Seleucid Empire
Ἀρχή Σελεύκεια
Arche Seleύkeia |
| Diadochi Kingdom |
← 
|
312 BC–63 BC |
↓ |
|
|
The Seleucid Empire at its greatest extent. |
| Capital |
Seleucia on the Tigris
(305–240 BC)
Antioch
(240–64 BC) |
| Language(s) |
Greek, Persian |
| Religion |
Olympianism |
| Government |
Monarchy |
| King |
| - 305–281 BC |
Seleucus I Nicator |
| - 65–63 BC |
Philip II Philoromaeus |
| Historical era |
Hellenistic |
| - Established |
312 BC |
| - Antioch conquered by Pompey |
64 BC |
- Last king overruled;
Syria made Roman province |
63 BC |
| Area |
| - 301 BC[1] |
3,000,000 km2 (1,158,306 sq mi) |
| - 240 BC[1] |
2,600,000 km2 (1,003,866 sq mi) |
| - 175 BC[1] |
800,000 km2 (308,882 sq mi) |
| - 100 BC [1] |
100,000 km2 (38,610 sq mi) |
|
|
The Seleucid Empire (
/sɨˈluːsɪd/; from Greek: Σελεύκεια, Seleύkeia) was a Greek-Macedonian state that was created out of the eastern conquests of Alexander the Great.[2][3][4][5] At the height of its power, it included central Anatolia, the Levant, Mesopotamia, Persia, today's Turkmenistan, Pamir and parts of Pakistan.
The Seleucid Empire was a major center of Hellenistic culture which maintained the preeminence of Greek customs and where a Greek-Macedonian political elite dominated, mostly in the urban areas.[6][7][8][5] The Greek population of the cities who formed the dominant elite were reinforced by emigration from Greece.[6][5] Seleucid expansion into Egypt was abruptly halted after decisive defeats at the hands of the Roman army. Much of the eastern part of the empire was conquered by the Parthians under Mithridates I of Parthia in the mid-2nd century BC, yet the Seleucid kings continued to rule a rump state from Syria until the invasion by Armenian king Tigranes the Great and their ultimate overthrow by the Roman general Pompey.
Alexander conquered the Persian Empire under its last Achaemenid dynast, Darius III, within a short time-frame and died young, leaving an expansive empire of partly Hellenised culture without an adult heir. The empire was put under the authority of a regent in the person of Perdiccas in 323 BC, and the territories were divided between Alexander's generals, who thereby became satraps, at the Partition of Babylon in 323 BC.
The Kingdoms of the
Diadochi circa 303 BC.
Alexander's generals (the Diadochi) jostled for supremacy over parts of his empire. Ptolemy, a former general and the satrap of Egypt, was the first to challenge the new system; this led to the demise of Perdiccas. Ptolemy's revolt led to a new subdivision of the empire with the Partition of Triparadisus in 320 BC. Seleucus, who had been "Commander-in-Chief of the camp" under Perdiccas since 323 BC but helped to assassinate him later, received Babylonia, and from that point continued to expand his dominions ruthlessly. Seleucus established himself in Babylon in 312 BC, the year used as the foundation date of the Seleucid Empire. He ruled not only Babylonia, but the entire enormous eastern part of Alexander's empire:
"Always lying in wait for the neighboring nations, strong in arms and persuasive in council, he [Seleucus] acquired Mesopotamia, Armenia, 'Seleucid' Cappadocia, Persis, Parthia, Bactria, Arabia, Tapouria, Sogdia, Arachosia, Hyrcania, and other adjacent peoples that had been subdued by Alexander, as far as the river Indus, so that the boundaries of his empire were the most extensive in Asia after that of Alexander. The whole region from Phrygia to the Indus was subject to Seleucus."
[9]
Seleucus went as far as India, where after two years of war he reached an agreement with Chandragupta Maurya, in which he exchanged his eastern territories for a considerable force of 500 war elephants, which would play a decisive role at Ipsus (301 BC).
"The Indians occupy [in part] some of the countries situated along the Indus, which formerly belonged to the Persians: Alexander deprived the Ariani of them, and established there settlements of his own. But
Seleucus Nicator gave them to
Sandrocottus in consequence of a marriage contract, and received in return five hundred elephants."
[10]
Following his and Lysimachus' victory over Antigonus Monophthalmus at the decisive Battle of Ipsus in 301 BC, Seleucus took control over eastern Anatolia and northern Syria.
In the latter area he founded a new capital at Antioch on the Orontes, a city he named after his father. An alternative capital was established at Seleucia on the Tigris, north of Babylon. Seleucus' empire reached its greatest extent following his defeat of his erstwhile ally, Lysimachus, at Corupedion in 281 BC, after which Seleucus expanded his control to encompass western Anatolia. He hoped further to take control of Lysimachus' lands in Europe – primarily Thrace and even Macedonia itself, but was assassinated by Ptolemy Ceraunus on landing in Europe.
His son and successor, Antiochus I Soter, was left with an enormous realm consisting of nearly all of the Asian portions of the Empire, but faced with Antigonus II Gonatas in Macedonia and Ptolemy II Philadelphus in Egypt, he proved unable to pick up where his father had left off in conquering the European portions of Alexander's empire.
Nevertheless, even before Seleucus' death, it was difficult to assert control over the vast eastern domains of the Seleucids. Seleucus invaded India (modern Punjab Pakistan) in 305 BC, confronting Chandragupta Maurya (Sandrokottos), founder of the Maurya empire. It is said that Chandragupta fielded an army of 600,000 men and 9,000 war elephants (Pliny, Natural History VI, 22.4).
Mainstream scholarship asserts that Chandragupta received vast territory, sealed in a treaty, west of the Indus, including the Hindu Kush, modern day Afghanistan, and the Balochistan province of Pakistan.[11][12] Archaeologically, concrete indications of Mauryan rule, such as the inscriptions of the Edicts of Ashoka, are known as far as Kandahar in southern Afghanistan.
| “ |
"He (Seleucus) crossed the Indus and waged war with Sandrocottus [Maurya], king of the Indians, who dwelt on the banks of that stream, until they came to an understanding with each other and contracted a marriage relationship." |
” |
It is generally thought that Chandragupta married Seleucus's daughter, or a Macedonian princess, a gift from Seleucus to formalize an alliance. In a return gesture, Chandragupta sent 500 war-elephants,[13][14][15][16][17] a military asset which would play a decisive role at the Battle of Ipsus in 301 BC. In addition to this treaty, Seleucus dispatched an ambassador, Megasthenes, to Chandragupta, and later Deimakos to his son Bindusara, at the Mauryan court at Pataliputra (modern Patna in Bihar state). Megasthenes wrote detailed descriptions of India and Chandragupta's reign, which have been partly preserved to us through Diodorus Siculus. Later Ptolemy II Philadelphus, the ruler of Ptolemaic Egypt and contemporary of Ashoka the Great, is also recorded by Pliny the Elder as having sent an ambassador named Dionysius to the Mauryan court.[18]
Other territories lost before Seleucus' death were Gedrosia in the south-east of the Iranian plateau, and, to the north of this, Arachosia on the west bank of the Indus River.
Antiochus I (reigned 281–261 BC) and his son and successor Antiochus II Theos (reigned 261–246 BC) were faced with challenges in the west, including repeated wars with Ptolemy II and a Celtic invasion of Asia Minor — distracting attention from holding the eastern portions of the Empire together. Towards the end of Antiochus II's reign, various provinces simultaneously asserted their independence, such as Bactria under Diodotus, Parthia under Arsaces, and Cappadocia under Ariarathes III.
Diodotus, governor for the Bactrian territory, asserted independence in around 245 BC, although the exact date is far from certain, to form the Greco-Bactrian kingdom. This kingdom was characterized by a rich Hellenistic culture, and was to continue its domination of Bactria until around 125 BC, when it was overrun by the invasion of northern nomads. One of the Greco-Bactrian kings, Demetrius I of Bactria, invaded India around 180 BC to form the Greco-Indian kingdom, lasting until around AD 20.
The Seleucid satrap of Parthia, named Andragoras, first claimed independence, in a parallel to the secession of his Bactrian neighbour. Soon after however, a Parthian tribal chief called Arsaces invaded the Parthian territory around 238 BC to form the Arsacid Dynasty — the starting point of the powerful Parthian Empire.
By the time Antiochus II's son Seleucus II Callinicus came to the throne around 246 BC, the Seleucids seemed to be at a low ebb indeed. Seleucus II was soon dramatically defeated in the Third Syrian War against Ptolemy III of Egypt and then had to fight a civil war against his own brother Antiochus Hierax. Taking advantage of this distraction, Bactria and Parthia seceded from the empire. In Asia Minor too, the Seleucid dynasty seemed to be losing control — Gauls had fully established themselves in Galatia, semi-independent semi-Hellenized kingdoms had sprung up in Bithynia, Pontus, and Cappadocia, and the city of Pergamum in the west was asserting its independence under the Attalid Dynasty.
The Seleucid Empire in 200 BC, (before expansion into
Anatolia and
Greece).
A revival would begin when Seleucus II's younger son, Antiochus III the Great, took the throne in 223 BC. Although initially unsuccessful in the Fourth Syrian War against Egypt, which led to a defeat at the Battle of Raphia (217 BC), Antiochus would prove himself to be the greatest of the Seleucid rulers after Seleucus I himself. He spent the next ten years on his anabasis through the eastern parts of his domain and restoring rebellious vassals like Parthia and Greco-Bactria to at least nominal obedience. He won the Battle of the Arius and besieged the Bactrian capital, and even emulated Alexander with an expedition into India where he met with king Sophagasenus receiving war elephants:
"He (Antiochus) crossed the Caucasus and descended into India; renewed his friendship with Sophagasenus the king of the Indians; received more elephants, until he had a hundred and fifty altogether; and having once more provisioned his troops, set out again personally with his army: leaving Androsthenes of Cyzicus the duty of taking home the treasure which this king had agreed to hand over to him". Polybius 11.39
When he returned to the west in 205 BC, Antiochus found that with the death of Ptolemy IV, the situation now looked propitious for another western campaign. Antiochus and Philip V of Macedon then made a pact to divide the Ptolemaic possessions outside of Egypt, and in the Fifth Syrian War, the Seleucids ousted Ptolemy V from control of Coele-Syria. The Battle of Panium (198 BC) definitively transferred these holdings from the Ptolemies to the Seleucids. Antiochus appeared, at the least, to have restored the Seleucid Kingdom to glory.
The reduced empire (titled:
Syria, Kingdom of the Seleucids) and the expanded states of
Pergamum and
Rhodes, after the defeat of
Antiochus III by Rome. Circa 188 BC.
Following his erstwhile ally Philip's defeat by Rome in 197 BC, Antiochus saw the opportunity for expansion into Greece itself. Encouraged by the exiled Carthaginian general Hannibal, and making an alliance with the disgruntled Aetolian League, Antiochus launched an invasion across the Hellespont. With his huge army he was intent upon establishing the Seleucid empire as the foremost power in the Hellenic world but these plans put the empire on a collision course with the new superpower of the Mediterranean, the Roman Republic. At the battles of Thermopylae and Magnesia, Antiochus's forces were resoundingly defeated and he was compelled to make peace and sign the Treaty of Apamea in (188 BC), the main clause of which saw the Seleucids agree to pay a large indemnity, retreat from Anatolia and to never again attempt to expand Seleucid territory west of the Taurus Mountains. The Kingdom of Pergamum and the Republic of Rhodes, Rome's allies in the war, were given the former Seleucid lands in Anatolia. Antiochus died in 187 BC on another expedition to the east, where he sought to extract money to pay the indemnity.
The reign of his son and successor Seleucus IV Philopator (187-175 BC) was largely spent in attempts to pay the large indemnity, and Seleucus was ultimately assassinated by his minister Heliodorus. Seleucus' younger brother, Antiochus IV Epiphanes, now seized the throne. He attempted to restore Seleucid power and prestige with a successful war against the old enemy, Ptolemaic Egypt, which met with initial success as the Seleucids defeated and drove the Egyptian army back to Alexandria itself. As the king planned on how to conclude the war, he was informed that Roman commissioners, led by the Proconsul Gaius Popillius Laenas, were near and requesting a meeting with the Seleucid king. Antiochus agreed, but when they met and Antiochos held out his hand in friendship, Popilius placed in his hand the tablets on which was written the decree of the senate and telling him to read it. When the king said that he would call his friends into council and consider what he ought to do, Popilius drew a circle in the sand around the king's feet with the stick he was carrying and said, "Before you step out of that circle give me a reply to lay before the senate." For a few moments he hesitated, astounded at such a peremptory order, and at last replied, "I will do what the senate thinks right." He then chose to withdraw rather than set the empire to war with Rome again. [19]
The latter part of his reign saw a further disintegration of the Empire despite his best efforts. Weakened economically, militarily and by loss of prestige, the Empire became vulnerable to rebels in the eastern areas of the empire, who began to further undermine the empire while the Parthians moved into the power vacuum to take over the old Persian lands. Antiochus' aggressive Hellenizing (or de-Judaizing) activities provoked a full scale armed rebellion in Judea—the Maccabean Revolt.[20] Efforts to deal with both the Parthians and the Jews as well as retain control of the provinces at the same time proved beyond the weakened empire's power. Antiochus died during a military expedition against the Parthians in 164 BC.
After the death of Antiochus IV Epiphanes, the Seleucid Empire became increasingly unstable. Frequent civil wars made central authority tenuous at best. Epiphanes' young son, Antiochus V Eupator, was first overthrown by Seleucus IV's son, Demetrius I Soter in 161 BC. Demetrius I attempted to restore Seleucid power in Judea particularly, but was overthrown in 150 BC by Alexander Balas — an impostor who (with Egyptian backing) claimed to be the son of Epiphanes. Alexander Balas reigned until 145 BC, when he was overthrown by Demetrius I's son, Demetrius II Nicator. Demetrius II proved unable to control the whole of the kingdom, however. While he ruled Babylonia and eastern Syria from Damascus, the remnants of Balas' supporters — first supporting Balas' son Antiochus VI, then the usurping general Diodotus Tryphon — held out in Antioch.
Meanwhile, the decay of the Empire's territorial possessions continued apace. By 143 BC, the Jews in form of the Maccabees had fully established their independence. Parthian expansion continued as well. In 139 BC, Demetrius II was defeated in battle by the Parthians and was captured. By this time, the entire Iranian Plateau had been lost to Parthian control.
Demetrius Nicator's brother, Antiochus VII Sidetes, took the throne after his brother's capture. He faced the titanic chore of restoring a rapidly crumbling empire; one facing threats on multiple fronts. Hard-won control of Coele-Syria was threatened by the Jewish Maccabee rebels. Once-vassal dynasties in Armenia, Cappadocia, and Pontus were threatening Syria and northern Mesopotamia; the nomadic Parthians, brilliantly led by Mithridates I of Parthia had overrun uppland Media (home of the famed Nisean horse herd); and Roman intervention was an ever-present threat. Sidetes managed to bring the Maccabees to heel; frighten the Anatolian dynasts into a temporary submission; and then, in 133, turned east with the full might of the Royal Army (supported by a body of Jews under the Maccabee prince, John Hyrcanus) to drive back the Parthians.
Sidetes' campaign initially met with spectacular success, recapturing Mesopotamia, Babylonia and Media; defeating and slaying the Parthian Satrap of Seleucia-on-Tigris in personal combat. In the winter of 130/129 BC, his army was scattered in winter quarters throughout Media and Persis when the Parthian king, Phraates II, counter-attacked. Moving to intercept the Parthians with only the troops at his immediate disposal, he was ambushed and killed. Antiochus Sidetes is sometimes called the last great Seleucid king.
After the death of Antiochus VII Sidetes, all of the recovered eastern territories were recaptured by the Parthians. The Maccabees again rebelled, civil war soon tore the empire to pieces, and the Armenians began to encroach on Syria from the north.
By 100 BC, the once formidable Seleucid Empire encompassed little more than Antioch and some Syrian cities. Despite the clear collapse of their power, and the decline of their kingdom around them, nobles continued to play kingmakers on a regular basis, with occasional intervention from Ptolemaic Egypt and other outside powers. The Seleucids existed solely because no other nation wished to absorb them — seeing as they constituted a useful buffer between their other neighbours. In the wars in Anatolia between Mithridates VI of Pontus and Sulla of Rome, the Seleucids were largely left alone by both major combatants.
Mithridates' ambitious son-in-law, Tigranes the Great, king of Armenia, however, saw opportunity for expansion in the constant civil strife to the south. In 83 BC, at the invitation of one of the factions in the interminable civil wars, he invaded Syria, and soon established himself as ruler of Syria, putting the Seleucid Empire virtually at an end.
Seleucid rule was not entirely over, however. Following the Roman general Lucullus' defeat of both Mithridates and Tigranes in 69 BC, a rump Seleucid kingdom was restored under Antiochus XIII. Even so, civil wars could not be prevented, as another Seleucid, Philip II, contested rule with Antiochus. After the Roman conquest of Pontus, the Romans became increasingly alarmed at the constant source of instability in Syria under the Seleucids. Once Mithridates was defeated by Pompey in 63 BC, Pompey set about the task of remaking the Hellenistic East, by creating new client kingdoms and establishing provinces. While client nations like Armenia and Judea were allowed to continue with some degree of autonomy under local kings, Pompey saw the Seleucids as too troublesome to continue; and doing away with both rival Seleucid princes, he made Syria into a Roman province.
Bagadates I (Minted 290–280 BC) was the first indigenous Seleucid satrap to be appointed.
[21]
The Seleucid empire's geographic span, from the Aegean Sea to what is now Afghanistan and Pakistan, created a melting pot of various peoples, such as Greeks, Armenians, Persians, Medes, Assyrians, and Jews. The immense size of the empire, followed by its encompassing nature, made the Seleucid rulers have a governing interest in implementing a policy of racial unity initiated by Alexander.
The Hellenization of the Seleucid empire was achieved by the establishment of Greek cities throughout the empire. Historically significant towns and cities, such as Antioch, were created or renamed with more appropriate Greek names. The creation of new Greek cities and towns was aided by the fact that the Greek mainland was overpopulated and therefore made the vast Seleucid empire ripe for colonization. Colonization was used to further Greek interest while facilitating the assimilation of many native groups. Socially, this led to the adoption of Greek practices and customs by the educated native classes in order to further themselves in public life and the ruling Macedonian class gradually adopted some of the local traditions. By 313 BC, Hellenic ideas had begun their almost 250-year expansion into the Near East, Middle East, and Central Asian cultures. It was the empire's governmental framework to rule by establishing hundreds of cities for trade and occupational purposes. Many of the existing cities began — or were compelled by force — to adopt Hellenized philosophic thought, religious sentiments, and politics.
Synthesizing Hellenic and indigenous cultural, religious, and philosophical ideas met with varying degrees of success — resulting in times of simultaneous peace and rebellion in various parts of the empire. Such was the case with the Jewish population of the Seleucid empire because the Jews posed a significant problem which eventually led to war. Contrary to the accepting nature of the Ptolemaic empire towards native religions and customs, the Seleucids gradually tried to force Hellenization upon the Jewish people in their territory by outlawing Judaism. This eventually led to the revolt of the Jews under Seleucid control, which would later lead to the Jews achieving independence.
A 2200-year-old coin was discovered in Israel in 2010, which is said to be dating back to the rule of the Iraq-based Seleucid Empire, it is at the Israel Museum, in Jerusalem. Archaeologists say they have excavated the heaviest and most valuable gold coin to date in Israel.[22] The Seleucid empire coin is six times the weight of previous finds from the same era and may bear the image of Cleopatra I Syra, the wife of the Egyptian king Ptolemy V.[23]
- ^ a b c d Taagepera, Rein (1979). "Size and Duration of Empires: Growth-Decline Curves, 600 B.C. to 600 A.D". Social Science History 3 (3/4): 115–138. DOI:10.2307/1170959. JSTOR 1170959.
- ^ Jones, Kenneth Raymond (2006). Provincial reactions to Roman imperialism: the aftermath of the Jewish revolt, A.D. 66-70, Parts 66-70. University of California, Berkeley. p. 174. ISBN 0-542-82473-6, 9780542824739. "... and the Greeks, or at least the Greco-Macedonian Seleucid Empire, replace the Persians as the Easterners."
- ^ Society for the Promotion of Hellenic Studies (London, England) (1993). The Journal of Hellenic studies, Volumes 113-114. Society for the Promotion of Hellenic Studies. p. 211. "The Seleucid kingdom has traditionally been regarded as basically a Greco-Macedonian state and its rulers thought of as successors to Alexander."
- ^ Baskin, Judith R. ; Seeskin, Kenneth (2010). The Cambridge Guide to Jewish History, Religion, and Culture. Cambridge University Press. p. 37. ISBN 0-521-68974-0, 9780521689748. "The wars between the two most prominent Greek dynasties, the Ptolemies of Egypt and the Seleucids of Syria, unalterably change the history of the land of Israel…As a result the land of Israel became part of the empire of the Syrian Greek Seleucids."
- ^ a b c Glubb, Sir John Bagot (1967). Syria, Lebanon, Jordan. Thames & Hudson. p. 34. OCLC 585939. "In addition to the court and the army, Syrian cities were full of Greek businessmen, many of them pure Greeks from Greece. The senior posts in the civil service were also held by Greeks. Although the Ptolemies and the Seleucids were perpetual rivals, both dynasties were Greek and ruled by means of Greek officials and Greek soldiers. Both governments made great efforts to attract immigrants from Greece, thereby adding yet another racial element to the population."
- ^ a b Steven C. Hause, William S. Maltby (2004). Western civilization: a history of European society. Thomson Wadsworth. p. 76. ISBN 0-534-62164-3, 9780534621643. "The Greco-Macedonian Elite. The Seleucids respected the cultural and religious sensibilities of their subjects but preferred to rely on Greek or Macedonian soldiers and administrators for the day-to-day business of governing. The Greek population of the cities, reinforced until the second century BCE by emigration from Greece, formed a dominant, although not especially cohesive, elite."
- ^ Victor, Royce M. (2010). Colonial education and class formation in early Judaism: a postcolonial reading. Continuum International Publishing Group. p. 55. ISBN 0-567-24719-8, 9780567247193. "Like other Hellenistic kings, the Seleucids ruled with the help of their “friends” and a Greco-Macedonian elite class separate from the native populations whom they governed."
- ^ Britannica, Seleucid kingdom, 2008, O.Ed.
- ^ Appian, History of Rome, The Syrian Wars 55
- ^ Strabo 15.2.1(9)
- ^ Vincent A. Smith (1972). Asoka. Asian Educational Services. ISBN 81-206-1303-1.
- ^ Clark, Walter Eugene (1919). "The Importance of Hellenism from the Point of View of Indic-Philology". Classical Philology 14 (4): 297–313. DOI:10.1086/360246.
- ^ Ancient India, (Kachroo ,p.196)
- ^ The Imperial Gazetteer of India, (Hunter,p.167)
- ^ The evolution of man and society, (Darlington ,p.223)
- ^ Tarn, W. W. (1940). "Two Notes on Seleucid History: 1. Seleucus' 500 Elephants, 2. Tarmita". Journal of Hellenic Studies 60: 84–94. DOI:10.2307/626263. JSTOR 626263.
- ^ Partha Sarathi Bose (2003). Alexander the Great's Art of Strategy. Gotham Books. ISBN 1-59240-053-1.
- ^ Pliny the Elder, "The Natural History", Chap. 21
- ^ Livys History of Rome, [45.12]
- ^ Chanukah, Shabbat 21b, Babylonian Talmud)
- ^ History of Iran
- ^ Post-trib.com
- ^ Haaretz.com
- A. Houghton, C. Lorber, Seleucid Coins. A Comprehensive Catalogue, Part I, Seleucus I through Antiochus III, With Metrological Tables by B. Kritt, I-II, New York - Lancaster - London, 2002.
- G. G. Aperghis, The Seleukid Royal Economy. The Finances and Financial Administration of the Seleukid Empire, Cambridge, 2004.
- Laurent Capdetrey, Le pouvoir séleucide. Territoire, administration, finances d'un royaume hellénistique (312-129 avant J.C.). (Collection "Histoire"). Rennes: Presses Universitaires de Rennes, 2007.
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at:-281 text:Battle of Corupedium
at:-280 text:Gallic Invasions
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from:-323 till:-309 shift:(2,0) color:arg text:Alexander IV
from:-277 till:-270 shift:(2,0) color:anti text:Antigonus II
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from:-320 till:-319 shift:(2,0) color:pat text:Antipater
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from:-323 till:-319 shift:(2,0) color:pat text:Antipater
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from:-319 till:-298 shift:(2,0) color:pat text:Cassander
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from:-323 till:-319 shift:(2,0) color:pat text:Antipater
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from:-319 till:-307 shift:(2,0) color:pat text:Cassander
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from:-323 till:-319 shift:(2,0) color:pat text:Antipater
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from:-319 till:-303 shift:(2,0) color:oth text:Polyperchon
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from:-281 till:-277 shift:(2,0) color:oth text:Anarchy
bar:hist13
from:-323 till:-320 shift:(2,0) color:oth text:Eumenes
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from:-320 till:-301 shift:(2,0) color:anti text:Antigonus I
from:-281 till:-270 shift:(2,0) color:att text:Philetaerus (Pergamon)
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from:-323 till:-315 shift:(2,0) color:oth text:Eumenes
from:-301 till:-281 shift:(2,0) color:sel text:Seleucus I
bar:hist16
from:-315 till:-301 shift:(2,0) color:anti text:Antigonus I
from:-281 till:-270 shift:(2,0) color:sel text:Antiochus I
bar:hist17
from:-323 till:-282 shift:(2,0) color:pto text:Ptolemy I
bar:hist18
from:-282 till:-270 shift:(2,0) color:pto text:Ptolemy II
bar:hist19
from:-323 till:-321 shift:(2,0) color:oth text: Laomedon of Mytilene
from:-282 till:-270 shift:(2,0) color:pto text:Ptolemy II
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from:-321 till:-282 shift:(2,0) color:pto text:Ptolemy I
bar:hist21
from:-323 till:-320 shift:(2,0) color:oth text: Archon of Pella
from:-281 till:-270 shift:(2,0) color:sel text:Antiochus I
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from:-320 till:-281 shift:(2,0) color:sel text:Seleucus I
bar:hist23
from:-323 till:-308 shift:(2,0) color:oth text: Various
from:-281 till:-270 shift:(2,0) color:sel text:Antiochus I
bar:hist24
from:-308 till:-281 shift:(2,0) color:sel text:Seleucus I
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bar:title_events from:start till:end text:"Events" fontsize:M anchor:middle align:center width:10 color:subtitle mark:(line,white)
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barset:break
at:1453 text:Fall of Constantinople
barset:break
at:-1275 text:"Battle of Kadesh"
at:-547 text:Battle of Pteira
at:-333 text:Battle of Issus
at:677 text:Battle of Syllaeum
at:1071 text:Battle of Manzikert
barset:break
at:-705 text:Cimmerian invasion
at:330 text:Constantinople
at:1839 text:Nationalism
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color:othe
bar:hist1
from:-1750 till:-1500 shift:(-8,0) text:Hittite Old &
from:-1430 till:-1180 shift:(0,0) text:New Kingdom
from:-900 till:-600 shift:(2,0) text:Urartu
from:-545 till:-333 shift:(-2,0) color:zoro text:"Achaemenids"
from:-190 till:301 shift:(4,0) text:"Armenia"
from:301 till:428 shift:(-2,0) color:red
from:632 till:732 shift:(-8,0) color:mus text:"Arab"
from:885 till:1045 shift:(-6,0) color:red text:"Armenia"
from:1078 till:1375 shift:(2,0) color:red text:"Lesser Armenia"
from:1923 till:end shift:(2,0) color:sec text:Turkey
bar:hist2
from:-2100 till:-1950 shift:(2,0) text:"Troy IV"
from:-1700 till:-1400 shift:(2,0) text:"Troy VI"
from:-1300 till:-1190 shift:(-6,0) text:"Troy VIIa"
from:-626 till:-550 shift:(2,0) color:zoro text:Medes
from:-133 till:392 shift:(2,0) text:Roman Asia
from:392 till:1453 shift:(2,0) color:red text:Byzantine Empire
from:1918 till:1922 shift:(-24,0) color:red text:"Armenia"
bar:hist3
from:-1300 till:-1250 shift:(-10,0) text:Assuwa
from:-1150 till:-490 shift:(2,0) text:Ionia
from:-323 till:-146 shift:(-8,0) text:Hellenism
from:1299 till:1922 shift:(2,0) color:mus text:Ottoman
bar:hist4
from:-1500 till:-1320 shift:(2,0) text:Arzawa
from:-1200 till:-546 shift:(2,0) text:"Phrygia"
from:-250 till:-150 shift:(2,0) text:"Seleucids"
from:226 till:650 shift:(2,0) color:zoro text:"Sassanids"
from:1071 till:1300 shift:(0,0) color:mus text:Seljuk
bar:hist5
from:-1150 till:-547 shift:(2,0) color:othe text:Lydia
from:-302 till:-64 shift:(2,0) text:Pontus
from:1071 till:1507 shift:(0,0) color:mus text:"Anatolian Turkish Beyliks"
bar:hist6
from:-1150 till:-547 shift:(2,0) text:Caria
from:-74 till:380 shift:(2,0) text:Bithynia
bar:hist7
from:-1150 till:-547 shift:(2,0) text:Lycia
bar:periods
at:476 shift:(0, 12) text:"Middle Ages"
from:-1100 till:-700 shift:(-10,12) text:"Neo-Hittite period"
from:start till:-1200 shift:(80, 0) color:powderblue text:Bronze Age
from:-1199 till:-586 shift:(0, 0) color:skyblue text:Iron Age
from:-585 till:-322 shift:(0, 0) color:powderblue text:Babylonian
from:-321 till:-37 shift:(0, -10) color:blue text:Hellenistic
from:-36 till:395 shift:(0, 0) color:powderblue text:Roman
from:395 till:634 shift:(0, -10) color:red text:Byzantine
from:635 till:1099 shift:(0, 0) color:green text:Arab
from:1100 till:1291 shift:(0, 0) color:red text:Crusades
from:1500 till:1789 shift:(0, 12) color:green text:"<Early Modern Europe"
from:1790 till:end shift:(0, 0) color:skyblue text:"<Modern Europe"
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