2011
- Updated: 04 Oct 2012
The renamed "weeping" Heraclitus was an intelligent but melancholic philosopher who formulated theories about the creation of the world.
http://wn.com/Heraclitus_|_History_in_Minutes_4
The Philosophy of War - Part 1 - Heraclitus On Nature
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:01
- Published: 24 Nov 2010
- Updated: 05 Aug 2012
The Philosophy of War thinks about War. WHAT IS WAR? Set to the D-Day Landings at Normandy on June 6 1944, Part 1 focuses on this question and the views of the pre-Socratic philosopher Heraclitus. The Ancient Greek was one of world's first natural scientists, trying to understand the ways of the world in terms of its law-like, physical properties. Famous for his idea that one cannot step twice into the same river, his idea that war is the nature of reality anticipates the modern physics and evolutionary biology. The insight of the thinker once known as the "dark one" could not have been more bright. Part 1 ends with the beginnings of an introduction to Carl von Clausewitz's theory of war, contained in his book On War. He thought that War is the continuation of politics by other means. It is both a battle of wills and a trial of strength. See Part 2 here: www.youtube.com
http://wn.com/The_Philosophy_of_War_Part_1_Heraclitus_On_Nature
λόγος from Heraclitus to Christianity
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 21:44
- Published: 11 Jan 2012
- Updated: 27 Jul 2012
www.piousfabrications.com "Like" Pious Fabrications on Facebook www.facebook.com Read the original essay: www.piousfabrications.com
http://wn.com/λόγος_from_Heraclitus_to_Christianity
Heraclitus - an inspiration to Pandeism
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:10
- Published: 22 May 2010
- Updated: 24 May 2012
Heraclitus of Ephesus, sometimes called the philosopher who weeps, is one of the earliest philosophers of record to provide, through is works, an inspiration toward modern pandeism. The philosophy of Heraclitus, known as it is only by snippets of his writing, quoted by later philosophers, can yet be summed up in two words: "Panta Rei." Everything flows. All things undergo the constant process of change. He famously explains, quote, "One does not step into the same river twice. waters disperse and come together again. they keep flowing on and flowing away. In the end, there is only flux. everything gives way." Unquote. Heraclitus determined that there was but one substance underlying the whole of the Universe, an unconscious creative energy, and this substance was fire. In equating all things to fire, he continued, quote, "There is exchange of all things for fire and of fire for all things, as there is of wares for gold and of gold for wares." Unquote. Some have likened this equation to Einstein's theory of relativity. It understands the fundamental nature of all matter, as, in truth, merely energy temporarily bound up in an illusion of sustainable physicality. Heraclitus observed, as well, that man is most creative in dreams, when sleep has detached us from our insistence upon our rational physical reality. Although he personally rejected the notion of a created Universe, believing our Universe to have existed eternally without beginning, he could not have known of the <b>...</b>
http://wn.com/Heraclitus_an_inspiration_to_Pandeism
Alexandros Hahalis / Heraclitus, Pyr Aeizoon (Fire ever living)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:26
- Published: 30 Aug 2010
- Updated: 15 Jul 2012
Composer Alexandros Hahalis eternally inspired by the immortal spiritual source of Eternal Wisdom, created a work which includes Word, Music, & Virtual Reality. He chose, harmonized and orchestrated fragments of the ancient and modern literature indicating the sacredness, universality and timelessness of the supreme ancestral intelligence, and how it meets with modern scientific thought! This is the title track. Performed at the Eugenideion Planetarium of Athens with soprano Maria Kanellopoulou, for the Spring Equinox Celebration, 22/3/2010
http://wn.com/Alexandros_Hahalis_Heraclitus,_Pyr_Aeizoon_Fire_ever_living
matrix: "FREE MASONS" DECODED (ying/yang,,rosey cross,,heraclitus,,plato,,socrates)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 9:33
- Published: 28 Feb 2012
- Updated: 20 Oct 2012
Heraclitus is famous for his insistence on ever-present change in the universe, as stated in his famous saying, "No man ever steps in the same river twice" (see panta rhei, below). He believed in the unity of opposites, stating that "the path up and down are one and the same", all existing entities being characterized by pairs of contrary properties. His cryptic utterance that "all entities come to be in accordance with this Logos" (literally, "word", "reason", or "account") has been the subject of numerous interpretations. matrix david icke truth ying yang lies truth free mason rosicrusion nwo Freemasonry "David Icke" "Matrix (artist)" Alex Jones Central Order World "Yin And Yang" Illuminati Conspiracy "New World" "World Order" Bush Government H1n1 Global Style "Alex Jones (radio Host)" Police www.usabookz.com
http://wn.com/matrix_FREE_MASONS_DECODED_ying_yang,,rosey_cross,,heraclitus,,plato,,socrates
We Didn't Start The Fire (Heraclitus's song from KUTM)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:43
- Published: 22 Nov 2011
- Updated: 20 Oct 2012
Heraclitus's song from "King Under the Mountain", a philosophy RPG musical inspired by Dresden Codak's "Dungeons and Discourse". See squid314.livejournal.com for more information. Lyrics by Scott Siskind, vocals by Mike Blume and Alicorn.
http://wn.com/We_Didn't_Start_The_Fire_Heraclitus's_song_from_KUTM
Mod-01 Lec-05 Pythagoras and Heraclitus
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 46:33
- Published: 24 Jul 2012
- Updated: 21 Sep 2012
History of Economic Theory by Dr. Shivakumar, Department of Humanities and Social Sciences IIT Madras, For more details on NPTEL visit nptel.iitm.ac.in
http://wn.com/Mod-01_Lec-05_Pythagoras_and_Heraclitus
Heraclitus
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:08
- Published: 04 Sep 2011
- Updated: 17 Mar 2012
50 Notable Names is a collection of fifty people down through history that are worth learning about and learning from. Notable Name # 6 - Heraclitus
http://wn.com/Heraclitus
Heraclitus
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:19
- Published: 13 Oct 2012
- Updated: 13 Oct 2012
Globoscuro - Heraclitus
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:24
- Published: 12 Mar 2011
- Updated: 23 Sep 2012
"...No man ever steps in the same river twice, for it's not the same river and he's not the same man...." (HERACLITUS)
http://wn.com/Globoscuro_Heraclitus
Heraclitus
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 25:17
- Published: 12 Sep 2012
- Updated: 12 Sep 2012
Chapter Four from Book One, Part One of Bertrand Russell's "The History Of Western Philosophy" (1945).
http://wn.com/Heraclitus
The Big Idea - Heraclitus and the Doctrine of Flux
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:58
- Published: 27 Nov 2011
- Updated: 28 Nov 2011
A short documentary we made for our college project. Heraclitus was an ancient Greek philosopher who was most famously known for his Doctrine of Flux. This film explains his theory.
http://wn.com/The_Big_Idea_Heraclitus_and_the_Doctrine_of_Flux
Photo: White House / Pete Souza
24 Oct 2012
Article by WN.com Correspondent Dallas Darling By the time President Richard Nixon told his Chinese hosts during a banquet toast, "Let us start a long march together, not in lockstep, but on different...
Photo: AP / Khin Maung Win
25 Oct 2012
YANGON: A new wave of sectarian violence in western Myanmar has left five people dead and dozens injured in recent days, triggering another exodus of Muslims to emergency camps, officials said...
Photo: AP / Collin Reid
25 Oct 2012
HAVANA (Reuters) - Hurricane Sandy, growing stronger over warm Caribbean waters, lashed eastern Cuba with heavy rains and rising winds on Wednesday as it bore down on the communist island after...
Photo: AP / Ariel Schalit
24 Oct 2012
Repeated attacks ... a rocket is launched from Gaza towards southern Israel. Photo: AFP JERUSALEM: The Israeli Prime Minister, Benjamin Netanyahu, threatened "more extensive and deeper action" against...
Photo: AP
25 Oct 2012
Chink of light ... a Free Syria Army fighter walks through a hole in the wall during fighting in Aleppo. Photo: AFP Syria's President, Bashar al-Assad, and some rebel groups have agreed to a...
Geronimo: Two Notes, One Song
18 Oct 2012
Sun Star
THEY gave their keynote addresses on different days and, by force majeure, even at different times of their respective speaking days. But they both sang the same tune and made the same pitch. At the Philippine Trust Industry's Summit, held at the Hotel Intercontinental at the City of Makati, last...(size: 9.2Kb)
Opposites Attract
15 Oct 2012
Huffington Post
Why does fear call us to be courageous? Why is patience often the best course when we're in a hurry? Why does our hostility often dissipate when we realize the role our own frustrated desire plays in stoking resentment? Opposites are complementary. The contradictory things that most folks believe...(size: 6.6Kb)
Surprise peace prize win for EU
12 Oct 2012
The Australian
THE economically embattled EU received a surprising pat on the back last night in the form of the 2012 Nobel Peace Prize. The Norwegian Nobel Committee honoured the 27-nation economic and political grouping for uniting the continent and lifting its prosperity since France, Germany and four...(size: 4.2Kb)
Joe Biden shows Barack Obama how to do it
12 Oct 2012
The Australian
A FEISTY performance by Joe Biden in the only vice-presidential debate of the US election campaign has put Barack Obama on a more positive footing for next week's second match-up with Mitt Romney. Mr Biden immediately adopted a more aggressive tone than the President for his encounter with the...(size: 4.8Kb)
PM's losing ways with women
12 Oct 2012
The Australian
WHEN British academic Sarah Childs devoted part of her politics class at Bristol University yesterday to showing the now-famous video clip of Julia Gillard accusing Tony Abbott of misogyny, the students were fascinated and deeply divided. "The women were really impressed by her performance but the...(size: 4.3Kb)
Mo hopes for Liu's release
12 Oct 2012
The Australian
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From Quanta to Qualia: The Mystery of Reality
08 Oct 2012
Huffington Post
This piece was co-written with Menas Kafatos, Ph.D. and Rudolph E. Tanzi, Ph.D. Wherever reality leads, science follows. The two are inseparably linked, as they must be when science is our way of knowing reality. Reality shifts in ways that are unpredictable and strange. Time and space took very...(size: 12.0Kb)
Corrections & Clarifications
08 Oct 2012
Irish Times
In an article entitled "The priest began to face...(size: 0.3Kb)
News Views
07 Oct 2012
The State
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Irish Times
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For other people named Heracleitus, see Heracleitus (disambiguation).
 Heraclitus by Johannes Moreelse. The image depicts him as "the weeping philosopher" wringing his hands over the world, and as "the obscure" dressed in dark clothing--both traditional motifs. |
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| Born | c. 535 BCE Ephesus |
|---|---|
| Died | c. 475 BCE (aged around 60) |
| Era | Ancient philosophy |
| Region | Western Philosophy |
| School | Not considered to belong to any school of thought, but later subscribers to the philosophy were "Heracliteans". |
| Main interests | Metaphysics, Epistemology, Ethics, Politics |
| Notable ideas | Logos, flow |
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Influenced
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Heraclitus of Ephesus (Ancient Greek: Ἡράκλειτος ὁ Ἐφέσιος—Hērákleitos ho Ephésios; c. 535 – c. 475 BCE) was a pre-Socratic Greek philosopher, a native of the Greek city Ephesus, Ionia, on the coast of Asia Minor. He was of distinguished parentage. Little is known about his early life and education, but he regarded himself as self-taught and a pioneer of wisdom. From the lonely life he led, and still more from the riddling nature of his philosophy and his contempt for humankind in general, he was called "The Obscure" and the "Weeping Philosopher".
Heraclitus is famous for his insistence on ever-present change in the universe, as stated in the famous saying, "No man ever steps in the same river twice"[1] (see panta rhei, below). He believed in the unity of opposites, stating that "the path up and down are one and the same", all existing entities being characterized by pairs of contrary properties. His cryptic utterance that "all entities come to be in accordance with this Logos" (literally, "word", "reason", or "account") has been the subject of numerous interpretations.
Contents |
Life[link]
The main source for the life of Heraclitus is Diogenes Laërtius, although some have questioned the validity of his account as "a tissue of Hellenistic anecdotes, most of them obviously fabricated on the basis of statements in the preserved fragments."[2] Diogenes said that Heraclitus flourished in the 69th Olympiad,[3] 504-501 BCE. All the rest of the evidence – the people Heraclitus is said to have known, or the people who were familiar with his work – confirms the floruit. His dates of birth and death are based on a life span of 60 years, the age at which Diogenes says he died,[4] with the floruit in the middle.
Heraclitus was born to an aristocratic family in Ephesus, present-day Efes, Turkey. His father was named either Blosôn or Herakôn.[3] Diogenes says that he abdicated the kingship (basileia) in favor of his brother[5] and Strabo confirms that there was a ruling family in Ephesus descended from the Ionian founder, Androclus, which still kept the title and could sit in the chief seat at the games, as well as a few other privileges.[6] How much power the king had is another question. Ephesus had been part of the Persian Empire since 547 and was ruled by a satrap, a more distant figure, as the Great King allowed the Ionians considerable autonomy. Diogenes says that Heraclitus used to play knucklebones with the youths in the temple of Artemis and when asked to start making laws he refused saying that the constitution (politeia) was ponêra,[7] which can mean either that it was fundamentally wrong or that he considered it toilsome.
With regard to education, Diogenes says that Heraclitus was "wondrous" (thaumasios, which, as Plato explains in the Theaetetus and elsewhere, is the beginning of philosophy) from childhood. Diogenes relates that Sotion said he was a "hearer" of Xenophanes, which contradicts Heraclitus' statement (so says Diogenes) that he had taught himself by questioning himself. Burnet states in any case that "... Xenophanes left Ionia before Herakleitos was born."[8] Diogenes relates that as a boy Heraclitus had said he "knew nothing" but later claimed to "know everything."[9] His statement that he "heard no one" but "questioned himself," can be placed alongside his statement that "the things that can be seen, heard and learned are what I prize the most."[10]
Diogenes relates that Heraclitus had a poor opinion of human affairs.[3] He believed that Hesiod and Pythagoras lacked understanding though learned[11] and that Homer and Archilochus deserved to be beaten.[12] Laws needed to be defended as though they were city walls.[13] Timon is said to have called him a "mob-reviler." Heraclitus hated the Athenians and his fellow Ephesians, wishing the latter wealth in punishment for their wicked ways.[14] Says Diogenes: "Finally, he became a hater of his kind (misanthrope) and wandered the mountains ... making his diet of grass and herbs."
Heraclitus' life as a philosopher was interrupted by dropsy. The physicians he consulted were unable to prescribe a cure. He treated himself with a liniment of cow manure and baking in the sun, believing that this method would remove the fluid. After a day of treatment he died and was interred in the marketplace.[15]
Works[link]
Main article: On Nature (Heraclitus)
Diogenes states that Heraclitus' work was "a continuous treatise On Nature, but was divided into three discourses, one on the universe, another on politics, and a third on theology." Theophrastus says (in Diogenes) "...some parts of his work are half-finished, while other parts make a strange medley."[5]
Diogenes also tells us that Heraclitus deposited his book as a dedication in the great temple of Artemis, the Artemisium, one of the largest temples of the 6th century BCE and one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. Ancient temples were regularly used for storing treasures, and were open to private individuals under exceptional circumstances; furthermore, many subsequent philosophers in this period refer to the work. Says Kahn:[2] "Down to the time of Plutarch and Clement, if not later, the little book of Heraclitus was available in its original form to any reader who chose to seek it out." Diogenes says:[5] "the book acquired such fame that it produced partisans of his philosophy who were called Heracliteans."
As with other pre-Socratics, his writings only survive in fragments quoted by other authors.
Ancient characterizations[link]
The obscure[link]
At some time in antiquity he acquired this epithet denoting that his major sayings were difficult to understand. Timon of Phlius calls him "the riddler" (ainiktēs) according to Diogenes Laërtius,[5] who had just explained that Heraclitus wrote his book "rather unclearly" (asaphesteron) so that only the "capable" should attempt it. By the time of Cicero he had become "the dark" (Ancient Greek ὁ Σκοτεινός — ho Skoteinós)[16] because he had spoken nimis obscurē, "too obscurely", concerning nature and had done so deliberately in order to be misunderstood. The customary English translation of ὁ Σκοτεινός follows the Latin, "the obscure."
The weeping philosopher[link]
Diogenes Laërtius ascribes to Theophrastus the theory that Heraclitus did not complete some of his works because of melancholia.[5] Later he was referred to as the "weeping philosopher," as opposed to Democritus, who is known as the "laughing philosopher."[17] If Stobaeus[18] writes correctly, Sotion in the early 1st century CE was already combining the two in the imaginative duo of weeping and laughing philosophers: "Among the wise, instead of anger, Heraclitus was overtaken by tears, Democritus by laughter." The view is expressed by the satirist Juvenal:[19]
The first of prayers, best known at all the temples, is mostly for riches... Seeing this then do you not commend the one sage Democritus for laughing... and the master of the other school Heraclitus for his tears?
The motif was also adopted by Lucian of Samosata in his "Sale of Creeds," in which the duo is sold together as a complementary product in the satirical auction of philosophers. Subsequently they were considered an indispensable feature of philosophic landscapes. Montaigne proposed two archetypical views of human affairs based on them, selecting Democritus' for himself.[20] The weeping philosopher makes an appearance in William Shakespeare's The Merchant of Venice.[21] Donato Bramante painted a fresco, "Democritus and Heraclitus," in Casa Panigarola in Milan.[22]
Philosophy[link]
[edit] Logos
Main article: Logos
"The idea that all things come to pass in accordance with this Logos"[23] and "the Logos is common,"[24] is expressed in two famous but obscure fragments:
This Logos holds always but humans always prove unable to understand it, both before hearing it and when they have first heard it. For though all things come to be in accordance with this Logos, humans are like the inexperienced when they experience such words and deeds as I set out, distinguishing each in accordance with its nature and saying how it is. But other people fail to notice what they do when awake, just as they forget what they do while asleep. (DK 22B1)
For this reason it is necessary to follow what is common. But although the Logos is common, most people live as if they had their own private understanding. (DK 22B2)
The meaning of Logos also is subject to interpretation: "word", "account", "plan", "formula", "measure", "proportion", "reckoning."[25] Though Heraclitus "quite deliberately plays on the various meanings of logos",[26] there is no compelling reason to suppose that he used it in a special technical sense, significantly different from the way it was used in ordinary Greek of his time.[27]
The later Stoics understood it as "the account which governs everything,"[28] and Hippolytus, in the 3rd century AD, identified it as meaning the Christian Word of God.[29] Compare the contemporary Chinese concept of Tao.
[edit] Panta rhei, "everything flows"
Πάντα ῥεῖ (panta rhei) "everything flows" either was not spoken by Heraclitus or did not survive as a quotation of his. This famous aphorism used to characterize Heraclitus' thought comes from Simplicius,[30] a neoplatonist, and from Plato's Cratylus. The word rhei (cf. rheology) is the Greek word for "to stream, and to the etymology of Rhea according to Plato's Cratylus."[31]
The philosophy of Heraclitus is summed up in his cryptic utterance:[32]
ποταμοῖσι τοῖσιν αὐτοῖσιν ἐμϐαίνουσιν, ἕτερα καὶ ἕτερα ὕδατα ἐπιρρεῖ.
Potamoisi toisin autoisin embainousin, hetera kai hetera hudata epirrei
"Ever-newer waters flow on those who step into the same rivers ."
The quote from Heraclitus appears in Plato's Cratylus twice; in 401,d as:[33]
τὰ ὄντα ἰέναι τε πάντα καὶ μένειν οὐδέν”
Ta onta ienai te panta kai menein ouden
"All entities move and nothing remains still"
and in 402,a[34]
πάντα χωρεῖ καὶ οὐδὲν μένει” καὶ "δὶς ἐς τὸν αὐτὸν ποταμὸν οὐκ ἂν ἐμβαίης"
Panta chōrei kai ouden menei... kai... dis es ton auton potamon ouk an embaies
"Everything changes and nothing remains still... and... you cannot step twice into the same stream"
Instead of "flow" Plato uses chōrei, to change chōros.
The assertions of flow are coupled in many fragments with the enigmatic river image:[35]
"Ποταμοῖς τοῖς αὐτοῖς ἐμβαίνομέν τε καὶ οὐκ ἐμβαίνομεν, εἶμέν τε καὶ οὐκ εἶμεν."
"We both step and do not step in the same rivers. We are and are not."
Compare with the Latin adages Omnia mutantur and Tempora mutantur (8 CE) and the Japanese tale Hōjōki, (1200 CE) which contains the same image of the changing river, and the central Buddhist doctrine of impermanence.
[edit] Hodos ano kato, "the way up and the way down"
In ὁδὸς ἄνω κάτω[36] the structure anō katō is more accurately translated as a hyphenated word: "the upward-downward path." They go on simultaneously and instantaneously and result in "hidden harmony".[37] A way is a series of transformations: the πυρὸς τροπαὶ, "turnings of fire,"[38] first into sea, then half of sea to earth and half to rarefied air.
The transformation is a replacement of one element by another: "The death of fire is the birth of air, and the death of air is the birth of water."[39]
This world, which is the same for all, no one of gods or men has made. But it always was and will be: an ever-living fire, with measures of it kindling, and measures going out.[40]
This latter phraseology is further elucidated:
All things are an interchange for fire, and fire for all things, just like goods for gold and gold for goods.[41]
Heraclitus considered fire as the most fundamental element. He believed fire gave rise to the other elements and thus to all things. He regarded the soul as being a mixture of fire and water, with fire being the noble part of the soul, and water the ignoble part. A soul should therefore aim toward becoming more full of fire and less full of water: a "dry" soul was best. According to Heraclitus, worldly pleasures made the soul "moist", and he considered mastering one's worldly desires to be a noble pursuit which purified the soul's fire.[42] Norman Melchert interpreted Heraclitus as using "fire" metaphorically, in lieu of Logos, as the origin of all things.[43]
[edit] Dike eris, "strife is justice"
If objects are new from moment to moment so that one can never touch the same object twice, then each object must dissolve and be generated continually momentarily and an object is a harmony between a building up and a tearing down. Heraclitus calls the oppositional processes eris, "strife", and hypothesizes that the apparently stable state, dikê, or "justice," is a harmony of it:[44]
We must know that war (polemos) is common to all and strife is justice, and that all things come into being through strife necessarily.
As Diogenes explains:[45]
All things come into being by conflict of opposites, and the sum of things (ta hola, "the whole") flows like a stream.
In the bow metaphor Heraclitus compares the resultant to a strung bow held in shape by an equilibrium of the string tension and spring action of the bow:[46]
There is a harmony in the bending back (palintropos) as in the case of the bow and the lyre.
[edit] Hepesthai to koino, "follow the common"
People must "follow the common (hepesthai tō ksunō)"[47] and not live having "their own judgement (phronēsis)". He distinguishes between human laws and divine law (tou theiou "of God").[48]
He removes the human sense of justice from his concept of God; i.e., humanity is not the image of God: "To God all things are fair and good and just, but people hold some things wrong and some right."[49] God's custom has wisdom but human custom does not,[50] and yet both humans and God are childish (inexperienced): "human opinions are children's toys"[51] and "Eternity is a child moving counters in a game; the kingly power is a child's."[52]
Wisdom is "to know the thought by which all things are steered through all things",[53] which must not imply that people are or can be wise. Only Zeus is wise.[54] To some degree then Heraclitus seems to be in the mystic's position of urging people to follow God's plan without much of an idea what that may be. In fact there is a note of despair: "The fairest universe (kallistos kosmos) is but a heap of rubbish (sarma, sweepings) piled up (kechumenon, poured out) at random (eikê)."[55]
Influence[link]
Plato[link]
In Heraclitus a perceived object is a harmony between two fundamental units of change, a waxing and a waning. He typically uses the ordinary word "to become" (gignesthai or ginesthai, root sense of being born), which led to his being characterized as the philosopher of becoming rather than of being. He recognizes the changing of objects with the flow of time.
Plato argues against Heraclitus as follows:[56]
How can that be a real thing which is never in the same state? ... for at the moment that the observer approaches, then they become other ... so that you cannot get any further in knowing their nature or state .... but if that which knows and that which is known exist ever ... then I do not think they can resemble a process or flux ....
In Plato one experienced unit is a state, or object existing, which can be observed. The time parameter is set at "ever"; that is, the state is to be presumed present between observations. Change is to be deduced by comparing observations, but no matter how many of those you are able to make, you cannot get through the mysterious gap between them to account for the change that must be occurring there.
Stoics[link]
Stoicism was a philosophical school which flourished between the 3rd century BCE and about the 3rd century CE. It began among the Greeks and became the major philosophy of the Roman Empire before declining with the rise of Christianity in the 3rd century.
Throughout their long tenure the Stoics believed that the major tenets of their philosophy derived from the thought of Heraclitus.[57] According to Long, "the importance of Heraclitus to later Stoics is evident most plainly in Marcus Aurelius."[58] Explicit connections of the earliest Stoics to Heraclitus showing how they arrived at their interpretation are missing but they can be inferred from the Stoic fragments. Long concludes to "modifications of Heraclitus."[59]
The Stoics were interested in Heraclitus' treatment of fire. In addition to seeing it as the most fundamental of the four elements and the one that is quantified and determines the quantity (logos) of the other three, he presents fire as the cosmos, which was not made by any of the gods or men, but "was and is and ever shall be ever-living fire."[60] Fire is both a substance and a motivator of change, it is active in altering other things quantitatively and performing an activity Heraclitus describes as "the judging and convicting of all things."[61] It is "the thunderbolt that steers the course of all things."[62] There is no reason to interpret the judgement, which is actually "to separate" (krinein), as outside of the context of "strife is justice" (see subsection above).
The earliest surviving Stoic work, the Hymn to Zeus of Cleanthes,[63] though not explicitly referencing Heraclitus, adopts what appears to be the Heraclitean logos modified. Zeus rules the universe with law (nomos) wielding on its behalf the "forked servant", the "fire" of the "ever-living lightning." So far nothing has been said that differs from the Zeus of Homer. But then, says Cleanthes, Zeus uses the fire to "straighten out the common logos" that travels about (phoitan, "to frequent") mixing with the greater and lesser lights (heavenly bodies). This is Heraclitus' logos, but now it is confused with the "common nomos", which Zeus uses to "make the wrong (perissa, left or odd) right (artia, right or even)" and "order (kosmein) the disordered (akosma)."[64]
The Stoic modification of Heraclitus' idea of the Logos was also influential on Jewish philosophers such as Philo of Alexandria, who connected it to "Wisdom personified" as God's creative principle. Philo uses the term Logos throughout his treatises on Hebrew Scripture in a manner clearly influenced by the Stoics.
Church fathers[link]
The church fathers were the leaders of the early Christian Church during its first five centuries of existence, roughly contemporaneous to Stoicism under the Roman Empire. The works of dozens of writers in hundreds of pages have survived.
All of them had something to say about the Christian form of the Logos. The Catholic Church found it necessary to discriminate between the Christian logos and that of Heraclitus as part of its ideological distancing from paganism. The necessity to convert by defeating paganism was of paramount importance. Hippolytus of Rome therefore identifies Heraclitus along with the other Pre-Socratics (and Academics) as sources of heresy. Church use of the methods and conclusions of ancient philosophy as such was as yet far in the future, even though many were converted philosophers.
In Refutation of All Heresies[65] Hippolytus says: "What the blasphemous folly is of Noetus, and that he devoted himself to the tenets of Heraclitus the Obscure, not to those of Christ." Hippolytus then goes on to present the inscrutable DK B67: "God (theos) is day and night, winter and summer, ... but he takes various shapes, just as fire, when it is mingled with spices, is named according to the savor of each." The fragment seems to support pantheism if taken literally.
Hippolytus condemns the obscurity of it. He cannot accuse Heraclitus of being a heretic so he says instead: "Did not (Heraclitus) the Obscure anticipate Noetus in framing a system ...?" The apparent pantheist deity of Heraclitus (if that is what DK B67 means) must be equal to the union of opposites and therefore must be corporeal and incorporeal, divine and not-divine, dead and alive, etc., and the Trinity can only be reached by some sort of illusory shape-shifting.[66]
The Apologist Justin Martyr, however, took a much more positive view of him. In his First Apology, he said both Socrates and Heraclitus were Christians before Christ: "those who lived reasonably are Christians, even though they have been thought atheists; as, among the Greeks, Socrates and Heraclitus, and men like them" [67]
See also[link]
The following articles on other topics contain non-trivial information that relates to Heraclitus in some way.
Notes[link]
- ^ This is how Plato puts Heraclitus' doctrine. See Cratylus, 402a.
- ^ a b Kahn, Charles (1979). The Art and Thought of Heraclitus: Fragments with Translation and Commentary. London: Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–23. ISBN 0-521-28645-X.
- ^ a b c Diogenes Laërtius, ix. 1
- ^ Diogenes Laërtius, ix. 3
- ^ a b c d e Diogenes Laërtius, ix. 6
- ^ Strabo, Chapter 1, section 3.
- ^ Diogenes Laërtius, ix. 2
- ^ Chapter 3 beginning.
- ^ Diogenes Laërtius, ix. 5
- ^ DK B55.
- ^ DK B40.
- ^ DK B42.
- ^ DK B44.
- ^ DK B125a.
- ^ Diogenes Laërtius, ix. 4
- ^ De Finibus Bonorum et Malorum, Chapter 2, Section 15.
- ^ Seneca, Lucius Annaeus; John M. Cooper & J.F. Procopé (translators) (1995). Moral and Political Essays. Cambridge University Press. p. 50 note 17. ISBN 0-521-34818-8.
- ^ III.20.53
- ^ Satire X. Translation from Juvenal; Sidney George Owen (translator) (1903). Thirteen Satires of Juvenal. London: Methuen & Co. p. 61.
- ^ de Montaigne, Michel. "Of Democritus and Heraclitus". The Essays. Project Gutenberg. http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/3600.
- ^ Act I Scene II Line 43.
- ^ Levenson, Jay, editor (1991). Circa 1492: Art in the Age of Exploration. New Haven: Yale University Press. p. 229. ISBN 0-300-05167-0.
- ^ DK B1.
- ^ DK B2.
- ^ For the etymology see Watkins, Calvert (2000). "Appendix I: Indo-European Roots: leg-". The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language: Fourth Edition. http://www.bartleby.com/61/roots/IE267.html.
- ^ K.F. Johansen, "Logos" in Donald Zeyl (ed.), Encyclopedia of Classical Philosophy, Greenwood Press 1997.
- ^ pp. 419ff. , W. K. C. Guthrie, A History of Greek Philosophy, vol. 1, Cambridge University Press, 1962.
- ^ DK B72, from Marcus Aurelius, Meditations iv. 46
- ^ DK B2, DK B50, from Hippolytus, Refutation of all Heresies, ix. 9
- ^ Barnes page 65, and also Peters, Francis E. (1967). Greek Philosophical Terms: A Historical Lexicon. NYU Press. pp. 178. ISBN 081476552. Simplicius' commentary on Aristotle's physica 1313.11.
- ^ For the etymology see Watkins, Calvert (2000). "Appendix I: Indo-European Roots: sreu". The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language. http://www.bartleby.com/61/roots/IE493.html. In pronunciation the -ei- is a diphthong sounding like the -ei- in reindeer. The initial r is aspirated or made breathy, which indicates the dropping of the s in *sreu-.
- ^ DK22B12, quoted in Arius Didymus apud Eusebius, Praeparatio Evangelica, 15.20.2
- ^ Cratylus Paragraph Crat. 401 section d line 5.
- ^ Cratylus Paragraph 402 section a line 8.
- ^ DK B49a, Harris 110. Others like it are DK B12, Harris 20; DK B91, Harris 21.
- ^ DK B60
- ^ DK B54.
- ^ DK B31
- ^ DK B76.
- ^ DK B30.
- ^ DK B90
- ^ Russell, Bertrand, History of Western Philosophy
- ^ Melchert, Norman (2006). The Great Conversation (5th ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-530682-8.
- ^ DK B80.
- ^ Diogenes Laërtius, ix. 8
- ^ DK B51.
- ^ The initial part of DK B2, often omitted because broken by a note explaining that ksunos (Ionic) is koinos (Attic).
- ^ DK B114.
- ^ DK B102.
- ^ DK B78.
- ^ DK B70.
- ^ DK B52.
- ^ DK B41.
- ^ DK B32.
- ^ DK B124.
- ^ Cratylus Paragraph 440 sections c-d.
- ^ Long, A.A. (2001). Stoic Studies. University of California Press. Chapter 2. ISBN 0-520-22974-6.
- ^ Long, page 56.
- ^ Long, page 51.
- ^ DK B60.
- ^ DK B66.
- ^ DK B64.
- ^ Different translations of this critical piece of literature, transitional from pagan polytheism to the modern religions and philosophies, can be found at Rolleston, T.W.. "Stoic Philosophers: Cleanthes' Hymn to Zeus". www.numinism.net. Archived from the original on 2009-08-05. http://web.archive.org/web/20090805153252/http://geocities.com/WestHollywood/Heights/4617/stoic/zeus.html. Retrieved 2007-11-28. Ellery, M.A.C. (1976). "Cleanthes' Hymn to Zeus". Tom Sienkewicz at www.utexas.edu. http://www.utexas.edu/courses/citylife/readings/cleanthes_hymn.html. Retrieved 2007-11-28. Translator not stated. "Hymn to Zeus". Holy, Holy, Holy at thriceholy.net: Hypatia's Bookshelf. http://thriceholy.net/Texts/Cleanthes.html.
- ^ The ancient Greek can be found in Blakeney, E.H.. The Hymn of Cleanthes: Greek Text Translated into English: with Brief Introduction and Notes. New York: The MacMillan Company. Downloadable Google Books at [1].
- ^ Book IX leading sentence.
- ^ Hippolytus. "Refutation of All Heresies". New Advent. pp. Book IX Chapter 5. http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/050109.htm. Retrieved 2007-12-01.
- ^ Justin Martyr. "First Apology of Justin". Early Christian Writings. http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/text/justinmartyr-firstapology.html.
Further reading[link]
- Bakalis, Nikolaos (2005). Handbook of Greek Philosophy: From Thales to the Stoics: Analysis and Fragments. Trafford Publishing. pp. 26–45 under Heraclitus. ISBN 1-4120-4843-5.
- Barnes, Jonathan (1982). The Presocratic Philosophers [Revised Edition]. London & New York: Routledge Taylor & Francis Group. ISBN 0-415-05079-0.
- Botten, Mick. (2011) Herakleitos - Logos Made Manifest Fastprint Publishing. ISBN 978-1-78035-064-6 All fragments, in Greek and English, with commentary and useful appendices. View as pdf at www.Herakleitos.org.uk
- Burnet, John (2003). Early Greek Philosophy. Kessinger Publishing. ISBN 0-7661-2826-1. http://books.google.com/books?id=LQYrAAAAMAAJ&dq=Early+Greek+philosophy. First published in 1892, this book has had dozens of editions and has been used as a textbook for decades. The first edition is downloadable from Google Books.
- Davenport, Guy (translator) (1979). Herakleitos and Diogenes. Bolinas: Grey Fox Press. ISBN 0-912516-36-4. Complete fragments of Heraclitus in English.
- Dilcher, Roman (1995). Studies in Heraclitus. Hildesheim: Olms. ISBN 3-487-09986-1.
- Fairbanks, Arthur (1898). The First Philosophers of Greece. New York: Scribner. http://www.archive.org/details/firstphilosopher00fairiala.
- Graham, D. W. "Heraclitus and Parmenides". In Caston, V.; Graham, D. W. Presocratic Philosophy: Essays in Honour of Alexander Mourelatos. Aldershot: Ashgate. pp. 27–44. ISBN 0-7546-0502-7.
- Graham, D. W. (2008). "Heraclitus: Flux, Order, and Knowledge". In Curd, P.; Graham, D. W.. The Oxford Handbook of Presocratic Philosophy. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 169–188. ISBN 978-0-19-514687-5.
- Guthrie, W.K.C. (1962). A History of Greek Philosophy: The Earlier Presocratics and the Pythagoreans. 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
- Heidegger, Martin; Fink, Eugen; Seibert (translator), Charles H. (1993). Heraclitus Seminar. Evanston: Northwestern University Press. ISBN 0-8101-1067-9. . Transcript of seminar in which two German philosophers analyze and discuss Heraclitus' texts.
- Heraclitus; Haxton (translator), Brooks; Hillman (Forward), James (2001). Fragments: The Collected Wisdom of Heraclitus. New York: Viking (The Penguin Group, Penguin Putnam, Inc.). ISBN 0-670-89195-9. . Parallel Greek & English.
- Kahn, Charles H. (1979). The art and thought of Heraclitus : an edition of the fragments with translation and commentary. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-21883-7.
- Kirk, G.S. (1954). Heraclitus, the Cosmic Fragments. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
- Kirk, G.S.; J.E. Raven (1957). The Pre-Socratic Philosophers: A Critical History with a Selection of Texts (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
- Laertius, Diogenes. Lives of the Eminent Philosophers. .
Life of Heraclitus, translated by Robert Drew Hicks (1925).. - Lavine, T.Z. (1984). From Socrates to Sartre: The Philosophic Quest. New York, New York: Bantam Doubleday Dell Publishing Group, Inc. (Bantam Books). Chapter 2: Shadow and Substance; Section: Plato's Sources: The Pre-SocraticPhilosophers: Heraclitus and Parmenides. ISBN 0-553-25161-9.
- Magnus, Magus; Fuchs (introduction), Wolfgang (2010). Heraclitean Pride. Towson: Furniture Press Books. ISBN 978-0-9826299-2-5. Creative re-creation of Heraclitus' lost book, from the fragments.
- McKirahan, R. D. (2011). Philosophy before Socrates, An Introduction With Text and Commentary. Indianapolis: Hackett. ISBN 978-1-60384-183-2.
- Mourelatos, Alexander, ed. (1993). The Pre-Socratics : a collection of critical essays (Rev. ed.). Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-02088-4.
- Patrick, G.T.W. (1889,2010). Heraclitus of Ephesus: The Fragments.
- Pyle, C. M. (1997). 'Democritus and Heracleitus: An Excursus on the Cover of this Book,' Milan and Lombardy in the Renaissance. Essays in Cultural History. Rome, La Fenice. (Istituto di Filologia Moderna, Università di Parma: Testi e Studi, Nuova Serie: Studi 1.) (Fortuna of the Laughing and Weeping Philosophers topos)
- Robinson, T.M. (1987). Heraclitus: Fragments: A Text and Translation with a Commentary. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. ISBN 0-8020-6913-4.
- Sallis, John; Maly, Kenneth, eds. (1980). Heraclitean fragments. University: University of Alabama Press. ISBN 0-8173-0027-9.
- Schofield, Malcolm; Nussbaum, Martha Craven, eds. (1982). Language and logos : studies in ancient Greek philosophy presented to G.E.L. Owen. Cambridge: Cambridge U.P.. ISBN 0-521-23640-1.
- Taylor, C. C. W (ed.), Routledge History of Philosophy: From the Beginning to Plato, Vol. I, pp. 80 – 117. ISBN 0-203-02721-3 Master e-book ISBN, ISBN 0-203-05752-X (Adobe eReader Format) and ISBN 0-415-06272-1 (Print Edition).
- Tarán, L. (1999). "337–378". Elenchos 20: 9–52.
- Vlastos, G. (1955). "On Heraclitus". American Journal of Philology 76 (4): 337–378. DOI:10.2307/292270.
- Wheelwright, Philip (1959). Heraclitus. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
- Wright, M.R. (1985). The Presocratics: The main Fragments in Greek with Introduction, Commentary and Appendix Containing Text and Translation of Aristotle on the Presocratics. Bristol: Bristol Classical Press. ISBN 0-86292-079-5.
External links[link]
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- Elpenor. "Heraclitus: The Word is Common". The Greek Word: Three Millenia of Greek Literature. Elpenor. http://www.ellopos.net/elpenor/greek-texts/ancient-greece/herakleitus-word.asp. Retrieved 2007-10-10. Heraclitus bilingual anthology from DK in Greek and English, side by side, the translations being provided by the organization, Elpenor.
- Graham, Daniel W. (2006). "Heraclitus". The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. The editors. http://www.iep.utm.edu/heraclit/. Retrieved 2007-10-09.
- Harris, William, translator (1994). "Heraclitus: The Complete Fragments: Translation and Commentary and The Greek Text" (pdf). Humanities and the Liberal Arts: Greek Language and Literature: Text and Commentary. Middlebury College. http://community.middlebury.edu/~harris/Philosophy/heraclitus.pdf. Retrieved 2007-10-09. Greek and English with DK numbers and commentary.
- "Heraclitus the Obscure: The Father of the Doctrine of Flux and the Unity of Opposites". Archimedes' Laboratory. http://www.archimedes-lab.org/heraclitus_aphorism.html. Retrieved 2007-11-09. Text and selected aphorisms in Greek, English, Italian and French.
- Hooker, Richard (1996). "Heraclitus". World Civilizations: An Internet Classroom and Anthology: Greek Philosophy. Washington State University. http://www.wsu.edu/~dee/GREECE/HERAC.HTM. Retrieved 2007-10-11. Selected fragments translated by Hooker.
- Hoyt, Randy (2002). "The Fragments of Heraclitus". http://www.heraclitusfragments.com/. Retrieved 2007-10-09. The fragments also cited in DK in Greek (Unicode) with the English translations of John Burnet (see Bibliography).
- Knierim, Thomas (2007). "Heraclitus: (Ephesus, around 500 BC)". thebigview.com. http://www.thebigview.com/greeks/heraclitus.html. Essay on the flux and fire philosophy of Heraclitus.
- Lancereau, M. Daniel; M. Samuel Béreau (2007). "Heraclitus". Philoctetes: ΦΙΛΟΚΤΗΤΗΣ. http://philoctetes.free.fr/heraclitus.htm. Retrieved 2007-10-10. Site with links to pdf's containing the fragments of DK in Greek (Unicode) with the English translations of John Burnet (see Bibliography) and translations into French, either in parallel columns or interlinear, with links on the lexical items to Perseus dictionaries. Includes also Heraclitus article from Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition.
- Magnus, Magus. "The Turning". http://furniturepressbooks.com/books/magnuspride/.
- Stamatellos, Giannis. "Heraclitus of Ephesus: Life and Work". http://www.philosophy.gr/presocratics/heraclitus.htm. Retrieved 2007-10-12.
- Trix. "Heraclitus' Epistemological Views". sym•pos•i•a: σψμποσια: the online philosophy journal. Archived from the original on 2007-09-29. http://web.archive.org/web/20070929094137/http://journal.ilovephilosophy.com/Article/Heraclitus--Epistemological-Views/29. Retrieved 2007-10-10.
- Osho. "Osho discourse on Heraclitus,The Hidden Harmony". http://www.livingworkshop.net/PDF-files/The_Hidden_Harmony.pdf.
- "Heraclitus Series". http://canopycanopycanopy.com/4/heraclitus_series. Heraclitus' fragments rendered into the language of deductive logic on Triple Canopy (online magazine).
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| Persondata | |
|---|---|
| Name | Heraclitus |
| Alternative names | Heraclitus the Ephesian; Heraclitus of Ephebes; Heraclitus the Obscure; Ἡράκλειτος ὁ Ἐφέσιος - Herákleitos ho Ephésios |
| Short description | Greek philosopher |
| Date of birth | 535 BC |
| Place of birth | Ephebes, Asia Minor |
| Date of death | 475 BC |
| Place of death | |
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There are many people in history who are commonly appended with the phrase "the Great", or who were called that or an equivalent phrase in their own language. Other languages have their own suffixes such as e Bozorg and e azam in Persian and Urdu respectively.
In Persia, the title "the Great" at first seems to be a colloquial version of the Old Persian title "Great King". This title was first used by the conqueror Cyrus II of Persia.[1]
The Persian title was inherited by Alexander III of Macedon (336–323 BC) when he conquered the Persian Empire, and the epithet "Great" eventually became personally associated with him. The first reference (in a comedy by Plautus)[2] assumes that everyone knew who "Alexander the Great" was; however, there is no earlier evidence that Alexander III of Macedon was called "the Great".
The early Seleucid kings, who succeeded Alexander in Persia, used "Great King" in local documents, but the title was most notably used for Antiochus the Great (223–187 BC).
Later rulers and commanders began to use the epithet "the Great" as a personal name, like the Roman general Pompey. Others received the surname retrospectively, like the Carthaginian Hanno and the Indian emperor Ashoka the Great. Once the surname gained currency, it was also used as an honorific surname for people without political careers, like the philosopher Albert the Great.
As there are no objective criteria for "greatness", the persistence of later generations in using the designation greatly varies. For example, Louis XIV of France was often referred to as "The Great" in his lifetime but is rarely called such nowadays, while Frederick II of Prussia is still called "The Great". A later Hohenzollern - Wilhelm I - was often called "The Great" in the time of his grandson Wilhelm II, but rarely later.
Contents |
Rulers[link]
- Abbas I of Persia (1571–1629), Shah of Iran
- Akbar (1542–1605), ruler of the Mughal Empire of South Asia, mainly India
- Alain I of Albret (1440–1522), French aristocrat
- Alexander the Great (356-323 BC), King of Macedonia, Persia, Greece, Egypt, and all of Mesopotamia
- Alexander I of Georgia (1386–1446), King of Georgia
- Alfonso III of León (c. 848-910), King of León, Galicia and Asturias
- Alfred the Great (848/849-899), King of Wessex
- Antiochus III the Great (c. 241–187 BC), ruler of the Seleucid Empire
- Ashoka the Great (c. 304–232 BC), Indian emperor of the Maurya dynasty
- Ashot I of Iberia “the Great”(died 826/830), presiding prince of Iberia (modern Georgia),
- Askia Mohammad I (c. 1442–1538), ruler of the Songhai Empire
- Bhumibol Adulyadej (born 1927), King of Thailand
- Bolesław I Chrobry (967-1025), sometimes called "the Great", first King of Poland
- Bruno the Great (925–965), Archbishop of Cologne and Duke of Lotharingia (also listed in the following section)
- Buddha Yodfa Chulaloke (1736–1809), founder and ruler of the Rattanakosin Kingdom (in what is now Thailand)
- Cnut the Great (c. 985 or 995-1035), King of Denmark, England, Norway and parts of Sweden
- Casimir III the Great (1310–1370), King of Poland
- Catherine the Great (1729–1796), Empress of Russia
- Chandragupta II (reigned 375-413/415), also known as Vikramaditya, ruler of the Gupta empire in India
- Charlemagne (died 814), King of the Franks and Emperor of the Romans
- Chulalongkorn (1853–1910), King of Siam (now Thailand)
- Chlothar II (584-629), King of Neustria and King of the Franks
- Conrad, Margrave of Meissen (c. 1097-1157), Margrave of Meissen
- Constantine I (c. 272-337), Roman emperor
- Cyaxares the Great (c. 625-585 BC), third king of Media
- Cyrus the Great (c. 600 BC or 576 BC–530 BC), founder and ruler of the Persian or Achaemenid Empire
- Darius the Great (550 – 486 BC), third ruler of the Persian Empire
- Devapala (died 850), ruler of the Pala Empire in the Indian subcontinent
- Dionysius I, Greek tyrant of Syracuse[3]
- Ferdinand I of León and Castile (c. 1015–1065), King of León and Count of Castile
- Frederick the Great (1712–1786), King of Prussia
- Genghis Khan (1162?-1227), founder and Great Khan of the Mongol Empire
- Gero (c. 900–965), ruler of Marca Geronis, a very large march in Europe
- Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden (1594–1632), King of Sweden, founder of the Swedish Empire, and noted military leader
- Gwanggaeto the Great, King of Goguryeo, one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea[4][5]
- Hanno the Great, the name of three leaders of Carthage, in the 4th, 3rd, and 2nd centuries BC
- Henry I, Duke of Burgundy (946–1002)
- Henry IV of France (1553–1610), King of France and King of Navarre
- Herod the Great (73/74 BC-4 BC), King of Judea
- Hugh the Great (898-956), Duke of the Franks and Count of Paris
- Hugh Magnus of France (1007–1025), co-King of France
- Hugh I, Count of Vermandois (1057–1101)
- Humphrey I de Bohun (died c. 1123), Anglo-Norman aristocrat
- Ivan III of Russia (1440–1505), Tsar of Russia
- John I of Portugal (1358–1433), King of Portugal and the Algarve
- John II of Aragon (1398–1479), King of Aragon and, through his wife, King of Navarre
- Justinian I (483-565), Byzantine Emperor
- Kamehameha I (c. 1758-1819), first King of Hawai'i
- Kanishka (died c. 127), ruler of the Kushan Empire in Central Asia and parts of India
- Kvirike III of Kakheti (1010–1029), King of Kakheti in eastern Georgia
- Kublai Khan (1215–1294), Mongol ruler in the 13th century and Emperor of China; founder of the Yuan Dynasty
- Llywelyn the Great (c. 1172–1240), Prince of Gwynedd and de facto ruler of most of Wales
- Louis I of Hungary (1326–1382), King of Hungary, Croatia and Poland
- Mangrai the Great (1238–1317), Lanna, northern Thailand
- Emperor Meiji (1852–1912), Emperor of Japan
- Mircea I of Wallachia (1355–1418)
- Mithridates II of Parthia (died 88 BC), ruler of the Parthian Empire (in present day Iran)
- Mithridates VI of Pontus (134 BC–63 BC), ruler of Pontus and the Bosporan Kingdom
- Mstislav I of Kiev (1076–1132), Grand Prince of Kievan Rus
- Naresuan (1555–1605), King of Ayutthaya
- Narai (1633–1688), King of Ayutthaya (in what is now modern Thailand)
- Odo the Great (died c. 735), Duke of Aquitaine
- Otto I, Holy Roman Emperor (912-973)
- K'inich Janaab' Pakal (603-683), ruler of the Mayan city-state of Palenque
- Parakramabahu I of Polonnaruwa (1123–1186), King of Sri Lanka
- Peter Krešimir IV of Croatia (died 1075), King of Croatia
- Peter the Great (1672–1725), Tsar of Russia
- Peter III of Aragon (1239–1285), King of Aragon and King of Sicily
- Pompey (106 BC-48 BC), military and political leader of the late Roman Republic, rival of Julius Caesar
- Radama I (1793–1828), first king of greater Madagascar
- Raja Raja Chola I (c. 947-1014), Indian emperor of the Cholas.[6][7][8]
- Rajendra Chola I (reigned 1014–1044), Tamil King of India
- Ramesses II (reigned 1279 BC – 1213 BC), considered the greatest pharaoh of Ancient Egypt
- Ram Khamhaeng (around 1237 to 1247-1298), King of Sukhothai (in present day Thailand)
- Ramon Berenguer III, Count of Barcelona (1082–1131), also Count of Provence and various other counties
- Rhodri the Great (c. 820–878), King of Gwynedd (in present day Wales)
- Roman the Great (after 1160-1205), Grand Prince of Kiev
- Saladin (c. 1138-1193), Kurdish Sultan of Egypt and Syria, founder of the Ayyubid dynasty, and victor over the Crusaders
- Samudragupta (c. 335–375), ruler of the Gupta empire in the Indian subcontinent
- Sancho III of Navarre (c. 992-1035), King of Kingdom of Navarre
- Sargon of Akkad (died c. 2215 BC), ruler of the Akkadian Empire
- Sejong the Great (1397–1450), Korean king[9]
- Shapur II (309-379), king of the Sassanid Empire, Persia
- Simeon I of Bulgaria (864/865-927), ruler of the First Bulgarian Empire
- Stephen III of Moldavia (1433–1504), Prince of Moldavia (Romania)
- Stephen Uroš IV Dušan of Serbia (c. 1308-1355), King of Serbia and Emperor of the Serbs and Greeks
- Taksin (1734–1782), King of the Thonburi Kingdom (Thailand)
- Tamar (1160-1123), Queen of the Georgian Empire
- Timur (1336–1405), better known as Tamerlane, founder of the Timurid Dynasty
- Theobald II, Count of Champagne (1090–1151), Count of Blois and of Chartres as Theobald IV, Count of Champagne and of Brie
- Theodoric the Great (454-526), King of the Ostrogoths, regent of the Visigoths and a viceroy of the Byzantine Empire
- Theodosius I (347-395), Roman emperor
- Tigranes the Great (140-55 BC), Emperor of Armenia
- Tiridates III of Armenia (285-339), King of Armenia
- Umar (c. 586 to 590–644), second caliph of the Muslim Empire
- Valdemar I of Denmark (1131–1182), King of Denmark
- Valentinian I (364-375), Roman Emperor
- Vladimir I of Kiev (c. 958-1015), ruler of Kievan Rus
- Vytautas (c. 1350-1430), archduke of the Lithuanian Grand Duchy
- William I, Count of Burgundy (1020–1087), Count of Burgandy and Mâcon
- William V, Duke of Aquitaine (969-1030), also Count of Poitou
- Xerxes I (519-465 BC), King of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire (Persia)
- Yu the Great (c. 2200-2100 BC), legendary ruler in ancient China
Religious figures[link]
- Abraham the Great of Kashkar (ca. 492-586), monk and saint of the Assyrian Church of the East
- Abraham Kidunaia (died c. 366, hermit, priest, and Christian saint of Mesopotamia
- Albertus Magnus (1193/1206–1280), medieval German philosopher and theologian
- Anthony the Great (c. 251–356), early Christian saint of Egypt
- Babai the Great (c. 551–628), Assyrian church leader
- Basil of Caesarea (330-379), Greek bishop and theologian
- Bruno the Great (925–965), Archbishop of Cologne and Duke of Lotharingia (also listed in the previous section)
- Euthymius the Great (377-473), abbot and Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox saint
- Gertrude the Great (1256-c. 1302), German Benedictine, mystic, theologian and Roman Catholic saint
- Pope Gregory I (c. 540-604)
- Hiyya the Great, 3rd-century rabbi, Palestine
- Pope John Paul II (1920–2005)
- Pope Leo I (c. 391 or 400-461)
- Macarius of Egypt (c. 300-391), Egyptian hermit
- Pope Nicholas I (c. 800-867)
- Photius I of Constantinople (c. 810–c. 893), Eastern Orthodox saint and Patriarch of Constantinople
- William of Maleval (died 1157), founder of the Catholic congregation of Williamites
Other[link]
- Beli Mawr, a figure in medieval Welsh literature and genealogies
- Emmy the Great, folk singer
- Matteo Rosso the Great, Roman politician and father of Pope Nicholas III
- Prokop the Great, Hussite general in Bohemia
See also[link]
- Epithet
- List of monarchs by nickname
- List of nicknames of European Royalty and Nobility: G-I
- James, son of Zebedee, also known as James the Greater, one of the twelve apostles of Jesus
- Ajax (mythology), called Ajax the Greater
- Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, whose common honorific "Mahatma" means "Great Soul"
Notes[link]
- ^ In a clay cylinder (online). The expression was used in a propagandistic context: the conqueror wants to show he is a normal Babylonian ruler. The first Persian ruler to use the title in an Iranian context was Darius I of Persia (Darius the Great), in the Behistun Inscription (online).
- ^ Plautus, Mostellaria 775.
- ^ History, Instituto Geografico De Agostini S.p.A., p. 479
- ^ World and Its Peoples:Korea. Marshall Cavendish Corporation. September 2008. p. 887. ISBN 0-7614-7631-8.
- ^ Alison Behnke (2004). North Korea in Pictures. Twenty-First Century Books. p. 70. ISBN 0-8225-1908-9. http://books.google.com/?id=ovWvhyLc6hAC&pg=RA1-PA70&dq=%22Gwanggaeto+the+Great%22.
- ^ Sarkar, Benoy Kumar (December 1919). "An English History of India". Political Science Quarterly 34 (4): 644–653. DOI:10.2307/2142032. JSTOR 2142032. ""The finances of the state were not more centralized under Louis XIV than under Rajaraja the Great.""
- ^ "Heaven sent: Michael Wood explores the art of the Chola dynasty". Royal Academy, UK. http://www.royalacademy.org.uk/ra-magazine/winter2006/features/heven-sent,47,RAMA.html. Retrieved 2007-04-26.
- ^ "The Chola Dynasty: Accession of Rajaraja, the Great". Sify.com. http://sify.com/itihaas/fullstory.php?id=13219885. Retrieved 2007-04-26.
- ^ Christoph Bluth; Gareth Schott (2007). Korea. Polity. p. 10. ISBN 0-7456-3356-0.
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"Buddha" and "Gautama" redirect here. For other uses, see Buddha (disambiguation) and Gautama (disambiguation).
| Gautama Buddha | |
|---|---|
.jpg) A statue of the Buddha from Sarnath, 4th century CE |
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| Born | c. 563 BCE [1] Lumbini (today in Nepal) |
| Died | c. 483 BCE (aged 80) or 411 and 400 BCE Kushinagar, Uttar Pradesh (today in India) |
| Ethnicity | Shakya |
| Known for | Founder of Buddhism |
| Predecessor | Kassapa Buddha |
| Successor | Maitreya Buddha |
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Gautama Buddha or Siddhārtha Gautama Buddha (Sanskrit: सिद्धार्थ गौतम बुद्ध; Pali: Siddhattha Gotama) was a spiritual teacher from the Indian subcontinent, on whose teachings Buddhism was founded.[2] The word Buddha is a title for the first awakened being in an era. In most Buddhist traditions, Siddhartha Gautama is regarded as the Supreme Buddha (P. sammāsambuddha, S. samyaksaṃbuddha) of our age, "Buddha" meaning "awakened one" or "the enlightened one." [note 1] Gautama Buddha may also be referred to as Śākyamuni (Sanskrit: शाक्यमुनि "Sage of the Śākyas"). The Buddha found a Middle Way that ameliorated the extreme asceticism found in the Sramana religions.[3]
The time of Gautama's birth and death are uncertain: most early 20th-century historians dated his lifetime as c. 563 BCE to 483 BCE,[4] but more recent opinion dates his death to between 486 and 483 BCE or, according to some, between 411 and 400 BCE.[5][6] UNESCO lists Lumbini, Nepal, as a world heritage site and birthplace of Gautama Buddha.[1][7] There are also claims about birth place of Gautama Buddha to be Kapileswara, Orissa[8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15] or Kapilavastu at Piprahwa, Uttar Pradesh He later taught throughout regions of eastern India such as Magadha and Kośala.[16][17]
Gautama is the primary figure in Buddhism, and accounts of his life, discourses, and monastic rules are believed by Buddhists to have been summarized after his death and memorized by his followers. Various collections of teachings attributed to him were passed down by oral tradition, and first committed to writing about 400 years later.
Contents |
Biography[link]
Traditional biographies[link]
The primary sources for the life of Siddhārtha Gautama are in a variety of different and sometimes conflicting traditional biographies. These include the Buddhacarita, Lalitavistara Sūtra, Mahāvastu, and the Nidānakathā.[18] Of these, the Buddhacarita is the earliest full biography, an epic poem written by the poet Aśvaghoṣa, and dating around the beginning of the 2nd century CE.[18] The Lalitavistara Sūtra is the next oldest biography, a Mahāyāna/Sarvāstivāda biography dating to the 3rd century CE.[19] The Mahāvastu from the Mahāsāṃghika Lokottaravāda sect is another major biography, composed incrementally until perhaps the 4th century CE.[19] The Dharmaguptaka biography of the Buddha is the most exhaustive, and is entitled the Abhiniṣkramaṇa Sūtra, and various Chinese translations of this date between the 3rd and 6th century CE. Lastly, the Nidānakathā is from the Theravāda sect in Sri Lanka, composed in the 5th century CE by Buddhaghoṣa.[20]
From canonical sources, the Jātaka tales, Mahapadana Sutta (DN 14), and the Achariyabhuta Sutta (MN 123) include selective accounts that may be older, but are not full biographies. The Jātaka tales retell previous lives of Gautama as a bodhisattva, and the first collection of these can be dated among the earliest Buddhist texts.[21] The Mahāpadāna Sutta and Acchariyaabbhuta Sutta both recount miraculous events surrounding Gautama's birth, such as the bodhisattva's descent from Tuṣita Heaven into his mother's womb.
Traditional biographies of Gautama generally include numerous miracles, omens, and supernatural events. The character of the Buddha in these traditional biographies is often that of a fully transcendent (Skt. lokottara) and perfected being who is unencumbered by the mundane world. In the Mahāvastu, over the course of many lives, Gautama is said to have developed supramundane abilities including: a painless birth conceived without intercourse; no need for sleep, food, medicine, or bathing, although engaging in such "in conformity with the world"; omniscience, and the ability to "suppress karma".[22] Nevertheless, some of the more ordinary details of his life have been gathered from these traditional sources. In modern times there has been an attempt to form a secular understanding of Siddhārtha Gautama's life by omitting the traditional supernatural elements of his early biographies.
The ancient Indians were generally unconcerned with chronologies, being more focused on philosophy. Buddhist texts reflect this tendency, providing a clearer picture of what Gautama may have taught than of the dates of the events in his life. These texts contain descriptions of the culture and daily life of ancient India which can be corroborated from the Jain scriptures, and make the Buddha's time the earliest period in Indian history for which significant accounts exist.[23][Full citation needed] British author Karen Armstrong writes that although there is very little information that can be considered historically sound, we can be reasonably confident that Siddhārtha Gautama did exist as a historical figure.[24] Michael Carrithers goes a bit further by stating that the most general outline of "birth, maturity, renunciation, search, awakening and liberation, teaching, death" must be true.[25]
Conception and birth[link]
Various sites have been identified as possible places of Gautama Buddha's birth. UNESCO lists Lumbini, Nepal as a world heritage site and birthplace of Gautama Buddha. There are other claims of Buddha's birth in Piprahwa in Uttar Pradesh, India; or Kapileswara in Orissa, India.[8][9][10][12][27][13][14][15]and raised in the small kingdom or principality of Kapilavastu.[28] According to the most traditional biography,[which?] the Buddha's father was King Śuddhodana, the leader of Shakya clan, whose capital was Kapilavastu, and who were later annexed by the growing Kingdom of Kosala during the Buddha's lifetime; Gautama was the family name. His mother, Queen Maha Maya (Māyādevī) and Suddhodana's wife, was a Koliyan princess. Legend has it that, on the night Siddhartha was conceived, Queen Maya dreamt that a white elephant with six white tusks entered her right side,[29] and ten months later Siddhartha was born. As was the Shakya tradition, when his mother Queen Maya became pregnant, she left Kapilvastu for her father's kingdom to give birth. However, her son is said to have been born on the way, at Lumbini, in a garden beneath a sal tree.
The day of the Buddha's birth is widely celebrated in Theravada countries as Vesak.[30] Various sources hold that the Buddha's mother died at his birth, a few days or seven days later. The infant was given the name Siddhartha (Pāli: Siddhattha), meaning "he who achieves his aim". During the birth celebrations, the hermit seer Asita journeyed from his mountain abode and announced that the child would either become a great king (chakravartin) or a great holy man.[31] By traditional account,[which?] this occurred after Siddhartha placed his feet in Asita's hair and Asita examined the birthmarks. Suddhodana held a naming ceremony on the fifth day, and invited eight brahmin scholars to read the future. All gave a dual prediction that the baby would either become a great king or a great holy man.[31] Kaundinya (Pali: Kondañña), the youngest, and later to be the first arahant other than the Buddha, was reputed to be the only one who unequivocally predicted that Siddhartha would become a Buddha.[32]
While later tradition and legend characterized Śuddhodana as a hereditary monarch, the descendant of the Solar Dynasty of Ikṣvāku (Pāli: Okkāka), many scholars think that Śuddhodana was the elected chief of a tribal confederacy.
Early texts suggest that Gautama was not familiar with the dominant religious teachings of his time until he left on his religious quest, which is said to have been motivated by existential concern for the human condition.[33] At the time, many small city-states existed in Ancient India, called Janapadas. Republics and chiefdoms with diffused political power and limited social stratification, were not uncommon amongst them, and were referred to as gana-sanghas.[34] The Buddha's community does not seem to have had a caste system. It was not a monarchy, and seems to have been structured either as an oligarchy, or as a form of republic.[35] The more egalitarian gana-sangha form of government, as a political alternative to the strongly hierarchical kingdoms, may have influenced the development of the Shramana-type Jain and Buddhist sanghas, where monarchies tended toward Vedic Brahmanism.[36]
Early life and marriage[link]
Siddhartha was born in a royal Hindu Kshatriya family. He was brought up by his mother's younger sister, Maha Pajapati.[37] By tradition, he is said to have been destined by birth to the life of a prince, and had three palaces (for seasonal occupation) built for him. Although more recent scholarship doubts this status, his father, said to be King Śuddhodana, wishing for his son to be a great king, is said to have shielded him from religious teachings and from knowledge of human suffering.
When he reached the age of 16, his father reputedly arranged his marriage to a cousin of the same age named Yaśodharā (Pāli: Yasodharā). According to the traditional account,[which?] she gave birth to a son, named Rāhula. Siddhartha is then said to have spent 29 years as a prince in Kapilavastu. Although his father ensured that Siddhartha was provided with everything he could want or need, Buddhist scriptures say that the future Buddha felt that material wealth was not life's ultimate goal.[37]
Departure and ascetic life[link]
At the age of 29, the popular biography continues, Siddhartha left his palace to meet his subjects. Despite his father's efforts to hide from him the sick, aged and suffering, Siddhartha was said to have seen an old man. When his charioteer Channa explained to him that all people grew old, the prince went on further trips beyond the palace. On these he encountered a diseased man, a decaying corpse, and an ascetic. These depressed him, and he initially strove to overcome ageing, sickness, and death by living the life of an ascetic.[39]
Accompanied by Channa and aboard his horse Kanthaka, Gautama quit his palace for the life of a mendicant. It's said that, "the horse's hooves were muffled by the gods"[40] to prevent guards from knowing of his departure.
Gautama initially went to Rajagaha and began his ascetic life by begging for alms in the street. After King Bimbisara's men recognised Siddhartha and the king learned of his quest, Bimisara offered Siddhartha the throne. Siddhartha rejected the offer, but promised to visit his kingdom of Magadha first, upon attaining enlightenment.
He left Rajagaha and practised under two hermit teachers. After mastering the teachings of Alara Kalama (Skr. Ārāḍa Kālāma), he was asked by Kalama to succeed him. However, Gautama felt unsatisfied by the practise, and moved on to become a student of Udaka Ramaputta (Skr. Udraka Rāmaputra). With him he achieved high levels of meditative consciousness, and was again asked to succeed his teacher. But, once more, he was not satisfied, and again moved on.[41]
Siddhartha and a group of five companions led by Kaundinya are then said to have set out to take their austerities even further. They tried to find enlightenment through deprivation of worldly goods, including food, practising self-mortification. After nearly starving himself to death by restricting his food intake to around a leaf or nut per day, he collapsed in a river while bathing and almost drowned. Siddhartha began to reconsider his path. Then, he remembered a moment in childhood in which he had been watching his father start the season's plowing. He attained a concentrated and focused state that was blissful and refreshing, the jhāna.
Enlightenment[link]
According to the early Buddhist texts,[42] after realizing that meditative jhana was the right path to awakening, but that extreme asceticism didn't work, Gautama discovered what Buddhists call the Middle Way[42]—a path of moderation away from the extremes of self-indulgence and self-mortification.[42] In a famous incident, after becoming starved and weakened, he is said to have accepted milk and rice pudding from a village girl named Sujata.[43] Such was his emaciated appearance that she wrongly believed him to be a spirit that had granted her a wish.[43]
Following this incident, Gautama was famously seated under a pipal tree—now known as the Bodhi tree—in Bodh Gaya, India, when he vowed never to arise until he had found the truth.[44] Kaundinya and four other companions, believing that he had abandoned his search and become undisciplined, left. After a reputed 49 days of meditation, at the age of 35, he is said to have attained Enlightenment.[44][45] According to some traditions, this occurred in approximately the fifth lunar month, while, according to others, it was in the twelfth month. From that time, Gautama was known to his followers as the Buddha or "Awakened One" ("Buddha" is also sometimes translated as "The Enlightened One"). He is often referred to in Buddhism as Shakyamuni Buddha, or "The Awakened One of the Shakya Clan."
According to Buddhism, at the time of his awakening he realized complete insight into the cause of suffering, and the steps necessary to eliminate it. These discoveries became known as the "Four Noble Truths",[45] which are at the heart of Buddhist teaching. Through mastery of these truths, a state of supreme liberation, or Nirvana, is believed to be possible for any being. The Buddha described Nirvāna as the perfect peace of a mind that's free from ignorance, greed, hatred and other afflictive states,[45] or "defilements" (kilesas). Nirvana is also regarded as the "end of the world", in that no personal identity or boundaries of the mind remain. In such a state, a being is said to possess the Ten Characteristics, belonging to every Buddha.
According to a story in the Āyācana Sutta (Samyutta Nikaya VI.1) — a scripture found in the Pāli and other canons — immediately after his awakening, the Buddha debated whether or not he should teach the Dharma to others. He was concerned that humans were so overpowered by ignorance, greed and hatred that they could never recognise the path, which is subtle, deep and hard to grasp. However, in the story, Brahmā Sahampati convinced him, arguing that at least some will understand it. The Buddha relented, and agreed to teach.
Formation of the sangha[link]
After his awakening, the Buddha met two merchants, named Tapussa and Bhallika, who became his first lay disciples. They were apparently each given hairs from his head, which are now claimed to be enshrined as relics in the Shwe Dagon Temple in Rangoon, Burma. The Buddha intended to visit Asita, and his former teachers, Alara Kalama and Udaka Ramaputta, to explain his findings, but they had already died.
He then travelled to the Deer Park near Vārāṇasī (Benares) in northern India, where he set in motion what Buddhists call the Wheel of Dharma by delivering his first sermon to the five companions with whom he had sought enlightenment. Together with him, they formed the first saṅgha: the company of Buddhist monks.
All five become arahants, and within the first two months, with the conversion of Yasa and fifty four of his friends, the number of such arahants is said to have grown to 60. The conversion of three brothers named Kassapa followed, with their reputed 200, 300 and 500 disciples, respectively. This swelled the sangha to more than 1,000.
Travels and teaching[link]
For the remaining 45 years of his life, the Buddha is said to have traveled in the Gangetic Plain, in what is now Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and southern Nepal, teaching a diverse range of people: from nobles to outcaste street sweepers, murderers such as Angulimala, and cannibals such as Alavaka. From the outset, Buddhism was equally open to all races and classes, and had no caste structure, as was the rule in Hinduism. Although the Buddha's language remains unknown, it's likely that he taught in one or more of a variety of closely related Middle Indo-Aryan dialects, of which Pali may be a standardization.
The sangha traveled through the subcontinent, expounding the dharma. This continued throughout the year, except during the four months of the vassana rainy season when ascetics of all religions rarely traveled. One reason was that it was more difficult to do so without causing harm to animal life. At this time of year, the sangha would retreat to monasteries, public parks or forests, where people would come to them.
The first vassana was spent at Varanasi when the sangha was formed. After this, the Buddha kept a promise to travel to Rajagaha, capital of Magadha, to visit King Bimbisara. During this visit, Sariputta and Maudgalyayana were converted by Assaji, one of the first five disciples, after which they were to become the Buddha's two foremost followers. The Buddha spent the next three seasons at Veluvana Bamboo Grove monastery in Rajagaha, capital of Magadha.
Upon hearing of his son's awakening, Suddhodana sent, over a period, ten delegations to ask him to return to Kapilavastu. On the first nine occasions, the delegates failed to deliver the message, and instead joined the sangha to become arahants. The tenth delegation, led by Kaludayi, a childhood friend of Gautama's (who also became an arahant), however, delivered the message.
Now two years after his awakening, the Buddha agreed to return, and made a two-month journey by foot to Kapilavastu, teaching the dharma as he went. At his return, the royal palace prepared a midday meal, but the sangha was making an alms round in Kapilavastu. Hearing this, Suddhodana approached his son, the Buddha, saying:
"Ours is the warrior lineage of Mahamassata, and not a single warrior has gone seeking alms"
The Buddha is said to have replied:
"That is not the custom of your royal lineage. But it is the custom of my Buddha lineage. Several thousands of Buddhas have gone by seeking alms"
Buddhist texts say that Suddhodana invited the sangha into the palace for the meal, followed by a dharma talk. After this he is said to have become a sotapanna. During the visit, many members of the royal family joined the sangha. The Buddha's cousins Ananda and Anuruddha became two of his five chief disciples. At the age of seven, his son Rahula also joined, and became one of his ten chief disciples. His half-brother Nanda also joined and became an arahant.
Of the Buddha's disciples, Sariputta, Maudgalyayana, Mahakasyapa, Ananda and Anuruddha are believed to have been the five closest to him. His ten foremost disciples were reputedly completed by the quintet of Upali, Subhoti, Rahula, Mahakaccana and Punna.
In the fifth vassana, the Buddha was staying at Mahavana near Vesali when he heard news of the impending death of his father. He is said to have gone to Suddhodana and taught the dharma, after which his father became an arahant.
The king's death and cremation was to inspire the creation of an order of nuns. Buddhist texts record that the Buddha was reluctant to ordain women. His foster mother Maha Pajapati, for example, approached him, asking to join the sangha, but he refused. Maha Pajapati, however, was so intent on the path of awakening that she led a group of royal Sakyan and Koliyan ladies, which followed the sangha on a long journey to Rajagaha. In time, after Ananda championed their cause, the Buddha is said to have reconsidered and, five years after the formation of the sangha, agreed to the ordination of women as nuns. He reasoned that males and females had an equal capacity for awakening. But he gave women additional rules (Vinaya) to follow.
Assassination attempts[link]
According to colorful legends, even during the Buddha's life the sangha was not free of dissent and discord. For example, Devadatta, a cousin of Gautama who became a monk but not an arahant, more than once tried to kill him.
Initially, Devadatta is alleged to have often tried to undermine the Buddha. In one instance, according to stories, Devadatta even asked the Buddha to stand aside and let him lead the sangha. When this failed, he is accused of having three times tried to kill his teacher. The first attempt is said to have involved him hiring a group of archers to shoot the awakened one. But, upon meeting the Buddha, they laid down their bows and instead became followers. A second attempt is said to have involved Devadatta rolling a boulder down a hill. But this hit another rock and splintered, only grazing the Buddha's foot. In the third attempt, Devadatta is said to have got an elephant drunk and set it loose. This ruse also failed.
After his lack of success at homicide, Devadatta is said to have tried to create a schism in the sangha, by proposing extra restrictions on the vinaya. When the Buddha again prevailed, Devadatta started a breakaway order. At first, he managed to convert some of the bhikkhus, but Sariputta and Maudgalyayana are said to have expounded the dharma so effectively that they were won back.
Mahaparinirvana[link]
According to the Mahaparinibbana Sutta of the Pali canon, at the age of 80, the Buddha announced that he would soon reach Parinirvana, or the final deathless state, and abandon his earthly body. After this, the Buddha ate his last meal, which he had received as an offering from a blacksmith named Cunda. Falling violently ill, Buddha instructed his attendant Ānanda to convince Cunda that the meal eaten at his place had nothing to do with his passing and that his meal would be a source of the greatest merit as it provided the last meal for a Buddha.[46] Mettanando and von Hinüber argue that the Buddha died of mesenteric infarction, a symptom of old age, rather than food poisoning.[47] The precise contents of the Buddha's final meal are not clear, due to variant scriptural traditions and ambiguity over the translation of certain significant terms; the Theravada tradition generally believes that the Buddha was offered some kind of pork, while the Mahayana tradition believes that the Buddha consumed some sort of truffle or other mushroom. These may reflect the different traditional views on Buddhist vegetarianism and the precepts for monks and nuns.
Ananda protested the Buddha's decision to enter Parinirvana in the abandoned jungles of Kuśināra (present-day Kushinagar, India) of the Malla kingdom. Buddha, however, is said to have reminded Ananda how Kushinara was a land once ruled by a righteous wheel-turning king that resounded with joy:
44. Kusavati, Ananda, resounded unceasingly day and night with ten sounds—the trumpeting of elephants, the neighing of horses, the rattling of chariots, the beating of drums and tabours, music and song, cheers, the clapping of hands, and cries of "Eat, drink, and be merry!"
The Buddha then asked all the attendant Bhikkhus to clarify any doubts or questions they had. They had none. According to Buddhist scriptures, he then finally entered Parinirvana. The Buddha's final words are reported to have been: "All composite things pass away. Strive for your own liberation with diligence." His body was cremated and the relics were placed in monuments or stupas, some of which are believed to have survived until the present. For example, The Temple of the Tooth or "Dalada Maligawa" in Sri Lanka is the place where what some believe to be the relic of the right tooth of Buddha is kept at present.
According to the Pāli historical chronicles of Sri Lanka, the Dīpavaṃsa and Mahāvaṃsa, the coronation of Aśoka (Pāli: Asoka) is 218 years after the death of Buddha. According to two textual records in Chinese (十八部論 and 部執異論), the coronation of Aśoka is 116 years after the death of Buddha. Therefore, the time of Buddha's passing is either 486 BCE according to Theravāda record or 383 BCE according to Mahayana record. However, the actual date traditionally accepted as the date of the Buddha's death in Theravāda countries is 544 or 543 BCE, because the reign of Aśoka was traditionally reckoned to be about 60 years earlier than current estimates.
At his death, the Buddha is famously believed to have told his disciples to follow no leader. Mahakasyapa was chosen by the sangha to be the chairman of the First Buddhist Council, with the two chief disciples Maudgalyayana and Sariputta having died before the Buddha.
Physical characteristics[link]
Main article: Physical characteristics of the Buddha
An extensive and colorful physical description of the Buddha has been laid down in scriptures. A kshatriya by birth, he had military training in his upbringing, and by Shakyan tradition was required to pass tests to demonstrate his worthiness as a warrior in order to marry. He had a strong enough body to be noticed by one of the kings and was asked to join his army as a general. He is also believed by Buddhists to have "the 32 Signs of the Great Man".
The Brahmin Sonadanda described him as "handsome, good-looking, and pleasing to the eye, with a most beautiful complexion. He has a godlike form and countenance, he is by no means unattractive."(D,I:115).
"It is wonderful, truly marvellous, how serene is the good Gotama's appearance, how clear and radiant his complexion, just as the golden jujube in autumn is clear and radiant, just as a palm-tree fruit just loosened from the stalk is clear and radiant, just as an adornment of red gold wrought in a crucible by a skilled goldsmith, deftly beaten and laid on a yellow-cloth shines, blazes and glitters, even so, the good Gotama's senses are calmed, his complexion is clear and radiant." (A,I:181)
A disciple named Vakkali, who later became an arahant, was so obsessed by Buddha's physical presence that the Buddha is said to have felt impelled to tell him to desist, and to have reminded him that he should know the Buddha through the Dhamma and not through physical appearances.
Although there are no extant representations of the Buddha in human form until around the 1st century CE (see Buddhist art), descriptions of the physical characteristics of fully enlightened buddhas are attributed to the Buddha in the Digha Nikaya's Lakkhaṇa Sutta (D,I:142).[48] In addition, the Buddha's physical appearance is described by Yasodhara to their son Rahula upon the Buddha's first post-Enlightenment return to his former princely palace in the non-canonical Pali devotional hymn, Narasīha Gāthā ("The Lion of Men").[49]
Among the 32 main characteristics it is mentioned that Buddha has blue eyes.[50]
Teachings[link]
Main article: Buddhist philosophy
Some scholars believe that some portions of the Pali Canon and the Āgamas contain the actual substance of the historical teachings (and possibly even the words) of the Buddha.[51][52] Some scholars believe the Pali Canon and the Agamas pre-date the Mahāyāna sūtras.[53] The scriptural works of Early Buddhism precede the Mahayana works chronologically, and are treated by many Western scholars as the main credible source for information regarding the actual historical teachings of Gautama Buddha. However, some scholars do not think that the texts report on historical events.[54][dubious – discuss][55][56]
Some of the fundamentals of the teachings attributed to Gautama Buddha are:
- The Four Noble Truths: that suffering is an ingrained part of existence; that the origin of suffering is craving for sensuality, acquisition of identity, and annihilation; that suffering can be ended; and that following the Noble Eightfold Path is the means to accomplish this.
- The Noble Eightfold Path: right view, right intention, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration.
- Dependent origination: the mind creates suffering as a natural product of a complex process.
- Rejection of the infallibility of accepted scripture: Teachings should not be accepted unless they are borne out by our experience and are praised by the wise. See the Kalama Sutta for details.
- Anicca (Sanskrit: anitya): That all things that come to be have an end.
- Dukkha (Sanskrit: duḥkha): That nothing which comes to be is ultimately satisfying.
- Anattā (Sanskrit: anātman): That nothing in the realm of experience can really be said to be "I" or "mine".
- Nibbāna (Sanskrit: Nirvāna): It is possible for sentient beings to realize a dimension of awareness which is totally unconstructed and peaceful, and end all suffering due to the mind's interaction with the conditioned world.
However, in some Mahayana schools, these points have come to be regarded as more or less subsidiary. There is disagreement amongst various schools of Buddhism over more complex aspects of what the Buddha is believed to have taught, and also over some of the disciplinary rules for monks.
According to tradition, the Buddha emphasized ethics and correct understanding. He questioned everyday notions of divinity and salvation. He stated that there is no intermediary between mankind and the divine; distant gods are subjected to karma themselves in decaying heavens; and the Buddha is only a guide and teacher for beings who must tread the path of Nirvāṇa (Pāli: Nibbāna) themselves to attain the spiritual awakening called bodhi and understand reality. The Buddhist system of insight and meditation practice is not claimed to have been divinely revealed, but to spring from an understanding of the true nature of the mind, which must be discovered by treading the path guided by the Buddha's teachings.
Other religions[link]
Main article: Gautama Buddha in world religions
In Hinduism, Gautama is regarded as one of the ten avatars of God Vishnu. Some Hindu texts say that the Buddha was an avatar of the god Vishnu.[26]
The Buddha is also regarded as a prophet by the Ahmadiyyas[57][58][59] and a Manifestation of God in the Bahá'í faith.[60] Some early Chinese Taoist-Buddhists thought the Buddha to be a reincarnation of Lao Tzu.[61]
The Christian Saint Josaphat is based on the life of the Buddha. The name comes from the Sanskrit Bodhisatva via Arabic Būdhasaf and Georgian Iodasaph.[62] The only story in which St. Josaphat appears, Barlaam and Josaphat, is based on the life of the Buddha.[63] Josaphat was included in earlier editions of the Roman Martyrology (feast day 27 November) — though not in the Roman Missal — and in the Eastern Orthodox Church liturgical calendar (26 August).
Depiction in arts and media[link]
- Films
Main article: Depictions of Gautama Buddha in film
- Little Buddha, a 1994 film by Bernardo Bertolucci
- Prem Sanyas, a 1925 silent film, directed by Franz Osten and Himansu Rai
- Books
- The Light of Asia, an 1879 book by Edwin Arnold
- Siddhartha (novel), a 1922 book by Hermann Hesse
See also[link]
- Atamasthana (eight sacred places in Sri Lanka)
- Bodh Gaya
- Buddha as viewed in other religions
- Buddha as an Avatar of Vishnu
- Buddhahood
- History of Buddhism
- Iconography of the Buddha
- Jaya Sri Maha Bodhi, south branch of original fig tree planted in Anuradhapura
- List of the 28 Buddhas
- Maitreya Buddha (future Buddha)
References[link]
- Notes
- ^ Turner, Sir Ralph Lilley (1962–1985). "buddha 9276". A comparative dictionary of the Indo-Aryan languages. London: Oxford University Press. Digital Dictionaries of South Asia, University of Chicago. p. 525. http://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/contextualize.pl?p.2.soas.1976481. Retrieved 22 February 2010. "Hypothetical root budh "perceive" 1. Pali buddha – "understood, enlightened", masculine "the Buddha"; Aśokan (the language of the Inscriptions of Aśoka) Budhe nominative singular; Prakrit buddha – ‘ known, awakened ’; Waigalī būdāī, "truth"; Bashkarīk budh "he heard"; Tōrwālī būdo preterite of bū, "to see, know" from bṓdhati; Phalūṛa búddo preterite of buǰǰ , "to understand" from búdhyatē; Shina Gilgitī dialect budo, "awake"; Gurēsī dialect budyōnṷ intransitive "to wake"; Kashmiri bọ̆du, "quick of understanding (especially of a child)"; Sindhī ḇudho, past participle (passive) of ḇujhaṇu, "to understand" from búdhyatē, West Pahāṛī buddhā, preterite of bujṇā, "to know"; Sinhalese buj (j written for d), budu, bud, but, "the Buddha"."
- References
- ^ a b c "Lumbini, the Birthplace of the Lord Buddha". UNESCO. http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/666. Retrieved 26 May 2011.
- ^ Boeree, George. "An Introduction to Buddhism". Shippensburg University. http://webspace.ship.edu/cgboer/buddhaintro.html. Retrieved 2011-09-10.
- ^ Laumakis, Stephen. An Introduction to Buddhist philosophy. 2008. p. 4
- ^ L. S. Cousins (1996), "The dating of the historical Buddha: a review article", Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society (3)6(1): 57–63.
- ^ See the consensus in the essays by leading scholars in The Date of the Historical Śākyamuni Buddha (2003) Edited by A. K. Narain. B. R. Publishing Corporation, New Delhi. ISBN 81-7646-353-1.
- ^ "If, as is now almost universally accepted by informed Indological scholarship, a re-examination of early Buddhist historical material, ..., necessitates a redating of the Buddha's death to between 411 and 400 BCE...." —Paul Dundas, The Jains, 2nd edition, (Routledge, 2001), p. 24.
- ^ The Astamahapratiharya: Buddhist pilgrimage sites - Victoria and Albert Museum
- ^ a b "Kapilavastu". http://www.vam.ac.uk/collections/asia/asia_features/buddhism/buddhist_pilgrimage/sites_india/kapilavastu/index.html. Retrieved 1 March 2011.
- ^ a b Was the Buddha born in Orissa?
- ^ a b rediff.com: Was the Buddha born in Orissa?
- ^ Sri Lanka Guardian: Buddha born in Orissa: Scholars
- ^ a b http://orissa.gov.in/e-magazine/Journal/jounalvol1/pdf/orhj-3.pdf
- ^ a b Mahāpātra, Cakradhara (1977). The real birth place of Buddha. Grantha Mandir. pp. 135. http://books.google.com/books?id=1sAKAAAAYAAJ&q=The+Real+Birthplace+of+Buddha+orissa&dq=The+Real+Birthplace+of+Buddha+orissa&hl=en&sa=X&ei=L5uWT9uxBcTorAev-_3SDQ&ved=0CDwQ6AEwAA.
- ^ a b The Orissa historical research journal: Volume 47. Supt. of Research and Museum. 2004. http://books.google.com/books?id=xSduAAAAMAAJ&q=The+Real+Birthplace+of+Buddha+orissa&dq=The+Real+Birthplace+of+Buddha+orissa&hl=en&sa=X&ei=L5uWT9uxBcTorAev-_3SDQ&ved=0CEEQ6AEwAQ.
- ^ a b Nakamura, Hajime (1980). Indian Buddhism: a survey with bibliographical notes. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 423. ISBN 978-81-208-0272-8. http://books.google.com/books?id=w0A7y4TCeVQC&pg=PA345&dq=The+Real+Birthplace+of+Buddha+orissa&hl=en&sa=X&ei=L5uWT9uxBcTorAev-_3SDQ&ved=0CEgQ6AEwAg.
- ^ Warder, A.K. Indian Buddhism. 2000. p. 45
- ^ Skilton, Andrew. A Concise History of Buddhism. 2004. p. 41
- ^ a b Fowler, Mark. Zen Buddhism: beliefs and practices. Sussex Academic Press. 2005. p. 32
- ^ a b Karetzky, Patricia. Early Buddhist Narrative Art. 2000. p. xxi
- ^ Swearer, Donald. Becoming the Buddha. 2004. p. 177
- ^ Schober, Juliane. Sacred biography in the Buddhist traditions of South and Southeast Asia. Motilal Banarsidass. 2002. p. 20
- ^ Jones, J.J. The Mahāvastu (3 vols.) in Sacred Books of the Buddhists. London: Luzac & Co. 1949–56.
- ^ Carrithers, page 15.
- ^ Armstrong, Karen (2000). Buddha. Orion. p. xii. ISBN 978-0-7538-1340-9.
- ^ Carrithers, M. 2001. The Buddha: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press
- ^ a b Nagendra Kumar Singh (1997). "Buddha as depicted in the Purāṇas". Encyclopaedia of Hinduism, Volume 7. Anmol Publications PVT. LTD.. pp. 260–275. ISBN 978-81-7488-168-7. http://books.google.com/?id=UG9-HZ5icQ4C&pg=PA260. Retrieved 2012-04-16 . List of Hindu scripture that declares Gautama Buddha as 9th Avatar of Vishnu as as follows [Harivamsha (1.41) Vishnu Purana (3.18) Bhagavata Purana (1.3.24, 2.7.37, 11.4.23 Bhagavata Purana 1.3.24 Bhagavata Purana 1.3.24, Garuda Purana (1.1, 2.30.37, 3.15.26) Agni Purana (160.Narada Purana (2.72)Linga Purana (2.71) Padma Purana (3.252) etc. Bhagavata Purana, Canto 1, Chapter 3 - SB 1.3.24: "Then, in the beginning of Kali-yuga, the Lord will appear as Lord Buddha, the son of Anjana, in the province of Gaya, just for the purpose of deluding those who are envious of the faithful theist." ... The Bhavishya Purana contains the following: "At this time, reminded of the Kali Age, the god Vishnu became born as Gautama, the Shakyamuni, and taught the Buddhist dharma for ten years. Then Shuddodana ruled for twenty years, and Shakyasimha for twenty. At the first stage of the Kali Age, the path of the Vedas was destroyed and all men became Buddhists. Those who sought refuge with Vishnu were deluded." Found in Wendy O'Flaherty, Origins of Evil in Hindu Mythology. University of California Press, 1976, page 203. Note also SB 1.3.28: "All of the above-mentioned incarnations [avatars] are either plenary portions or portions of the plenary portions of the Lord [Krishna or Vishnu]"
- ^ "Buddhanet.net". Buddhanet.net. http://www.buddhanet.net/e-learning/buddhistworld/lumbini.htm. Retrieved 2010-10-02.
- ^ "UNESCO.org". Whc.unesco.org. http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/666. Retrieved 2010-10-02.
- ^ "Sacred-texts.com". Sacred-texts.com. http://www.sacred-texts.com/bud/lob/lob04.htm. Retrieved 2010-10-02.
- ^ Turpie, D. 2001. Wesak And The Re-Creation of Buddhist Tradition. Master's Thesis. Montreal, Quebec: McGill University. (p. 3). Available from: Mcgill.ca. Retrieved 17 November 2006.
- ^ a b Narada (1992). A Manual of Buddhism. Buddha Educational Foundation. p. 9–12. ISBN 967-9920-58-5.
- ^ Narada (1992), p11-12
- ^ Sue Hamilton, Early Buddhism: A New Approach: The I of the Beholder. Routledge 2000, page 47.
- ^ Romila Thapar, The Penguin History of Early India: From Origins to AD 1300. Penguin Books, 2002, page 137.
- ^ Richard Gombrich, Theravada Buddhism: A Social History from Ancient Benares to Modern Colombo. Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1988, pages 49-50.
- ^ Romila Thapar, The Penguin History of Early India: From Origins to AD 1300. Penguin Books, 2002, page 146.
- ^ a b Narada (1992), p14
- ^ Guimet.fr[dead link]
- ^ Conze (1959), pp39-40
- ^ Narada (1992), pp15-16
- ^ Narada (1992), pp19-20
- ^ a b c Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta: Setting the Wheel of Dhamma in Motion
- ^ a b The Golden Bowl
- ^ a b Gyatso, Geshe Kelsang (2007). Introduction to Buddhism An Explanation of the Buddhist Way of Life. Tharpa. pp. 8–9. ISBN 978-0-9789067-7-1.
- ^ a b c The Basic Teaching of Buddha
- ^ Maha-parinibbana Sutta (DN 16), verse 56
- ^ Mettanando Bhikkhu and Oskar von Hinueber, "The Cause of the Buddha's Death"; Vol. XXVI of the Journal of the Pali Text Society, 2000. See also this article by Mettanando saying the same thing: Buddhanet.net.
- ^ Maurice Walshe, The Long Discourses of the Buddha: A Translation of the Dīgha Nikāya, 1995, Boston: Wisdom Publications, "[DN] 30: Lakkhaṇa Sutta: The Marks of a Great Man," pp. 441-60.
- ^ Ven. Elgiriye Indaratana Maha Thera, Vandana: The Album of Pali Devotional Chanting and Hymns, 2002, pp. 49-52, retrieved 2007-11-08 from Buddhanet.net
- ^ Epstein, Ronald. Buddhist Text Translation Society's Buddhism A to Z. 2003. p. 200
- ^ It is therefore possible that much of what is found in the Suttapitaka is earlier than c.250 B.C., perhaps even more than 100 years older than this. If some of the material is so old, it might be possible to establish what texts go back to the very beginning of Buddhism, texts which perhaps include the substance of the Buddha’s teaching, and in some cases, maybe even his words. How old is the Suttapitaka? Alexander Wynne, St John’s College, 2003, p.22 (this article is available on the website of the Oxford Centre for Buddhist Studies: [www.ocbs.org/research/Wynne.pdf]
- ^ It would be hypocritical to assert that nothing can be said about the doctrine of earliest Buddhism ... the basic ideas of Buddhism found in the canonical writings could very well have been proclaimed by him [the Buddha], transmitted and developed by his disciples and, finally, codified in fixed formulas. J.W. De Jong, 1993: The Beginnings of Buddhism, in The Eastern Buddhist, vol. 26, no. 2, p. 25
- ^ The Mahayana movement claims to have been founded by the Buddha himself. The consensus of the evidence, however, is that it originated in South India in the 1st century CE–Indian Buddhism, AK Warder, 3rd edition, 1999, p. 335.
- ^ Bareau, André, Les récits canoniques des funérailles du Buddha et leurs anomalies : nouvel essai d'interprétation, BEFEO, t. LXII, Paris, 1975, pp.151-189.
- ^ Bareau, André, La composition et les étapes de la formation progressive du Mahaparinirvanasutra ancien, BEFEO, t. LXVI, Paris, 1979, pp. 45-103.
- ^ Shimoda, Masahiro, How has the Lotus Sutra Created Social Movements: The Relationship of the Lotus Sutra to the Mahāparinirvāṇa-sūtra, in A Buddhist Kaleidoscope, (pp320-22) Ed Gene Reves, Kosei 2002
- ^ Islam and the Ahmadiyya jamaʻat Retrieved on February 2011
- ^ "Buddhism". Islam International Publications. http://www.alislam.org/library/books/revelation/part_2_section_2.html. Retrieved 9 September 2010.
- ^ "An Overview". Alislam. http://www.alislam.org/introduction/index.html. Retrieved 9 September 2010.
- ^ Smith, Peter (2000). "Manifestations of God". A concise encyclopedia of the Bahá'í Faith. Oxford: Oneworld Publications. pp. 231. ISBN 1-85168-184-1.
- ^ The Cambridge History of China, Vol.1, (The Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 BC—220 BC) ISBN 0-521-24327-0 hardback
- ^ Macdonnel, Arthur Anthony (1900). " Sanskrit Literature and the West.". A History of Sanskrit Literature. New York: D. Appleton and Co.. p. 420.
- ^ "Barlaam and Josaphat". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. 1913.
Further reading[link]
- Ambedkar, B.R. (1957). The Buddha and His Dhamma. Bombay: People's Education Society.
- Armstrong, Karen (2001). Buddha. New York: Penguin Books.
- Bechert, Heinz, ed. (1996). When Did the Buddha Live? The Controversy on the Dating of the Historical Buddha. Delhi: Sri Satguru.
- Conze, Edward, trans. (1959). Buddhist Scriptures. London: Penguin Books.
- Ñāṇamoli, Bhikku (1992). The Life of the Buddha According to the Pali Canon (3rd ed.). Kandy, Sri Lanka: Buddhist Publication Society.
- Ortner, Jon (2003). Buddha. New York: Welcome Books.
- Rahula, Walpola (1974). What the Buddha Taught (2nd ed.). New York: Grove Press.
- Reps, Paul; Senzaki, Nyogen (1957). Zen Flesh, Zen Bones: A Collection of Zen and Pre-Zen Writings. New York: Doubleday.
- Robinson, Richard H.; Johnson, Willard L.; Wawrytko, Sandra A.; DeGraff, Geoffrey (1996). The Buddhist Religion: A Historical Introduction. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Co..
- Sathe, Shriram (1987). Dates of the Buddha. Hyderabad: Bharatiya Itihasa Sankalana Samiti.
- Senzaki, Nyogen; McCandless, Ruth Strout (1953). Buddhism and Zen. New York: Philosophical Library.
External links[link]
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| Buddhist titles | ||
|---|---|---|
| Preceded by Kassapa Buddha |
Buddhist Patriarch | Succeeded by Mahākāśyapa |
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| Persondata | |
|---|---|
| Name | Gautama Buddha |
| Alternative names | Siddhārtha Gautama (birth name); Siddhattha Gotama (Pali); Śākya-muni (honorific); Sakyamuni (honorific); Tathāgata (honorific) |
| Short description | Founder of Buddhism |
| Date of birth | c. 563 BCE |
| Place of birth | Lumbini, Nepal |
| Date of death | c. 483 BCE |
| Place of death | Kusinagara, India |
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