Low German
Plattdüütsch
Spoken in	Germany, Denmark, Netherlands, United States, Canada
Native speakers	≈5 million  (date missing)
Language family	Indo-European Germanic West Germanic Low German
Dialects	West Low German East Low German
Language codes
ISO 639-2	nds
ISO 639-3	nds
Linguasphere	52-ACB
Low German dialects (including Dutch)
This page contains IPA phonetic symbols in Unicode. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Unicode characters.

Low German or Low Saxon (Plattdüütsch, Nedderdüütsch; Standard German: Plattdeutsch or Niederdeutsch; Dutch: Nedersaksisch in the wider sense. See Nomenclature below.) is an Ingvaeonic^[1] West Germanic language spoken mainly in northern Germany and the eastern part of the Netherlands. It is descended from Old Saxon in its earliest form.

The historical Sprachraum of Low German also included contemporary northern Poland, the Kaliningrad Oblast of Russia, and a part of southern Lithuania. German speakers in this area were expelled after the post-World War II boundary changes. The former German communities in the Baltic states also spoke Low German. Moreover, Middle Low German was the lingua franca of the Hanseatic League, and it had a significant influence on the Scandinavian languages.

Geographical extent[link]

Low German in Europe[link]

City limits sign; this city is called Emlichheim in High German and Emmelkamp in Low German

Dialects of Low German are widely spoken in the northeastern area of the Netherlands (Dutch Low Saxon) and are written there with an orthography based on Dutch orthography.

Variants of Low German were widely (and are still to a far lesser extent) spoken in most parts of Northern Germany, for instance in the states of Lower Saxony, North Rhine-Westphalia, Hamburg, Bremen, Schleswig-Holstein, Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, Saxony-Anhalt and Brandenburg. Small portions of northern Hesse and northern Thuringia are traditionally Low Saxon speaking too. Historically, Low German was also spoken in formerly German parts of Poland as well as in East Prussia and the Baltic States of Estonia and Latvia. The language was also formerly spoken in the outer areas of what is now the city state of Berlin but in the course of urbanisation and national centralisation in that city the language vanished. (The Berlin dialect itself is a northern outpost of High German and typologically a Missingsch variety, although rarely recognized as the latter).

Today, there are still speakers outside of Germany and The Netherlands to be found in the coastal areas of present Poland (minority of ethnic German Pommersch speakers who were not expelled from Pomerania, as well as the regions around Braniewo)^{[citation needed]}. In the Southern Jutland region of Denmark there may still be some Low German speakers in some German minority communities, but the Low German and North Frisian dialects of Denmark can be considered moribund at this time.^{[citation needed]}

Low German outside Europe and the Mennonites[link]

There are also immigrant communities where Low German is spoken in the western hemisphere, including Canada, the United States, Mexico, Venezuela, South Africa, Central Asia, Belize, Bolivia, Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay and Uruguay. In some of these countries, the language is part of the Mennonite religion and culture.^[2] There are Mennonite communities in Ontario, Saskatchewan, Alberta, British Columbia, Manitoba, and Minnesota which use Low German in their religious services and communities; the people are largely ethnic Germans whose ancestors had moved to newly acquired Russian territories in Ukraine before emigrating to the Americas in the 19th and early 20th centuries. The type of Low German spoken in these communities and in the Midwest region of the United States has diverged since emigration. The survival of the language is tenuous in many places and has died out in some places where assimilation has occurred. Members and friends of the Historical Society of North German Settlements in Western New York (Bergholz, NY), a community of Lutherans who trace their immigration from Pommerania in the 1840s, hold quarterly "Plattdeutsch lunch" events, where remnant speakers of the language gather to share and preserve the dialect. Mennonite colonies in Paraguay, South America, Belize, and Chihuahua, Mexico have made Low German a "co-official language" of the community. Pommersch is also spoken in parts of Southern Brazil.

Nomenclature[link]

Low German is called Plattdüütsch or Nedderdüütsch by its native speakers in Germany. Native speakers of Low German in the Netherlands refer to their language as plat or dialect, or they call it by the name of their village or town.

Officially, Low German is called Niederdeutsch (Nether/Low German) by the German authorities. In the Netherlands, the Dutch authorities call it Nedersaksisch (Nether/Low Saxon). Plattdeutsch/Niederdeutsch and Platduits/Nedersaksisch are seen in linguistic texts from the German and Dutch linguistic communities respectively.

In Danish it is called Plattysk, Nedertysk or, rarely, Lavtysk.

Mennonite Low German is called "Plautdietsch."

"Low" refers to the flat plains and coastal area of the northern European lowlands, contrasted with the mountainous areas of central and southern Germany, Switzerland, and Austria, where High German is spoken.^[3]

The colloquial term "Platt" denotes both Low German dialects and any non-standard variety of German; this use is chiefly found in northern and western Germany and is considered not to be linguistically correct.^[4]

The ISO 639-2 language code for Low German (Low Saxon) has been nds (nedersaksisch) since May 2000.

Disambiguation[link]

There are different uses of the term "Low German":

1. A specific name of any West Germanic varieties that neither have taken part in the High German consonant shift nor classify as Low Franconian or Anglo-Frisian; this is the scope discussed in this article.
2. A broader term for the closely related, continental West Germanic language family unaffected by the High German consonant shift, nor classifying as Anglo-Frisian, and thus including Low Franconian varieties such as Dutch.

Legal status[link]

Low German dialects (including Dutch)

The question of whether Low German should be considered a separate language, rather than a dialect of German or Dutch, has been a point of contention. Linguistics offers no simple, generally accepted criterion to decide this question.

Scholarly arguments have been put forward in favour of classifying Low German as a German dialect.^[5][6] As said, these arguments are not linguistic but rather socio-political and build mainly around the fact that Low German has no official standard form or use in sophisticated media. The situation of Low German may thus be considered a pseudo-dialectized abstand language.

In contrast, Old Saxon and Middle Low German are generally considered separate languages in their own rights. Since Low German has undergone a strong decline since the 18th century the perceived similarities with High German or Dutch may often be direct High German/Dutch adaptations due to the growing incapability of speakers to speak correctly what was once Low German proper.

At the request of Schleswig-Holstein the German government has declared Low German as a regional language.

German offices in Schleswig-Holstein are obliged to accept and handle applications in Low German in the same way as Standard High German applications.^[7] The Bundesgerichtshof ruled in a case that this was even to be done at the patent office in Munich, in a Non-Low German region, when the applicant then had to pay the charge for a translator,^[8] because applications in Low German are considered "nicht in deutscher Sprache abgefasst" (not written in the German language).

Low German has been recognised by the Netherlands and by Germany (since 1999) as a regional language according to the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. Within the official terminology defined in the charter, this status would not be available to a dialect of an official language (as per article 1 (a)), and hence not to Low German in Germany if it were considered a dialect of German. Advocates of the promotion of Low German have expressed considerable hope that this political development will at once lend legitimacy to their claim that Low German is a separate language and help mitigate the functional limits of the language that may still be cited as objective criteria for a mere dialect (such as the virtually complete absence from legal and administrative contexts, schools, the media, etc.).^[9]

Classification and related languages[link]

Low German and Dutch languages colored pink. 1880

Low German is a part of the continental West Germanic dialect continuum.

To the West, it blends into the Low Franconian languages which distinguish two plural verbal endings, as opposed to a common verbal plural ending in Low German.

To the South, it blends into the High German dialects of Central German that have been affected by the High German consonant shift. The division is usually drawn at the Benrath line that traces the maken – machen isogloss.

To the East, it abuts the Kashubian language (the only remnant of the Pomeranian language) and, since the expulsion of nearly all Germans from Pomerania following the Second World War, also by the Polish language. The Low German dialects of Pomerania are included in the Pommersch group.

To the North and Northwest, it abuts the Danish and the Frisian languages. Note that in Germany, Low German has replaced the Frisian languages in many regions. The Saterland Frisian is the only remnant of East Frisian language and is surrounded by Low German, as are the few remaining North Frisian varieties, and the Low German dialects of those regions have Frisian influences from Frisian substrates.

Some classify the northern dialects of Low German together with English, Scots, and Frisian as the North Sea Germanic or Ingvaeonic languages. However, most exclude Low German from that group often called Anglo-Frisian languages because some distinctive features of that group of languages are only partially observed in Low German, for instance the Ingvaeonic nasal spirant law (some dialects have us, os for ‘us’ whereas others have uns, ons), and because other distinctive features do not occur in Low German at all, for instance the palatalization of /k/ (compare palatalized forms such as English cheese, Frisian tsiis to non-palatalized forms such as Low German Kees or Kaise, Dutch kaas, German Käse).

Varieties of Low German[link]

In Germany[link]

• West Low German
  • East Frisian Low Saxon
  • Northern Low Saxon
  • Westphalian language
  • Eastphalian language
• East Low German
  • Brandenburgisch
  • Mecklenburgisch-Vorpommersch
  • Mittelpommersch
  • East Pomeranian
  • Low Prussian
  • Plautdietsch (Mennonite Low German, used also in many other countries)

In the Netherlands[link]

The Dutch Low Saxon varieties, which are also defined as Dutch dialects, consist of:

• Westerkwartiers
  • Kollumerpompsters
  • Kollumerlands
  • Middaglands
  • Midden-Westerkwartiers
  • Zuid-Westerkwartiers
• Gronings and Noord-Drents
  • Hogelandsters
  • Stadsgronings
  • Westerwolds
  • Veenkoloniaals
  • Oldambtsters
• Stellingwerfs
• Midden-Drents
• Zuid-Drents
• Twents
• Twents-Graafschaps
• Gelders-Overijssels
  • Achterhoeks
  • Sallands
  • Urkers
• Veluws
  • Oost-Veluws
  • West-Veluws

History[link]

Old Saxon[link]

Old Saxon, also known as Old Low German, is a West Germanic language. It is documented from the 9th century until the 12th century, when it evolved into Middle Low German. It was spoken on the north-west coast of Germany and in Denmark by Saxon peoples. It is closely related to Old Anglo-Frisian (Old Frisian, Old English), partially participating in the Ingvaeonic nasal spirant law.

Only a few texts survive, predominantly in baptismal vows the Saxons were required to perform at the behest of Charlemagne. The only literary texts preserved are Heliand and the Old Saxon Genesis.

Middle Low German[link]

The Middle Low German language is an ancestor of modern Low German. It was spoken from about 1100 to 1500. The neighbouring languages within the dialect continuum of the West Germanic languages were Middle Dutch in the West and Middle High German in the South, later substituted by Early New High German. Middle Low German was the lingua franca of the Hanseatic League, spoken all around the North Sea and the Baltic Sea. Based on the language of Lübeck, a standardized written language was developing, though it was never codified.

Contemporary[link]

There is a distinction between the German and the Dutch Low Saxon/Low German situation. After mass education in Germany in the 19th and 20th centuries the slow decline which Low German was experiencing since the end of the Hanseatic league turned into a free fall. In the early 20th century, scholars in the Netherlands argued that speaking dialects hindered language acquisition, and it was therefore strongly discouraged. Many parents, however, continued to speak Low Saxon with their children, since they could not speak anything else, nor did they need to; many of the Eastern Dutch towns and villages were largely self-reliant, and located far from the economical heart of the country.

As education improved, and mass communication became more wide-spread, the Low Saxon dialects declined, but never disappeared. People born up to the 1980s often have one of the Low Saxon dialects as one of their first languages, although decline has been greater in urbane centres of the Low Saxon regions. When in 1975 dialect folk and rock bands such as Normaal and Boh Foi Toch became successful with their overt disapproval of what they experienced as "misplaced Dutch snobbery" and the western Dutch contempt for (speakers of) Low Saxon dialects, they quickly gained an enormous following among the more rurally oriented inhabitants of the Netherlands, launching Low Saxon as a vibrant sub-culture, which is very lively up until today. They inspired many contemporary dialect artists and rock bands, such as Daniël Lohues, Mooi Wark, Jovink en de Voederbietels, Hádiejan and many other less successful artists.

Today efforts are made in Germany and in the Netherlands to protect Low German as a regional language. Various Low German dialects are understood by 10 million people, and native to about 3 million people all around northern Germany. Most of these speakers are located in rural villages and are often elderly. In the Netherlands, Low Saxon is still spoken more widely than in Northern Germany. A 2005 study showed that in the Tweante region 62% of the inhabitants used Low Saxon daily, and up to 75% regularly.

The KDE project supports Low German (nds) as a language for its computer desktop environment ^[10] as well as the GNOME Desktop Project does. Several Open Source Software is getting translated into Low German today and most of them are managed by the NDS umbrella Project nds.sourceforge.net.^[11] Examples here are the Linux distributions Ubuntu or Fedora.

Sound change[link]

As with the Anglo-Frisian languages and the North Germanic languages, Low German has not been influenced by the High German consonant shift except for old /ð/ having shifted to /d/. Therefore a lot of Low German words sound similar to their English counterparts. One feature that does distinguish Low German from English generally is final devoicing of obstruents, as exemplified by the words 'good' and 'wind' below. This is a characteristic of Dutch and German as well and involves positional neutralization of voicing contrast in the coda position for obstruents (i.e. t = d at the end of a syllable.) This is not used in English except for in the English county of Yorkshire, where there is a process known as Yorkshire assimilation.^[12]

For instance: water [wɒtɜ, watɜ, wætɜ], later [lɒːtɜ, laːtɜ, læːtɜ], bit [bɪt], dish [dis, diʃ], ship [ʃɪp, skɪp, sxɪp], pull [pʊl], good [ɡout, ɣɑut, ɣuːt], clock [klɔk], sail [sɑil], he [hɛi, hɑi, hi(j)], storm [stoːrm], wind [vɪˑnt], grass [ɡras, ɣras], hold [hoˑʊl(t)], old [oˑʊl(t)].

Low German is a West Germanic language of the lowlands and as such did not experience the High German consonant shift. The table below shows the relationship between English and Low German consonants which were unaffected by this chain shift and gives the modern German counterparts, which were affected by the sound shift.

Notes: *German Kerl is a loanword from Low German; **The series Wief-wijf, etc. are cognates, not semantic equivalents. The meanings of some of these words have shifted over time. For example, the correct equivalent term for "wife" in modern Dutch and German is vrouw and Frau respectively; using wijf or Weib for a human is considered archaic in German and derogatory in Dutch, comparable to "bitch". No cognate to Frau/vrouw has survived in English (cf. Old English frōwe "lady").

Grammar[link]

Generally speaking, Low German grammar shows similarities with the grammars of Dutch, Frisian, English, and Scots, but the dialects of Northern Germany share some features (especially lexical and syntactic features) with German dialects.

Nouns[link]

Low German declension has only two morphologically marked noun cases, where accusative and dative together constitute an oblique case, and the genitive case got lost.

Dative dän[link]

In most modern dialects, the nominative and oblique cases are primarily distinguished only in the singular of masculine nouns. In some Low German dialects, the genitive case is distinguished as well (e.g. varieties of Mennonite Low German.) It is marked in the masculine gender by changing the masculine definite determiner 'de' from de to dän. By contrast, German distinguishes four cases: nominative, accusative, genitive, and dative. So, for example, the definite article of the masculine singular has the forms: der (nom), den (acc), des (gen), and dem (dat.) Thus case marking in Low German is simpler than German's.

Verbs[link]

In Low German verbs are conjugated for person, number, and tense. Verb conjugation for person is only differentiated in the singular. There are five tenses in Low German: present tense, preterite, perfect, and pluperfect, and in Mennonite Low German the present perfect which signifies a remaining effect from a past finished action. For example "Ekj sie jekomen", "I am come", means that the speaker came and he is still at the place to which he came as a result of his completed action.

Unlike Dutch, German, and southern Low German, the northern dialects form the participle without the prefix ge-, like the Scandinavian languages, Frisian and English. Compare to the German past participle geschlafen. This past participle is formed with the auxiliary verbs hebben "to have" and ween/wesen/sien "to be". It should be noted that e- is used instead of ge- in most Southern (below Groningen in the Netherlands) dialects, though often not when the past participle ends with -en or in a few oft-used words like west (been).

The reason for the two conjugations shown in the plural is regional: dialects in the central area use -t while the dialects in East Frisia and the dialects in Mecklenburg^{[examples needed]} and further east use -en. The -en suffix is of Dutch influence.

There are 26 verb affixes.

There is also a progressive form of verbs in present, corresponding to the same in the Dutch language. It is formed with ween (to be), the preposition an (at) and "dat" (the/it).

¹ Many see the 'n as an old dative ending of dat which only occurs when being shortened after prepositions. This is actually the most often form in colloquial Low German.
² This was an old form to build the progressive form. It's the same pattern as in the English example "I am making." The present participle has the same form as the infinitive: maken is either "to make" or "making". This form is not vivid anymore and mostly unknown to Low German speaker.

Phonology[link]

Vowels[link]

The list given represents the phonology of the Plautdietsch dialect.

Consonants[link]

Since there is no standard Low German, there is no standard Low German consonant system. The table shows the consonant system of North Saxon, a West Low Saxon dialect.^[13]

Writing system[link]

Low German is written using the Latin alphabet. There is no true standard orthography, only several locally more or less accepted orthographic guidelines, those in the Netherlands mostly based on Dutch orthography, and those in Germany mostly based on German orthography. There is a standard orthography which was invented by "Sass". It is mostly used by modern official publications and internet sites, especially the Low German Wikipedia. This diversity, a result of centuries of official neglect and suppression, has a very fragmenting and thus weakening effect on the language as a whole, since it has created barriers that do not exist on the spoken level. Interregional and international communication is severely hampered by this. Most of these systems aim at representing the phonetic (allophonic) output rather than underlying (phonemic) representations but trying to conserve many etymological spellings. Furthermore, many writers follow guidelines only roughly. This adds numerous idiosyncratic and often inconsistent ways of spelling to the already existing great orthographic diversity.

In 2011, writers of the Dutch Low Saxon Wikipedia developed a spelling that would be suitable and applicable to all varieties of Low Saxon in the Netherlands, although the semi-official dialect institutes have not picked up on this, or indicated that they believed that yet another writing system will only further confuse dialect writers, rather than suit them. The new spelling was introduced to the Dutch Low Saxon Wikipedia, to unify the spelling of categories, templates and comparable source code writings.

See also[link]

• Bible translations into German
• Fritz Reuter
• Gorch Fock
• Klaus Groth
• Meuse-Rhenish
• Moin
• 1614 Low German Bible
• Hamborger Veermaster
• Ohnsorg-Theater

Resources[link]

Low German (Germany) edition of Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Low Saxon (Netherlands) edition of Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Plautdietsch test of Wikipedia at Wikimedia Incubator

There is a lot of information about Low German to be found online. A selection of these links can be found on this page, which will provide a good framework to understand the history, current situation and features of the language.

Online dictionaries:

• Plattmakers dictionary with more than 10,000 word entries, with translations and interface available in several languages (English too)
• Dictionary of the Drents dialect (Dutch)
• Mennonite Low German-English Dictionary
• List of more than 100 published dictionaries

Information:

• Low German Podcasts, Audio and Videos (Plautdietsch dialect)
• Low German Podcasts, Audio and Videos (Oolland dialect)
• News program in Low Saxon
• Ethnologue report for Low German (very imprecise, but Ethnologue are not planning an update any time soon)
• List of links, provided by the Lowlands List;
• Streektaal.net, information in and about various Low German dialects;
• Nu is de Welt platt! International resources in and about Low German;
• Niederdeutsch/Plattdeutsch in Westfalen, by Olaf Bordasch;
• Mönsterlänner Plat, by Klaus-Werner Kahl;
• Plattdeutsch heute
• Building Blocks of Low Saxon (Low German), an introductory grammar in English and German

Organizations:

• TwentseWwelle (Twente, the Netherlands)
• Kreenk vuur de Tweantse Sproake (Twente, the Netherlands)
• IJsselacademie (Overijssel and Veluwe, the Netherlands)
• Staring Instituut (Achterhoek, the Netherlands)
• Oostfreeske Taal (Eastern Friesland, Germany)
• Drentse Taol (Drenthe, the Netherlands)
• Stichting Stellingwarver Schrieversronte (Friesland, the Netherlands)
• SONT (General, the Netherlands)
• Institut für niederdeutsche Sprache e.V. (General, Germany)
• Diesel - dat oostfreeske Bladdje (Eastern Friesland, Germany)
• http://nds.sourceforge.net (Open Source Software Translation Project into Low German)

If your organisation isn't listed here, feel free to add it.

Writers:

• Gertrud Everding (Northern Low Saxon - Hamburg, Germany)
• Marlou Lessing (Northern Low Saxon - Hamburg, Germany)
• Clara Kramer-Freudenthal (Northern Low Saxon - Norderstedt, Germany)
• Johan Veenstra (Stellingwarfs - Friesland, the Netherlands)

Musicians:

• 3molPlaut (Ken Sawatzky, Vern and Christina Neufeld - Manitoba, Canada)
• Skik (Drents/Dutch - Drenthe, the Netherlands)
• Jan Cornelius (East Frisian - Ostfriesland, Germany)
• Törf (Gronings - Groningen, the Netherlands)
• Eltje Doddema (Veenkoloniaals - Groningen, the Netherlands)
• Boh foi toch (Achterhoeks - Gelderland, the Netherlands)
• Helmut Debus (Lower Saxony - Niedersachsen, Germany)
• Wunnerwark (Lower Saxony - Niedersachsen, Germany)

Unorganized links:

• http://www.plattmaster.de/
• http://www.platt-online.de/
• http://www.zfn-ratzeburg.de/
• http://www.deutsch-plattdeutsch.de/

References[link]

High Valley is a Canadian Christian country music group from Blumenort, near the town of La Crete. The band is composed of brothers Brad, Bryan and Curtis Rempel. All three graduated from La Crete Public School.^[1]

Biography[link]

High Valley's album Broken Borders was named Album of the Year at the 2007 GMA Canada Covenant Awards, while the song "Back to You" was awarded Country Song of the Year.^[1] High Valley's second album, High Valley, was released in Canada and the United States on September 14, 2010. In 2011 the band won five CGMA awards, including Artist of the Year and Group of the Year.

Discography[link]

Albums[link]

Singles[link]

• ^ACurrent single.

Music videos[link]

Awards[link]

GMA Canada Covenant Awards

• 2007 two awards: Country/Bluegrass Album Of The Year: Broken Borders, and Country/Bluegrass Song Of The Year: "Back To You"
• 2011 five awards: Artist Of The Year, Group Of The Year, Country/Bluegrass Album Of The Year: High Valley, Country/Bluegrass Song Of The Year: "A Father's Love (The Only Way He Knew How)", and Video Of The Year: "A Father's Love (The Only Way He Knew How)"

References[link]

External links[link]

• Official website

Mark Joseph Campbell (December 6, 1975) is a former American Football tight end who played for ten seasons in the National Football League for the Cleveland Browns from 1999–2002, the Buffalo Bills from 2003–2005, and the New Orleans Saints from 2006–2008. He was signed by the Browns as an undrafted free agent in 1999. He played college football at Michigan.^[1][2]

References[link]

This biographical article relating to an American football tight end born in the 1970s is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e

Frederick Ralph Cornelius Penner, CM OM (born November 6, 1946) is a Canadian children's entertainer who gives appearances throughout North America. His television show, Fred Penner's Place, aired on CBC in Canada from 1985 to 1997. It was co-produced by Nickelodeon in 1989 and 1990.^{[citation needed]}

Penner was born in Winnipeg, Manitoba. At the early age of four, Penner began making up songs while travelling on the bus with his mother. He taught himself how to play the guitar when he was in grade school, and performed in school choirs and pageants. Through his experience with his sister Suzy's Down Syndrome, he recognized the therapeutic value of music.^{[citation needed]}

Penner received his high school diploma at Kelvin High School, where he took lead roles in the Gilbert and Sullivan operettas. After graduating from the University of Winnipeg with a Bachelor of Arts degree in economics and psychology, he spent time working with mentally and physically challenged children, using music to comfort and entertain. In 1977, he met choreographer and future wife Odette Heyn, with whom he started a children's dance theatre company. Penner accepted an offer to do a recording, which resulted in the album The Cat Came Back, which launched his career and established him as one of Canada's leading children's entertainers.^{[citation needed]}

In 1984, he appeared on the children's television show, The Elephant Show, singing his song "The Cat Came Back".

In 1991, he was made a Member of the Order of Canada for "using music and song to entertain and educate his young audience".^[1]

In 2011, he was made a Member of the Order of Manitoba.^[2]

Discography[link]

• The Cat Came Back (1979)
• The Polka Dot Pony (1981)
• Ebeneezer Sneezer (1983) (originally titled "Special Delivery")
• A House for Me (1985)
• Fred Penner's Place (1988)
• Collections (1989)
• The Season (1990)
• Happy Feet (1992)
• Moonlight Express (2001)
• Where In The World (2008)

Sources[link]

• "Canadian Who's Who 1997 entry". http://www.utpress.utoronto.ca/cgi-bin/cw2w3.cgi?p=penn&t=4248&d=2007. Retrieved May 8, 2006. 

References[link]

External links[link]

• Official site
• Biography, on Paquin Entertainment's representation site
• Fred Penner at the Internet Movie Database

This article about a Canadian guitarist is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e

Amish

Total population
249,000 (Old Order Amish)[1]
Founder
Jakob Ammann
Regions with significant populations
United States (notably Ohio, Pennsylvania, Indiana and New York) Canada (notably Ontario)
Religions
Anabaptist
Scriptures
The Bible
Languages
Pennsylvania German, Swiss German, English

The Amish ( /ˈɑːmɪʃ/ AH-mish; Pennsylvania Dutch: Amisch, German: Amische), sometimes referred to as Amish Mennonites, are a group of Christian church fellowships that form a subgroup of the Mennonite churches. The Amish are known for simple living, plain dress, and reluctance to adopt many conveniences of modern technology. The history of the Amish church began with a schism in Switzerland within a group of Swiss and Alsatian Anabaptists in 1693 led by Jakob Ammann.^[2] Those who followed Ammann became known as Amish.^[3]

In the early 18th century, many Amish and Mennonites emigrated to Pennsylvania for a variety of reasons. Today, the most traditional descendants of the Amish continue to speak Pennsylvania German, also known as Pennsylvania Dutch. However, a dialect of Swiss German predominates in some Old Order Amish communities, especially in the American state of Indiana.^[4] As of 2000, over 165,000 Old Order Amish live in the United States and approximately 1500 live in Canada.^[5] A 2008 study suggested their numbers have increased to 227,000,^[6] and in 2010 a study suggested their population had grown by 10% in the past two years to 249,000, with increasing movement to the West.^[1]

Amish church membership begins with baptism, usually between the ages of 16 and 25. It is a requirement for marriage, and once a person has affiliated with the church, he or she may marry only within the faith. Church districts average between 20 and 40 families, and worship services are held every other Sunday in a member's home. The district is led by a bishop and several ministers and deacons.^[7] The rules of the church, the Ordnung, must be observed by every member. These rules cover most aspects of day-to-day living, and include prohibitions or limitations on the use of power-line electricity, telephones, and automobiles, as well as regulations on clothing. Many Amish church members may not buy insurance or accept government assistance such as Social Security. As Anabaptists, Amish church members practice nonresistance and will not perform any type of military service.

Members who do not conform to these expectations and who cannot be convinced to repent are excommunicated. In addition to excommunication, members may be shunned, a practice that limits social contacts to shame the wayward member into returning to the church. During adolescence rumspringa ("running around") in some communities, nonconforming behavior that would result in the shunning of an adult who had made the permanent commitment of baptism, may meet with a degree of forbearance.^[8] Amish church groups seek to maintain a degree of separation from the non-Amish (English) world. There is generally a heavy emphasis on church and family relationships. They typically operate their own one-room schools and discontinue formal education at grade eight. They value rural life, manual labor and humility.

History[link]

Cover "Birth of Mennonite movement", 1938

An old Amish cemetery in Lancaster County, Pennsylvania, 1941.

The Amish Mennonite movement descends from the 16th century and great fellowship known as the Swiss Brethren.^[9] The Swiss Brethren were Anabaptists, and are often viewed as having been a part of a Radical Reformation. "Anabaptist" means "one who baptizes again" – a reference to those who had been baptized as infants, but later adopted a belief in "believer's baptism", and then let themselves again be baptized as adults. These Swiss Brethren trace their origination to Felix Manz (ca. 1498–1527) and Conrad Grebel (ca. 1498–1526), who had broken from reformer Huldrych Zwingli.^[10]

The Amish movement takes its name from Jakob Ammann (c. 1656–1730), a Swiss Mennonite leader. Ammann believed Mennonites, the peaceful Anabaptists of the Low Countries and Germany, were drifting away from the teachings of Menno Simons and the 1632 Mennonite Dordrecht Confession of Faith. Ammann favored stronger church discipline, including a more rigid application of shunning, the social exclusion of excommunicated members. Swiss Anabaptists, who were scattered by persecution throughout the Alsace and the Palatinate, never practiced strict shunning as had some lowland Anabaptists.^{[citation needed]} Ammann insisted upon this practice, even to the point of expecting spouses to refuse to eat with each other, until the banned spouse repented.^[11] This type of strict literalism, on this issue, as well as others, brought about a division among the Mennonites of Southern Germany, the Alsace and Switzerland in 1693, and led to withdrawal of those who sided with Ammann.

Swiss Anabaptism developed, from this point, in two parallel streams. Those following Ammann became known as Amish or Amish Mennonite. The others eventually formed the basis of the Swiss Mennonite Conference. Because of this common heritage, Amish and Mennonites retain many similarities. Those who leave the Amish fold tend to join various congregations of Conservative Mennonites.^[12][13]

Amish Mennonites began migrating to Pennsylvania in the 18th century as part of a larger migration from the Palatinate and neighboring areas. This migration was a reaction to religious wars, poverty, and religious persecution on the Continent.^{[citation needed]} The first Amish immigrants went to Berks County, Pennsylvania, but later moved, motivated by land issues and by security concerns tied to the French and Indian War^{[citation needed]}. Many eventually settled in Lancaster County, Pennsylvania. Other groups later settled in, or spread to Alabama, Delaware, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Kentucky, Michigan, Minnesota, Mississippi, Missouri, Montana, Nebraska, New York, Ohio, Maryland, Tennessee, Wisconsin, Maine, and Ontario, Canada.

The Amish congregations remaining in Europe slowly merged with the Mennonites. The last Amish congregation to merge with the Mennonites was the Ixheim Amish congregation, which merged with the neighboring Mennonite Church in 1937. Some Mennonite congregations, including most in the Alsace, are descended directly from former Amish congregations.^[14]

Most Amish communities that were established in North America did not ultimately retain their Amish identity. The original major split that resulted in the loss of identity occurred in the 1860s. During that decade Dienerversammlungen (ministerial conferences) were held in Wayne County, Ohio, concerning how the Amish should deal with the pressures of modern society. The meetings themselves were a progressive idea; for bishops to assemble to discuss uniformity was an unprecedented notion in the Amish church.^{[citation needed]} By the first several meetings, the more traditionally minded bishops agreed to boycott the conferences. The more progressive members, comprising approximately two thirds of the group, retained the name Amish Mennonite. Many of these eventually united with the Mennonite Church, and other Mennonite denominations, especially in the early 20th century. The more traditionally minded groups became known as the Old Order Amish.^[15]

Religious practices[link]

A scan of the historical document Diß Lied haben die sieben Brüder im Gefängnüß zu Gmünd gemacht

Amish couple in horse-driven buggy in rural Holmes County, Ohio, September 2004)

Two key concepts for understanding Amish practices are their rejection of Hochmut (pride, arrogance, haughtiness) and the high value they place on Demut (humility) and Gelassenheit (calmness, composure, placidity), often translated as "submission" or "letting-be". Gelassenheit is perhaps better understood as a reluctance to be forward, to be self-promoting, or to assert oneself. The Amish's willingness to submit to the "Will of Jesus", expressed through group norms, is at odds with the individualism so central to the wider American culture. The Amish anti-individualist orientation is the motive for rejecting labor-saving technologies that might make one less dependent on community. Modern innovations like electricity might spark a competition for status goods, or photographs might cultivate personal vanity.

Publishing[link]

The Old Order Amish support an unofficial publishing house known as Pathway Publishing Company in Lagrange, Indiana, and Aylmer, Ontario. Pathway publishes a number of school text books, general reading books, and periodicals.

Way of life[link]

Amish lifestyle is dictated by the Ordnung (German, meaning: order), which differs slightly from community to community, and, within a community, from district to district. What is acceptable in one community may not be acceptable in another. No summary of Amish lifestyle and culture can be totally adequate, because there are few generalities that are true for all Amish. Groups may separate over matters such as the width of a hat-brim, the color of buggies, or various other issues.

Having children, raising them, and socializing with neighbors and relatives are the greatest functions of the Amish family. All Amish believe large families are a blessing from God.

Population and distribution[link]

Amish family near Niagara Falls, Ontario

See also List of U.S. states by Amish population

Because members usually get baptized no earlier than 18 and children are not counted in local congregation numbers, it is difficult to put an exact figure on the number of Amish. Rough estimates from various studies have placed their numbers at 125,000 in 1992; 166,000 in 2000; and 221,000 in 2008.^[16] Thus, from 1992 to 2008, population growth among the Amish in North America was 84% (3.6% per year). During that time they established 184 new settlements and moved into six new states.^[17] In 2000, approximately 165,620 Old Order Amish resided in the United States, of whom 73,609 were church members.^[18] The Amish are among the fastest-growing populations in the world, with an average of 7 children per family.^[19]

There are Old Order communities in 27 U.S. states and the Canadian province of Ontario; Ohio has the largest population (55,000), followed by Pennsylvania (51,000) and Indiana (38,000).^[20] The largest Amish settlements are in Holmes County in central Ohio, Lancaster County in south-central Pennsylvania, and Elkhart and LaGrange counties in northeast Indiana.^[21] The largest concentration of Amish west of the Mississippi River is in Missouri, with other settlements in eastern Iowa and Southeast Minnesota.^[22] In addition, there is a population of approximately 10,000 Old Order Amish in West Central Wisconsin.^[23] Because of rapid population growth in Amish communities, new settlements are formed to obtain sufficient farmland. Other reasons for new settlements include locating in isolated areas that support their lifestyle, moving to areas with cultures conducive to their way of life, maintaining proximity to family or other Amish groups, and sometimes to resolve church or leadership conflicts.^[17]

A small Beachy Amish congregation associated with Weavertown Amish Mennonite Church exists in Republic of Ireland.^[24]

Ethnicity[link]

The Amish largely share a German or Swiss-German ancestry. They generally use the term "Amish" only for members of their faith community, and not as an ethnic designation. Those who choose to affiliate with the church, or young children raised in Amish homes, but too young to yet be church members, are considered to be Amish. Certain Mennonite churches have a high number of people who were formerly from Amish congregations. Although more Amish immigrated to America in the 19th century than during the 18th century, most of today's Amish descend from 18th-century immigrants. The latter tended to emphasize tradition to a greater extent, and were perhaps more likely to maintain a separate Amish identity.^[25] There are a number of Amish Mennonite church groups that had never in their history been associated with the Old Order Amish.^{[citation needed]} The former Western Ontario Mennonite Conference (WOMC) was made up almost entirely of former Amish Mennonites who reunited with the Mennonite Church in Canada.^[26] Orland Gingerich's book The Amish of Canada devotes the vast majority of its pages not to the Beachy or Old Order Amish, but to congregations in the former WOMC.

Health[link]

Amish populations have higher incidences of particular genetic disorders, including dwarfism (Ellis-van Creveld syndrome),^[27] and various metabolic disorders,^[28] as well as an unusual distribution of blood types.^[29] Amish represent a collection of different demes or genetically closed communities.^[30] Since almost all Amish descend from about 200 18th-century founders, genetic disorders that come out due to inbreeding exist in more isolated districts (an example of the founder effect). Some of these disorders are quite rare, or unique, and are serious enough to increase the mortality rate among Amish children. The majority of Amish accept these as "Gottes Wille" (God's will); they reject use of preventive genetic tests prior to marriage and genetic testing of unborn children to discover genetic disorders. However, Amish are willing to participate in studies of genetic diseases. Their extensive family histories are useful to researchers investigating diseases such as Alzheimer's, Parkinson's, and macular degeneration.

While the Amish are at an increased risk for a number of genetic disorders, researchers at The Ohio State University Comprehensive Cancer Center—Arthur G. James Cancer Hospital and Richard J. Solove Research Institute (OSUCCC-James) have found their tendencies for clean living can lead to a healthier life. Overall cancer rates in the Amish population are 60 percent of the age-adjusted rate for Ohio and 56 percent of the national rate. The incidence of tobacco-related cancers in the Amish adults is 37 percent of the rate for Ohio adults, and the incidence of non-tobacco-related cancer is 72 percent. The Amish have protection against many types of cancer both through their lifestyle – there is very little tobacco or alcohol use and limited sexual partners —and through genes that may reduce their susceptibility to cancer. Dr. Judith Westman, director of human genetics at OSUCCC-James, conducted the study. The findings were reported in a recent issue of the journal Cancer Causes & Control. Even skin cancer rates are lower for Amish, despite the fact many Amish make their living working outdoors where they are exposed to sunlight and UV rays. They are typically covered and dressed to work in the sun by wearing wide-brimmed hats and long sleeves to protect their skin.^[31]

The Amish are conscious of the advantages of exogamy. A common bloodline in one community will often be absent in another, and genetic disorders can be avoided by choosing spouses from unrelated communities. For example, the founding families of the Lancaster County Amish are unrelated to the founders of the Perth County, Ontario Amish community. Because of a smaller gene pool, some groups have increased incidences of certain inheritable conditions.^[32]

The Old Order Amish do not typically carry private commercial health insurance. About two-thirds of the Amish in Lancaster County participate in Church Aid, an informal self-insurance plan for helping members with catastrophic medical expenses.^[33] A handful of American hospitals, starting in the mid-1990s, created special outreach programs to assist the Amish. The first of these programs was instituted at the Susquehanna Health System in central Pennsylvania by James Huebert. This program has earned national media attention in the United States, and has spread to several surrounding hospitals.^[34][35] Treating genetic problems is the mission of Clinic for Special Children in Strasburg, Pennsylvania, which has developed effective treatments for such problems as maple syrup urine disease, a previously fatal disease. The clinic is embraced by most Amish, ending the need for parents to leave the community to receive proper care for their children, an action that might result in shunning.

DDC Clinic for Special Needs Children, located in Middlefield, Ohio, has been treating special-needs children with inherited or metabolic disorders since May 2002.^[36] The DDC Clinic provides treatment, research, and educational services to Amish and non-Amish children and their families.

Although not forbidden or thought of as immoral, most Amish do not practice any form of birth control, hence their large families. They are against abortion and also find "artificial insemination, genetics, eugenics, and stem cell research" to be "inconsistent with Amish values and beliefs".^[37]

People's Helpers is an Amish-organized network of mental health caregivers who help families dealing with mental illness and recommend professional counselors.^[38] Suicide rates for the Amish of Lancaster County were 5.5 per 100,000 in 1980, about half that of the general population and a third the rate of the non-religious population.^[39]

Amish life in the modern world[link]

Traditional Amish buggy

As time has passed, the Amish have felt pressures from the modern world. Issues such as taxation, education, law and its enforcement, and occasional discrimination and hostility, are areas of difficulty.

The Amish way of life in general has increasingly diverged from that of modern society. On occasion, this has resulted in sporadic discrimination and hostility from their neighbors, such as throwing of stones or other objects at Amish horse-drawn carriages on the roads.^[40][41][42]

The Amish do not usually educate their children past the eighth grade, believing that the basic knowledge offered up to that point is sufficient to prepare one for the Amish lifestyle. Almost no Amish go to high school and college. In many communities, the Amish operate their own schools, which are typically one-room schoolhouses with teachers (young unmarried women) from the Amish community. On May 19, 1972, Jonas Yoder and Wallace Miller of the Old Order Amish, and Adin Yutzy of the Conservative Amish Mennonite Church, were each fined $5 for refusing to send their children, aged 14 and 15, to high school. In Wisconsin v. Yoder, the Wisconsin Supreme Court overturned the conviction,^[43] and the U.S. Supreme Court affirmed this, finding the benefits of universal education do not justify a violation of the Free Exercise Clause of the First Amendment.^[44]

Like other citizens, Amish pay sales and property taxes. However, Amish buggies, bicyclists, and pedestrians use public highways, but need not pay either motor vehicle registration fees or motor fuel taxes^[45]. Under their beliefs and traditions, the Amish do not agree with the idea of social security benefits and have a religious objection to insurance. On this basis, the United States Internal Revenue Service agreed in 1961 that they did not need to pay Social Security related taxes. In 1965, this policy was codified into law.^[46] Self-employed individuals in certain sects do not pay into, nor receive benefits from, United States Social Security. This exemption applies to members of a religious group that is conscientiously opposed to accepting benefits of any private or public insurance, provides a reasonable level of living for its dependent members and has existed continuously since December 31, 1950.^[47] The U.S. Supreme Court in 1982 clarified that Amish employers are not exempt, but only those Amish individuals who are self-employed.^[48]

Subgroups of Amish[link]

Over the years, the Amish churches have divided many times over doctrinal disputes. The "Old Order" Amish, a conservative faction that withdrew from fellowship with the wider body of Amish in the 1860s, are those that have most emphasized traditional practices and beliefs. There are as many as eight different subgroups of Amish with most belonging, in ascending order of conservatism, to the Beachy Amish, New Order, Old Order, or Swartzentruber Amish sects.

Conflicts[link]

Conflicts between subgroups of Amish have resulted in instances of 'beard cutting' attacks on members of the Amish community.^[49][50] Due to the cloistered nature of Amish lifestyle, they are often reluctant to bring complaints to local police ^[51] who describe the attacks as 'very rare'.^{[citation needed]}

Similar groups[link]

Old Order Mennonites, Conservative Mennonites, Hutterites, and Old German Baptist Brethren are distinct from the Amish. They all emigrated from Europe, but they arrived with different dialects, separate cultures, and diverse religious traditions.^[52] Particularly, the Hutterites live communally^[53] and are generally accepting of modern technology.^[54]

Plain Quakers are similar in manner and lifestyle, but unrelated to the Amish.^[55] Early Quakers were influenced, to some degree, by the Anabaptists. Most modern Quakers have since abandoned their traditional dress.^[56]

Portrayal in popular entertainment[link]

Film[link]

Topical[link]

Peter Weir's 1985 drama Witness is set and filmed in the Amish community of Lancaster County, Pennsylvania. Harvest of Fire is a 1996 Hallmark Hall of Fame made-for-TV movie about an FBI agent's investigation of cases of suspected arson in an Amish farming community. The 2002 documentary Devil's Playground follows a group of Amish teenagers during rumspringa, and it portrays their personal dilemma with both the "English" world and the decision on whether or not to be baptized as adult members of the church.

In Kingpin, a former bowling champion coaches a young Amish man in winning a bowling tournament to win enough money to save his family's farm.

Michael Landon Jr's 2007 film Saving Sarah Cain shows the removal of young Amish children to the big city and realizing the life they can have with both the Amish and English world. Producer Larry Thompson's 2010 Lifetime Original Movie "Amish Grace" portrayed the events surrounding an Amish school shooting in Nickel Mines, Pennsylvania.

Episodical[link]

In the comedy Sex Drive, the three main characters hitchhike with an Amish man, played by Seth Green who takes them to his home. There they find a party during Rumspringa, where the character Lance meets his future love interest in the film. In the George Romero film Diary of the Dead, a deaf Amish man appears and helps the main survivors before killing himself after being infected.

For Richer or Poorer is a 1997 comedy film starring Tim Allen and Kirstie Alley who find themselves hiding in a small Amish community in Pennsylvania.

Literature[link]

Modern novels[link]

Paul Levinson's 1999 Locus Award-winning novel The Silk Code portrays Amish farmers involved in a science-fiction mystery about biotechnology and mysterious deaths. Jodi Picoult's 2000 novel (and 2004 TV movie) Plain Truth deal with a crime concerning the death of a newborn infant on an Amish farm. Other novels dealing with the Amish are Lurlene McDaniel's 2002 The Angels Trilogy, Beverly Lewis's extensive series of Amish romantic fiction, Paul Gaus's Ohio Amish Mystery series, set among the Amish community in Holmes County, Ohio, and Richard Montanari's Philadelphia crime series features a homicide detective named Joshua Bontrager who grew up Amish.

Older novels[link]

Helen Reimensnyder Martin's 1905 novel Sabina, a Story of the Amish, similar to her 1904 novel Tillie, a Mennonite Maid, so harshly depicted its subjects as to provoke cries of misrepresentation. Anna Balmer Myers' 1920 novel Patchwork: a Story of "the Plain People," like her 1921 novel Amanda: A Daughter of the Mennonites, are generally regarded as gentle correctives to the work of Martin. Ruth Lininger Dobson's 1937 novel Straw in the Wind, written while a student at the University of Michigan and receiving the school's Hopwood Award, so negatively depicted the Amish of Indiana that Joseph Yoder was motivated to correct the severe stereotypes with a more accurate book about the Amish way of life. In 1940, he wrote the gentler Rosanna of the Amish, a story of his mother's life (and his own). He later wrote a sequel, Rosanna's Boys (1948), as well as other books presenting and recording what he regarded as a truer picture of Amish culture.

Children's literature[link]

Marguerite de Angeli's 1936 children's story Henner's Lydia portrays a tender Amish family. The author sketched many of the illustrations at the site of the Little Red Schoolhouse^[57] still standing at the intersection of Pennsylvania Route 23 and Red Schoolhouse Road, just west of Morgantown, Pennsylvania. Today the building is the Amish Mennonite Information Center. The Lancaster County landscape, portrayed in the end papers of the book, can be recognized throughout the area. De Angeli's illustrations of a nearby bank barn were sketched just hours before the barn was destroyed by fire. She incorporated the incident in her 1944 Caldecott Honor book Yonie Wondernose, a story about a curious Amish boy, younger brother to the Lydia of Henner's Lydia. Another popular children's book, Plain Girl by Virginia Sorensen, was published in 1956, and is still in print.

Theatre[link]

The 1955 Broadway musical show, Plain and Fancy, is an early stage-play portrayal of the Amish people. Set in Lancaster County, it tells of a couple from New York who encounter the quaint Amish lifestyle when they arrive to sell off some property. This show depicted "shunning" and "barn-raising" to the American audience for the first time. Another play featuring the Amish is Quiet in the Land, a Canadian play concerning Amish struggles during World War I (1917–1918).

Television[link]

NBC aired, in 1988, a family drama called Aaron's Way about an Amish family who moved to California and had to adjust to a non-Amish lifestyle. Numerous other TV shows have presented episodes with Amish characters or storylines. Some of them include Family Guy, Tales of the Gold Monkey, Arthur, The Simpsons, Sledge Hammer!, Futurama, Dexter's Laboratory, Picket Fences, Murder She Wrote, MacGyver, Guiding Light, ER, Grey's Anatomy, Bones, My Name Is Earl, Glenn Martin, DDS, In Plain Sight, and Cold Case.^[58] In the summer of 2004, a controversial reality-television program called Amish in the City aired on UPN. Amish teenagers were exposed to non-Amish culture by living together with "English" teens and, at the time of the show, had yet to decide if they wanted to be baptized into the Amish church. On Wednesday February 18, 2009, BBC2 aired "Trouble in Amish Paradise", a one-hour documentary on Ephraim and Amanda Stoltzfus and their desire to adhere to Evangelical Christianity whilst remaining Amish in culture.^[59]

Music[link]

"Weird Al" Yankovic's 1996 parody "Amish Paradise" and the accompanying music video were an affectionate send-up of Coolio's earlier rap song "Gangsta's Paradise", with Yankovic and former The Brady Bunch actress Florence Henderson in Amish garb, and lyrics reflecting Amish themes.

See also[link]

Anabaptism portal

• Amish furniture
• Amish music
• Amish school shooting
• Christian views on poverty and wealth
• Fancy Dutch
• Martyrs Mirror
• Northkill Amish Settlement
• Ordnung
• Plain people
• Simple living

Notes[link]