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Aberdeen
Aberdeen (; , (pronounced ) is Scotland's third most populous city, one of Scotland's 32 local government council areas and the United Kingdom's 29th most populous city. It has an official population estimate of .
http://wn.com/Aberdeen -
Anglesey
http://wn.com/Anglesey -
Argentina
Argentina (), officially the Argentine Republic (, ), is the second largest country in South America, constituted as a federation of 23 provinces and an autonomous city, Buenos Aires. It is the eighth-largest country in the world by land area and the largest among Spanish-speaking nations, though Mexico, Colombia and Spain are more populous.
http://wn.com/Argentina -
Ascension Island
http://wn.com/Ascension_Island -
Asturias
The Principality of Asturias (, ; ) is an autonomous community within the kingdom of Spain, former Kingdom of Asturias in the Middle Ages. It is situated on the Spanish north coast (Bay of Biscay) facing the Cantabrian Sea.
http://wn.com/Asturias -
Australia
{{Infobox country
http://wn.com/Australia -
Blaenau Ffestiniog
Blaenau Ffestiniog is a small town in Gwynedd, north-west Wales. (Population 4,830, including Llan Ffestiniog).
http://wn.com/Blaenau_Ffestiniog -
British Parliament
http://wn.com/British_Parliament -
Brittany
http://wn.com/Brittany -
Canada
Canada () is a country in North America, extending from the Atlantic Ocean in the east to the Pacific Ocean in the west and northward into the Arctic Ocean. It is the world's second largest country by total area. Canada's common border with the United States to the south and northwest is the longest in the world.
http://wn.com/Canada -
Cardiff
Cardiff (, {{lang-cy|) is the capital, largest city and most populous county of Wales. The city is Wales' chief commercial centre, the base for most national cultural and sporting institutions, the Welsh national media, and the seat of the National Assembly for Wales. According to recent estimates, the population of the unitary authority area is 324,800, while the wider metropolitan area has a population of nearly 1.1 million, more than a third of the total Welsh population. Cardiff is a significant tourism centre and the most popular visitor destination in Wales with 14.6 million visitors in 2009.
http://wn.com/Cardiff -
Carmarthenshire
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Ceredigion
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http://wn.com/Ceredigion -
Cornwall
Cornwall (; ) is a ceremonial county and unitary authority of England, United Kingdom, forming the tip of the south-western peninsula of Great Britain. It is bordered to the north and west by the Atlantic Ocean, to the south by the English Channel, and to the east by the county of Devon, over the River Tamar. Taken with the Isles of Scilly, Cornwall has a population of , and covers an area of . The administrative centre and only city is Truro.
http://wn.com/Cornwall -
Crown Dependencies
The Crown Dependencies are British possessions of the Crown, as opposed to overseas territories of the United Kingdom. They comprise the Channel Island Bailiwicks of Jersey and Guernsey in the English Channel, and the Isle of Man in the Irish Sea.
http://wn.com/Crown_Dependencies -
Cumbria
Cumbria (, locally ) is a non-metropolitan county in North West England, United Kingdom. Cumbria came into existence as a county in 1974 after the passage of the Local Government Act 1972. The county consists of six districts, and in 2008 had a total population of just under half a million.
http://wn.com/Cumbria -
Deheubarth
Deheubarth (literally, "south part") was a south-western petty kingdom or principality of medieval Wales.
http://wn.com/Deheubarth -
Denbighshire
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Edinburgh
http://wn.com/Edinburgh -
England
England () is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west; the Irish Sea is to the north west, the Celtic Sea to the south west and the North Sea to the east, with the English Channel to the south separating it from continental Europe. Most of England comprises the central and southern part of the island of Great Britain in the North Atlantic. The country also includes over 100 smaller islands such as the Isles of Scilly and the Isle of Wight.
http://wn.com/England -
Galicia (Spain)
:This article is about the nation in Spain. For the Polish-Ukrainian region, see Galicia (Eastern Europe).
http://wn.com/Galicia_(Spain) -
Glamorgan
Glamorgan or Glamorganshire ( or ) is one of the thirteen historic counties and a former administrative county of Wales. It was originally an early medieval kingdom of varying boundaries known as Glywysing until taken over by the Normans as a lordship. Glamorgan is latterly represented by the three preserved counties of West Glamorgan, Mid Glamorgan and South Glamorgan. The name also survives in that of the county borough of the Vale of Glamorgan.
http://wn.com/Glamorgan -
Gower Peninsula
The Gower Peninsula () is a peninsula on the south west coast of Wales, on the north side of the Bristol Channel in the southwest of the historic county of Glamorgan. Referred to colloquially as 'Gower', this was the first area in the United Kingdom to be designated as an Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty in 1956. Gower was part of the ancient lordship of Gower, and today it is part of the City and County of Swansea.
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Great Britain
Great Britain is an island situated to the northwest of Continental Europe. It is the ninth largest island in the world, and the largest European island. With a population of about 60.0 million people in mid-2009, it is the third most populated island on Earth. Great Britain is surrounded by over 1,000 smaller islands and islets. The island of Ireland lies to its west. Politically, Great Britain may also refer to the island itself together with a number of surrounding islands which comprise the territory of England, Scotland and Wales.
http://wn.com/Great_Britain -
Guernsey
The Bailiwick of Guernsey ( ; , ) is a British Crown Dependency in the English Channel off the coast of Normandy.
http://wn.com/Guernsey -
Gwynedd
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http://wn.com/Gwynedd -
Hebrides
The Hebrides ( ; Gaelic: Innse Gall) comprise a widespread and diverse archipelago off the west coast of Scotland. There are two main groups: the Inner and Outer Hebrides. These islands have a long history of occupation dating back to the Mesolithic and the culture of the residents has been affected by the successive influences of Celtic, Norse and English speaking peoples, which is reflected in the names given to the islands.
http://wn.com/Hebrides -
Iberian Peninsula
http://wn.com/Iberian_Peninsula -
Iberian peninsula
http://wn.com/Iberian_peninsula -
Idaho
Idaho is a state in the United States of America. The state's largest city and capital is Boise. Residents are called "Idahoans". Idaho was admitted to the Union on July 3, 1890 as the 43rd state.
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Inner Hebrides
The Inner Hebrides (Scottish Gaelic: Na h-Eileanan a-staigh - the inner isles) is an archipelago off the west coast of Scotland, to the south east of the Outer Hebrides. They are part of the Hebrides. In classical sources, they are referred to as the Ebudae or the Ebudes. Traditionally, the Inner Hebrides have been subdivided into two groups (northern and southern). Combined, the islands have an area of approximately 4,158 km2, and had a population of 18,257 people in 2001. The population density is therefore a little over 4 persons per km2.
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Ireland
Ireland (,; , ; Ulster Scots: Airlann) is the third-largest island in Europe and the twentieth-largest island in the world. It lies to the northwest of continental Europe and is surrounded by hundreds of islands and islets. To the east of Ireland is Great Britain, separated from it by the Irish Sea. The island is divided between the Republic of Ireland, which covers just under five-sixths of the island, and Northern Ireland, a part of the United Kingdom, which covers the remainder and is located in the northeast of the island. The population of Ireland is approximately 6.2 million people. Just under 4.5 million live in the Republic of Ireland and just under 1.8 million live in Northern Ireland.
http://wn.com/Ireland -
Irish Free State
http://wn.com/Irish_Free_State -
Isle of Anglesey
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Isle of Man
The Isle of Man (; , ), otherwise known simply as Mann (, ), is a self-governing British Crown Dependency, located in the Irish Sea between the islands of Great Britain and Ireland, within the British Isles. The head of state is Queen Elizabeth II, who holds the title of Lord of Mann. The Lord of Mann is represented by a Lieutenant Governor. The island is not part of the United Kingdom, but its foreign relations and defence are the responsibility of the UK Government. Although it does not usually interfere in the island's domestic matters, its "good government" is the ultimate responsibility of the Crown (i.e., in practice, the Government of the United Kingdom).
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Jackson County, Ohio
Jackson County is a county located in the state of Ohio, United States. As of 2000, the population was 32,641. Its county seat is Jackson and is named for Andrew Jackson, a hero of the War of 1812 who was subsequently elected President of the United States.
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Jersey
http://wn.com/Jersey -
Kingdom of England
http://wn.com/Kingdom_of_England -
Kingdom of Gwynedd
http://wn.com/Kingdom_of_Gwynedd -
Llanybydder
Llanybydder () is a market town straddling the River Teifi in Carmarthenshire and Ceredigion, West Wales, with a population of 1,423, almost three quarters of whom are Welsh-speaking according to the United Kingdom Census 2001. The nearest University is the University of Wales, Lampeter (Llanbedr Pont Steffan), the nearest town is Lampeter. Mynydd Llanllwni (408 m) and Mynydd Pencarreg (415 m) are mountains to the east/south east of Llanybydder. Llanybydder is a major employer of Polish workers who work at the local meat factory. The Poles have integrated very well and take part in all aspects of village life.
http://wn.com/Llanybydder -
Malad City, Idaho
For the Mumbai, India Suburb, see Malad (Mumbai suburb).
http://wn.com/Malad_City_Idaho -
Mercia
Mercia (, ) was one of the kingdoms of the Anglo-Saxon Heptarchy. It was centred on the valley of the River Trent and its tributaries in the region now known as the English Midlands. The name is a Latinisation of the Old English Mierce or Myrce, meaning "border people".
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Merthyr Tydfil
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New Zealand
{{Infobox Country
http://wn.com/New_Zealand -
Northern Ireland
Northern Ireland (, Ulster Scots: Norlin Airlann) is one of the four countries of the United Kingdom. Situated in the north-east of the island of Ireland, it shares a border with the Republic of Ireland to the south and west. At the time of the 2001 UK Census, its population was 1,685,000, constituting about 30% of the island's total population and about 3% of the population of the United Kingdom.
http://wn.com/Northern_Ireland -
Offa's Dyke
'''Offa's Dyke''' () is a massive linear earthwork, roughly following some of the current border between England and Wales. In places, it is up to 65 feet (20 m) wide (including its flanking ditch) and 8 feet (2.5 m) high. In the 8th century it formed some kind of delineation between the Anglian kingdom of Mercia and the Welsh kingdom of Powys. Research in recent decades has dispelled many of the earlier theories and ideas about the earthwork.
http://wn.com/Offa's_Dyke -
Orkney
Orkney () also known as the Orkney Islands (and sometimes incorrectly as "The Orkneys"), is an archipelago in northern Scotland, situated north of the coast of Caithness. Orkney comprises approximately 70 islands of which 20 are inhabited.
http://wn.com/Orkney -
Outer Hebrides
The Outer Hebrides (, ) also known as the Western Isles and the Long Island, is an island chain off the west coast of Scotland. The islands are geographically contiguous with Comhairle nan Eilean Siar, one of the 32 unitary council areas of Scotland. They form part of the Hebrides, separated from the Scottish mainland and from the Inner Hebrides by the waters of the Minch, the Little Minch and the Sea of the Hebrides. Scottish Gaelic was formerly the dominant language and remains widely spoken, although in some areas English speakers form a majority.
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Pas-de-Calais
Pas-de-Calais () is a department in northern France. Its name is the French equivalent of the Strait of Dover, which it borders.
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Patagonia
http://wn.com/Patagonia -
Pembrokeshire
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http://wn.com/Pembrokeshire -
Pennsylvania
The Commonwealth of Pennsylvania () is a U.S. state and Commonwealth located in the Northeastern and Middle Atlantic regions of the United States. The state borders Delaware and Maryland to the south, West Virginia to the southwest, Ohio to the west, New York and Ontario, Canada, to the north, and New Jersey to the east. The state's four most populous cities are Philadelphia, Pittsburgh, Allentown and Erie. The state capital is Harrisburg.
http://wn.com/Pennsylvania -
Poland
Poland (), officially the Republic of Poland (Rzeczpospolita Polska), is a country in Central Europe bordered by Germany to the west; the Czech Republic and Slovakia to the south; Ukraine, Belarus and Lithuania to the east; and the Baltic Sea and Kaliningrad Oblast, a Russian exclave, to the north. The total area of Poland is , making it the 69th largest country in the world and the 9th largest in Europe. Poland has a population of over 38 million people, which makes it the 34th most populous country in the world and the sixth most populous member of the European Union, being its most populous Slavic member.
http://wn.com/Poland -
Powys
:This article is about the county in Wales. For other uses, see Kingdom of Powys and Powys (surname).
http://wn.com/Powys -
Puerto Madryn
Puerto Madryn (in Welsh, Porth Madryn) is a city in the province of Chubut in the Argentine Patagonia. It is the head town of the Viedma Department, and has about 58,000 inhabitants.
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Republic of Ireland
Ireland (, , , ), described as the Republic of Ireland (), is a state in northwest Europe with a population of almost 4.5 million people. It is a parliamentary democratic constitutional republic occupying approximately five-sixths of the island of Ireland, which was partitioned into two jurisdictions in 1921. It is bordered to the northeast by Northern Ireland, which is a part of the United Kingdom, and is otherwise surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean, the Irish Sea to the east, St George's Channel to the southeast, and the Celtic Sea to the south.
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Rhondda Cynon Taf
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Rio Grande do Sul
http://wn.com/Rio_Grande_do_Sul -
Scotland
Scotland (Scottish Gaelic: Alba) is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. Occupying the northern third of the island of Great Britain, it shares a border with England to the south and is bounded by the North Sea to the east, the Atlantic Ocean to the north and west, and the North Channel and Irish Sea to the southwest. In addition to the mainland, Scotland includes over 790 islands including the Northern Isles and the Hebrides.
http://wn.com/Scotland -
Shetland
Shetland (from etland; Old Norse) is an archipelago in Scotland, off the northeast coast. The islands lie to the northeast of Orkney, from the Faroe Islands and form part of the division between the Atlantic Ocean to the west and the North Sea to the east. The total area is approximately . Administratively, the area is one of the 32 council areas of Scotland for which the now-archaic spelling Zetland was used until 1970. The islands' administrative centre and only burgh is Lerwick.
http://wn.com/Shetland -
Stirling
Stirling (Gaelic: Sruighlea , Scots: Stirlin) is a city and former ancient burgh in Scotland, and is at the heart of the wider Stirling council area. The city is clustered around a large fortress and medieval old-town beside the River Forth. Historically it was strategically important as the "Gateway to the Highlands", with its position near the boundary between the Scottish Lowlands and Highlands, and its crossing of the Forth, the nearest to the river mouth.
http://wn.com/Stirling -
Swansea
Swansea ( , , "mouth of the Tawe") is a coastal city and county in Wales, United Kingdom. Swansea is in the historic county boundaries of Glamorgan. Situated on the sandy South West Wales coast, the county area includes the Gower Peninsula and the Lliw uplands. Swansea is the second most populous city in Wales after Cardiff and the third most populous county in Wales after Cardiff and Rhondda Cynon Taf. During its 19th century industrial heyday, Swansea was one of the key centres of the world copper industry, earning the nickname 'Copperopolis'.
http://wn.com/Swansea -
Tristan da Cunha
Tristan da Cunha () is a remote volcanic group of islands in the south Atlantic Ocean, and also the name of the main island of that group. It is the most remote inhabited archipelago in the world, lying from the nearest land, South Africa, and from South America. It is part of the British overseas territory of which also includes Saint Helena to its north, and equatorial Ascension Island even farther removed, grouping the British South Atlantic islands into one far-flung centrally administered aggregate. Tristan da Cunha is said to be the "most remote inhabited location on Earth." It has a population of 275 (2009 figures).
http://wn.com/Tristan_da_Cunha -
United Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland (commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK, or Britain) is a country and sovereign state located off the northwestern coast of continental Europe. It is an island nation, spanning an archipelago including Great Britain, the northeastern part of the island of Ireland, and many smaller islands. Northern Ireland is the only part of the UK with a land border with another sovereign state, sharing it with the Republic of Ireland. Apart from this land border, the UK is surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean, the North Sea, the English Channel and the Irish Sea. Great Britain is linked to continental Europe by the Channel Tunnel.
http://wn.com/United_Kingdom -
United States
The United States of America (also referred to as the United States, the U.S., the USA, or America) is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district. The country is situated mostly in central North America, where its forty-eight contiguous states and Washington, D.C., the capital district, lie between the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans, bordered by Canada to the north and Mexico to the south. The state of Alaska is in the northwest of the continent, with Canada to the east and Russia to the west across the Bering Strait. The state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific. The country also possesses several territories in the Caribbean and Pacific.
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Wales
Wales ( ; pronounced ) is a country that is part of the United Kingdom, bordered by England to its east and the Atlantic Ocean and Irish Sea to its west. It has an estimated population of three million and is officially bilingual with the Welsh and English languages having equal status. The Welsh language is an important element of Welsh culture. Its decline has reversed over recent years, with Welsh speakers estimated to be around 20% of the population of Wales.
http://wn.com/Wales -
West Wales
West Wales () is the western area of Wales.
http://wn.com/West_Wales
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Aneurin Bevan
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Anthony Hopkins
Sir Philip Anthony Hopkins, CBE (born 31 December 1937), is a Welsh actor of film, stage and television. Considered to be one of the greatest living actors, he is perhaps best known for his portrayal of cannibalistic serial killer Hannibal Lecter in The Silence of the Lambs, its sequel, Hannibal, and its prequel, Red Dragon. Other prominent film credits include Magic, The Elephant Man, 84 Charing Cross Road, Dracula, Legends of the Fall, The Remains of the Day, Amistad, Nixon and Fracture. Hopkins was born and brought up in Wales. Retaining his British citizenship, he became a U.S. citizen on 12 April 2000. He received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame in 2003 and was made a Fellow of the British Academy of Film and Television Arts in 2008.
http://wn.com/Anthony_Hopkins -
Barry Cunliffe
Sir Barrington Windsor "Barry" Cunliffe (born 10 December 1939) is a former Professor of European Archaeology at the University of Oxford, a position held from 1972 to 2007. He is now Emeritus Professor of European Archaeology.
http://wn.com/Barry_Cunliffe -
Basques
http://wn.com/Basques -
Bertrand Russell
http://wn.com/Bertrand_Russell -
Black British
Black British is a term that usually describes British people of Black African descent. The term, which has had different meanings and uses as a racial and political label, has been historically used to refer to any non-white British nationals. The term was first used at the end of the British Empire, when several major colonies formally gained independence and thereby created a new form of national identity. The term was used primarily from the 1950s to describe those from the former colonies of Africa, and the Caribbean, i.e. the New Commonwealth. In some circumstances the word 'Black' still signifies all ethnic minority populations.
http://wn.com/Black_British -
Breton people
The Bretons are an ethnic group located in the region of Brittany in France. They trace much of their heritage to groups of Brythonic speakers who settled the area from south western Great Britain in two waves from the 4th to 6th centuries. The traditional language of Brittany is Breton (Brezhoneg) and is spoken by approximately 365,000 people, of whom about 240,000 speak it fluently . Breton is closely related to the Brythonic languages Cornish (closely) and Welsh (more distantly). The region of Brittany is named after them. Brittany and its people are included as one of the six Celtic nations. Another linguistic minority are present in Brittany, namely speakers of the Gallo language. The actual number of ethnic Bretons in Brittany and France as a whole is difficult to assess as the French government do not take account of such statistics. The present day population of Brittany based on a January 2007 estimate is 4,365,500.
http://wn.com/Breton_people -
British people
The British (also known as Britons, informally Brits, or archaically Britishers) are citizens of the United Kingdom, of the Isle of Man, one of the Channel Islands, or of one of the British overseas territories, and their descendants.: In a historical context, the term refers to the ancient Britons, the indigenous inhabitants of Great Britain south of the Forth. British nationality law governs modern British citizenship and nationality, which are acquired, for instance, by birth in the UK or by descent from British nationals.
http://wn.com/British_people -
Buddhism
http://wn.com/Buddhism -
Catherine Zeta-Jones
Catherine Zeta-Jones, CBE ( "zeeta"; born 25 September 1969), is a Welsh actress, currently based in the United States. She began her career on stage at an early age. After starring in a number of UK and US television films and small roles in films, she came to prominence with roles in Hollywood movies such as The Mask of Zorro and Entrapment in the late 1990s. She won an Academy Award, BAFTA Award and a Screen Actors Guild Award and was nominated for a Golden Globe Award for portraying Velma Kelly in the 2002 film adaptation of the musical Chicago. In 2010 she won the Tony Award for Best Leading Actress in a Musical for her portrayal of Desiree in A Little Night Music.
http://wn.com/Catherine_Zeta-Jones -
Celtic nations
The Celtic nations are territories in North-West Europe in which that area's own Celtic languages and cultural traits have survived. The term "nation" is used in this context to mean a generally defined region that is associated with a common identity, language or culture. It is not synonymous with "sovereign state", but rather with traditional territories or "countries".
http://wn.com/Celtic_nations -
Cornish people
The Cornish () are a people associated with Cornwall,: a county in the south-west of England that is seen in some respects as distinct from the rest of England, having more in common with the other Celtic parts of the United Kingdom such as Wales, as well as with other Celtic nations in Europe. For some, the Cornish represent a distinct ethnic group within the UK, which can trace its roots to the ancient Britons who inhabited southern and central Great Britain prior to the Roman conquest, and many in the county today continue to assert a distinct identity, separately or in addition to English or British identities. Cornish identity has been adopted by migrants into Cornwall, as well as by emigrant and descendant communities from Cornwall, the latter sometimes referred to as the Cornish diaspora.
http://wn.com/Cornish_people -
David Lloyd George
http://wn.com/David_Lloyd_George -
Deceangli
The Deceangli or Deceangi were one of the Celtic tribes living in Britain, prior to the Roman invasion of the island. The tribe lived mainly in what is now north-east Wales, though it is uncertain whether their territory covered only the modern counties of Flintshire, Denbighshire and part of Cheshire in what is now present day England or whether it extended further west.
http://wn.com/Deceangli -
Dylan Thomas
http://wn.com/Dylan_Thomas -
English people
The English (from ) are a nation and ethnic group native to England, who speak English. The English identity is of early mediaeval origin, when they were known in Old English as the Anglecynn. England is now a country of the United Kingdom, and the majority of English people in England are British Citizens.
http://wn.com/English_people -
Francis Pryor
Francis Manning Marlborough Pryor MBE (born 13 January 1945) is a British archaeologist who is famous for his role in the discovery of Flag Fen, a Bronze Age archeological site near Peterborough, and for his frequent appearances on the Channel 4 television series Time Team.
http://wn.com/Francis_Pryor -
George Everest
Colonel Sir George Everest (4 July 1790 – 1 December 1866) was a Welsh surveyor, geographer and Surveyor-General of India from 1830 to 1843.
http://wn.com/George_Everest -
Germanic language
http://wn.com/Germanic_language -
Germanic languages
The Germanic languages are a group of related languages that constitute a branch of the Indo-European (IE) language family. The common ancestor of all the languages in this branch is Proto-Germanic (also known as Common Germanic), spoken in approximately the mid-1st millennium BC in Iron Age northern Europe. Proto-Germanic, along with all of its descendants, is characterized by a number of unique linguistic features, most famously the consonant change known as Grimm's law. Early varieties of Germanic enter history with the Germanic peoples moving south from northern Europe in the second century BC, to settle in northern central Europe.
http://wn.com/Germanic_languages -
Gibraltarian people
The Gibraltarians (colloquially Llanitos) are a cultural group native to Gibraltar, a British overseas territory located near the southernmost tip of the Iberian Peninsula at the entrance to the Mediterranean sea.
http://wn.com/Gibraltarian_people -
Hunter-gatherer
A hunter-gatherer society is one whose primary subsistence method involves the direct procurement of edible plants and animals from the wild, foraging and hunting without significant recourse to the domestication of either. Up to 80% of the food is obtained by gathering.
http://wn.com/Hunter-gatherer -
Irish people
http://wn.com/Irish_people -
Kelly Jones
Kelly Jones (born 3 June 1974) is a Welsh singer-songwriter and guitarist and the lead singer of the band Stereophonics. Influenced by classic rock bands such as The Who, Led Zeppelin, AC/DC and the Sex Pistols, Jones is noted for his strong, gravelly voice, which has been described as "whisky" vocals. As a lyricist, Jones is also strongly influenced by Neil Young, Bob Dylan and Otis Redding. Jones is also known in the media for his cynical view of fame and criticism of manufactured mainstream pop music.
http://wn.com/Kelly_Jones -
King Arthur
King Arthur is a legendary British leader who, according to Medieval histories and romances, led the defence of Britain against Saxon invaders in the early sixth century. The details of Arthur's story are mainly composed of folklore and literary invention, and his historical existence is debated and disputed by modern historians. The sparse historical background of Arthur is gleaned from various sources, including the Annales Cambriae, the Historia Brittonum, and the writings of Gildas. Arthur's name also occurs in early poetic sources such as Y Gododdin.
http://wn.com/King_Arthur -
List of Welsh people
This list of Welsh people is a list of notable Welsh people.
http://wn.com/List_of_Welsh_people -
Manx people
The Manx (Manx: Manninee) are an ethnic group coming from the Isle of Man in the Irish Sea in northern Europe. They are often described as a Celtic people, though they have had a mixed background including Norse and English influences.
http://wn.com/Manx_people -
Mary Jones (Bible)
http://wn.com/Mary_Jones_(Bible) -
Mercia
Mercia (, ) was one of the kingdoms of the Anglo-Saxon Heptarchy. It was centred on the valley of the River Trent and its tributaries in the region now known as the English Midlands. The name is a Latinisation of the Old English Mierce or Myrce, meaning "border people".
http://wn.com/Mercia -
Michael Sheen
Michael Christopher Sheen, OBE (born 5 February 1969) is a Welsh film and stage actor. Having worked with screenwriter Peter Morgan on five films, Sheen has become known for his portrayals of well-known public figures: Tony Blair in The Deal, The Queen, and The Special Relationship, David Frost in the stage production and film version of Frost/Nixon, and football manager Brian Clough in The Damned United.
http://wn.com/Michael_Sheen -
Ordovices
The Ordovices were one of the Celtic tribes living in Great Britain, before the Roman invasion of Britain. Its tribal lands were located in present day Wales and England between the Silures to the south and the Deceangli to the north-east. The Ordovices were conquered by the Roman governor Gnaeus Julius Agricola in the campaign of AD 77/78.
http://wn.com/Ordovices -
Owain Glyndŵr
http://wn.com/Owain_Glyndŵr -
Rhodri Morgan
Hywel Rhodri Morgan (born 29 September 1939) is a Welsh politician who was the second First Secretary for Wales and the first person to use the title First Minister for Wales, serving from 2000 to 2009. A former leader of Welsh Labour, he has been the Assembly Member for Cardiff West since 1999. He is the longest serving Welsh First Minister to date, being in power continuously for 9 years and 10 months.
http://wn.com/Rhodri_Morgan -
Richard Burton
http://wn.com/Richard_Burton -
Robert Owen
Robert Owen (14 May 1771 – 17 November 1858), (born in Newtown, Montgomeryshire, Wales), was a social reformer and one of the founders of socialism and the cooperative movement.
http://wn.com/Robert_Owen -
Romanichal
The Romanichals (also Romnichals) are groups of Romani people (also known as Gypsies) found in some parts of the United Kingdom, notably England. The word "Romanichal" is derived from Romani chal, where chal is Angloromani for "fellow".Oxford English Dictionary Second Edition 1989, "Romany3, n. and a."
http://wn.com/Romanichal -
Ruth Jones
Ruth Jones (born January 1967, in Bridgend) is a Welsh actress, comedian and writer best known for co-scripting and starring in the multi-award winning TV comedy Gavin & Stacey. She is also known for her comedy performances in Little Britain, the cult hit Nighty Night and Saxondale plus for dramatic roles in many other high profile TV dramas such as Kay Mellor's Fat Friends and Jimmy McGovern's The Street with Timothy Spall.
http://wn.com/Ruth_Jones -
Ryan Giggs
Ryan Joseph Giggs OBE (born Ryan Joseph Wilson on 29 November 1973) is a Welsh footballer who has played for Manchester United for his entire professional career. He established himself as a left-winger during the 1990s and continued in this position well into the 2000s, but he has been increasingly used in a deeper playmaking role in his later years.
http://wn.com/Ryan_Giggs -
Saint David
http://wn.com/Saint_David -
Scottish people
The Scottish people (Scots Gaelic: Albannaich), or Scots, are a nation and ethnic group native to Scotland. Historically they emerged from an amalgamation of the Celtic Picts (east) and the Gaels (west), incorporating neighbouring Britons as well as Germanic peoples such as the Anglo-Saxons and the Norse.
http://wn.com/Scottish_people -
Tom Jones (singer)
Sir Thomas John Woodward, OBE (born 7 June 1940), known by his stage name Tom Jones, is a Welsh singer. Jones is particularly noted for his powerful voice.
http://wn.com/Tom_Jones_(singer) -
Ulster Scots people
Ulster Scots are an ethnic group in Ireland, descended from Lowland Scots and English from the border of those two countries, many from the "Border Reivers" culture. These people first began to occupy Ireland in large numbers with the Plantation of Ulster, a planned process of colonization which took place under the auspices of James VI of Scotland and I of England on land confiscated from the Irish nobility, most extensively in the Province of Ulster. The term "Ulster-Scots" refers to both these colonists of the 17th century and, less commonly, to the Gallowglass who began to arrive from what is now northwest Scotland centuries earlier.
http://wn.com/Ulster_Scots_people -
Ulster-Scots
http://wn.com/Ulster-Scots -
Walha
Walh (singular) or Walha (plural) () is an ancient Germanic word, meaning "foreigner", "stranger" or "roman", . The word can be found in Old High German walhisk, meaning "Roman, in Old English wilisc, meaning "foreign, non-Anglo-Saxon, Cymric", and in Old Norse as valskr, meaning "French". Thus it will be derived from an Proto-Germanic form such as *walhiska-.
http://wn.com/Walha -
Welsh American
In the 2008 US Census community survey, an estimated 1.98 million Americans had Welsh ancestry, 0.6% of the total U.S. population. This compares with a population of 3 million in Wales. However, 3.8% of Americans bear a Welsh surname. However, a large proportion of the African American population have Welsh names due to the use of former slave owners' last names following emancipation.
http://wn.com/Welsh_American -
Welsh Australian
Welsh Australians are citizens of Australia whose ancestry originates in the northwest European nation of Wales (which is part of the United Kingdom).
http://wn.com/Welsh_Australian -
Welsh Italians
Welsh Italians are citizens of Wales whose ancestry wholly or partly originates in Italy. Most Italian immigration to Wales took place in the 19th and early 20th centuries, with the largest number of migrants settling in Glamorgan and Newport.
http://wn.com/Welsh_Italians -
Y Wladfa
http://wn.com/Y_Wladfa -
Yemeni British
http://wn.com/Yemeni_British
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Interviewing the Welsh People
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:58
- Updated: 03 Sep 2012
Join us as we get to know the people of the seaside village of Aberystwyth.
http://wn.com/Interviewing_the_Welsh_People
Speak Properly Welsh People: A Needlessly pointless sketch By Elro
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:48
- Updated: 28 Sep 2012
Pointless, unless you understand the way Welsh people speak you might not get this remotely, you might not get it anyway because I'm a twat.
http://wn.com/Speak_Properly_Welsh_People_A_Needlessly_pointless_sketch_By_Elro
Pini - Ep03 - Do Welsh people have sex with sheep?
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 6:01
- Updated: 15 Oct 2012
Watch it all on : tiny.cc To celebrate the English webpage for PINI - here's a special no subtitles version of episode 3 - Houmous
http://wn.com/Pini_Ep03_Do_Welsh_people_have_sex_with_sheep?
Welsh People On Drugs
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:51
- Updated: 17 Aug 2012
what ketamin dose to welsh people lol
http://wn.com/Welsh_People_On_Drugs
welsh people
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:48
- Updated: 02 Oct 2012
welsh people
http://wn.com/welsh_people
Welsh People Have Souls!
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:15
- Updated: 13 Sep 2012
Welsh people have souls too ya know. I met a fiery young woman who felt very passionate about this topic...
http://wn.com/Welsh_People_Have_Souls!
Misonceptions about Welsh people
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 6:57
- Updated: 30 Jun 2012
Attempting to educate the world about 21st century Wales. Here's the link to my music channel: www.youtube.com F x
http://wn.com/Misonceptions_about_Welsh_people
Welsh People!
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:31
- Updated: 03 Sep 2012
WELSH PEOPLEEEE yes that's right welsh people
http://wn.com/Welsh_People!
Guns dont kill people Welsh people do. FUNNY
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:25
- Updated: 23 Aug 2012
Here is a Joke video by The Snipe and Dizzy, Hope u enjoy ... :-)
http://wn.com/Guns_dont_kill_people_Welsh_people_do_FUNNY
how to annoy people - i met the welsh people
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 11:59
- Updated: 31 Aug 2012
me playing S&D;
http://wn.com/how_to_annoy_people_i_met_the_welsh_people
WELSH WATER ROBBING THE PEOPLE OF WALES
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:00
- Updated: 15 Jun 2012
YEP WHAT ARSEHOLE DECIDED THAT THE RATEABLE VALUE OF A SUB-DIVIDED PROPERTY OUGHT TO BE GREATER THAN THAT OF A HOUSE CHARGE. MOST ESPECIALLY WHEN ALL YOU GET IS GRIEF FROM THE OTHER TENANTS HUH????? COS THE COUNCIL WILL MAKE MORE IN RENT AND SO WILL HOUSING ASSOCIATIONS, AND PRIVATE LANDLORDS, THEN THE TV LICENCING AUTHORITY CAN SCREW THE TENANTS BLIND AND SO CAN 'DWR CYMRU' YEAH WELSH FOR WELSH WATER. ME I SAY FREE WATER FOR THE WELSH PEOPLE, LET'S BE HAVING THOSE ROOF WATER COLLECTIONS SYSTEMS, MR. RUDDY MORGAN, RHODRI OR JONATHAN.
http://wn.com/WELSH_WATER_ROBBING_THE_PEOPLE_OF_WALES
Rugby World Cup - Wales into Semi Final with France.
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:23
- Updated: 24 Oct 2012
McOnie visits the Welsh press conference and gets fitness tips from his brother Adam Jones.
http://wn.com/Rugby_World_Cup_Wales_into_Semi_Final_with_France
French & Welsh People Held to Ransom By Their Own Government
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:43
- Updated: 27 Jul 2012
The media is completely and utterly missing the point of what is going on here. As usual. The debate goes as far as "people don't want to work longer" and thats the end of the analysis. It is completely and utterly unreasonable of the government to expect people to work after 60 years old. It is totally unneccessary, it is nothing more than the government treating the people like resources which must be milked until they are completely spent. The arguments given are that the popualtion is aging and that people need to work longer to support the reitred generation. If there was ever a total admission of governement incompetence this is it. Yet the competence of government is never ever questioned in the media. People having to work longer to support the retired? What about the retired people who have worked all their life paying towards a pension, these people have paid their dues, why do they need other people to pay for them? It is the most blantant addmission possible that government takes the money you pay towards your pension and spends it on the day to day running of the governement instead of saving and investing it so it can grow. The government is robbing every single taxpayer everyday, they are taking your money under faulse pretences. If there was ever a case for people having the option to opt out of the governement pension system and pay into their own pensions this is it. As it stands at the moment someone else gets the money you pay towards your own state ...
http://wn.com/French_Welsh_People_Held_to_Ransom_By_Their_Own_Government
Abi&Beckie; Vlog 2 - We Love Welsh People!!!
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 9:11
- Updated: 02 Sep 2012
We have now dedicated this day to all you lovely welsh people. So if you're welsh, feel the love!! So as usual, comment like subscribe, plus we can do shout outs, so email or twitter abi which is @Abi_Storm and ask away :D
http://wn.com/Abi&Beckie;_Vlog_2_We_Love_Welsh_People!!!
Tegan and Sara - "Are you on the ecstasy?" / Tegan's Welsh
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:35
- Updated: 25 Sep 2012
that last one was off so jealous, we came over to tour a few times, it really sucked, it had nothing to do with the human beings over here, we'd be wetting ourselves we'd bankrupt ourselves, we'd share like one lunch, a piece of cheese and a pretzel for dinner, have you ever seen/read lord of the flies, my mum let us what that in elementary school birthday party, I was so traumatised, wtf does that have to do with this story? it kinda gets a little lord of flies, we're so distracted by these people, they're on a rave, are you on ecstasy?? they repeat everything we say really high pitched, they're almost impersonating you, not making fun of you, two of them are in a sound booth, the other girl has to call into the booth, "whose cookie is that biscuit??", it's because she's welsh, my mum found the name Tegan in a book of common names, they give credit to the welsh people, we've been telling people that our whole lives, don't worry, we told the Irish people we were Irish and the Scottish we're Scottish, we mean it this time though! The Point, Cardiff - 2nd March 2008
http://wn.com/Tegan_and_Sara_Are_you_on_the_ecstasy?_Tegan's_Welsh
More than a thousand young people contact new all-Wales helpline 'meic'
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:55
- Updated: 11 Jun 2012
'meic' is the first helpline of its kind in the UK and was funded by more than £450000 from the Welsh Assembly Government in its first year of operation. It gives children and young people the opportunity to get help on issues important to them if they feel they are not being heard, or if their opinion is not being taken into account on matters that affect them. Visit the 'meic' website for more information: www.meiccymru.org
http://wn.com/More_than_a_thousand_young_people_contact_new_all-Wales_helpline_'meic'
The English are Germans The Welsh are real Britons
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:44
- Updated: 31 Oct 2012
The English are Germans and the Welsh are real Britons.
http://wn.com/The_English_are_Germans_The_Welsh_are_real_Britons
QT: Why should Welsh give damn about London Olympics? (17May12)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:34
- Updated: 20 May 2012
Why should the Welsh people give a damn about the LONDON Olympics. The answer ism, they should not, not that you heard that come from any of the sycophant panel. Recorded from BBC Question Time, 17 May 2012.
http://wn.com/QT_Why_should_Welsh_give_damn_about_London_Olympics?_17May12
The welsh attempting the cinnamon challenge
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:29
- Updated: 16 Oct 2012
2 gals 1 cinnamon challenge
http://wn.com/The_welsh_attempting_the_cinnamon_challenge
Welsh People in America
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 0:41
- Updated: 20 Mar 2012
I want to let everyone in Wales know that there is a good web site in America, (Americymru), with welsh speaking people living in America in it, it is a good little site just like Facebook that you can chat and communicate even in welsh with them in America and also people from Wales on there,
http://wn.com/Welsh_People_in_America
Learn the welsh numbers (1)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:59
- Updated: 01 Nov 2012
Teach yourself some welsh numbers with this handy slide show!
http://wn.com/Learn_the_welsh_numbers_1
Welsh Rugby - 2011 Rugby World Cup
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 11:23
- Updated: 28 Oct 2012
The best moments of Welsh Rugby at the 2011 Rugby World Cup
http://wn.com/Welsh_Rugby_2011_Rugby_World_Cup
Funny Welsh Pizza Complaint!
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:01
- Updated: 25 Oct 2012
A Welsh dude complains about a problem with his pizza to Asda!
http://wn.com/Funny_Welsh_Pizza_Complaint!
Photo: AP / Mike Groll
31 Oct 2012
TEHRAN — Iranian rescuers and aid workers are on standby to fly to New York City to provide assistance to those affected by Hurricane Sandy, the head of Iran’s Red Crescent Organization...
Photo: AP / Salisu Rabiu
01 Nov 2012
Nigerian security forces have carried out widespread abuses in their campaign against the Islamist militant group Boko Haram, . The rights group says in a report that abuses include extrajudicial...
Photo: AP / John Minchillo
30 Oct 2012
At least 13 people have been killed in the US and millions are without power after Superstorm Sandy slammed into the New Jersey coastline and hurled a record-breaking 13ft surge of seawater at New...
Photo: AP / Pablo Martinez Monsivais
01 Nov 2012
Washington: Showing to the world the rare images of two bitter political rivals joining hands in times of national crisis, US President Barack Obama toured the storm-ravaged areas of New Jersey, along...
Photo: AP / DigitalGlobe via Satellite Sentinel Project
31 Oct 2012
Cairo: A suspected Israeli airstrike on a weapons factory in Khartoum last week points to a possible escalation in a hidden front of the rivalry between Israel and Iran: The arms pipeline through...
NZ Herald
Suspected IRA die-hards killed a Northern Ireland prison officer yesterday in a gun ambush as he drove to work, the first killing of a prison guard in nearly two decades in the British territory. Police said a gunman in a passing car shot David Black, 52, several times as he drove onto the M1...(size: 5.7Kb)
All Saints’ Day ‘orderly, peaceful’
01 Nov 2012
Sun Star
CEBU CITY -- The observance of All Saints’ Day in Cebu and the rest of Central Visayas was peaceful and orderly,...(size: 0.7Kb)
New York Daily News
The wheels of justice started grinding again Thursday, but they moved ever so slowly. Courts across the city — open only for arraignments since Hurricane Sandy slammed into Gotham — were doing business again, but very few cases were called and only a handful of trials carried on, officials said....(size: 2.5Kb)
Sun Star
THREE properties were used by the immediate family of congressional candidate Anabelle Rama when they registered as voters of the north district. When Anabelle registered last May, she used as residence the Rama ancestral house in Barangay Zapatera. During the last three days of registration,...(size: 2.2Kb)
Chows' brothel unworthy of favours
01 Nov 2012
NZ Herald
15-storey high-rise will be possible only if council grants lots of concessions, but it's hard to see why it should. It's a shame the public hearings into SkyCity's new neighbour, the Chow brothers' high-rise brothel, start on November 12 and not the following Monday. A week later would be the...(size: 4.8Kb)
That munching noise annoys
01 Nov 2012
NZ Herald
Nails on blackboard? It's music compared with the sound of a workmate chomping. Last month, Smithsonian.com magazine told its readers what the 10 most annoying sounds in the world were, as rated by the latest scientific research. We all have favourite contenders - more on that later - but some of...(size: 3.6Kb)
Comelec gets ready for lines
01 Nov 2012
Sun Star
CEBU CITY -- Apart from bus terminals and ports, the offices of the Commission on Elections (Comelec) can expect long lines today, Wednesday, the last day for the registration of voters. Cebu Provincial Election Supervisor Lionel Marco Castillano said there will be no extension because that would...(size: 5.4Kb)
Rama disapproves of Kalag fest
01 Nov 2012
Sun Star
CITY Hall and Cebu City Traffic Operations Management (Citom) frown on the holding of the Kalag-Kalag Festival along V. Rama Ave. Cebu City Mayor Michael Rama said the barangay can celebrate the festival provided they don’t obstruct traffic. V. Rama Ave. is one of the busiest streets in the city...(size: 5.2Kb)
The Daily Telegraph
A majority of middle-class families want to leave Britain because it no longer offers them an adequate quality of life, a new survey has concluded. The report suggested that "old-fashioned British values, thriving community spirit and a more relaxed way of life" were evident in Adelaide. Photo:...(size: 15.1Kb)
The Daily Telegraph
Failings in the operation of a controversial death "pathway” for terminally ill patients must be challenged, the care minister insisted. Norman Lamb: Liverpool Care pathway concerns must be challenged Photo: ITN...(size: 13.0Kb)
Sun Star
KORONADAL CITY - Family members of media workers killed in the infamous Ampatuan massacre marked All Saints’ Day with visit to cemeteries and calls for a speedy trial as the gory manslaughter is entering its third year. Emily Lopez, president of Justice Now Movement, said family, friends, and...(size: 2.6Kb)
Police: Security will remain tight in city
01 Nov 2012
Sun Star
THE Davao City Police Office (DCPO) will sustain its extensive security measures during the observance of the All Saints’ Day and All Souls’ Day which started Thursday. DCPO chief Senior Superintendent Ronald M. dela Rosa said even though the first day of Undas seemed to be generally peaceful as...(size: 2.9Kb)
13 soldiers face raps for civilian deaths
01 Nov 2012
Sun Star
DAVAO (Updated) -- An officer and 12 other soldiers of the Philippine Army will face court-martial after they engaged in a clash with outlaws in Mindanao that killed a pregnant woman and her two children. The clash happened in Barangay Kimlawis of Kiblawan in Davao del Sur last October 18. The...(size: 4.4Kb)
This article is about the ethnic group and nation. For information about residents in Wales, see Demography of Wales.
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| 1st row: Anthony Hopkins • Tom Jones • Dylan Thomas • George Everest • Ryan Giggs • Robert Owen • Michael Sheen 2nd row: Mary Jones • William Jones • Kelly Jones • Bertrand Russell • Gwyneth Jones • Aneurin Bevan • Owain Glyndŵr |
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Christianity (Presbyterianism, Anglicanism, Roman Catholicism)[10] and other faiths. |
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Bretons, Cornish, Manx, English, Scottish, Ulster-Scots, Irish |
The Welsh people (Welsh: Cymry) are an ethnic group and nation native to Wales and associated with the Welsh language. Welsh people historically spoke the Welsh language; however, in recent years English has predominated in most of Wales.
John Davies argues that the origin of the "Welsh nation" can be traced to the late 4th and early 5th centuries, following the Roman departure from Britain,[11] although Brythonic Celtic languages seem to have been spoken in Wales far longer. The term Welsh people applies to people from Wales and people of Welsh ancestry perceiving themselves or being perceived as sharing a cultural heritage and shared ancestral origins.[12] Today Wales is a country of the United Kingdom, and the majority of people living in Wales are British citizens.
An analysis of the geography of Welsh surnames commissioned by the Welsh Government found that 718,000 people, or nearly 35% of the Welsh population, have a family name of Welsh origin, compared with 5.3% in the rest of the United Kingdom, 4.7% in New Zealand, 4.1% in Australia, and 3.8% in the United States, with an estimated 16.3 million people in the countries studied having Welsh ancestry.[13]
Contents |
History[link]
See also: History of Wales and genetic history of the British Isles
During their time in Britain, the ancient Romans encountered tribes in present-day Wales that they called the Ordovices, the Demetae, the Silures and the Deceangli.[14] The people of what is now Wales were not distinguished from the rest of the peoples of southern Britain; all were called Britons and spoke the common British language, a Brythonic Celtic tongue.[15] Celtic language and culture seems to have arrived in Britain during the Iron Age, though some archaeologists argue that there is no evidence for large-scale Iron Age migrations into Great Britain.[16] The claim has also been made that Indo-European languages may have been introduced to the British Isles as early as the early Neolithic (or even earlier), with Goidelic and Brythonic languages developing indigenously.[16][17] Others hold that the close similarity between the Goidelic and Brythonic branches, and their sharing of Late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age terminology with their continental relatives, point to a more recent introduction of Indo-European languages (or close communication), with Proto-Celtic itself unlikely to have existed before the end of the 2nd millennium BC at the earliest.[18] The genetic evidence in this case would show that the change to Celtic languages in Britain may have occurred as a cultural shift rather than through migration as was previously supposed.
Some current genetic research supports the idea that people living in the British Isles are likely mainly descended from the indigenous European Paleolithic (Old Stone Age hunter gatherers) population (about 80%), with a smaller Neolithic (New Stone Age farmers) input (about 20%).[19] Paleolithic Europeans seem to have been a homogeneous population, possibly due to a population bottleneck (or near-extinction event) on the Iberian peninsula, where a small human population is thought to have survived the glaciation, and expanded into Europe during the Mesolithic. The assumed genetic imprint of Neolithic incomers is seen as a cline, with stronger Neolithic representation in the east of Europe and stronger Paleolithic representation in the west of Europe.[19][20] Most in Wales today regard themselves as modern Celts, claiming a heritage back to the Iron Age tribes, which themselves, based on modern genetic analysis, would appear to have had a predominantly Paleolithic and Neolithic indigenous ancestry. When the Roman legions departed Britain around 400, a Romano-British culture remained in the areas the Romans had settled, and the pre-Roman cultures in others.[21]
In two recently published books, Blood of the Isles, by Brian Sykes and The Origins of the British, by Stephen Oppenheimer, both authors state that according to genetic evidence, most Welsh people, like most Britons, descend from the Iberian Peninsula, as a result of different migrations that took place during the Mesolithic and the Neolithic eras, and which laid the foundations for the present-day populations in the British Isles, indicating an ancient relationship among the populations of Atlantic Europe.[22][23][24] According to Stephen Oppenheimer 96% of lineages in Llangefni in north Wales derive from Iberia. Genetic research on the Y-chromosome has shown that the Welsh, like the Irish, share a large proportion of their ancestry with the Basques of Northern Spain and South Western France, although the Welsh have a greater presumed Neolithic input than both the Irish and the Basques.[25] Genetic marker R1b averages from 83–89% amongst the Welsh.[25][26]
The people in what is now Wales continued to speak Brythonic languages with additions from Latin, as did some other Celts in areas of Great Britain. The surviving poem Y Gododdin is in early Welsh and refers to the Brythonic kingdom of Gododdin with a capital at Din Eidyn (Edinburgh) and extending from the area of Stirling to the Tyne.[27] John Davies places the change from Brythonic to Welsh between 400 and 700.[28] Offa's Dyke was erected in the mid-8th century, forming a barrier between Wales and Mercia.[29]
Gene scientists at the University College of London (UCL) have claimed that the Welsh are the "true" Britons and are remnants of the Celts that were pushed out by Anglo-Saxon invaders after the Roman withdrawal in the fifth century. The genetic tests suggested that between 50% and 100% of the indigenous population of what was to become England was wiped out. In 2001, research for a BBC programme on the Vikings suggested a possible strong link between the Celts and Basques, dating back tens of thousands of years. The UCL research suggested a migration on a huge scale during the Anglo-Saxon period.[30]
"It appears England is made up of an ethnic cleansing event from people coming across from the continent after the Romans left," said Dr Mark Thomas, of the Centre for Genetic Anthropology at UCL. "Our findings completely overturn the modern view of the origins of the English."[30]
The process whereby the indigenous population of 'Wales' came to think of themselves as Welsh is not clear. There is plenty of evidence of the use of the term Brythoniaid (Britons); by contrast, the earliest use of the word Kymry (referring not to the people but to the land—and possibly to northern Britain in addition to modern day territory of Wales) is found in a poem dated to about 633. The name of the region in northern England now known as Cumbria is derived from the same root.[31] Only gradually did Cymru (the land) and Cymry (the people) come to supplant Brython. Although the Welsh language was certainly used at the time, Gwyn A. Williams argues that even at the time of the erection of Offa's Dyke, the people to its west saw themselves as Roman, citing the number of Latin inscriptions still being made into the 8th century.[32] However, it is unclear whether such inscriptions reveal a general or normative use of Latin as a marker of identity or its selective use by the early Christian Church.
The word Cymry is believed to be derived from the Brythonic combrogi, meaning fellow-countrymen,[28] and thus Cymru carries a sense of "land of fellow-countrymen", "our country"—and, of course, notions of fraternity. The name "Wales", however, comes from the Germanic walha, a term meaning "stranger" or "foreigner" which was applied particularly to peoples who had been Romanised.[33]
There are two words in modern Welsh for the English and this reflects the idea held by some that the modern English derive from various Germanic tribes (although there is little evidence for the extinction of the pre-Germanic inhabitants of England, and the idea ignores both the Scandinavian settlers in England and the Roman and Norman-French influences on English language, culture and identity): Saeson (singular: Sais), meaning originally Saxon; and: Eingl, denoting:-Angles,; meaning Englishmen in modern Welsh. The Welsh word for the English language is Saesneg, while the Welsh word for England is Lloegr.
There was immigration to Wales after the Norman Conquest, several Normans encouraged immigration to their new lands; the Landsker Line dividing the Pembrokeshire "Englishry" and "Welshry" is still detectable today.[34] The terms Englishry and Welshry are used similarly about Gower.[35]
The population of Wales increased from 587,128 in 1801 to 1,162,139 in 1851 and had reached 2,420,921 by 1911.[36] Part of this increase can be attributed to the demographic transition seen in most industrialising countries during the Industrial Revolution, as death-rates dropped and birth-rates remained steady. However, there was also a large-scale migration of people into Wales during the industrial revolution. The English were the most numerous group, but there were also considerable numbers of Irish and smaller numbers of other ethnic groups,[37][38] including Italians migrated to South Wales.[39] Wales received other immigration from various parts of the British Commonwealth of Nations in the 20th century, and African-Caribbean and Asian communities add to the ethno-cultural mix, particularly in urban Wales. Many of these self-identify as Welsh.[40] Recently, parts of Wales have seen an increased number of immigrants from recent EU accession countries such as Poland.
21st century identity[link]
2001 census[link]
It is uncertain how many people in Wales consider themselves to be of Welsh ethnicity, because the 2001 UK census did not offer 'Welsh' as an option; respondents had to use a box marked "Other". 96% of the population of Wales thus described themselves as being White British.[41] Controversy surrounding the method of determining ethnicity began as early as 2000, when it was revealed that respondents in Scotland and Northern Ireland would be able to check a box describing themselves as of Scottish or of Irish ethnicity, an option not available for Welsh or English respondents.[42][43] Prior to the census, Plaid Cymru backed a petition calling for the inclusion of a Welsh tick-box and for the National Assembly to have primary law-making powers and its own National Statistics Office.[42]
With an absence of a Welsh tick-box, the only other tick-box available was 'white-British,' 'Irish', or 'other'.[42] The Scottish parliament insisted that a Scottish ethnicity tick-box be included in the census in Scotland, and with this inclusion as many as 88.11% claimed Scottish ethnicity.[44] Critics expected a higher proportion of respondents describing themselves as of Welsh ethnicity, similar to Scottish results, had a Welsh tickbox been made available. Additional criticism was levelled at the timing of the census, which was taken in the middle of the Foot and Mouth crisis of 2001, a fact organizers said did not impact the results.[41] However, the Foot and Mouth crisis did delay UK General Elections, the first time since the Second World War any event postponed an election.
In the census, as many as 14 per cent of the population took the 'extra step' to write in that they were of Welsh ethnicity.[45][dead link] Of these, Gwynedd recorded the highest percentage of those identifying as of Welsh ethnicity (at 27%), followed by Carmarthenshire (23 per cent), Ceredigion (22 per cent) and the Isle of Anglesey (19 per cent).[45] For respondents between 16 and 74 years of age, those claiming Welsh ethnicity were predominately in professional and managerial occupations.[45]
2011 census[link]
In advance of the 2011 UK Census, the O.N.S. launched a census consultation exercise. They received replies from 28 different Welsh organisations and a large proportion of these referred to Welsh ethnicity, language or identity.[46]
For the first time ever in British census history the 2011 Census gave the opportunity for people to describe their identity as Welsh or English. A 'dress rehearsal' of the Census was carried out on the Welsh island of Anglesey because of its rural nature and its high numbers of Welsh speakers.[46]
The Census, taken on 27 March 2011, asked a number of questions relating to nationality and national identity, including What is your country of birth? ('Wales' was one of the options), How would you describe your national identity? (for the first time 'Welsh' and 'English' were included as options), What is your ethnic group? ('White Welsh/English/Scottish/Northern Irish/British' was an option) and Can you understand, speak, read or write Welsh?.[47]
Surveys[link]
According to the 2001/02 Labour Force Survey, 87 per cent of Wales-born residents claimed Welsh ethnic identity.[48][dead link] Respondents in the local authority areas of Gwynedd, Ceredigion, Carmarthenshire, and Merthyr Tydfil each returned results of between 91 and 93 per cent claiming Welsh ethnicity, of those born in Wales.[48] Neath Port Talbot, Bridgend, Rhondda Cynon Taff, returned results 88–91 per cent of Wales-born respondents claiming Welsh ethnicity.[48] Powys, Anglesey, Denbighshire, Caerphilly, and the Vale of Glamorgan returned results of 86–88 per cent of respondents born in Wales claiming Welsh ethnicity.[48] Pembrokeshire, Swansea, Cardiff, Newport, Torfaen, Blaenau Gwent, Conwy, Flintshire, and Wrexham returned results of 78–86 per cent of those born in Wales claiming Welsh ethnicity.[48]
According to the survey, when factoring non-Wales born residents, 67 per cent of those surveyed claimed Welsh identity and an additional 7% ticked Welsh and another option, such as Welsh- British, giving a total of 74% overall. This reflects a residential population which includes 30 per cent born outside of Wales. The survey, from the Office for National Statistics, identified the remaining 33 per cent of respondents as 'Not Welsh'.[48]
A survey carried out by the Centre for Research into Elections and Social Trends at Oxford University, found that only 17.9 per cent of respondents would claim to be Welsh and not British. 20.2 per cent said they were more Welsh than British, while the most popular answer (39 per cent) claimed to be equally Welsh and British.[49]
Surveys indicate that younger people are more likely to self identify as Welsh.
Culture[link]
See also: Culture of Wales
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Language[link]
Main articles: Welsh language and history of the Welsh language
According to the 2001 census the number of Welsh speakers in Wales increased for the first time in 100 years, with 20.5% in a population of over 2.9 million claiming fluency in Welsh, or one in five.[41] Additionally, 28% of the population of Wales claimed to understand Welsh.[41] The census revealed that the increase was most significant in urban areas; such as Cardiff (Caerdydd) with an increase from 6.6% in 1991 to 10.9% in 2001, and Rhondda Cynon Taf with an increase from 9% in 1991 to 12.3% in 2001.[41] However, the number of Welsh speakers declined in Gwynedd from 72.1% in 1991 to 68.7%, and in Ceredigion from 59.1% in 1991 to 51.8%.[41] Ceredigion in particular experienced the greatest fluctuation with the a 19.5% influx of new residents since 1991.[41]
The decline in Welsh speakers in much of rural Wales is attributable to non Welsh speaking residents moving to North Wales, driving up property rates above what locals may afford, according to former Gwynedd county councillor Seimon Glyn of Plaid Cymru, whose controversial comments in 2001 focused attention on the issue.[41] As many as a third of all properties in Gwynedd are bought by persons from out of the country.[50] The issue of locals being priced out of the local housing market is common to many rural communities throughout Britain, but in Wales the added dimension of language further complicated the issue, as many new residents did not learn the Welsh language.[51]
A Plaid Cymru taskforce headed by Dafydd Wigley recommended land should be allocated for affordable local housing, and called for grants for locals to buy houses, and recommended council tax on holiday homes should double.[52]
However, the same census shows that 25 percent of residents were born outside Wales. The number of Welsh speakers in other places in Britain is uncertain, but numbers are high in the main cities and there are speakers along the Welsh-English border.
Even among the Welsh speakers, very few people speak only Welsh, with nearly all being bilingual in English. However, a large number of Welsh speakers are more comfortable expressing themselves in Welsh than in English and vice versa, usually depending on the area spoken. Many prefer to speak English in South Wales or the urbanised areas and Welsh in the North or in rural areas. A speaker's choice of language can vary according to the subject domain (known in linguistics as code-switching).
Thanks to the work of the Mudiad Ysgolion Meithrin (Welsh Nursery School Movement), recent census data reveals a reversal in decades of linguistic decline: there are now more Welsh speakers under five years of age than over 60. For many young people in Wales, the acquisition of Welsh is a gateway to better careers and increased cultural opportunity: Wales's third greatest revenue earner is media products and Cardiff boasts a world-class animation industry.
Although Welsh is a minority language, and thus threatened by the dominance of English, support for the language grew during the second half of the 20th century, along with the rise of Welsh nationalism in the form of groups such as the political party Plaid Cymru and Cymdeithas yr Iaith Gymraeg (Welsh Language Society). The language is used in the bilingual Welsh Assembly and entered on its records, with English translation. Technically it is not supposed to be used in the British Parliament as it is referred to as a "foreign language" and is effectively banned as disruptive behaviour,[53] but several Speakers (most notably George Thomas, 1st Viscount Tonypandy, himself born in Wales, close by Tonypandy) spoke Welsh in longer English-language speeches.[citation needed]
Welsh as a first language is largely concentrated in the less urban north and west of Wales, principally Gwynedd, inland Denbighshire, northern and south-western Powys, the Isle of Anglesey, Carmarthenshire, North Pembrokeshire, Ceredigion, and parts of western Glamorgan, although first-language and other fluent speakers can be found throughout Wales. However, Cardiff is now home to an urban Welsh speaking population (both from other parts of Wales and from the growing Welsh medium schools of Cardiff itself) due to the centralisation and concentration of national resources and organisations in the capital.
Speaking Welsh is an important part of Welsh identity. Welsh people actively distinguish between 'Cymry Cymraeg' (Welsh-speaking Welsh), Cymry di-Gymraeg (non Welsh speaking Welsh) and Saeson (English). Parts of the culture are however strongly connected to the language — notably the Eisteddfodic tradition, poetry and aspects of folk music and dance. However, Wales has a strong tradition of poetry in the English language.
Religion[link]
See also: Religion in Wales
Most Welsh people of faith are affiliated with the Church in Wales or other Christian denominations such as the Presbyterian Church of Wales, or Catholicism, although there is even a Russian Orthodox chapel in the semi-rural town of Blaenau Ffestiniog. In particular, Wales has a long tradition of nonconformism and Methodism. Other religions Welsh people may be affiliated with include Buddhism, Hinduism, Judaism, Islam, and Sikhism, with most non-Christian people in Wales found in Cardiff[citation needed].
The 2001 Census showed that slightly less than 10% of the Welsh population are regular church or chapel goers (a slightly smaller proportion than in England or Scotland), although about 70% of the population see themselves as some form of Christian. Judaism has quite a long history in Wales, with a Jewish community recorded in Swansea from around 1730. In August 1911, during a period of public order and industrial disputes, Jewish shops across the South Wales coalfield were damaged by mobs. Since that time the Jewish population of that area, which reached a peak of 4,000–5,000 in 1913, has declined with only Cardiff retaining a sizeable Jewish population, of about 2000 in the 2001 Census. The largest non-Christian faith in Wales is Islam, with about 22,000 members in 2001 served by about 40 mosques, following the first mosque established in Cardiff in 1860. A college for training clerics has been established at Llanybydder in West Wales. Islam arrived in Wales in the mid 19th century, and it is thought that Cardiff's Yemeni community is Britain's oldest Muslim community, established when the city was one of the world's largest coal-exporting ports. Hinduism and Buddhism each have about 5,000 adherents in Wales, with the rural county of Ceredigion being the centre of Welsh Buddhism. Govinda's temple and restaurant, run by the Hare Krishnas in Swansea, is a focal point for many Welsh Hindus. There are about 2,000 Sikhs in Wales, with the first purpose-built gurdwara opened in the Riverside area of Cardiff in 1989. In 2001 some 7,000 people classified themselves as following "other religions" including a reconstructed form of Druidism, which was the pre-Christian religion of Wales (not to be confused with the Druids of the Gorsedd at the National Eisteddfod of Wales). Approximately one sixth of the population, some 500,000 people, profess no religious faith whatsoever.
The sabbatarian temperance movement was also historically strong among the Welsh, the sale of alcohol being prohibited on Sundays in Wales by the Sunday Closing (Wales) Act 1881 – the first legislation specifically issued for Wales since the Middle Ages. From the early 1960s, local council areas were permitted to hold referendums every seven years to determine whether they should be "wet" or "dry" on Sundays: most of the industrialised areas in the east and south went "wet" immediately, and by the 1980s the last district, Dwyfor in the northwest, went wet, since then there have been no more Sunday-closing referendums.
National symbols[link]
Main article: National symbols of Wales
- The Flag of Wales (Y Ddraig Goch) incorporates the red dragon, a popular symbol of Wales and the Welsh people, along with the Tudor colours of green and white. It was used by Henry VII at the Battle of Bosworth Field in 1485, after which it was carried in state to St. Paul's Cathedral. The red dragon was then included in the Tudor royal arms to signify their Welsh descent. It was officially recognised as the Welsh national flag in 1959. Since the British Union Flag does not have any Welsh representation, the Flag of Wales has become very popular.
- The Flag of Saint David is sometimes used as an alternative to the national flag, and is flown on Saint David's Day.
- The dragon, part of the national flag design, is also a popular Welsh symbol. The oldest recorded use of the dragon to symbolise Wales is from the Historia Brittonum, written around 820, but it is popularly supposed to have been the battle standard of King Arthur and other ancient Celtic leaders. Following the annexation of Wales by England, the dragon was used as a supporter in the English monarch's coat of arms.
- The daffodil and the leek are also symbols of Wales. The origins of the leek can be traced to the 16th century, while the daffodil became popular in the 19th century, encouraged by David Lloyd-George.[54] This may be due to confusion of the Welsh for leek, cenhinen, and that for daffodil, cenhinen Bedr or St. Peter's leek. Both are worn as symbols by the Welsh on Saint David's Day, March 1.
- The Prince of Wales's Feathers, the heraldic badge of the Prince of Wales, is sometimes adapted by Welsh bodies for use in Wales. The symbolism is explained on the article for Edward, the Black Prince, who was the first Prince of Wales to bear the emblem. The Welsh Rugby Union uses such a design for its own badge.
Welsh emigration[link]
Migration from Wales to the rest of Britain has been occurring throughout its history. Particularly during the Industrial Revolution hundreds of thousands of Welsh people migrated internally to the big cities of England and Scotland or to work in the coal mines of the north of England. As a result, much of the British population today have ancestry from Wales. The same can be said for the English, Scottish and Irish workers who migrated to Welsh cities such as Merthyr Tydfil or ports such as Pembroke in the Industrial Revolution. As a result, some English, Irish and Scottish have Welsh surnames ("Evans", "Jenkins" "Owen" etc.) and some Welsh have English, Scottish and Irish surnames — as a result, it is relatively rare in South Wales or English-speaking areas to find a person with exclusively Welsh ancestry.
Some thousands of Welsh settlers moved to other parts of Europe, but the number was sparse and concentrated to certain areas. During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, a small wave of contract miners from Wales arrived into Northern France, and the centre of Welsh-French populations are in coal mining towns of the French department Pas-de-Calais. Welsh settlers from Wales (and later Patagonian Welsh) arrived in Newfoundland, Canada in the early 1900s; many had founded towns in the province's Labrador coast region. In 1852 Thomas Benbow Phillips of Tregaron established a settlement of about 100 Welsh people in the state of Rio Grande do Sul in Brazil.
Internationally Welsh people have emigrated, in relatively small numbers (in proportion to population Irish emigration to the United States of America (USA) may have been 26 times greater than Welsh emigration),[55] to many countries, including the USA (in particular, Pennsylvania), Canada and Y Wladfa in Patagonia, Argentina.[56][57][58] Jackson County, Ohio was sometimes referred to as Little Wales and the Welsh language was commonly heard or spoken among locals by the mid 20th century.[citation needed] Malad City in Idaho, which began as a Welsh Mormon Settlement, lays claim to having more people of Welsh descent per capita than anywhere outside of Wales itself.[59] Malad's local High School is known as the "Malad Dragons" and flies the Welsh Flag as its school colours.[60] Welsh people have also settled as far as New Zealand and Australia.[55][61]
Around 1.75 million Americans report themselves to have Welsh ancestry, as did 467,000 Canadians in Canada's 2006 census.[2][4] This compares with 2.9 million people living in Wales (as of the 2001 census).[62]
There is no known evidence which would objectively support the legend that the Mandan, a Native American tribe of the central United States, are Welsh emigrants who reached North America under Prince Madog in 1170.[63]
The Ukrainian city of Donetsk was founded in 1869 by a Welsh businessman, John Hughes, (an engineer from Merthyr Tydfil) who constructed a steel plant and several coal mines in the region; the town was thus named Yuzovka (Юзовка) in recognition of his role in its founding ("Yuz" being a Russian or Ukrainian approximation of Hughes).[64]
See also[link]
- Culture of Wales
- List of Welsh people
- Modern Celts
- Welsh American
- Welsh Canadian
- Welsh Australian
- Welsh History in Chicago
- Welsh immigration
- Welsh Italians
- Y Wladfa
References[link]
- ^ "Annual Population Survey: National identity by Welsh local authority, 2009". http://www.statswales.wales.gov.uk/TableViewer/tableView.aspx?ReportId=5501. Retrieved 21 August 2010.
- ^ a b "2006 Census (U.S. Census Bureau 2006 Census Fact Sheet)". Factfinder.census.gov. http://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/ADPTable?_bm=y&-geo_id=01000US&-ds_name=ACS_2006_EST_G00_. Retrieved 17 October 2009.
- ^ Neighbourhood Statistics. "Welsh people in England". Neighbourhood.statistics.gov.uk. http://neighbourhood.statistics.gov.uk/dissemination/LeadTableView.do?a=3&b=276743&c=London&d=13&e=13&g=325264&i=1001x1003x1004&m=0&r=1&s=1198518794421&enc=1&dsFamilyId=85. Retrieved 17 October 2009.
- ^ a b "In the Canadian census of 2006, 27,115 people identified themselves as belonging only to the Welsh ethnic group, while an additional 413,855 included Welsh as one of multiple ethnic groups they claimed to belong to". 2.statcan.ca. 2 April 2008. http://www12.statcan.ca/english/census06/data/highlights/ethnic/pages/Page.cfm?Lang=E&Geo=PR&Code=01&Data=Count&Table=2&StartRec=1&Sort=3&Display=All&CSDFilter=5000. Retrieved 17 October 2009.
- ^ "2054.0 Australian Census Analytic Program: Australians' Ancestries (2001 (Corrigendum))" (PDF). http://www.ausstats.abs.gov.au/ausstats/free.nsf/Lookup/C41A78D7568811B9CA256E9D0077CA12/$File/20540_2001%20(corrigendum).pdf. Retrieved 17 October 2009.
- ^ "Wales and Argentina". Wales.com website. Welsh Government. 2008. http://man121208a.wales.com/en/content/cms/English/International_Links/Wales_and_the_World/Wales_and_Argentina/Wales_and_Argentina.aspx. Retrieved 8 October 2010.
- ^ "City of Aberdeen: Census Stats and Facts page 25, section 18, Country of birth" (pdf). City of Aberdeen. 2003. http://www.aberdeencity.gov.uk/nmsruntime/saveasdialog.asp?lID=1722&sID=332. Retrieved 6 April 2010.
- ^ The 2001 New Zealand census reports 3,342 people stating they belong to the Welsh ethnic group.
- ^ The 1996 census, which used a slightly different question, reported 9,966 people belonging to the Welsh ethnic group.[dead link]
- ^ "Religion in Wales — Welsh Religion". Sacred-destinations.com. http://www.sacred-destinations.com/wales/wales-religion.htm. Retrieved 17 October 2009.
- ^ Davies, John (1994) A History of Wales. Penguin: p.54; ISBN 0-14-014581-8.
- ^ The Welsh people: chapters on their origin, history and laws by Sir John Rhys, Sir David Brynmor Jones. 1969
- ^ "The Welsh diaspora: Analysis of the geography of Welsh names". http://wales.gov.uk/firstminister/research/economic/completed/placenames/analysisgeographywelshnames.pdf?lang=en. Retrieved 17 October 2009.
- ^ Cunliffe, B. Iron Age communities in Britainpp. 115–118
- ^ "BBC History – Ancient History in-depth:Native Tribes of Britain". BBC website “The Deceangli, the Ordovices and the Silures were the three main tribe groups who lived in the mountains of what is today called Wales. However, in prehistory Wales, England and Scotland did not exist in anyway as distinctive entities in the ways they have done so for the last 1000 years. “. BBC. 2010. http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/british_prehistory/iron_01.shtml. Retrieved 6 April 2010.
- ^ a b Iron Age Britain by Barry Cunliffe. Batsford. ISBN 0-7134-8839-5.
- ^ Britain BC: Life in Britain and Ireland Before the Romans by Francis Pryor, pp. 121–122. Harper Perennial. ISBN 0-00-712693-X.
- ^ Mallory, J.P. In Search of the Indo-Europeans pp. 106–107, Thames & Hudson
- ^ a b "Estimating the Impact of Prehistoric Admixture on the Genome of Europeans by Isabelle Dupanloup, Giorgio Bertorelle, Lounès Chikhi and Guido Barbujani (2004). ''Molecular Biology and Evolution'': 21(7):1361–1372. Retrieved 10 July 2006". Mbe.oxfordjournals.org. DOI:10.1093/molbev/msh135. http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/21/7/1361. Retrieved 17 October 2009.
- ^ del Giorgio, J.F. 2006. The Oldest Europeans. A.J. Place, ISBN 980-6898-00-1
- ^ "What happened after the fall of the Roman Empire?". BBC. Archived from the original on 9 June 2008. http://web.archive.org/web/20080609015441/http://www.bbc.co.uk/wales/history/sites/nation/pages/state01.shtml. Retrieved 17 October 2009.
- ^ "Special report: 'Myths of British ancestry' by Stephen Oppenheimer". Prospect-magazine.co.uk. 21 October 2006. http://www.prospect-magazine.co.uk/article_details.php?id=7817. Retrieved 17 October 2009.
- ^ Adams, Guy (20 September 2006). "'Celts descended from Spanish fishermen, study finds'-This Britain, UK-The Independent 20 September 2006". The Independent (London). http://news.independent.co.uk/uk/this_britain/article1621766.ece. Retrieved 17 October 2009.
- ^ "From the Cover: Genetic evidence for different male and female roles during cultural transitions in the British Isles". Pubmedcentral.nih.gov. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=33166. Retrieved 17 October 2009.
- ^ a b "Genes link Celts to Basques 3 April 2001". BBC News. 3 April 2001. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/wales/1256894.stm. Retrieved 17 October 2009.
- ^ "High-Resolution Phylogenetic Analysis of Southeastern Europe Traces Major Episodes of Paternal Gene Flow Among Slavic Populations". Mbe.oxfordjournals.org. 22 October 1964. http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/22/10/1964/TBL1. Retrieved 17 October 2009.
- ^ Jarman, A.O.H. 1988. Y Gododdin: Britain's earliest heroic poem p. xviii
- ^ a b Davies, John, A History of Wales, published 1990 by Penguin, ISBN 0-14-014581-8
- ^ Davies, J. A history of Wales pp. 65–6
- ^ a b BBC News|Wales English and Welsh are races apart. 30 June 2002. Retrieved 21 October 2011
- ^ Williams, Ifor. 1972. The beginnings of Welsh poetry University of Wales Press. p. 71
- ^ Williams, Gwyn A., The Welsh in their History, published 1982 by Croom Helm, ISBN 0-7099-3651-6
- ^ Davies, J. A history of Wales p. 69
- ^ "The Flemish colonists in Wales: ''BBC'' website. Retrieved 17 August 2006". BBC. http://www.bbc.co.uk/legacies/immig_emig/wales/w_sw/article_4.shtml. Retrieved 17 October 2009.
- ^ "Gower Historical Processes, Themes and Background". Ggat.org.uk. http://www.ggat.org.uk/cadw/historic_landscape/gower/english/Gower_Features.htm. Retrieved 17 October 2009.
- ^ "200 years of the Census in...Wales" (PDF). http://www.statistics.gov.uk/census2001/bicentenary/pdfs/wales.pdf. Retrieved 17 October 2009.
- ^ "Industrial Revolution". BBC. http://www.bbc.co.uk/wales/storyofwelsh/content/industrialrevolution.shtml. Retrieved 17 October 2009.
- ^ LSJ Services [Wales] Ltd. "Population ''therhondda.co.uk''. Retrieved 9 May 2006". Therhondda.co.uk. Archived from the original on 20 May 2008. http://web.archive.org/web/20080520075715/http://www.therhondda.co.uk/living/population.html. Retrieved 17 October 2009.
- ^ "BBC Wales — History — Themes — Italian immigration". BBC. http://www.bbc.co.uk/wales/history/sites/themes/society/migration_italian.shtml. Retrieved 17 October 2009.
- ^ Interview with Mohammed Asghar AM
- ^ a b c d e f g h Dr John Davies (14 February 2003). "Census shows Welsh language rise Friday, 14 February 2003 extracted 12-04-07". BBC News. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/wales/2755217.stm. Retrieved 17 October 2009.
- ^ a b c "Census equality backed by Plaid 23 September 2000 extracted 12-04-07". BBC News. 23 September 2000. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/in_depth/uk_politics/2000/conferences/plaid_cymru/936077.stm. Retrieved 17 October 2009.
- ^ "Census results 'defy tick-box row' 30 September 2002 extracted 12-04-07". BBC News. 30 September 2002. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/wales/2288147.stm. Retrieved 17 October 2009.
- ^ Scottish Parliament's Review of Census Ethnicity Classifications Consultation: June 2005 extrated 7 April 2008
- ^ a b c "NSO article: 'Welsh' on Census form published 8 January 2004, extracted 7 April 2008". Statistics.gov.uk. 8 January 2004. http://www.statistics.gov.uk/cci/nugget.asp?id=449. Retrieved 17 October 2009.
- ^ a b Walesonline.co.uk Pioneering census questionnaire for Wales will help us shape the future published in Western Mail, 17 December 2009 (retrieved 17 October 2011)
- ^ ONS website 2011 Census questions – Wales (retrieved 17 October 2011)
- ^ a b c d e f "UK ONS Welsh National Identity published 8 January 2004, extracted 7 April 2008". Statistics.gov.uk. 8 January 2004. http://www.statistics.gov.uk/cci/nugget.asp?id=448. Retrieved 17 October 2009.
- ^ "CREST Minority Nationalism published 2001, extracted 14 July 2010". crest.ox.ac.uk. 2001. http://www.crest.ox.ac.uk/papers/p86.pdf. Retrieved 2010-07- 14.
- ^ "Apology over 'insults' to English, BBC Wales, 3 September 2001". BBC News. 19 January 2001. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/wales/1123782.stm. Retrieved 17 October 2009.
- ^ "UK: Wales Plaid calls for second home controls, BBC Wales, November 17, 1999". BBC News. 17 November 1999. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/wales/524419.stm. Retrieved 17 October 2009.
- ^ "Plaid plan 'protects' rural areas, BBC Wales, 19 June 2001". BBC News. 19 June 2001. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/wales/1397281.stm. Retrieved 17 October 2009.
- ^ "Oath of Allegiance (Welsh Language) (Hansard, 21 July 1966)". Hansard.millbanksystems.com. 21 July 1966. http://hansard.millbanksystems.com/commons/1966/jul/21/oath-of-allegiance-welsh-language. Retrieved 17 October 2009.
- ^ Davies (2008) p. 189
- ^ a b "Nineteenth Century Arrivals in Australia: ''University of Wales, Lampeter'' website. Retrieved 3 August 2006". Lamp.ac.uk. http://www.lamp.ac.uk/oz/hughes/welsh19.html. Retrieved 17 October 2009.
- ^ Welsh in Pennsylvania by Matthew S. Magda (1986), Commonwealth of Pennsylvania. From Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission. Retrieved 3 August 2006.
- ^ Welsh: Multicultural Canada. Retrieved 3 August 2006.[dead link]
- ^ "South America — Patagonia: ''BBC — Wales History.'' Retrieved 3 August 2006". BBC. Archived from the original on 13 June 2007. http://web.archive.org/web/20070613174806/http://www.bbc.co.uk/wales/history/sites/cag/pages/cag-patagonia.shtml. Retrieved 17 October 2009.
- ^ "Tiny US town's big Welsh heritage: ''BBC News,'' 20 July 2005. Retrieved 3 August 2006". BBC News. 20 July 2005. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/wales/south_west/4699459.stm. Retrieved 17 October 2009.
- ^ "Welsh History, The Welsh in North America, Utah". Ligtel.com. http://www.ligtel.com/~wales/waleshistory.html. Retrieved 17 October 2009.
- ^ "Welsh immigration from ''Te Ara, The Encyclopedia of New Zealand''. Retrieved 3 August 2003". Teara.govt.nz. 13 October 2009. http://www.teara.govt.nz/NewZealanders/NewZealandPeoples/Welsh/1/en. Retrieved 17 October 2009.
- ^ "Estimated from population of Wales from 2001 census (2,903,085Census 2001 Wales". Statistics.gov.uk. http://www.statistics.gov.uk/census2001/pyramids/pages/w.asp. Retrieved 17 October 2009.
- ^ "Was there an Indian tribe descended from Welsh explorers to America?". Straight Dope. 8 September 2006. http://www.straightdope.com/columns/060908.html. Retrieved 17 October 2009.
- ^ http://www.bbc.co.uk/wales/southeast/halloffame/historical_figures/john_hughes.shtml
Further reading[link]
- John Davies, A History of Wales, published 1990 by Penguin, ISBN 0-14-014581-8
- Norman Davies, The Isles, published 1991 by Papermac, ISBN 0-333-69283-7
- Gwyn A Williams, The Welsh in their History, published 1982 by Croom Helm, ISBN 0-7099-3651-6
- J.F. del Giorgio, The Oldest Europeans, published 2005 by A.J. Place, ISBN 980-6898-00-1
- Adrian Hastings, The Construction of Nationhood: Ethnicity, Religion, and Nationalism, published in 1997 by Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-62544-0
External links[link]
| Find more about Welsh people on Wikipedia's sister projects: | |
 |
Definitions and translations from Wiktionary |
 |
Images and media from Commons |
 |
Learning resources from Wikiversity |
 |
News stories from Wikinews |
 |
Quotations from Wikiquote |
 |
Source texts from Wikisource |
 |
Textbooks from Wikibooks |
- BBC Wales: Welsh Comings and Goings: The history of migration in and out of Wales
- BBC News report: The Numbers of Welsh (and Cornish)
- BBC News report: Genes link Celts to Basques
- BBC: The Welsh in Patagonia
- Glaniad – Welsh Settlements in Patagonia
- data-wales.co.uk: Emigration from Wales to America
- data-wales.co.uk: Why do so many Black Americans have Welsh names?
- Genetic data (1)
- Genetic data (2)
- Link2Wales: Encyclopedia of the alternative music scene in Wales
- A Y chromosome census of the British Isles
- data from paper displayed on map of British Isles[dead link]
- 418,000 write in 'Welsh' on 2001 Census form
- Gathering the Jewels – Welsh Heritage and Culture
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| Tegan and Sara | |
|---|---|
 Tegan and Sara performing at the 2010 Polaris Music Prize Ceremony |
|
| Background information | |
| Origin | Calgary, Alberta, Canada |
| Genres | Indie rock, new wave[1], indie pop, indie folk |
| Years active | 1995 (1995)–present |
| Labels | Vapor, Sanctuary, Sire |
| Website | teganandsara.com |
| Members | |
| Tegan Quin Sara Quin |
|
Tegan and Sara are a Canadian indie band[1] formed in 1995[2][3] in Calgary. Composed of identical twin sisters Tegan Rain Quin and Sara Keirsten Quin[4] (born September 19, 1980). Both Tegan and Sara play guitar and keyboard and write their songs.[5]
Contents |
History[link]
Tegan and Sara Quin were born September 19, 1980 in Calgary, Alberta. They began playing guitar and writing songs at age 15.[3] They initially played as Plunk without a drummer or bass player. In 1997, they used their school’s recording studio to record two demo albums: Who's in Your Band? and Play Day. In 1998, they won Calgary's Garage Warz competition, using the studio time they won to record their first professional demo, Yellow tape, which was followed by Orange tape and Red tape.
Two songs from Red tape appeared on their first album, Under Feet Like Ours, which they released independently in 1999 under the name "Sara and Tegan". They later changed their name to "Tegan and Sara" because it was easier to pronounce[6] and reprinted the album using that name. They also wanted their name to stand out amongst the other 'Sara' musicians at the time such as Sarah McLachlan and Sarah Slean. Tegan was easier to remember.[citation needed] Neil Young's manager signed them to Young's Vapor Records label, and they released This Business of Art through Vapor in 2000. They have toured extensively since then.
In 2002, the band released their third album If It Was You. Their fourth album, So Jealous, was released in 2004 and led to wider success. This album was released through both Vapor and Sanctuary. One track on the album, "Walking with a Ghost", was covered by The White Stripes, who released it on their Walking with a Ghost EP.[7]
Their 2007 album, The Con, was released by Vapor and Sire because Sanctuary chose to no longer release new music in the United States. The album was co-produced by Chris Walla. Jason McGerr of Death Cab for Cutie, Matt Sharp of The Rentals and previously Weezer, Hunter Burgan of AFI, and Kaki King all appear on the album.[8]
On October 27, 2009, Tegan and Sara released their sixth album Sainthood, produced by Chris Walla and Howard Redekopp, as well as a three-volume book set titled ON, IN, AT, which is a collection of stories, essays, journals, and photos of the band on tour in America in the fall of 2008, writing together in New Orleans, and touring Australia. The photographs in the book are by Lindsey Byrnes and Ryan Russell.[9] While recording Sainthood, Tegan and Sara spent a week writing songs together in New Orleans. The song "Paperback Head" appeared on the album, making it the first song on any Tegan and Sara album that they wrote together.[10] Spin magazine gave Sainthood four out of five stars and wrote, "Tegan and Sara's music may no longer be the stuff of teens, but its strength remains in how much it feels like two people talking."[11]
In 2011, they launched 2011: A Merch Odyssey, which sees the launch of at least one new item in the official online stores every month, all year long. A live CD/DVD combination package titled Get Along was released on November 15 and contains three films titled 'States', 'India' and 'For The Most Part'.
Tegan and Sara stated on their website that they would start recording their seventh studio album on February 20, 2012.
Tegan and Sara's seventh record is being produced by three different producers. So far the band has announced via twitter and their weekly youtube show that they have been recording six songs with Producer Greg Kurstin, Joey Waronker has contributed drums to these six songs and Sia stopped by the studio to contribute vocals to a song. Four more songs are being produced by Mike Elizondo, with Victor Indrizzo contributing drums, Josh Lopez contributing guitar and Dave Palmer contributing piano/keyboards.
Personal lives[link]
Both twins are openly gay.[12] Tegan lives in Vancouver, BC and Los Angeles, CA. Sara lives in Montreal, QC and New York, NY.[5]
Touring[link]
Tegan and Sara began touring after graduating from high school in 1998, traveling by car or Greyhound bus.[13] In 2000, they toured with Neil Young and The Pretenders. Other notable touring mates include Ryan Adams, Ben Folds, Gogol Bordello, Cake, City and Colour, Communiqué, Death Cab for Cutie, Hot Hot Heat, Kadawatha, The Killers, New Found Glory, Paramore, Rufus Wainwright, and Weezer.
Their onstage banter, including stories and commentary about their childhood, politics, and life on the road, has become an indispensable part of their live shows.
They have performed at festivals including Sarah McLachlan's Lilith Fair 1999, Coachella, Lollapalooza, SXSW 2005, Austin City Limits, Bonnaroo, Falls Festival, Sasquatch!, Cyndi Lauper's True Colors Tour 2008; Southbound 2009, Glastonbury, Lilith Fair, Sasquatch! 2010,Winnipeg Folk Festival 2011,[14] Newport Folk Festival 2011,Sasktel Saskatchewan Jazz Fest 2011, and Cisco Ottawa Bluesfest 2011.
In December 2010, Tegan and Sara supported Jack Johnson in New Zealand and Australia.
Other work[link]
In 2009, both Tegan and Sara worked as producers for the first time. Tegan worked with char2d2 on the 2009 Small Vampires EP, while Sara worked on 2010 debut albums for Fences and Hesta Prynn.[15]
Collaborations[link]
Tegan sang backing vocals on Rachael Cantu's "Saturday" from her Run All Night album, and in 2007 sang in Against Me!'s song "Borne on the FM Waves of the Heart." Sara sang in The Reason's song "We're So Beyond This", as well as appearing in the music video.
In April 2008, Tegan wrote and recorded a song titled "His Love" at the request of Augusten Burroughs as a contribution to the audio version of his book A Wolf at the Table. The two headlined Spin's September 2008 Liner Notes benefit for Housing Works, a New York non-profit.[16]
In addition to their own set, Tegan and Sara performed with DJ Tiësto during the Bonnaroo Music & Arts Festival on June 13, 2008. Tegan and Sara appeared as guests, providing live vocals for Tiësto's remix of "Back in Your Head".[17] Tegan and Sara also collaborated with Tiësto on the song "Feel It in My Bones" from his 2009 album Kaleidoscope and appeared in the music video for this song.
Tegan and Sara are featured on Margaret Cho's 2009 album Cho Dependent on the track "Intervention". They are also featured in Margaret's video for the song.
Tegan and Sara released an "Alligator" remix album on iTunes in 2010. Contributors included Doveman, Four Tet, Passion Pit, Ra Ra Riot, and VHS or Beta.
Sara is featured on rapper/songwriter/producer Theophilus London's track "Why Even Try" from his 2011 Lover's Holiday EP.
Both Tegan and Sara appear in Sara Bareilles' star-studded music video for her song "Uncharted". The video premiered in March 2011 and also features, amongst others, Josh Groban, Laura Jansen, Ingrid Michaelson, Pharell Williams, Adam Levine, Ben Folds, Keenan Cahill, Jennifer Nettles, and Vanessa Carlton.
Tegan sings with Jim Ward on his "Broken Songs."
Sara appeared on Jonathan Coulton's 2011 album Artificial Heart, providing vocals for the album's remake of the song Coulton wrote for Valve's game Portal, "Still Alive".
NOFX's song "Creeping Out Sara" is about the two sisters. During a live Q&A when asked what they thought of the song Sara answered, 'The song is called "Creeping Out Sara"; I am Sara, and I was creeped out.'
Sara appears in Kaki King's music video for "Pull Me out Alive."
Tegan sang on "Contrails" by rapper Astronautalis on his 2011 album This Is Our Science. She also appears in the music video.
Both Tegan and Sara perform in "Body Work" and "Video" on Morgan Page's 2012 album In the Air. They also appear in the music video for "Body Work".
| List of joint and solo collaborations | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Member(s) | Year | Collaborator(s) | Song | Album |
| Tegan & Sara | 2009 | Tiësto | "Feel It in My Bones"[18] | Kaleidoscope |
| Fucked Up | "Do They Know It's Christmas?"[19] | |||
| Margaret Cho | "Intervention" | Cho Dependent | ||
| 2012 | Morgan Page | "Body Work" | In the Air | |
| "Video" | ||||
| Tegan | 2005 | Vivek Shraya | "The Alphabet" | A Composite of Straight Lines |
| David Usher | "Hey Kids" | If God Had Curves | ||
| 2006 | Melissa Ferrick | "Never Give Up" | In the Eyes of Strangers | |
| Kinnie Starr | "La Le La La" | In the Eyes of Strangers | ||
| Rachael Cantu | "Saturday" | Run All Night | ||
| 2007 | Against Me! | "Borne on the FM Waves of the Heart" | New Wave | |
| 2008 | Alkaline Trio | "Wake Up Exhausted" | Agony & Irony | |
| 2009 | Jim Ward | "Broken Songs" | In The Valley, On The Shores EP | |
| Rachael Cantu | "Saturday" | Far And Wide | ||
| "Thieves and Their Hands" | ||||
| "Blue House Baby" | ||||
| 2011 | Astronautalis | "Contrails" | This Is Our Science | |
| Sara | 2007 | The Reason | "We're So Beyond This" | Things Couldn't Be Better |
| Ted Gowans and Kaki King | "Sweetness Follows" (R.E.M. cover) | Drive XV: A Tribute to Automatic for the People | ||
| Vivek Shraya | "Your Name" | If We're Not Talking | ||
| 2009 | Dragonette | "Okay Dolore" | Fixin to Thrill | |
| 2010 | Emm Gryner | "Top Speed" | Gem and I | |
| 2011 | Theophilus London | "Why Even Try" | Lovers Holiday | |
| Jonathan Coulton | "Still Alive" | Artificial Heart | ||
Television and film[link]
Tegan and Sara have appeared on American, Canadian, and European television shows, including Jimmy Kimmel Live (2005), Jonovision, The Late Late Show with Craig Kilborn (2004), Late Night with Conan O'Brien (2005, 2007, 2009), The Late Show with David Letterman (2000, 2008), The NewMusic, The Tonight Show with Jay Leno (2008), and ZeD.[14]
Tegan and Sara songs have been featured in the films Monster-in-Law, Sweet November, and These Girls, and in the television shows 90210, Being Erica, Ghost Whisperer, Grey's Anatomy, The Hills, Hollyoaks, jPod, The L Word, Life Unexpected, Melrose Place (2009 series), One Tree Hill, Parenthood, Rookie Blue, Vampire Diaries, Veronica Mars, Waterloo Road (2011) and What's New, Scooby-Doo?.
In 2006, Tegan and Sara performed in The L Word episode "Last Dance" (season 3, episode 11). In 2008, they appeared on the kids music television show Pancake Mountain where they acted in a skit and performed their songs "Back in Your Head", "Hop a Plane", and an acoustic version of "Walking with a Ghost".[20] In 2010, they appeared on CBC's Mamma Yamma, revising their single "Alligator" into a children's song.
In 2011, Sara Quin was a panelist on Canada Reads defending Jeff Lemire's graphic novel Essex County. The book, the first graphic novel to be featured as part of Canada Reads, was voted off after the first round.
Band members[link]
- Tegan Quin – vocals, guitar, keyboards
- Sara Quin – vocals, guitar, keyboards
- Backing musicians
- Ted Gowans – guitar, keyboards
- Former backing musicians
- Johnny "Five" Andrews – drums
- Shaun Huberts – bass guitar
- Dan Kelly – bass guitar
- Chris Carlson – bass guitar
- Rob Chursinoff – drums
Discography[link]
Main article: Tegan and Sara discography
 |
Book: Tegan and Sara |
| Wikipedia books are collections of articles that can be downloaded or ordered in print. | |
- Under Feet Like Ours (1999)
- This Business of Art (2000)
- If It Was You (2002)
- So Jealous (2004)
- The Con (2007)
- Sainthood (2009)
- Get Along - (Live Album/DVD) (2011)
Awards and nominations[link]
| Year | Nominated work | Award | Result |
|---|---|---|---|
| 2000 | — | YTV Band/Musical Group Achievement Award | Won |
| 2003 | If It Was You | Western Canadian Music Awards, Outstanding Pop Recording | Won |
| 2006 | So Jealous | Juno Awards Alternative Album of the Year | Nominated |
| 2007 | It's Not Fun Don't Do It | Juno Awards Music DVD of the Year | Nominated |
| 2008 | The Con | Juno Awards Alternative Album of the Year | Nominated |
| 2009 | "The Con" | Studio8 Song of August 2009 | Won |
| 2010 | Sainthood | Juno Awards Alternative Album of the Year | Nominated |
| 2010 | Sainthood | Polaris Music Prize | Nominated |
| 2010 | — | Western Canadian Music Awards, International Achievement Award | Won |
| 2011 | — | Indie Awards, Group or Duo of the Year | Nominated |
| 2012 | Get Along | Juno Awards Music DVD of the Year | Nominated |
References[link]
- Citations
- ^ a b "North of Northwest:Tegan And Sara". soundonthesound. September 11, 2010. http://www.soundonthesound.com/2010/09/11/north-of-northwest-tegan-and-sara/. Retrieved 12 April 2011.
- ^ "Columbus Arts Briefs". The Lantern (Ohio State University). November 16, 2007. http://media.www.thelantern.com/media/storage/paper333/news/2007/11/16/Arts/Columbus.Arts.Briefs-3107593.shtml. Retrieved 26 March 2010.
- ^ a b Gdula, Steve (November 21, 2000), "Double the power", The Advocate, http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=62MEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA80, retrieved March 13, 2010
- ^ Quin, Tegan; Quin, Sara (2009). AT. ON, IN, AT. p. 7.
- ^ a b Miller, Winter (May 4, 2008). "Songwriting Sisters and the Universe of What They Like". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2008/05/04/arts/music/04play.html?_r=1. Retrieved 30 January 2011.
- ^ Wagner, Vit (August 24, 2000). "Tegan and Sara are not 'entertainers': Unlike their popstar counterparts, the Calgarian twins write their own songs". Toronto Star: pp. WO.03. "And when we called ourselves Sara and Tegan, it didn't work because of they [sic?] way our names blended together. 'Sarandtegan.' So we switched to Tegan and Sara. [...] It was just easier to pronounce that way."
- ^ "Tegan & Sara Biography". AskMen.com. http://uk.askmen.com/women/singer_300/388c_tegan_and_sara.html. Retrieved 26 March 2010.
- ^ Foucart, Jon (February 22, 2007). "Tegan & Sara Update". AbsolutePunk. http://www.absolutepunk.net/showthread.php?t=215184. Retrieved 26 March 2010.
- ^ Quin, Tegan (September 11, 2009). "ON, IN, AT". Tegan and Sara. http://teganandsara.com/news/on-in-at-the-tegan-and-sara-books/. Retrieved 26 March 2010.
- ^ Eells, Josh (November 11, 2009). "Tegan and Sara: Across a Crowded Womb". Spin. http://www.spin.com/articles/tegan-and-sara-across-crowded-womb. Retrieved 26 March 2010.
- ^ Wood, Mikael. "Tegan and Sara, 'Sainthood' (Vapor/Sire)". Spin. http://www.spin.com/reviews/tegan-and-sara-sainthood-vaporsire. Retrieved 26 March 2010.
- ^ "Tegan and Sara on ABC news". YouTube. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QXMoInh7-Kc. Retrieved 2 May 2012.
- ^ Quin, Tegan (2010-01-28). "thoughts on home". Tegan and Sara. http://teganandsara.com/uncategorized/thoughts-on-home/. Retrieved 19 July 2010.
- ^ a b "Press Kit — Biography" (PDF). Tegan and Sara. http://teganandsara.com/presskit/TS_Biography_2009.pdf. Retrieved 11 February 2010.
- ^ Floyd, Mikela (January 11, 2010). "Northern State’s Hesta Prynn to Release Solo Material". Filter. http://filtermagazine.com/index.php/news/entry/northern_states_hesta_prynn_to_release_solo_material/. Retrieved 26 March 2010.
- ^ "Tegan Quin, Augusten Burroughs Co-Headline SPIN's 'Liner Notes' Event". Spin. July 21, 2008. http://www.spin.com/articles/tegan-quin-augusten-burroughs-co-headline-spins-liner-notes-event. Retrieved 26 March 2010.
- ^ Maddux, Rachel (June 15, 2008). "Bonnaroo 2008: Day 3". Paste. http://www.pastemagazine.com/blogs/festivus/2008/06/bonnaroo-2008-day-3.html. Retrieved 26 March 2010.
- ^ Dombal, Ryan (August 4, 2009). "Sigur Rós's Jónsi, Bloc Party's Kele Okereke on New Tiësto Album". Pitchfork Media. http://pitchfork.com/news/36120-sigur-ross-jonsi-bloc-partys-kele-okereke-on-new-tiesto-album/. Retrieved 26 March 2010.
- ^ Colly, Joe (December 11, 2009). "Fucked Up: 'Do They Know It's Christmas?'". Pitchfork Media. http://pitchfork.com/reviews/tracks/11683-do-they-know-its-christmas-ft-andrew-wk-ezra-koenig-david-cross-et-al/. Retrieved 26 March 2010.
- ^ Stuckey, Scott (December 6, 2007). "Pancake Mountain News Archives - 2007". Pancake Mountain. http://www.pancakemountain.com/news_2007.htm. Retrieved 2 January 2011.
External links[link]
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Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Tegan and Sara |
 |
Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Tegan and Sara |
- Tegan and Sara Official website
- Tegan and Sara's channel on YouTube
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| English | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Pronunciation | /ˈɪŋɡlɪʃ/[1] | |||
| Spoken in | (see below) | |||
| Native speakers | ca. 380 million (2001)[2] L2: ≈ 250 million (2001)[2] to ≈ 1.8 billion (2004)[3] |
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| Language family | ||||
| Writing system | English alphabet (Latin script) | |||
| Official status | ||||
| Official language in | 54 countries 27 non-sovereign entities United Nations European Union Commonwealth of Nations CoE NATO NAFTA OAS OIC PIF UKUSA |
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| Language codes | ||||
| ISO 639-1 | en | |||
| ISO 639-2 | eng | |||
| ISO 639-3 | eng | |||
| Linguasphere | 52-ABA | |||
Countries where English is an official or de facto official language, or national language, and is spoken fluently by the majority of the population
Countries where it is an official but not primary language
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English is a West Germanic language spoken originally in England, and is now the most widely used language in the world.[4] It is spoken as a first language by a majority of the inhabitants of several nations, including the United Kingdom, the United States, Canada, Australia, Ireland and New Zealand. It is the third most common native language in the world, after Mandarin Chinese and Spanish,[5] and the most commonly used as a second language; its total number of speakers – counting both native and non-native – exceeds those of any other language. English is an official language of the European Union, many Commonwealth countries and United Nations, as well as in many world organisations.
English arose in the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms of England and what is now south-east Scotland, but was then under the control of the kingdom of Northumbria. Following the extensive influence of Great Britain and the United Kingdom from the 18th century, via the British Empire, and of the United States since the mid-20th century,[6][7][8][9] it has been widely dispersed around the world, becoming the leading language of international discourse and the lingua franca in many regions.[10][11]
Historically, English originated from the fusion of closely related dialects, now collectively termed Old English, which were brought to the eastern coast of Great Britain by Germanic (Anglo-Saxon) settlers by the 5th century – with the word English being derived from the name of the Angles, and ultimately from their ancestral region of Angeln (in what is now Schleswig-Holstein).[12] A significant number of English words are constructed based on roots from Latin, because Latin in some form was the lingua franca of the Christian Church and of European intellectual life.[13] The language was further influenced by the Old Norse language due to Viking invasions in the 8th and 9th centuries.
The Norman conquest of England in the 11th century gave rise to heavy borrowings from Norman-French, and vocabulary and spelling conventions began to give the appearance of a close relationship with Romance languages[14][15] to what had then become Middle English. The Great Vowel Shift that began in the south of England in the 15th century is one of the historical events that mark the emergence of Modern English from Middle English.
Owing to the assimilation of words from many other languages throughout history, modern English contains a very large vocabulary. Modern English has not only assimilated words from other European languages but also from all over the world, including words of Hindi and African origin. The Oxford English Dictionary lists over 250,000 distinct words, not including many technical, scientific, and slang terms.[16][17]
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Significance[link]
See also: English-speaking world and Anglosphere
Modern English, sometimes described as the first global lingua franca,[18][19] is the dominant language or in some instances even the required international language of communications, science, information technology, business, seafaring,[20] aviation,[21] entertainment, radio and diplomacy.[22] Its spread beyond the British Isles began with the growth of the British Empire, and by the late 19th century its reach was truly global.[3] Following British colonisation from the 16th to 19th centuries, it became the dominant language in the United States, Canada, Australia and New Zealand. The growing economic and cultural influence of the US and its status as a global superpower since World War II have significantly accelerated the language's spread across the planet.[19] English replaced German as the dominant language of science Nobel Prize laureates during the second half of the 20th century.[23] English equalled and may have surpassed French as the dominant language of diplomacy during the last half of the 19th century.
A working knowledge of English has become a requirement in a number of fields, occupations and professions such as medicine and computing; as a consequence over a billion people speak English to at least a basic level (see English language learning and teaching). It is one of six official languages of the United Nations.[24]
One impact of the growth of English is the reduction of native linguistic diversity in many parts of the world. Its influence continues to play an important role in language attrition.[25] Conversely, the natural internal variety of English along with creoles and pidgins have the potential to produce new distinct languages from English over time.[26]
History[link]
Main article: History of the English language
English is a West Germanic language that originated from the Anglo-Frisian and Old Saxon dialects brought to Britain by Germanic settlers from various parts of what is now northwest Germany, Denmark and the Netherlands.[27] Up to that point, in Roman Britain the native population is assumed to have spoken the Celtic language Brythonic alongside the acrolectal influence of Latin, from the 400-year Roman occupation.[28]
One of these incoming Germanic tribes was the Angles,[29] who Bede believed to have relocated entirely to Britain.[30] The names 'England' (from Engla land[31] "Land of the Angles") and English (Old English Englisc[32]) are derived from the name of this tribe—but Saxons, Jutes and a range of Germanic peoples from the coasts of Frisia, Lower Saxony, Jutland and Southern Sweden also moved to Britain in this era.[33][34][35]
Initially, Old English was a diverse group of dialects, reflecting the varied origins of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms of Great Britain[36] but one of these dialects, Late West Saxon, eventually came to dominate, and it is in this that the poem Beowulf is written.
Old English was later transformed by two waves of invasion. The first was by speakers of the North Germanic language branch when Halfdan Ragnarsson and Ivar the Boneless started the conquering and colonisation of northern parts of the British Isles in the 8th and 9th centuries (see Danelaw). The second was by speakers of the Romance language Old Norman in the 11th century with the Norman conquest of England. Norman developed into Anglo-Norman, and then Anglo-French – and introduced a layer of words especially via the courts and government. As well as extending the lexicon with Scandinavian and Norman words these two events also simplified the grammar and transformed English into a borrowing language—more than normally open to accept new words from other languages.
The linguistic shifts in English following the Norman invasion produced what is now referred to as Middle English; Geoffrey Chaucer's The Canterbury Tales is its best-known work.
Throughout all this period Latin in some form was the lingua franca of European intellectual life, first the Medieval Latin of the Christian Church, but later the humanist Renaissance Latin, and those that wrote or copied texts in Latin[13] commonly coined new terms from Latin to refer to things or concepts for which there was no existing native English word.
Modern English, which includes the works of William Shakespeare[37] and the King James Bible, is generally dated from about 1550, and when the United Kingdom became a colonial power, English served as the lingua franca of the colonies of the British Empire. In the post-colonial period, some of the newly created nations which had multiple indigenous languages opted to continue using English as the lingua franca to avoid the political difficulties inherent in promoting any one indigenous language above the others. As a result of the growth of the British Empire, English was adopted in North America, India, Africa, Australia and many other regions, a trend extended with the emergence of the United States as a superpower in the mid-20th century.
Classification and related languages[link]
The English language belongs to the Anglo-Frisian sub-group of the West Germanic branch of the Germanic family, a member of the Indo-European languages. Modern English is the direct descendant of Middle English, itself a direct descendant of Old English, a descendant of Proto-Germanic. Typical of most Germanic languages, English is characterised by the use of modal verbs, the division of verbs into strong and weak classes, and common sound shifts from Proto-Indo-European known as Grimm's Law. The closest living relatives of English are Scots (spoken primarily in Scotland and parts of Northern Ireland where Ulster Scots is spoken) and Frisian (spoken on the southern fringes of the North Sea in Denmark, the Netherlands, and Germany).
After Scots and Frisian come those Germanic languages that are more distantly related: the non-Anglo-Frisian West Germanic languages (Dutch, Afrikaans, Low German, High German), and the North Germanic languages (Swedish, Danish, Norwegian, Icelandic, and Faroese). With the (partial) exception of Scots, none of the other languages is mutually intelligible with English, owing in part to the divergences in lexis, syntax, semantics, and phonology, and to the isolation afforded to the English language by the British Isles, although some, such as Dutch, do show strong affinities with English, especially to earlier stages of the language. Isolation has allowed English and Scots (as well as Icelandic and Faroese) to develop independently of the Continental Germanic languages and their influences over time.[38]
In addition to isolation, lexical differences between English and other Germanic languages exist due to heavy borrowing in English of words from Latin and French. For example, compare "exit" (Latin), vs. Dutch uitgang, literally "out-going" (though outgang survives dialectally in restricted usage) and "change" (French) vs. German Änderung (literally "alteration, othering"); "movement" (French) vs. German Bewegung ("be-way-ing", i.e. "proceeding along the way"); etc. Preference of one synonym over another also causes differentiation in lexis, even where both words are Germanic, as in English care vs. German Sorge. Both words descend from Proto-Germanic *karō and *surgō respectively, but *karō has become the dominant word in English for "care" while in German, Dutch, and Scandinavian languages, the *surgō root prevailed. *Surgō still survives in English, however, as sorrow.
Despite extensive lexical borrowing, the workings of the English language are resolutely Germanic, and English remains classified as a Germanic language due to its structure and grammar. Borrowed words get incorporated into a Germanic system of conjugation, declension, and syntax, and behave exactly as though they were native Germanic words from Old English (For example, the word reduce is borrowed from Latin redūcere; however, in English one says "I reduce - I reduced - I will reduce" rather than "redūcō - redūxī - redūcam"; likewise, we say: "John's life insurance company" (cf. Dutch "Johns levensverzekeringsmaatschappij" [= leven (life) + verzekering (insurance) + maatschappij (company)] rather than "the company of insurance life of John", cf. the French: la compagnie d'assurance-vie de John). Furthermore, in English, all basic grammatical particles added to nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs are Germanic. For nouns, these include the normal plural marker -s/-es (apple - apples; cf. Frisian appel - appels; Dutch appel - appels; Afrikaans appel - appels), and the possessive markers -'s (Brad's hat; German Brads Hut; Danish Brads hat) and -s' . For verbs, these include the third person present ending -s/-es (e.g. he stands/he reaches ), the present participle ending -ing (cf. Dutch -ende; German -end(e)), the simple past tense and past participle ending -ed (Swedish -ade/-ad), and the formation of the English infinitive using to (e.g. "to drive"; cf. Old English tō drīfenne; Dutch te drijven; Low German to drieven; German zu treiben). Adverbs generally receive an -ly ending (cf. German -lich; Swedish -ligt), and adjectives and adverbs are inflected for the comparative and superlative using -er and -est (e.g. hard/harder/hardest; cf. Dutch hard/harder/hardst), or through a combination with more and most. These particles append freely to all English words regardless of origin (tsunamis; communicates; to buccaneer; during; calmer; bizarrely) and all derive from Old English. Even the lack or absence of affixes, known as zero or null (-Ø) affixes, derive from endings which previously existed in Old English (usually -e, -a, -u, -o, -an, etc.), that later weakened to -e, and have since ceased to be pronounced and spelt (e.g. Modern English "I sing" = I sing-Ø < I singe < Old English ic singe; "we thought" = we thought-Ø < we thoughte(n) < Old English wē þōhton).
Due to the Viking colonisation and influence of Old Norse upon Middle English, English syntax follows a pattern similar to that of North Germanic languages (Danish, Swedish, Icelandic, etc.) in contrast to other West Germanic languages, such as Dutch and German. This is especially evident in the order and placement of verbs. For example, English "I will never see you again" = Danish "Jeg vil aldrig se dig igen"; Icelandic "Ég mun aldrei sjá þig aftur", whereas in Dutch and German the main verb is placed at the end (e.g. Dutch "Ik zal je nooit weer zien"; German "Ich werde dich nie wieder sehen", literally, "I will you never again see"). This is also observable in perfect tense constructions, as in English "I have never seen anything in the square" = Danish "Jeg har aldrig set noget på torvet"; Icelandic "Ég hef aldrei séð neitt á torginu", where Dutch and German place the past participle at the end (e.g. Dutch "Ik heb nooit iets op het plein gezien"; German "Ich habe nie etwas auf dem Platz gesehen", literally, "I have never anything in the square seen"). As in most Germanic languages, English adjectives usually come before the noun they modify, even when the adjective is of Latinate origin (e.g. medical emergency, national treasure). Also, English continues to make extensive use of self-explaining compounds (e.g. streetcar, classroom), and nouns which serve as modifiers (e.g. lamp post, life insurance company), traits inherited from Old English (See also Kenning).
The kinship with other Germanic languages can also be seen in the tensing of English verbs (e.g. English fall/fell/fallen/will or shall fall, West Frisian fal/foel/fallen/sil falle, Dutch vallen/viel/gevallen/zullen vallen, German fallen/fiel/gefallen/werden fallen, Norwegian faller/falt/falt or falne/vil or skal falle), the comparatives of adjectives and adverbs (e.g. English good/better/best, West Frisian goed/better/best, Dutch goed/beter/best, German gut/besser/best), the treatment of nouns (English shoemaker, shoemaker's, shoemakers, shoemakers'; Dutch schoenmaker, schoenmakers, schoenmakers, schoenmakeren; Swedish skomakare, skomakares, skomakare, skomakares), and the large amount of cognates (e.g. English wet, Scots weet, West Frisian wiet, Swedish våt; English send, Dutch zenden, German senden; English meaning, Swedish mening, Icelandic meining, etc.). It also gives rise to false friends (e.g. English time vs Norwegian time, meaning "hour"; English gift vs German Gift, meaning "poison"), while differences in phonology can obscure words that really are related (tooth vs. German Zahn; compare also Danish tand). Sometimes both semantics and phonology are different (German Zeit ("time") is related to English "tide", but the English word, through a transitional phase of meaning "period"/"interval", has come primarily to mean gravitational effects on the ocean by the moon, though the original meaning is preserved in forms like tidings and betide, and phrases such as to tide over).[citation needed]
Many North Germanic words entered English due to the settlement of Viking raiders and Danish invasions which began around the 9th century (see Danelaw). Many of these words are common words, often mistaken for being native, which shows how close-knit the relations between the English and the Scandinavian settlers were (See below: Old Norse origins). Dutch and Low German also had a considerable influence on English vocabulary, contributing common everyday terms and many nautical and trading terms (See below: Dutch and Low German origins).
Finally, English has been forming compound words and affixing existing words separately from the other Germanic languages for over 1500 years and has different habits in that regard. For instance, abstract nouns in English may be formed from native words by the suffixes "‑hood", "-ship", "-dom" and "-ness". All of these have cognate suffixes in most or all other Germanic languages, but their usage patterns have diverged, as German "Freiheit" vs. English "freedom" (the suffix "-heit" being cognate of English "-hood", while English "-dom" is cognate with German "-tum"; compare also North Frisian fridoem, Dutch vrijdom, Norwegian fridom, "freedom"). The Germanic languages Icelandic and Faroese also follow English in this respect, since, like English, they developed independent of German influences.
Many French words are also intelligible to an English speaker, especially when they are seen in writing (as pronunciations are often quite different), because English absorbed a large vocabulary from Norman and French, via Anglo-Norman after the Norman Conquest, and directly from French in subsequent centuries. As a result, a large portion of English vocabulary is derived from French, with some minor spelling differences (e.g. inflectional endings, use of old French spellings, lack of diacritics, etc.), as well as occasional divergences in meaning of so-called false friends: for example, compare "library" with the French librairie, which means bookstore; in French, the word for "library" is bibliothèque. The pronunciation of most French loanwords in English (with the exception of a handful of more recently borrowed words such as mirage, genre, café; or phrases like coup d’état, rendez-vous, etc.) has become largely anglicised and follows a typically English phonology and pattern of stress (compare English "nature" vs. French nature, "button" vs. bouton, "table" vs. table, "hour" vs. heure, "reside" vs. résider, etc.).
Geographical distribution[link]
Pie chart showing the relative numbers of native English speakers in the major English-speaking countries of the world
US (57.3%)
UK (16.3%)
Canada (4.9%)
Australia (4.1%)
Nigeria (1.1%)
Ireland (1%)
South Africa (1%)
New Zealand (1%)
Other (13.3%)
Approximately 375 million people speak English as their first language.[39] English today is probably the third largest language by number of native speakers, after Mandarin Chinese and Spanish.[5][40] However, when combining native and non-native speakers it is probably the most commonly spoken language in the world, though possibly second to a combination of the Chinese languages (depending on whether or not distinctions in the latter are classified as "languages" or "dialects").[41][42]
Estimates that include second language speakers vary greatly from 470 million to over a billion depending on how literacy or mastery is defined and measured.[43][44] Linguistics professor David Crystal calculates that non-native speakers now outnumber native speakers by a ratio of 3 to 1.[45]
The countries with the highest populations of native English speakers are, in descending order: the United States (215 million),[46] the United Kingdom (61 million),[47] Canada (18.2 million),[48] Australia (15.5 million),[49] Nigeria (4 million),[50] Ireland (3.8 million),[47] South Africa (3.7 million),[51] and New Zealand (3.6 million) in a 2006 Census.[52]
Countries such as the Philippines, Jamaica and Nigeria also have millions of native speakers of dialect continua ranging from an English-based creole to a more standard version of English. Of those nations where English is spoken as a second language, India has the most such speakers ('Indian English'). Crystal claims that, combining native and non-native speakers, India now has more people who speak or understand English than any other country in the world.[53][54]
Countries in order of total speakers[link]
| Country | Total | Percent of population | First language | As an additional language | Population | Comment | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| United States | 251,388,301 | 96% | 215,423,557 | 35,964,744 | 262,375,152 | Source: US Census 2000: Language Use and English-Speaking Ability: 2000, Table 1. Figure for second language speakers are respondents who reported they do not speak English at home but know it "very well" or "well". Note: figures are for population age 5 and older | |
| India | 125,344,736 | 12% | 226,449 | 86,125,221 second language speakers. 38,993,066 third language speakers |
1,028,737,436 | Figures include both those who speak English as a second language and those who speak it as a third language. 2001 figures.[55][56] The figures include English speakers, but not English users.[57] | |
| Nigeria | 79,000,000 | 53% | 4,000,000 | >75,000,000 | 148,000,000 | Figures are for speakers of Nigerian Pidgin, an English-based pidgin or creole. Ihemere gives a range of roughly 3 to 5 million native speakers; the midpoint of the range is used in the table. Ihemere, Kelechukwu Uchechukwu. 2006. "A Basic Description and Analytic Treatment of Noun Clauses in Nigerian Pidgin." Nordic Journal of African Studies 15(3): 296–313. | |
| United Kingdom | 59,600,000 | 98% | 58,100,000 | 1,500,000 | 60,000,000 | Source: Crystal (2005), p. 109. | |
| Philippines | 48,800,000 | 58%[58] | 3,427,000[58] | 43,974,000 | 84,566,000 | Total speakers: Census 2000, text above Figure 7. 63.71% of the 66.7 million people aged 5 years or more could speak English. Native speakers: Census 1995, as quoted by Andrew González in The Language Planning Situation in the Philippines, Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 19 (5&6), 487–525. (1998). Ethnologue lists 3.4 million native speakers with 52% of the population speaking it as an additional language.[58] | |
| Canada | 25,246,220 | 85% | 17,694,830 | 7,551,390 | 29,639,030 | Source: 2001 Census – Knowledge of Official Languages and Mother Tongue. The native speakers figure comprises 122,660 people with both French and English as a mother tongue, plus 17,572,170 people with English and not French as a mother tongue. | |
| Australia | 18,172,989 | 92% | 15,581,329 | 2,591,660 | 19,855,288 | Source: 2006 Census.[59] The figure shown in the first language English speakers column is actually the number of Australian residents who speak only English at home. The additional language column shows the number of other residents who claim to speak English "well" or "very well". Another 5% of residents did not state their home language or English proficiency. | |
| Note: Total = First language + Other language; Percentage = Total / Population | |||||||
Countries where English is a major language[link]
Main article: List of countries where English is an official language
English is the primary language in Anguilla, Antigua and Barbuda, Australia, the Bahamas, Barbados, Belize, Bermuda, the British Indian Ocean Territory, the British Virgin Islands, Canada, the Cayman Islands, Dominica, the Falkland Islands, Gibraltar, Grenada, Guam, Guernsey, Guyana, Ireland, the Isle of Man, Jamaica, Jersey, Montserrat, Nauru, New Zealand, Pitcairn Islands, Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Singapore, South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands, Trinidad and Tobago, the Turks and Caicos Islands, the United Kingdom and the United States.
In some countries where English is not the most spoken language, it is an official language; these countries include Botswana, Cameroon, the Federated States of Micronesia, Fiji, Gambia, Ghana, India, Kenya, Kiribati, Lesotho, Liberia, Madagascar, Malta, the Marshall Islands, Mauritius, Namibia, Nigeria, Pakistan, Palau, Papua New Guinea, the Philippines (Philippine English), Rwanda, Saint Lucia, Samoa, Seychelles, Sierra Leone, the Solomon Islands, Sri Lanka, Sudan, South Sudan, Swaziland, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia, and Zimbabwe. Also there are countries where in a part of the territory English became a co-official language, e.g. Colombia's San Andrés y Providencia and Nicaragua's Mosquito Coast. This was a result of the influence of British colonisation in the area.
It is also one of the 11 official languages that are given equal status in South Africa (South African English). English is also the official language in current dependent territories of Australia (Norfolk Island, Christmas Island and Cocos Island) and of the United States (American Samoa, Guam, Northern Mariana Islands, Puerto Rico, and the US Virgin Islands),[60] and the former British colony of Hong Kong. (See List of countries where English is an official language for more details.)
English is not an official language in the United States.[61] Although the United States federal government has no official languages, English has been given official status by 30 of the 50 state governments.[62] Although falling short of official status, English is also an important language in several former colonies and protectorates of the United Kingdom, such as Bahrain, Bangladesh, Brunei, Cyprus, Malaysia, and the United Arab Emirates.
English as a global language[link]
See also: English in computing, International English, World language, and English as a foreign or second language
Because English is so widely spoken, it has often been referred to as a "world language", the lingua franca of the modern era,[19] and while it is not an official language in most countries, it is currently the language most often taught as a foreign language. Some linguists believe that it is no longer the exclusive cultural property of "native English speakers", but is rather a language that is absorbing aspects of cultures worldwide as it continues to grow.[19] It is, by international treaty, the official language for aerial and maritime communications.[63] English is an official language of the United Nations and many other international organisations, including the International Olympic Committee.
English is the language most often studied as a foreign language in the European Union, by 89% of schoolchildren, ahead of French at 32%, while the perception of the usefulness of foreign languages amongst Europeans is 68% in favour of English ahead of 25% for French.[64] Among some non-English-speaking EU countries, a large percentage of the adult population claims to be able to converse in English – in particular: 85% in Sweden, 83% in Denmark, 79% in the Netherlands, 66% in Luxembourg and over 50% in Finland, Slovenia, Austria, Belgium, and Germany.[65]
Books, magazines, and newspapers written in English are available in many countries around the world, and English is the most commonly used language in the sciences[19] with Science Citation Index reporting as early as 1997 that 95% of its articles were written in English, even though only half of them came from authors in English-speaking countries.
This increasing use of the English language globally has had a large impact on many other languages, leading to language shift and even language death,[66] and to claims of linguistic imperialism.[67] English itself is now open to language shift as multiple regional varieties feed back into the language as a whole.[67]
Dialects and varieties[link]
Main article: List of dialects of the English language
English has been subject to a large degree of regional dialect variation for many centuries. Its global spread now means that a large number of dialects and English-based creole languages and pidgins can be found all over the world.
Several educated native dialects of English have wide acceptance as standards in much of the world. In the United Kingdom much emphasis is placed on Received Pronunciation, an educated dialect of South East England. General American, which is spread over most of the United States and much of Canada, is more typically the model for the American continents and areas (such as the Philippines) that have had either close association with the United States, or a desire to be so identified. In Oceania, the major native dialect of Australian English is spoken as a first language by the vast majority of the inhabitants of the Australian continent, with General Australian serving as the standard accent. The English of neighbouring New Zealand as well as that of South Africa have to a lesser degree been influential native varieties of the language.
Aside from these major dialects, there are numerous other varieties of English, which include, in most cases, several subvarieties, such as Cockney, Scouse and Geordie within British English; Newfoundland English within Canadian English; and African American Vernacular English ("Ebonics") and Southern American English within American English. English is a pluricentric language, without a central language authority like France's Académie française; and therefore no one variety is considered "correct" or "incorrect" except in terms of the expectations of the particular audience to which the language is directed.
Scots has its origins in early Northern Middle English[68] and developed and changed during its history with influence from other sources. However, following the Acts of Union 1707 a process of language attrition began, whereby successive generations adopted more and more features from Standard English. Whether Scots is now a separate language or is better described as a dialect of English (i.e. part of Scottish English) is in dispute, although the UK government accepts Scots as a regional language and has recognised it as such under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages.[69] There are a number of regional dialects of Scots, and pronunciation, grammar and lexis of the traditional forms differ, sometimes substantially, from other varieties of English.
English speakers have many different accents, which often signal the speaker's native dialect or language. For the most distinctive characteristics of regional accents, see Regional accents of English, and for a complete list of regional dialects, see List of dialects of the English language. Within England, variation is now largely confined to pronunciation rather than grammar or vocabulary. At the time of the Survey of English Dialects, grammar and vocabulary differed across the country, but a process of lexical attrition has led most of this variation to die out.[70]
Just as English itself has borrowed words from many different languages over its history, English loanwords now appear in many languages around the world, indicative of the technological and cultural influence of its speakers. Several pidgins and creole languages have been formed on an English base, such as Jamaican Patois, Nigerian Pidgin, and Tok Pisin. There are many words in English coined to describe forms of particular non-English languages that contain a very high proportion of English words.
Formal written English[link]
Main article: Formal written English
A version of the language almost universally agreed upon by educated English speakers around the world is called formal written English. It takes virtually the same form regardless of where it is written, in contrast to spoken English, which differs significantly between dialects, accents, and varieties of slang and of colloquial and regional expressions. Local variations in the formal written version of the language are quite limited, being restricted largely to minor spelling, lexical and grammatical differences between British, American, and other national varieties of English.
Simplified and constructed varieties[link]
Artificially simplified versions of the language have been created that are easier for non-native speakers to read. Basic English is a constructed language with a restricted number of words created by Charles Kay Ogden and described in his book Basic English: A General Introduction with Rules and Grammar (1930). Ogden said that it would take seven years to learn English, seven months for Esperanto, and seven weeks for Basic English.[citation needed] Thus, Basic English may be employed by companies that need to make complex books for international use, as well as by language schools that need to impart some knowledge of English in a short time.
Ogden did not include any words in Basic English that could be said instead with a combination of other words already in the Basic English lexicon, and he worked to make the vocabulary suitable for speakers of any other language. He put his vocabulary selections through a large number of tests and adjustments. Ogden also simplified the grammar but tried to keep it normal for English users. Although it was not built into a program, similar simplifications were devised for various international uses.
Simplified English is a controlled language originally developed for aerospace industry maintenance manuals. It employs a carefully limited and standardised[71] subset of English. Simplified English has a lexicon of approved words and those words can only be used in certain ways. For example, the word close can be used in the phrase "Close the door" but not "do not go close to the landing gear".
Other constructed varieties of English include:
- E-Prime excludes forms of the verb to be.
- English reform is an attempt to improve collectively upon the English language.
- Manually Coded English consists of a variety of systems that have been developed to represent the English language with hand signals, designed primarily for use in deaf education. These should not be confused with true sign languages such as British Sign Language and American Sign Language used in Anglophone countries, which are independent and not based on English.
- Seaspeak and the related Airspeak and PoliceSpeak, all based on restricted vocabularies, were designed by Edward Johnson starting from the 1980s to aid international cooperation and communication in specific areas.
- Special English is a simplified version of English used by the Voice of America. It uses a vocabulary of only 1500 words.
Phonology[link]
Main article: English phonology
The phonology (sound system) of English differs between dialects. The descriptions below are most closely applicable to the standard varieties known as Received Pronunciation (RP) and General American. For information concerning a range of other varieties, see IPA chart for English dialects.
Consonants[link]
The table below shows the system of consonant phonemes that functions in most major varieties of English. The symbols are from the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA), and are also used in the pronunciation keys of many dictionaries. For more detailed information see English phonology: Consonants.
| Bilabial | Labio- dental |
Dental | Alveolar | Post- alveolar |
Palatal | Velar | Labial- velar |
Glottal | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nasal | m | n | ŋ | ||||||
| Plosive | p b | t d | k ɡ | ||||||
| Affricate | tʃ dʒ | ||||||||
| Fricative | f v | θ ð | s z | ʃ ʒ | (x) | h | |||
| Approximant | r | j | w | ||||||
| Lateral | l |
Where consonants are given in pairs (as with "p b"), the first is voiceless, the second is voiced. Most of the symbols represent the same sounds as they normally do when used as letters (see Writing system below), but /j/ represents the initial sound of yacht. The symbol /ʃ/ represents the sh sound, /ʒ/ the middle sound of vision, /tʃ/ the ch sound, /dʒ/ the sound of j in jump, /θ/ and /ð/ the th sounds in thing and this respectively, and /ŋ/ the ng sound in sing. The voiceless velar fricative /x/ is not a regular phoneme in most varieties of English, although it is used by some speakers in Scots/Gaelic words such as loch or in other loanwords such as Chanukah.
Some of the more significant variations in the pronunciation of consonants are these:
- In non-rhotic accents such as Received Pronunciation and Australian English, /r/ can only appear before a vowel (so there is no "r" sound in words like card). The actual pronunciation of /r/ varies between dialects; most common is the alveolar approximant [ɹ].
- In North American English and Australian English, /t/ and /d/ are flapped [ɾ] in many positions between vowels.[72] This means that word pairs such as latter and ladder may become homophones for speakers of these dialects.
- The th sounds /θ/ and /ð/ are sometimes pronounced as /f/ and /v/ in Cockney, and as dental plosives (contrasting with the usual alveolar plosives) in some Irish varieties. In African American Vernacular English, /ð/ has merged with dental /d/.
- A voiceless w, [ʍ], sometimes written /hw/, for the wh in words like when and which, is preserved in Scottish and Irish English and by some speakers elsewhere.
- The voiceless plosives /p/, /t/ and /k/ are frequently aspirated, particularly at the start of stressed syllables, but they are not aspirated after an initial /s/, as in spin.
Vowels[link]
The system of vowel phonemes and their pronunciation is subject to significant variation between dialects. The table below lists the vowels found in Received Pronunciation (RP) and General American, with examples of words in which they occur. The vowels are represented with symbols from the International Phonetic Alphabet; those given for RP are in relatively standard use in British dictionaries and other publications. For more detailed information see English phonology: Vowels.
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Some points to note:
- For words which in RP have /ɒ/, most North American dialects have /ɑ/ (as in the example of box above) or /ɔ/ (as in cloth). However some North American varieties do not have the vowel /ɔ/ at all (except before /r/); see cot–caught merger.
- In General American and some other rhotic accents, the combination of vowel+/r/ is often realized as an r-colored vowel. For example, butter /ˈbʌtər/ is pronounced with an r-colored schwa, [ɚ]. Similarly nurse contains the r-colored vowel [ɝ].
- The vowel conventionally written /ʌ/ is actually pronounced more centrally, as [ɐ], in RP. In the northern half of England this vowel is replaced by /ʊ/ (so cut rhymes with put).
- In unstressed syllables there may or may not be a distinction between /ə/ (schwa) and /ɪ/ (/ɨ/). So for some speakers there is no difference between roses and Rosa's. For more information see Reduced vowels in English.
- The diphthongs /eɪ/ and /əʊ/ (/oʊ/) tend towards the monophthongal pronunciations [eː] and [oː] in some dialects, including Canadian, Scottish, Irish and Northern English.
- In parts of North America /aɪ/ is pronounced [ʌɪ] before voiceless consonants. This is particularly true in Canada, where also /aʊ/ is pronounced [ʌʊ] in this position. See Canadian raising.
- The sound /ʊə/ is coming to be replaced by /ɔː/ in many words; for example, sure is often pronounced like shore. See English-language vowel changes before historic r.
Stress, rhythm and intonation[link]
English is a strongly stressed language, in which stress is said to be phonemic, i.e. capable of distinguishing words (such as the noun increase, stressed on the first syllable, and the verb increase, stressed on the second syllable; see also Initial-stress-derived noun). In almost any word of more than one syllable there will be one syllable identified as taking the primary stress, and possibly another taking a secondary stress, as in civilization /ˌsɪvəlaɪˈzeɪʃn̩/, in which the first syllable carries secondary stress, the fourth syllable carries primary stress, and the other syllables are unstressed.[73]
Closely related to stress in English is the process of vowel reduction; for example, in the noun contract the first syllable is stressed and contains the vowel /ɒ/ (in RP), whereas in the verb contract the first syllable is unstressed and its vowel is reduced to /ə/ (schwa).[74] The same process applies to certain common function words like of, which are pronounced with different vowels depending on whether or not they are stressed within the sentence. For more details, see Reduced vowels in English.
English also has strong prosodic stress – the placing of additional emphasis within a sentence on the words to which a speaker wishes to draw attention, and corresponding weaker pronunciation of less important words. As regards rhythm, English is classed as a stress-timed language – one in which there is a tendency for the time intervals between stressed syllables to become equal, with corresponding faster pronunciation of groups of unstressed syllables.
As concerns intonation, the pitch of the voice is used syntactically in English; for example, to convey surprise or irony, or to change a statement into a question. Most dialects of English use falling pitch for definite statements, and rising pitch to express uncertainty, as in questions (particularly yes-no questions). There is also a characteristic change of pitch on strongly stressed syllables, particularly on the "nuclear" (most strongly stressed) syllable in a sentence or intonation group. For more details see Intonation (linguistics): Intonation in English.
Grammar[link]
Main article: English grammar
English grammar has minimal inflection compared with most other Indo-European languages. For example, Modern English, unlike Modern German or Dutch and the Romance languages, lacks grammatical gender and adjectival agreement. Case marking has almost disappeared from the language and mainly survives in pronouns. The patterning of strong (e.g. speak/spoke/spoken) versus weak verbs (e.g. love/loved or kick/kicked) inherited from its Germanic origins has declined in importance in modern English, and the remnants of inflection (such as plural marking) have become more regular.
At the same time, the language has become more analytic, and has developed features such as modal verbs and word order as resources for conveying meaning. Auxiliary verbs mark constructions such as questions, negative polarity, the passive voice and progressive aspect.
Vocabulary[link]
The English vocabulary has changed considerably over the centuries.[75]
Like many languages deriving from Proto-Indo-European (PIE), many of the most common words in English can trace back their origin (through the Germanic branch) to PIE. Such words include the basic pronouns I, from Old English ic, (cf. German Ich, Gothic ik, Latin ego, Greek ego, Sanskrit aham), me (cf. German mich, mir, Gothic mik, mīs, Latin mē, Greek eme, Sanskrit mam), numbers (e.g. one, two, three, cf. Dutch een, twee, drie, Gothic ains, twai, threis (þreis), Latin ūnus, duo, trēs, Greek oinos "ace (on dice)", duo, treis), common family relationships such as mother, father, brother, sister etc. (cf. Dutch moeder, Greek meter, Latin mater, Sanskrit matṛ; mother), names of many animals (cf. German Maus, Dutch muis, Sanskrit mus, Greek mus, Latin mūs; mouse), and many common verbs (cf. Old High German knājan, Old Norse kná, Greek gignōmi, Latin gnoscere, Hittite kanes; to know).
Germanic words (generally words of Old English or to a lesser extent Old Norse origin) tend to be shorter than Latinate words, and are more common in ordinary speech, and include nearly all the basic pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, modal verbs etc. that form the basis of English syntax and grammar. The shortness of the words is generally due to syncope in Middle English (e.g. OldEng hēafod > ModEng head, OldEng sāwol > ModEng soul) and to the loss of final syllables due to stress (e.g. OldEng gamen > ModEng game, OldEng ǣrende > ModEng errand), not because Germanic words are inherently shorter than Latinate words (the lengthier, higher-register words of Old English were largely forgotten following the subjugation of English after the Norman Conquest, and most of the Old English lexis devoted to literature, the arts, and sciences ceased to be productive when it fell into disuse. Only the shorter, more direct, words of Old English tended to pass into the Modern language.) Consequently, those words which tend to be regarded as elegant or educated in Modern English are usually Latinate. However, the excessive use of Latinate words is considered at times to be either pretentious or an attempt to obfuscate an issue. George Orwell's essay "Politics and the English Language", considered an important scrutinisation of the English language, is critical of this, as well as other perceived misuses of the language.
An English speaker is in many cases able to choose between Germanic and Latinate synonyms: come or arrive; sight or vision; freedom or liberty. In some cases, there is a choice between a Germanic derived word (oversee), a Latin derived word (supervise), and a French word derived from the same Latin word (survey); or even Germanic words derived from Norman French (e.g., warranty) and Parisian French (guarantee), and even choices involving multiple Germanic and Latinate sources are possible: sickness (Old English), ill (Old Norse), infirmity (French), affliction (Latin). Such synonyms harbour a variety of different meanings and nuances. Yet the ability to choose between multiple synonyms is not a consequence of French and Latin influence, as this same richness existed in English prior to the extensive borrowing of French and Latin terms. Old English was extremely resourceful in its ability to express synonyms and shades of meaning on its own, in many respects rivaling or exceeding that of Modern English (synonyms numbering in the thirties for certain concepts were not uncommon). Take for instance the various ways to express the word "astronomer" or "astrologer" in Old English: tunglere, tungolcræftiga, tungolwītega, tīdymbwlātend, tīdscēawere.[76] In Modern English, however, the roles of such synonyms have largely been replaced by equivalents taken from Latin, French, and Greek, as English has taken the position of a diminished reliance upon native elements and resources for the creation of new words and terminologies. Familiarity with the etymology of groups of synonyms can give English speakers greater control over their linguistic register. See: List of Germanic and Latinate equivalents in English, Doublet (linguistics).
An exception to this and a peculiarity perhaps unique to a handful of languages, English included, is that the nouns for meats are commonly different from, and unrelated to, those for the animals from which they are produced, the animal commonly having a Germanic name and the meat having a French-derived one. Examples include: deer and venison; cow and beef; swine/pig and pork; and sheep/lamb and mutton. This is assumed to be a result of the aftermath of the Norman conquest of England, where an Anglo-Norman-speaking elite were the consumers of the meat, produced by lower classes, which happened to be largely Anglo-Saxon, though this same duality can also be seen in other languages like French, which did not undergo such linguistic upheaval (e.g. boeuf "beef" vs. vache "cow"). With the exception of beef and pork, the distinction today is gradually becoming less and less pronounced (venison is commonly referred to simply as deer meat, mutton is lamb, and chicken is both the animal and the meat over the more traditional term poultry. (Use of the term mutton, however, remains, especially when referring to the meat of an older sheep, distinct from lamb; and poultry remains when referring to the meat of birds and fowls in general.)
There are Latinate words that are used in everyday speech. These words no longer appear Latinate and oftentimes have no Germanic equivalents. For instance, the words mountain, valley, river, aunt, uncle, move, use, push and stay ("to remain") are Latinate. Likewise, the inverse can occur: acknowledge, meaningful, understanding, mindful, lavish, behaviour, forbearance, behoove, forestall, allay, rhyme, starvation, embodiment come from Anglo-Saxon, and allegiance, abandonment, debutant, feudalism, seizure, guarantee, disregard, wardrobe, disenfranchise, disarray, bandolier, bourgeoisie, debauchery, performance, furniture, gallantry are of Germanic origin, usually through the Germanic element in French, so it is oftentimes impossible to know the origin of a word based on its register.
English easily accepts technical terms into common usage and often imports new words and phrases. Examples of this phenomenon include contemporary words such as cookie, Internet and URL (technical terms), as well as genre, über, lingua franca and amigo (imported words/phrases from French, German, Italian, and Spanish, respectively). In addition, slang often provides new meanings for old words and phrases. In fact, this fluidity is so pronounced that a distinction often needs to be made between formal forms of English and contemporary usage.
See also: sociolinguistics
Number of words in English[link]
The General Explanations at the beginning of the Oxford English Dictionary states:
The Vocabulary of a widely diffused and highly cultivated living language is not a fixed quantity circumscribed by definite limits... there is absolutely no defining line in any direction: the circle of the English language has a well-defined centre but no discernible circumference.
The current FAQ for the OED further states:
How many words are there in the English language? There is no single sensible answer to this question. It's impossible to count the number of words in a language, because it's so hard to decide what actually counts as a word.[77]
The vocabulary of English is undoubtedly vast, but assigning a specific number to its size is more a matter of definition than of calculation. Unlike other languages such as French (the Académie française), German (Rat für deutsche Rechtschreibung), Spanish (Real Academia Española) and Italian (Accademia della Crusca), there is no academy to define officially accepted words and spellings. Neologisms are coined regularly in medicine, science, technology and other fields, and new slang is constantly developed. Some of these new words enter wide usage; others remain restricted to small circles. Foreign words used in immigrant communities often make their way into wider English usage. Archaic, dialectal, and regional words might or might not be widely considered as "English".
The Oxford English Dictionary, 2nd edition (OED2) includes over 600,000 definitions, following a rather inclusive policy:
It embraces not only the standard language of literature and conversation, whether current at the moment, or obsolete, or archaic, but also the main technical vocabulary, and a large measure of dialectal usage and slang (Supplement to the OED, 1933).[78]
The editors of Webster's Third New International Dictionary, Unabridged include 475,000 main headwords, but in their preface they estimate the true number to be much higher.
Comparisons of the vocabulary size of English to that of other languages are generally not taken very seriously by linguists and lexicographers. Besides the fact that dictionaries will vary in their policies for including and counting entries,[79] what is meant by a given language and what counts as a word do not have simple definitions. Also, a definition of word that works for one language may not work well in another,[80] with differences in morphology and orthography making cross-linguistic definitions and word-counting difficult, and potentially giving very different results.[81] Linguist Geoffrey K. Pullum has gone so far as to compare concerns over vocabulary size (and the notion that a supposedly larger lexicon leads to "greater richness and precision") to an obsession with penis length.[82]
In December 2010 a joint Harvard/Google study found the language to contain 1,022,000 words and to expand at the rate of 8,500 words per year.[83] The findings came from a computer analysis of 5,195,769 digitised books. Others have estimated a rate of growth of 25,000 words each year.[84]
Word origins[link]
One of the consequences of the French influence is that the vocabulary of English is, to a certain extent, divided between those words that are Germanic (mostly West Germanic, with a smaller influence from the North Germanic branch) and those that are "Latinate" (derived directly from Latin, or through Norman French or other Romance languages). The situation is further compounded, as French, particularly Old French and Anglo-French, were also contributors in English of significant numbers of Germanic words, mostly from the Frankish element in French (see List of English Latinates of Germanic origin).
The majority (estimates range from roughly 50%[85] to more than 80%[86]) of the thousand most common English words are Germanic. However, the majority of more advanced words in subjects such as the sciences, philosophy and mathematics come from Latin or Greek, with Arabic also providing many words in astronomy, mathematics, and chemistry.[87]
| 1st 100 | 1st 1,000 | 2nd 1,000 | Subsequent | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Germanic | 97% | 57% | 39% | 36% |
| Italic | 3% | 36% | 51% | 51% |
| Hellenic | 0 | 4% | 4% | 7% |
| Others | 0 | 3% | 6% | 6% |
| Source: Nation 2001, p. 265 | ||||
Numerous sets of statistics have been proposed to demonstrate the proportionate origins of English vocabulary. None, as of yet, is considered definitive by most linguists.
A computerised survey of about 80,000 words in the old Shorter Oxford Dictionary (3rd ed.) was published in Ordered Profusion by Thomas Finkenstaedt and Dieter Wolff (1973)[88] that estimated the origin of English words as follows:
- Langue d'oïl, including French and Old Norman: 28.3%
- Latin, including modern scientific and technical Latin: 28.24%
- Germanic languages (including words directly inherited from Old English; does not include Germanic words coming from the Germanic element in French, Latin or other Romance languages): 25%
- Greek: 5.32%
- No etymology given: 4.03%
- Derived from proper names: 3.28%
- All other languages: less than 1%
A survey by Joseph M. Williams in Origins of the English Language of 10,000 words taken from several thousand business letters gave this set of statistics:[89]
- French (langue d'oïl): 41%
- "Native" English: 33%
- Latin: 15%
- Old Norse: 2%
- Dutch: 1%
- Other: 10%
Old Norse origins[link]
Main article: List of English words of Old Norse origin
Many words of Old Norse origin have entered the English language, primarily from the Viking colonisation of eastern and northern England between 800–1000 CE during the Danelaw. These include common words such as anger, awe, bag, big, birth, blunder, both, cake, call, cast, cosy, cross, cut, die, dirt, drag, drown, egg, fellow, flat, flounder, gain, get, gift, give, guess, guest, gust, hug, husband, ill, kid, law, leg, lift, likely, link, loan, loose, low, mistake, odd, race (running), raise, root, rotten, same, scale, scare, score, seat, seem, sister, skill, skin, skirt, skull, sky, stain, steak, sway, take, though, thrive, Thursday, tight, till (until), trust, ugly, want, weak, window, wing, wrong, the pronoun they (and its forms), and even the verb are (the present plural form of to be) through a merger of Old English and Old Norse cognates.[90] More recent Scandinavian imports include angstrom, fjord, geyser, kraken, litmus, nickel, ombudsman, saga, ski, slalom, smorgasbord, and tungsten.
French origins[link]
Main article: List of English words of French origin
A large portion of English vocabulary is of French or Langues d'oïl origin, and was transmitted to English via the Anglo-Norman language spoken by the upper classes in England in the centuries following the Norman Conquest. Words of Norman-French origin include competition, mountain, art, table, publicity, role, pattern, joust, choice, and force. As a result of the length of time they have been in use in English, these words have been anglicised to fit English rules of phonology, pronunciation and spelling.
Some French words were adopted during the 17th to 19th centuries, when French was the dominant language of Western international politics and trade. These words can normally be distinguished because they retain French rules for pronunciation and spelling, including diacritics, are often phrases rather than single words, and are sometimes written in italics. Examples include police, routine, machine, façade, table d'hôte and affaire de cœur. These words and phrases retain their French spelling and pronunciation because historically their French origin was emphasised to denote the speaker as educated or well-travelled at a time when education and travelling was still restricted to the middle and upper classes, and so their use implied a higher social status in the user. (See also: French phrases used by English speakers).
Dutch and Low German origins[link]
Main article: List of English words of Dutch origin
Many words describing the navy, types of ships, and other objects or activities on the water are of Dutch origin. Yacht, skipper, cruiser, flag, freight, furlough, breeze, hoist, iceberg, boom, duck ("fabric, cloth"), and maelstrom are examples. Other words pertain to art and daily life: easel, etch, slim, staple (Middle Dutch stapel "market"), slip (Middle Dutch slippen), landscape, cookie, curl, shock, aloof, boss, brawl (brallen "to boast"), smack (smakken "to hurl down"), shudder, scum, peg, coleslaw, waffle, dope (doop "dipping sauce"), slender (Old Dutch slinder), slight, gas, pump. Dutch has also contributed to English slang, e.g. spook, and the now obsolete snyder (tailor) and stiver (small coin).
Words from Low German include bluster, cower, dollar, drum, geek, grab, lazy, mate, monkey, mud, ogle, orlop, paltry, poll, poodle, prong, scurvy, smug, smuggle, trade.
Writing system[link]
Main articles: English alphabet and English orthography
Since around the 9th century, English has been written in the Latin script, which replaced Anglo-Saxon runes. The modern English alphabet contains 26 letters of the Latin script: a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l, m, n, o, p, q, r, s, t, u, v, w, x, y, z (which also have majuscule, capital or uppercase forms: A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, J, K, L, M, N, O, P, Q, R, S, T, U, V, W, X, Y, Z). Other symbols used in writing English include the ligatures, æ and œ (though these are uncommon). There is also some usage of diacritics, mainly in foreign loanwords (like the acute accent in café and exposé), and in the occasional use of a diaeresis to indicate that two vowels are pronounced separately (as in naïve, Zoë). For more information see English words with diacritics.
The spelling system, or orthography, of English is multilayered, with elements of French, Latin and Greek spelling on top of the native Germanic system; further complications have arisen through sound changes with which the orthography has not kept pace. This means that, compared with many other languages, English spelling is not a reliable indicator of pronunciation and vice versa (it is not, generally speaking, a phonemic orthography).
Though letters and sounds may not correspond in isolation, spelling rules that take into account syllable structure, phonetics, and accents are 75% or more reliable.[91] Some phonics spelling advocates claim that English is more than 80% phonetic.[92] However, English has fewer consistent relationships between sounds and letters than many other languages; for example, the letter sequence ough can be pronounced in 10 different ways. The consequence of this complex orthographic history is that reading can be challenging.[93] It takes longer for students to become completely fluent readers of English than of many other languages, including French, Greek, and Spanish.[94] English-speaking children have been found to take up to two years longer to learn to read than children in 12 other European countries.[95]
As regards the consonants, the correspondence between spelling and pronunciation is fairly regular. The letters b, d, f, h, j, k, l, m, n, p, r, s, t, v, w, z represent, respectively, the phonemes /b/, /d/, /f/, /h/, /dʒ/, /k/, /l/, /m/, /n/, /p/, /r/, /s/, /t/, /v/, /w/, /z/ (as tabulated in the Consonants section above). The letters c and g normally represent /k/ and /g/, but there is also a soft c pronounced /s/, and a soft g pronounced /dʒ/. Some sounds are represented by digraphs: ch for /tʃ/, sh for /ʃ/, th for /θ/ or /ð/, ng for /ŋ/ (also ph is pronounced /f/ in Greek-derived words). Doubled consonant letters (and the combination ck) are generally pronounced as single consonants, and qu and x are pronounced as the sequences /kw/ and /ks/. The letter y, when used as a consonant, represents /j/. However this set of rules is not applicable without exception; many words have silent consonants or other cases of irregular pronunciation.
With the vowels, however, correspondences between spelling and pronunciation are even more irregular. As can be seen under Vowels above, there are many more vowel phonemes in English than there are vowel letters (a, e, i, o, u, y). This means that diphthongs and other long vowels often need to be indicated by combinations of letters (like the oa in boat and the ay in stay), or using a silent e or similar device (as in note and cake). Even these devices are not used consistently, and consequently vowel pronunciation remains the main source of irregularity in English orthography.
See also[link]
|
Book: English language |
| Wikipedia books are collections of articles that can be downloaded or ordered in print. | |
- Changes to Old English vocabulary
- English for academic purposes
- English language in Europe
- Language Report
- Lists of English words
- Teaching English as a foreign language
- The Adventure of English (film)
- The Story of English
- European Society for the Study of English
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- ^ David Graddol, Dick Leith, and Joan Swann, English: History, Diversity and Change (New York: Routledge, 1996), 101.
- ^ See Cercignani, Fausto, Shakespeare's Works and Elizabethan Pronunciation, Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1981.
- ^ A History of the English Language|Page: 336 | By: Albert C. Baugh and Thomas Cable | Publisher: Routledge; 5 edition (21 March 2002)
- ^ Curtis, Andy. Color, Race, And English Language Teaching: Shades of Meaning. 2006, page 192.
- ^ CIA World Factbook, Field Listing – Languages (World).
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- ^ "U.S. Census Bureau, Statistical Abstract of the United States: 2003, Section 1 Population" (PDF). U.S. Census Bureau. pp. 59 pages. http://www.census.gov/prod/2005pubs/06statab/pop.pdf. Table 47 gives the figure of 214,809,000 for those five years old and over who speak exclusively English at home. Based on the American Community Survey, these results exclude those living communally (such as college dormitories, institutions, and group homes), and by definition exclude native English speakers who speak more than one language at home.
- ^ a b "The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language, Second Edition, Crystal, David; Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, [1995] (3 August 2003)". Cambridge.org. http://www.cambridge.org/catalogue/catalogue.asp?isbn=0521530334. Retrieved 21 April 2010.
- ^ Population by mother tongue and age groups, 2006 counts, for Canada, provinces and territories–20% sample data, Census 2006, Statistics Canada.
- ^ Census Data from Australian Bureau of Statistics Main Language Spoken at Home. The figure is the number of people who only speak English at home.
- ^ Figures are for speakers of Nigerian Pidgin, an English-based pidgin or creole. Ihemere gives a range of roughly 3 to 5 million native speakers; the midpoint of the range is used in the table. Ihemere, Kelechukwu Uchechukwu. 2006. "A Basic Description and Analytic Treatment of Noun Clauses in Nigerian Pidgin." Nordic Journal of African Studies 15(3): 296–313.
- ^ Census in Brief, page 15 (Table 2.5), 2001 Census, Statistics South Africa
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- ^ Subcontinent Raises Its Voice, Crystal, David; Guardian Weekly: Friday 19 November 2004.
- ^ Yong Zhao; Keith P. Campbell (1995). "English in China". World Englishes 14 (3): 377–390. Hong Kong contributes an additional 2.5 million speakers (1996 by-census).
- ^ Table C-17: Population by Bilingualism and trilingualism, 2001 Census of India [1]
- ^ Tropf, Herbert S. 2004. India and its Languages[dead link]. Siemens AG, Munich
- ^ For the distinction between "English Speakers" and "English Users", see: TESOL-India (Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages). Their article explains the difference between the 350 million number mentioned in a previous version of this Wikipedia article and a more plausible 90 million number:
Wikipedia's India estimate of 350 million includes two categories – "English Speakers" and "English Users". The distinction between the Speakers and Users is that Users only know how to read English words while Speakers know how to read English, understand spoken English as well as form their own sentences to converse in English. The distinction becomes clear when you consider the China numbers. China has over 200~350 million users that can read English words but, as anyone can see on the streets of China, only handful of million who are English speakers.
- ^ a b c "Ethnologue report for Philippines". Ethnologue.com. http://www.ethnologue.com/show_country.asp?name=PH. Retrieved 2 January 2010.
- ^ "Australian Bureau of Statistics". Censusdata.abs.gov.au. http://www.censusdata.abs.gov.au/ABSNavigation/prenav/ViewData?action=404&documentproductno=0&documenttype=Details&order=1&tabname=Details&areacode=0&issue=2006&producttype=Census%20Tables&javascript=true&textversion=false&navmapdisplayed=true&breadcrumb=TLPD&&collection=Census&period=2006&productlabel=Proficiency%20in%20Spoken%20English/Language%20by%20Age%20-%20Time%20Series%20Statistics%20(1996,%202001,%202006%20Census%20Years)&producttype=Census%20Tables&method=Place%20of%20Usual%20Residence&topic=Cultural%20&. Retrieved 21 April 2010.
- ^ Nancy Morris (1995). Puerto Rico: Culture, Politics, and Identity. Praeger/Greenwood. p. 62. ISBN 0-275-95228-2. http://books.google.com/?id=vyQDYqz2kFsC&pg=RA1-PA62&lpg=RA1-PA62&dq=%22puerto+rico%22+official+language+1993.
- ^ Languages Spoken in the US[dead link], National Virtual Translation Center, 2006.
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- ^ 2006 survey by Eurobarometer, in the Official EU languages website
- ^ "Microsoft Word – SPECIAL NOTE Europeans and languagesEN 20050922.doc" (PDF). http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_237.en.pdf. Retrieved 21 April 2010.
- ^ David Crystal (2000) Language Death, Preface; viii, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
- ^ a b Jambor, Paul Z. 'English Language Imperialism: Points of View', Journal of English as an International Language, April 2007 – Volume 1, pages 103–123 (Accessed in 2007)
- ^ Aitken, A. J. and McArthur, T. Eds. (1979) Languages of Scotland. Edinburgh,Chambers. p.87
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- ^ "Official page of ASD Simplified Technical English Maintenance Group (STEMG)". http://www.asd-ste100.org/.
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- ^ Oxford English Dictionary, see entry "civilisation"
- ^ Oxford English Dictionary, see entry "contract"
- ^ For the processes and triggers of English vocabulary changes cf. English and General Historical Lexicology (by Joachim Grzega and Marion Schöner)
- ^ Baugh, Cable, A History of the English Language Fifth Edition, 50.
- ^ "How many words are there in the English language?". Oxford Dictionaries Online. Oxford University Press. http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/page/howmanywords. Retrieved 17 September 2010.
- ^ It went on to clarify,
Hence we exclude all words that had become obsolete by 1150 [the end of the Old English era]... Dialectal words and forms which occur since 1500 are not admitted, except when they continue the history of the word or sense once in general use, illustrate the history of a word, or have themselves a certain literary currency.
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- Cercignani, Fausto, Shakespeare's Works and Elizabethan Pronunciation, Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1981.
- Crystal, David (1997). English as a Global Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-53032-6. http://books.google.com/?id=d6jPAKxTHRYC.
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External links[link]
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Look up Appendix:List of Proto-Indo-European roots in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. |
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Wikiversity has learning materials about Topic:English Language |
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Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: English language |
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Look up English in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. |
Media related to English language at Wikimedia Commons- Accents of English from Around the World (University of Edinburgh) Hear and compare how the same 110 words are pronounced in 50 English accents from around the world – instantaneous playback online
- Dictionaries
- Collection of English bilingual dictionaries
- dict.org
- Dictionary of American Regional English
- English language word roots, prefixes and suffixes (affixes) dictionary
- Merriam-Webster's online dictionary
- Macquarie Dictionary Online
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