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High-speed rail (HSR) is a type of passenger rail transport that operates significantly faster than traditional rail traffic. As of 2012 the maximum commercial speed was about 300 km/h (186 mph) for the majority of installed systems (Japan, China, Taiwan, Germany, Italy, UK), 310 km/h (193 mph) in Spain and 320 km/h (199 mph) in France. The Shanghai Maglev Train reaches 431 km/h (268 mph).

High speed trains travel at their maximum speed on specific tracks, generally using standard gauge (except Russia and Finland), with avoiding at-grade crossings, and few curves.

The world speed record for conventional high-speed rail is held by the V150, a specially configured and heavily-modified version of Alstom's TGV which clocked 574.8 km/h (357.2 mph) on a test run. The world speed record for Maglev is held by the Japanese experimental MLX01: 581 km/h (361 mph).^[1]

While high-speed rail is usually designed for passenger travel, some high-speed systems also offer freight service. For instance, the French mail service La Poste owns a few special TGV trains for carrying postal freight.

Definition[link]

Multiple definitions for high-speed rail are in use worldwide.

• UIC (International Union of Railways) and EC Directive 96/58 define high-speed rail as systems of rolling stock and infrastructure which regularly operate at or above 250 km/h (155 mph) on new tracks, or 200 km/h (124 mph) on existing tracks.^[2] However lower speeds can be required by local constraints.^[2]
• In the United States, the U.S. Department of Transportation defines high-speed rail as "reasonably expected to reach sustained speeds of more than 125 mph (201 km/h)",^[3] although the Federal Railroad Administration uses a definition of above110 mph (177 km/h).^[4]

Some features are unique to high-speed rail : effectively, lot of conventionally-hauled trains reach 200 km/h in commercial service, beginning with the French "Capitole" launched in 1967, but are not considered as high-speed trains.

History[link]

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The Italian ETR 200 in 1938 was the first high speed service train. It achieved the world mean speed record in 1938, reaching 203 km/h (126 mph) near Milan

Railways were the first form of mass transportation on land and until the development of the motorcar in the early 20th century, had an effective monopoly on land transport. Both streamlined steam locomotives and high-speed EMUs were used for high speed services.

Early research[link]

The high-speed rail era started 6 October 1903. An electrical railcar from Siemens & Halske sped away at 203 km/h (126 mph) on the military railway track between Marienfeld and Zossen in Germany. It showed that high-speed rail was possible, and that the future was electric. For scheduled trains, however, that speed was still more than 60 years away.

In 1945 a Spanish engineer, Alejandro Goicoechea, invented a streamlined diesel train that, while slightly slower than previous high-speed passenger trains, could move on existing tracks and take curves at a speed of 80 mph vs 30 mph for most passenger trains. He achieved this by designing both the locomotive and cars with a unique axle system that used one axle set per car, connected by a Y-bar coupler, and where the center of mass was only half as high as usual.^[5]

Breakthrough: The Shinkansen[link]

Odakyū 3000 series SE, narrow gauge precursor to high speed rail in Japan

An original 0 series Shinkansen train type in1967

In the densely-populated country of Japan, especially the 45-million-people area between Tokyo and Osaka, congestion on road and rail became a serious problem in the 1950's.^[6]. Japan in the 1950s was a crowded, resource-limited nation that for security reasons did not want to import petroleum, but needed a way to transport its millions of people in and between cities. In 1957, the engineers at local private Odakyu Electric Railway in Greater Tokyo area launched the Odakyū 3000 series SE EMU. This EMU set a world record for narrow gauge trains at 145 km/h (90 mph), giving the Odakyu engineers confidence they could safely and reliably build even faster trains at standard gauge.^[6] Engineers started planning the last intercity dedicated high-speed line. After initial feasibility tests, the plan was fast-tracked and construction was started in 20 April 1959;^[7] test runs in 1963 hit top speeds of 256 km/h (159 mph). In October 1964, just in time for the Olympic Games, they opened the first modern high speed rail, the Shinkansen, Tōkaidō Shinkansen, between the two cities.

The first Shinkansen trains, the 0 Series Shinkansen, built by Kawasaki Heavy Industries—in English often called "Bullet Trains", after the original Japanese name Dangan Ressha(弾丸列車)—outclassed the earlier fast trains in commercial service. They ran the 515 km (320 mi) distance with a top speed of 210 km/h (130 mph) and an average speed of 162.8 km/h (101.2 mph) with stops at Nagoya and Kyoto. But the speed was only a part of the Shinkansen revolution. The earlier high-speed or proto-high-speed trains and railcars were few and far between (ten Red Devils, 15 Brill Bullets, a few Zephyrs with different forenames, two Elelectroliners, one Morning Hiawatha, one Fliegender Hamburger, etc., each with 150 seats at best). While these services were initially limited, Shinkansen offered HSR for the masses. The first Bullet trains had 12 cars; later versions had up to 16,^[8] and double-deck trains increase the capacity.^[9][10]

After three years, more than 100 million passengers had used the trains, and the first billion was passed in 1976.^[11] The Shinkansen system has grown to a 2,387.7 km (1,484 mi) network with 422.6 km (263 mi) currently under construction and a further 770 km (478 mi) awaiting construction (see Shinkansen#List of Shinkansen lines). The Shinkansen has an operating speed of up to 300 km/h and in early 2013 the Tōhoku Shinkansen will further increase the speed to 320 km/h (200 mph).^[12][13] The Tōkaidō Shinkansen is the world's busiest high-speed rail line. Up to ten trains (14 trains, if including intermittent service) per hour with 16 cars (1,323 seats capacity) run in each direction with a minimum of 3 minutes between trains.^[14] Though largely a long-distance transport system, the Shinkansen also serves commuters who travel to work in metropolitan areas from outlying cities.^[15] As of 2012 the Shinkansen's 47-year, 7 billion-passenger history had included no passenger fatalities due to derailments or collisions.^[16]

In May 2011, the Japanese government approved the construction of the first 286 km of the Chūō Shinkansen maglev line, which will have an operating speed of 505 km/h (314 mph) and will link Tokyo and Nagoya by 2027. The plan is to link it with Osaka by 2045. The maglev line is expected to complete the journey from Tokyo to Nagoya in 40 minutes, down from the current 100 minutes. Eventually it is planned to complete the Tokyo to Osaka journey in a little over 60 minutes, down from the current 155 minutes.^[17]

The 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami, which affected Sendai, a city northeast of Tokyo, automatically stopped all Shinkansen trains. No Shinkansen passengers suffered injuries, and the Tokaido Shinkansen between Tokyo and Osaka resumed operation several hours after the disasters, while the Tohoku Shinkansen remained out of service for several days.^[18] On 12 March 2011, the northern 130 km of the Kyushu Shinkansen opened, although opening ceremonies were canceled due the earthquake and tsunami (see Kyushu Shinkansen).

Revival in Europe[link]

Automotrice à grande vitesse (AGV) being tested at the Velim railway test circuit, Czech Republic

German designed third generation ICE on Cologne-Frankfurt high-speed rail line

Japan's Shinkansen success contributed to a revival for the idea in —together with rising oil prices, a growing environmental interest and rising road congestion.

In Europe, high-speed rail started during the International Transport Fair in Munich in June 1965, when DB Class 103 hauled a total of 347 demonstration cars at 200 km/h (124 mph) between Munich and Augsburg. The first regular service at this speed was the TEE "Le Capitole" between Paris and Toulouse with specially-adapted SNCF Class BB 9200 locomotives (May 1967).

Great Britain introduced Europe's first regular service that travelled above 200 km/h (124 mph), albeit with a small margin and without building new lines. In the years 1976–82 they made 95 diesel-electric train sets of the type InterCity 125 – so called because of their maximum speed at 125 mph (201 km/h), compared to 100 mph (161 km/h) for their forerunners. Their acceleration was faster, too. Journey times were reduced, e.g., by an hour on the East Coast Main Line, and passenger numbers soared. The IC 125 was planned to be followed by a tilting train, APT, to maximize the speed on twisting Victorian lines – but the tilting mechanism caused nausea in some passengers, and the APT project was shelved. This prolonged the IC 125’s lifetime, and even today they serve non-electrified mainlines.

In Continental Europe several countries started to build new high-speed lines during the 1970s, including Italy's Direttissima between Rome and Florence, Western Germany’s Hannover–Würzburg and Stuttgart–Mannheim lines and France’s Paris–Lyon TGV line (LGV Sud-Est). The latter was the world’s fastest when it opened in 1983 (the Paris–Dijon partition opened in 1981), with maximum speed of 270kmh / 167mph and an average of 214kmh / 132mph. Fares were affordable and the line became very popular; the air routes between these cities were practically eliminated when train journeys shrank from about 3½ to two hours. France went on building an extensive high-speed network. In combination with the Belgian and British lines, the Paris–Lille–Calais line allowed the opening of the first HSR international services: Paris–London (1994), London–Brussels (1994), both via the Channel Tunnel^[19] and Brussels–Paris (1995).^[20] Germany followed up with its own high-speed network, and after Germany was re-united in 1990, Hamburg–Berlin again became a mainline.

Spain’s first high speed line opened in 1992 between Madrid and Seville. In 2005, the Spanish Government announced an ambitious plan, (PEIT 2005–2020)^[21] envisioning that by 2020, 90 percent of the population would live within 50 km (31 mi) of a station served by AVE. Spain began building the largest HSR network in Europe: as of 2011 five of the new lines have opened (Madrid-Zaragoza-Lleida-Tarragona-Barcelona, Córdoba- Malaga, Madrid-Toledo, Madrid-Segovia-Valladolid, Madrid-Cuenca-Valencia) and another 2,219 km (1,379 mi) were under construction.^[22] As of December 2010, the Spanish AVE system is the longest HSR network in Europe and the second in the world, after China.^[23]

United States[link]

The Acela Express in the Northeast Corridor is the fastest train in the US, linking Boston, New York and Washington, D.C. at speeds up to {{convertTemplate:240 on existing track, using tilting trains.

Existing operations[link]

.

Operational high-speed lines in Europe

Operational high-speed lines in East Asia

  310–320 km/h (193–199 mph)   270–300 km/h (168–186 mph)   250 km/h (155 mph)
  200–230 km/h (124–143 mph)   Under construction   Other railways

• 

  Multiple world-speed-record holder, the French TGV family

• 

  The German ICE 3 high-speed electric multiple unit

• 

  The Italian ETR 500 Frecciarossa, the train running on the Italian high speed rail network

• 

  The Spanish AVE Talgo-350, derived from the Talgo family

• 

  The Chinese CRH380A, recently developed for very high speeds

• 

  Allegro train at Helsinki Central railway station

• 

  Taiwan's Japanese-built 300 km/h operating, 315 km/h capable during test run 700T series train

• 

  The Japan Shinkansen N700 Series Shinkansen . N700 series trains have a maximum speed of 300 km/h (186 mph).

Rationale[link]

In both Japan and France the initial impetus for the introduction of high speed rail was the need for additional capacity to meet increasing demand for passenger rail travel.

Japan[link]

By the mid-1950s, the Tōkaidō Main Line in Japan was operating at full capacity, and construction of the first segment of the Tōkaidō Shinkansen between Tokyo and Osaka started in 1959. The Tōkaidō Shinkansen opened on 1 October 1964, in time for the Tokyo Olympics. The situation for the first line in Japan was different from subsequent lines. The route was already so densely-populated and rail-oriented that highway development would be extremely costly and one single line between Tokyo and Osaka could bring service to over half the nation's population. In 1959 that was nearly 45 million people; today it is well over 65 million. The Tōkaidō Shinkansen line is the most heavily-traveled high speed line in the world, carrying 138 million people in 2009,^[24] and the entire Shinkansen network, carrying 322 million, transports more passengers than all other high speed rail lines in the world combined.

France[link]

In France the main line between Paris and Lyon was projected to run out of capacity by 1970. In both cases the choice to build a completely separate passenger-only line allowed for much straighter lines and higher speeds. The dramatically reduced travel times on both lines, bringing cities within three hours of one another, caused explosions in ridership.^[25] The commercial success of both lines inspired those countries and their economies to expand or start high speed rail networks.

United States[link]

The US does not have any form of high speed rail system by european and asian standards. In post-World War II United States, travel by cars and planes became easier for a greater percentage of Americans due to improvements in these technologies. In Europe and Japan, emphasis was given to rebuilding the existing, dense railway network after the war. In the United States, emphasis was given to airports and an extensive national interstate highway system.

U.S. passenger trains were unable to compete with the postwar growth in airline and highway travel. The far lower population density in North America allowed easier construction of a national highway network, and the greater distances lessened the relative value of rail versus the alternatives. Large-scale highway construction would not have been as easy given the much higher population densities of Europe and Japan.^[26] However, despite modest gains in the first decade of the 21st century, Amtrak ridership per capita remains far below that of most European nations.

China[link]

In China, plans for the largest high-speed railway network in the world were driven by a combination of capacity constraints on existing lines and a desire to shorten journey times, while promoting development along the route. The construction schedule was significantly accelerated due to additional funding in the 4 trillion CNY stimulus package of 2008 and a number of lines were due to be completed by 2013.

Energy efficiency[link]

Travel by rail is more competitive in areas of higher population density or where gasoline is expensive, because conventional trains are more fuel-efficient than cars when ridership is high, similar to other forms of mass transit. Very few high-speed trains consume diesel or other fossil fuels but the power stations that provide electric trains with power can consume fossil fuels. In Japan and France, with very extensive high speed rail networks, a large proportion of electricity comes from nuclear power.^[27] Even using electricity generated from coal or oil, high speed trains are significantly more fuel-efficient per passenger per kilometer traveled than the typical automobile because of economies of scale in generator technology.^[28] For example, on the Eurostar, emissions from travelling by train from London to Paris are 90% lower than by flying.^[29] Rail networks, like highways, require large fixed capital investments and thus require a blend of high density and government investment to be competitive against existing capital infrastructure.^{[citation needed]} Urban density and mass transit have been key factors in the success of European and Japanese railway transport, especially in countries such as the Netherlands, Belgium, Germany, Switzerland, Spain and France.

Technology[link]

The TGV Sud-Est fleet was built between 1978 and 1983 and connected Paris with Lyon. Originally the sets were built to run at 270 km/h (168 mph), but most were upgraded to 300 km/h (186 mph) for the opening of the LGV Méditerranée.

Avances in routing, train engineering and track design raised speeds past 500 km/h (310 mph). Much of the technology behind high-speed rail is an improved application of standard gauge rail technology.

Routing[link]

Japanese 683 series EMU, which run at up to 160 km/h on narrow-gauge track

New lines employ 20th century engineering to eliminate constrictions such as at-grade crossings where lines intersect other lines and/or roadways, avoidable curves and reverse curves. Dedicated rights-of-way separate fast from slow trains. Japan typically elevated its HSR lines, increasing speed, safety and cost.

Curve radius is typically above 4.5 kilometres (2.8 mi), and for lines capable of 350 km/h (217 mph) running, typically at 7 to 9 kilometres (4.3 to 5.6 mi).

Narrow gauge (1,067 mm (3 ft 6 in))track supports speeds up to 160 kilometres per hour (99 mph) in Japan and Queensland (Tilt Train). Tunisia is reputed to have the fastest one-metre gauge trains,^[30] with some services operating between Tunis–Sfax at up to 130 km/h.^[31]

High-speed lines may be exclusive or open to standard speed trains.

• In Japan, high-speed Shinkansen lines use standard gauge track rather than the narrow gauge track used on most other Japanese lines.
• In France, high-speed lines use standard gauge like the rest of the network, but are used only by passenger TGV, and by the Postal TGV.
• In Germany, high-speed lines are shared between ICE, international high speed trains, regional trains and freight trains.
• In China, high-speed lines at speeds between 200 and 250 km/h (124 and 155 mph) may carry freight or passengers. , Lines that operating at speeds of 300 km/h (186 mph) are used only by passenger CRH trains.^[32]

Train engineering[link]

Key technologies include tilting trainsets, aerodynamic designs (to reduce drag, lift, and noise), air brakes, regenerative braking, engine technology and dynamic weight shifting.

Some^[which?] of the advances addressed problems, such as the Eschede disaster.

Track design[link]

Continuous welded rail reduces track vibrations and misalignment. Almost all HSR is electrically driven via overhead lines, have in-cab signalling, and use advanced switches using very low entry and frog angles.

Schienenzeppelin turboprop train

Transrapid maglev

Prototypes[link]

As an alternative to electrical drive, aerotrain prototypes with turboprops were tested in the Soviet Union (Aerowagon) and Germany (Schienenzeppelin) at the beginning of the 20th century. Later, trains with turbojets were tested in the United States (M-497 Black Beetle), the Soviet Union (ER22 turbojet train), and France (Aérotrain).

Magnetic levitation trains fall under the category of high-speed rail due to their association with track oriented vehicles; however their inability to operate on conventional 'rails' often puts them in a separate category. To run at their maximum speed, most high-speed trains use special, often dedicated, high speed lines.

In the U.S. the Acela Express in the Northeast Corridor links Boston, New York and Washington, D.C.^[33]

Construction standards[link]

Common standards for conventional high-speed lines are:

Maximum speed[link]

MLX01 magnetic-levitation train, unconventional speed record holder (581 km/h, 361.0 mph)

V150 train, modified TGV, conventional World speed record holder (574.8 km/h, 357.2 mph)

The term "maximum speed" has many meanings here. It can reflect:

• maximum average speed between two scheduled stops based on the running times in timetables – daily operation.
• maximum speed at which a train is allowed to run safely as set by law or policy on a straight section in daily service with minimal constraints (MOR)
• the maximum speed at which an unmodified train is proved to be capable of running
• the maximum speed a specially modified train is proved to be capable of running.

Speed record[link]

The current speed record for a conventional commercial train is held by a modified TGV POS trainset, reaching 574.8 km/h (357.2 mph). This run was for proof of concept and engineering, not to test normal passenger service.

Speed record for experimental unconventional passenger train was set by the manned "magnetic-levitation" train JR-Maglev MLX01 at 581 km/h (361 mph) in 2003.

However, these speeds reached by TGV and Maglev are not necessarily suitable for passenger operations as there are concerns such as noise, costs, deceleration time in an emergency, wear and tear, etc.

The record for railed vehicles is 10,325 km/h (6,416 mph) by an unmanned rocket sled by the United States Air Force.

Maximum speed in service[link]

The Shanghai Maglev Train reaches 431 km/h (268 mph) during its daily service on its 30 km (19 mi) dedicated line, holding the speed record for commercial train service.

From mid 2011, the fastest operating conventional trains are the French TGV POS and German ICE 3 with a commercial maximum speed of 320 km/h (199 mph) on the French LGV Est.

The highest commercial operating speed record was held from August 2008 to July 2011 by China Railway High-speed trains, reaching 350 km/h (217 mph) on some lines (Beijing–Tianjin Intercity Railway, Wuhan–Guangzhou High-Speed Railway).

The highest scheduled average speed between two scheduled stops was the China Railway High-speed service on Wuhan-Guangzhou High-Speed Railway,^[34] from 26 December 2009, until 29 January 2010. Non-stop trains on this line covered the 922 km (573 mi) journey in 2 hours, 57 minutes, at an average speed of 312.5 km/h (194.2 mph) from Wuhan to Guangzhou North.

Due to high costs and safety concerns the top speeds in China were reduced to 300 km/h (186 mph) on 1 July 2011.^[35]

Records in trial runs[link]

Major markets[link]

Density of High-speed railway in Europe. km per million inhabitants.

Density of High-speed railway in East-Asia. km per million inhabitants.

The early target areas, identified by France, Japan, Spain, and the U.S., were between pairs of large cities. In France, this was Paris–Lyon, in Japan, Tokyo–Osaka, in Spain, Madrid–Seville (then Barcelona)

In European countries, South Korea and Japan, dense networks of city subways and railways provide connections with high speed rail lines. The claim is that in the US HSR is incompatible with the existing automobile-oriented system. (People will want to drive when traveling in city, so they might as well drive the entire trip). However, others contend that in the Northeast Corridor, many people living outside walking distance of a connection, drive to the commuter station and ride to the HSR connection, similar to the way many people drive to an airport, park their cars and then fly. Car rentals and taxis also supplement local mass transportation. Increased commercial development is also projected near the destination stations.

In Japan intra-city rail daily usage per capita is the highest,^{[citation needed]} with cumulative ridership of 6 billion passengers^[36] exceeds the French TGV of 1 billion (as of 2003), the only other system to reach a billion passenger trips.^[37] By comparison, the world's fleet of 22,685 aircraft carried 2.1 billion passengers in 2006, according to International Civil Aviation Organization.

United States[link]

Chicago, with its central location and metropolitan population of approximately 10 million, was envisioned as the hub of a national high-speed rail network. The beginning Midwest phases study a Minneapolis-Milwaukee-Chicago-Detroit link; a Kansas City-St Louis-Chicago link; and a Chicago-Indianapolis-Cincinnati-Columbus, OH link.

The California High-Speed Rail Authority is currently planning lines from the San Francisco Bay and Sacramento to Los Angeles and Anaheim via the Central Valley, as well as a line from Los Angeles to San Diego via the Inland Empire. The Texas High Speed Rail and Transportation Corporation^[38] is lobbying for a high-speed rail and multimodal transportation corridor, dubbed the Texas T-Bone. The T-Bone would link Dallas and San Antonio via the South Central Corridor; from roughly the midpoint between these two cities, the Brazos Express corridor would provide a connection to Houston.^[39][40] New York State Senator Caesar Trunzo announced a long-term plan to bring high-speed rail service between Buffalo and New York City, via Albany, to under three hours.^[41] Florida officials considered and in 2011 rejected aTampa-Orlando-Miami system.

Germany[link]

Later high speed rail lines, such as the LGV Atlantique, the LGV Est, and most high speed lines in Germany, were designed as feeder routes branching into conventional rail lines, serving a larger number of medium-sized cities.

France[link]

Market segmentation has principally focused on the business travel market. The French original focus on business travelers is reflected by the early design of the TGV trains. Pleasure travel was a secondary market; now many of the French extensions connect with vacation beaches on the Atlantic and Mediterranean, as well as major amusement parks and also the ski resorts in France and Switzerland. Friday evenings are the peak time for TGVs (train à grande vitesse).^[42] The system lowered prices on long distance travel to compete more effectively with air services, and as a result some cities within an hour of Paris by TGV have become commuter communities, increasing the market while restructuring land use.^[43]

On the Paris – Lyon service, the number of passengers grew sufficiently to justify the introduction of double-decks coaches.

Switzerland[link]

High speed north-south freight lines in Switzerland are under construction, avoiding slow mountainous truck traffic, and lowering labour costs. Most recently the Yucatan Peninsula in Mexico has highlighted as one of the most probable areas for the development of high speed rail in Latin America with the Transpeninsular Fast Train for bidding in September 2011.^[44]

Russia[link]

Other target areas include freight lines, such as the Trans-Siberian Railway in Russia, which would allow 3 day Far East to Europe service for freight, potentially fitting in between the months by ship and hours by air.

Road rail parallel layout[link]

Road Rail Parallel Layout uses land beside highways for railway lines. Examples include Paris/Lyon and CologneFrankfurt in which 15% and 70% of the track runs beside highways, respectively.^[45]

Comparison with other modes of transport[link]

E4 Series Shinkansen

HSR, like any transport system, is not inherently convenient, fast, clean, or comfortable. All of this depends on design, implementation, maintenance, operation and funding. Operational smoothness is often more indicative of organizational discipline than technological prowess.

Existing infrastructure constrains the growth of the highway and air travel systems. When other modes cannot expand, HSR may possibly provide a feasible alternative. For example, a double-decked E4 Series Shinkansen can carry 1,634 seated passengers, double the capacity of an Airbus A380 (world's largest passenger plane) in economy class, and more if standing passengers are allowed. HSR systems are more environmentally friendly than air or road travel, given their higher fuel efficiency per passenger-kilometer and reduced land use.

Automobiles[link]

Eurostar

High-speed rail can accommodate more passengers at far higher speeds than automobiles.

Generally, the longer the journey, the better the time advantage of rail over road if going to the same destination. However, HSR can be competitive with cars on shorter distances, 50–150 kilometres (30–90 mi), for example for commuting, given road congestion or expensive parking fees.

Moreover, typical passenger rail carries 2.83 times as many passengers per hour per meter (width) as a road. A typical capacity is the Eurostar, which runs 15 trains per hour and 800 passengers per train, totaling 12,000 passengers per hour in each direction. By contrast, the Highway Capacity Manual gives a maximum capacity of 2,250 passenger cars per hour per lane, excluding other vehicles. Assuming an average vehicle occupancy of 1.57 people.^[46] A standard twin track railway has a typical capacity 13% greater than a 6-lane highway (3 lanes each way), while requiring only 40% of the land (1.0/3.0 versus 2.5/7.5 hectares per kilometer of direct/indirect land consumption). The Tokaido Shinkansen line in Japan, has a much higher ratio (with as many as 20,000 passengers per hour per direction). Similarly commuter roads tend to carry fewer than 1.57 persons per vehicle (Washington State Department of Transportation, for instance, uses 1.2 persons per vehicle) during commute times. Congestion further reduces throughput per lane.

Aircraft[link]

Optimal distance[link]

An ETR 500 AV (Italian Railways) in the Milan railway station. The version ETR 500 Y1 achieved 362 km/h (225 mph) on the Bologna-Florence line on 4 February 2009, a new world speed record in a tunnel.^[47] It takes an hour from Milan to Bologna, while a plane with taxis takes an hour and a half.

While commercial high-speed trains have lower maximum speeds than jet aircraft, they offer shorter total trip times than air travel for short distances. They typically connect city centre rail stations to each other, while air transport connects airports that are far from city centres. However unless an airport is severely congested, HSR typically cannot be financially justified.^{[citation needed]}

HSR is best suited for journeys of 2 to 3 hours (about 250–900 km or 160–560 mi), for which the train can beat air and car trip time. For trips under about 650 km (400 mi), the process of checking in and going through security screening at airports, as well as traveling to and from the airport, makes the total air journey time no faster than HSR. European authorities treat HSR as competitive with passenger air for trips under 4 to 4½ hours.^[48] If the train stops at an airport then combining a short HSR ride with a long airplane ride can reduce total trip time over flying on both legs. Airplane tickets can include a train segment, including rebooking missed connections.

Part of HSR's edge can be ticket prices. As an example, in 2009 the 520 km (320 mi) flight from Nanjing to Wuhan cost 730 yuan, while bullet trains beginning service that year offered second-class tickets for 180 yuan.^[49]

HSR offers greater convenience for medium-distance journeys. HSR does not require baggage to be checked, does not require queuing for check-in, security and boarding, and is rarely delayed by inclement weather. HSR has more amenities, such as continuous mobile phone/Internet connectivity, larger tables, 120/220/12 volt power outlets and superior food service.

HSR eliminated air transport from between city pairs including Paris-Brussels, Cologne-Frankfurt, Nanjing-Wuhan, Chongqing-Chengdu,^[49] Tokyo-Nagoya, Tokyo-Sendai and Tokyo-Niigata. China Southern Airlines, China's largest airline, expects the construction of China's high speed railway network to impact 25% of its route network in the coming years.^[50]

Market shares[link]

European data indicate that air traffic is more sensitive than road traffic (car and bus) to competition from HSR, at least on journeys of 400 km and more – perhaps because cars and buses are far more flexible than planes. TGV Sud-Est reduced the air travel time Paris–Lyon from almost four to about two hours. Market share rose from 49 to 72%. Air and road market shares shrunk from 31 to 7% and from 29 to 21%, respectively. On the Madrid–Sevilla link, the AVE connection increased share from 16 to 52 ; air traffic shrunk from 40 to 13 %; road traffic from 44 to 36 %, hence the rail market amounted to 80% of combined rail and air traffic.^[51] This figure increased to 89% in 2009, according to Spanish rail operator RENFE.^[52]

According to Peter Jorritsma, the rail market share s, as compared to planes, can be computed approximately as a function of the travelling time in minutes t by the formula^[53]

Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): s = {1 \over 0.031 \times 1.016^t + 1}

According to this formula, a journey time of three hours yields 65 % market share. However, market shares are also influenced by ticket prices. Some air carriers regained market shares by slashing prices.^[54]

In the US Northeast Corridor, the rail market share at 47% between New York and Washington is lower than the formula indicates, even though the journey time is only about 2h 45min.

Other considerations[link]

Although air travel has higher speeds, more time is needed for taxiing, boarding (fewer doors), security check, luggage drop, and ticket check. Also rail stations are usually located nearer to urban centers than airports. These factors often offset the speed advantage of air travel for mid-distance trips.

Construction costs[link]

Japanese systems are often more expensive than their counterparts, because they run on dedicated elevated guideways, avoid traffic crossings and incorporate disaster monitoring systems. The largest part of Japan's cost is for boring tunnels through mountains, as was also true in Taiwan.

In France, the cost of construction (which was €10 million/km (US$15.1 million/km) for LGV Est) is minimised by adopting steeper grades rather than building tunnels and viaducts. However, in mountainous Switzerland, tunnels are inevitable. Because the lines are dedicated to passengers, gradients of 3.5%, rather than the previous maximum of 1–1.5% for mixed traffic, are used. More expensive land may be required in order to minimize curves. This increases speed, reduces construction costs and lowers operating and maintenance costs. In other countries high-speed rail was built without those economies so that the railway can also support other traffic, such as freight. Experience has shown however, that running trains of significantly different speeds on one line substantially decreases capacity. As a result, mixed-traffic lines usually reserve daytime for high-speed trains and run freight at night. In some cases, night-time high-speed trains are diverted to lower speed lines in favour of freight traffic.^{[citation needed]}

Weather[link]

Rail travel has less weather dependency than air travel. If the rail system is well-designed and well-operated, severe weather conditions such as heavy snow, heavy fog, and storms do not affect the journeys; whereas flights are generally canceled or delayed under these conditions. Nevertheless, snow, wind and flooding can delay trains.

Comfort[link]

Although comfort over air travel is often believed to be a trait of high speed rail because train seats are larger and it is easy for passengers to move around during the journey, the comfort advantage of rail is not inherent; it depends on the specific implementation. For example, high speed trains which are not subject to compulsory reservation may carry some standing passengers. Airplanes do not allow standing passengers, so excess passengers are denied boarding. Train passengers can have the choice between standing or waiting for a bookable connection.

Flexible itineraries[link]

A single train can accommodate multiple itineraries. Matching that flexibility with a plane requires intermediate stops that drastically increase air travel times relative to HSR.

Safety[link]

HSR is much simpler to control due to its predictable course. High-speed rail systems reduce (but do not eliminate)^[55][56] collisions with automobiles or people, when using non-grade level track.

See also[link]

Trains portal

• Vactrain
• Aérotrain
• Ground effect train
• High-speed rail by country
• High speed tilting train
• Land speed record for railed vehicles
• Magnetic levitation train
• Megaproject
• Transrapid
• Planned high-speed rail by country
• Passenger rail terminology

Notes and references[link]

Further reading[link]

• Hood, Christopher P. (2006). Shinkansen – From Bullet Train to Symbol of Modern Japan. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-32052-6. 
• Cornolò, Giovanni (1990). Una leggenda che corre: breve storia dell'elettrotreno e dei suoi primati; ETR.200 – ETR.220 – ETR 240. Salò: ETR. ISBN 88-85068-23-5. 

• de Rus, Gines (2011). "vol 2, issue 1". In Journal of Benefit-Cost Analysis. The BCA of HSR: Should the Government Invest in High Speed Rail Infrastructure?. Berkeley Press, http://ideas.repec.org/a/bpj/jbcacn/v2y2011i1n2.html. 

External links[link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: High-speed rail

• US High Speed Rail Association official site
• Transrapid – Maglev: High-Speed in Asia (China, Shanghai), Japan (Yamanashi) and Germany (Munich; TVE)
• UIC: High Speed Rail

Look up high-speed in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

High Speed or high-speed may refer to items in the following categories:

Air, flight, and flight research[link]

• Eight-Foot High Speed Tunnel, also known as Eight-Foot Transonic Tunnel; a wind tunnel at NASA's Langley Research Center in Hampton, Virginia
• High Speed Civil Transport (HSCT) or High-Speed Research (HSR) Program, a NASA program (1990–1999), focused on future passenger jet technology
• High-speed flight, a term for subsonic aerodynamics and theory
• RAF High Speed Flight, sometimes known as 'The Flight' , a small flight of the Royal Air Force (RAF) formed for the purpose of competing in the Schneider Trophy contest for racing seaplanes during the 1920s
• High speed turn off (HSTO) or High speed taxiway (HST), special types of taxiways which allow aircraft to exit a runway at higher speeds
• High speed wind tunnel (HSWT), also known as high subsonic or transonic, a type of wind tunnel

Electronics, integrated circuits, and computer interfaces[link]

• High speed input (HSI) and High speed output (HSO), technology used in various microcontrollers such as the Intel MCS-96
• High Speed Interconnect (HSI or HSI-Bridge), a chip from Nvidia corporation involving AGP and PCI Express
• High-Speed Serial Interface (HSSI), a differential ECL serial interface standard developed by Cisco Systems and T3plus Networking
• Very High Speed Integrated Circuits, a 1980s U.S. government program to develop faster circuits

Internet and telecommunications[link]

• High-speed Internet or broadband

• 125 High Speed Mode, Broadcom's proprietary frame-bursting and compression technology to improve 802.11g wireless LAN performance
• High speed Bluetooth, another name for Bluetooth 3.0
• High-Speed Circuit-Switched Data (HSCSD), an enhancement to GSM mobile communications
• High-speed data access, the IEC 61970-404 Component Interface Specification (CIS)
• High Speed Link, a way to carry a number of voice channels over an SDH-like link.
• High-speed multimedia radio (HSMM), colloquially referred to as the hinternet; the implementation of wireless data networks over amateur radio frequencies using commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) hardware
• High Speed OFDM Packet Access, a mobile telecommunications technology
• High Speed Packet Access (HSPA), a collection of two mobile telephony protocols
  • High-Speed Downlink Packet Access (HSDPA), a 3G mobile telephony communications protocol
    • High-Speed Downlink Shared Channel (HS-DSCH), used in HSDPA (UMTS) to send packets on the downlink to the UEs; called High-Speed to distinguish it from the more general definition of the downlink shared channel (DSCH) in UMTS
  • High-Speed Uplink Packet Access (HSUPA), a 3G mobile telephony communications protocol in
• High Speed Telegraphy (HST), competitions which challenge individuals to correctly receive and copy Morse code transmissions sent at very high speeds
• High-speed transceiver logic (HSTL), a technology-independent standard for signaling between integrated circuits
• High Speed Voice and Data Link (HVDL), a high-speed voice and data provisioning method that allows telcos and ISPs to provide up to three voice channels and data on a copper pair
• Single-Pair High-speed Digital Subscriber Line (SPHSDSL), a type of DSL technology
• Very High Speed Digital Subscriber Line (VHSDSL) and Very High Speed Digital Subscriber Line 2 (VHSDSL2), types of DSL technology

Machining and industrial[link]

• High-speed door, a type of door mainly used in the industrial sector
• High Speed Cutting, technology for high-speed metal work
• High Speed Drilling (HSD), drilling at two times or more compared to conventional drilling speeds
• High Speed Machining (HSM), techniques used for high speed milling and drilling
• High speed steel (HSS, sometimes HS), a material usually used in the manufacture of machine tool bits and other cutters

Military[link]

• AGM-88 High Speed Anti-Radiation Missile (HARM), a military missile
• High speed transport, converted destroyers and destroyer escorts used to support amphibious operations in World War II and afterward
• M4 High-Speed Tractor, an artillery tractor used by the US Army from 1943

Photography[link]

• High speed camera, a device used for recording slow-motion playback films
• High speed digital microscope, a product from Keyence
• High speed photography, the science of taking pictures of very fast phenomena
• High Speed Photometer (HSP), a scientific instrument installed on the Hubble Space Telescope
• High-Speed-Synchronisation, a designation for Flash synchronization

Rail[link]

General Information[link]

• High-speed rail, a type of rapid passenger rail transport
• High-speed rail by country, a listing of articles for high-speed rail transit worldwide
• List of high-speed trains, a listing of high-speed trains

Specific Projects[link]

• High Speed Alliance, the former name of NS Hispeed, a rail operator in The Netherlands
• High Speed Electric Locomotive, an electric locomotive operated by Amtrak
• High Speed Freight Vehicle (HSFV), a generic term for a number of prototype 4-wheeled rail vehicles which were fitted with various experimental suspensions, developed by the British Rail Research Division
• High Speed Surface Transport (HSST), a maglev regional transport system
• High Speed Train Europe (HSTE or HTE), a high-speed rail project between Société Nationale des Chemins de fer Français and Deutsche Bahn, stopped in 2004
• High Speed 1 (HS1), officially known as the Channel Tunnel Rail Link (CTRL), is a high-speed railway line in the United Kingdom
• High Speed Line 1, HSL 2, HSL 3, HSL 4, a series of high-speed rail lines in Belgium