Typical Joint

A joint is the location at which two or more bones make contact.^[1] They are constructed to allow movement (except for skull bones) and provide mechanical support, and are classified structurally and functionally.^[2]

Classification[link]

Depiction of an intervertebral disk, a cartilaginous joint.

Diagram of a synovial (diarthrosis) joint.

Joints are mainly classified structurally and functionally. Structural classification is determined by how the bones connect to each other, while functional classification is determined by the degree of movement between the articulating bones. In practice, there is significant overlap between the two types of classifications.

Terms ending in the suffix -sis are singular and refer to just one joint, while -ses is the suffix for pluralization.

Structural classification[link]

Structural classification names and divides joints according to how the bones are connected to each other.^[3] There are three structural classifications of joints:

• fibrous joint - joined by dense irregular connective tissue that is rich in collagen fibers ^[4]
• cartilaginous joint - joined by cartilage
• synovial joint - not directly joined - the bones have a synovial cavity and are united by the dense irregular connective tissue that forms the articular capsule that is normally associated with accessory ligaments.^[4]

Functional classification[link]

Joints can also be classified functionally, by the degree of mobility they allow:^[5]

• synarthrosis - permits little or no mobility. Most synarthrosis joints are fibrous joints (e.g., skull sutures).
• amphiarthrosis - permits slight mobility. Most amphiarthrosis joints are cartilaginous joints (e.g., vertebrae).
• diarthrosis - permits a variety of movements. All diarthrosis joints are synovial joints (e.g., shoulder, hip, elbow, knee, etc.), and the terms "diarthrosis" and "synovial joint" are considered equivalent by Terminologia Anatomica.^[6]

Biomechanical classification[link]

Joints can also be classified based on their anatomy or on their biomechanical properties. According to the anatomic classification, joints are subdivided into simple and compound, depending on the number of bones involved, and into complex and combination joints:^[7]

1. Simple Joint: 2 articulation surfaces (e.g. shoulder joint, hip joint)
2. Compound Joint: 3 or more articulation surfaces (e.g. radiocarpal joint)
3. Complex Joint: 2 or more articulation surfaces and an articular disc or meniscus (e.g. knee joint)

Anatomical[link]

The joints may be classified anatomically into the following groups:

1. Articulations of hand
2. Elbow joints
3. Wrist joints
4. Axillary articulations
5. Sternoclavicular joints
6. Vertebral articulations
7. Temporomandibular joints
8. Sacroiliac joints
9. Hip joints
10. Knee joints
11. Articulations of foot

Joint disorders[link]

A joint disorder is termed an arthropathy, and when involving inflammation of one or more joints the disorder is called an arthritis. Most joint disorders involve arthritis, but joint damage by external physical trauma is typically not termed arthritis.

Arthropathies are called polyarticular when involving many joints and monoarticular when involving only one single joint.

Arthritis is the leading cause of disability in people over the age of 55. There are many different forms of arthritis, each of which has a different cause. The most common form of arthritis, osteoarthritis (also known as degenerative joint disease) occurs following trauma to the joint, following an infection of the joint or simply as a result of aging. Furthermore, there is emerging evidence that abnormal anatomy may contribute to early development of osteoarthritis. Other forms of arthritis are rheumatoid arthritis and psoriatic arthritis, which are autoimmune diseases in which the body is attacking itself. Septic arthritis is caused by joint infection. Gouty arthritis is caused by deposition of uric acid crystals in the joint that results in subsequent inflammation. Additionally, there is a less common form of gout that is caused by the formation of rhomboidal shaped crystals of calcium pyrophosphate. This form of gout is known as pseudogout.

See also[link]

• Arthrology
• Kinesiology
• Ligament
• Replacement joint

References[link]

External links[link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: joints

• Illustration of synovial joints at shockfamily.net
• Synovial joints Illustrations and Classification

Wiz Khalifa
Wiz Khalifa in Brooklyn, New York in August 2009.
Background information
Birth name	Cameron Jibril Thomaz
Born	(1987-09-08) September 8, 1987 (age 24) Minot, North Dakota, United States
Genres	Hip hop
Occupations	Rapper, singer, songwriter, actor
Years active	2005–present
Labels	Rostrum, Taylor Gang, Warner Bros., Atlantic
Associated acts	Snoop Dogg, Rick Ross, Curren$y, Big Sean, Chevy Woods, Mac Miller, Juicy J, Tinie Tempah, Yelawolf, Maroon 5, Big K.R.I.T.
Website	wizkhalifa.com

Cameron Jibril Thomaz (born September 8, 1987), better known by the stage name Wiz Khalifa, is an American rapper. He released his debut album, Show and Prove, in 2006, and signed to Warner Bros. Records in 2007. His Eurodance-influenced single, "Say Yeah", received urban radio airplay, charting on the Rhythmic Top 40 and Hot Rap Tracks charts in 2008.^[1] Khalifa parted with Warner Bros. and released his second album, Deal or No Deal, in November 2009. He released the mixtape Kush and Orange Juice as a free download in April 2010; he then signed with Atlantic Records.^[2] He is also well known for his debut single for Atlantic, "Black and Yellow", which peaked at number 1 on the Billboard Hot 100. His debut album for the label, Rolling Papers, was released on March 29, 2011.^[3]

Early life[link]

Khalifa was born on September 8, 1987 to a mother and a father serving in the military.^[1][4] His parents divorced when Khalifa was about three years old. His parents' military service caused him to move regularly: Khalifa lived in Germany, the United Kingdom, and Japan before settling in Pittsburgh where he attended Taylor Allderdice High School.^[1][4]

His stage name is derived from khalifa, an Arabic word meaning "successor", and wisdom, which was shortened to Wiz when Khalifa was a young boy .^[5] Khalifa stated to spinner.com that the name also came from being called "young Wiz 'cause I was good at everything I did, and my granddad is Muslim, so he gave me that name; he felt like that's what I was doing with my music." He got his stage name tattooed on his 17th birthday.^[6][7] He includes Jimi Hendrix, Camp Lo, The Notorious B.I.G. and Bone Thugs-n-Harmony among his influences.^[8]

Career[link]

[edit] 2005–08: Early mixtapes and Show and Prove

Rostrum Records president Benjy Grinberg first heard about Wiz Khalifa in 2004 when the rapper's contribution to a mixtape of various new Pittsburgh artists attracted his interest.^[9] When Grinberg finally met the 16-year-old artist, he immediately decided he wanted to work with him, later telling HitQuarters: "Even though he wasn’t all the way developed you could just tell that he was a diamond in the rough, and that with some polishing, guidance and backing he could become something special."^[9] Khalifa signed to the label shortly after and began a seven year period of artist development.^[9]

Khalifa released his first mixtape, Prince of the City: Welcome to Pistolvania, in 2005. The mixtape paved the way for his first full length album entitled Show and Prove in 2006. Khalifa was declared an "artist to watch" that year in Rolling Stone magazine.^[10][11]

In 2007, Khalifa signed to Warner Bros. Records and released two mixtapes through Rostrum Records: Grow Season, hosted by DJ Green Lantern and released on July 4, 2007, and Prince of the City 2, released on November 20, 2007. His debut Warner Bros. single "Say Yeah" reached number 25 on the Billboard Rhythmic Top 40 music chart and number 20 on Billboard's Hot Rap Tracks. The song samples "Better Off Alone" by Alice Deejay. Khalifa's vocals from "Say Yeah" appear near the end of Pittsburgh mash up producer Girl Talk's 2008 album, Feed the Animals, over music from Underworld's "Born Slippy", Usher's "Love in This Club", and the Cure's "In Between Days".^[12] Khalifa appeared with The Game, David Banner and Play-n-Skillz at U92's Summer Jam at the USANA Amphitheatre in West Valley City, Utah on August 2, 2008.^[13] Khalifa released the mixtapes Star Power in September 2008, and Flight School in April 2009 on Rostrum Records.

Khalifa parted ways with Warner Bros. Records in July 2009 after numerous delays in releasing his planned debut album for the label, First Flight. Khalifa stated to the Pittsburgh Post-Gazette that, "I learned a lot during my time there and matured as an artist during the process. I'm happy to be moving on with all of my material and having the chance to be in control of my next moves".^[14] Khalifa appeared with Girl Talk, Modey Lemon, Donora, Grand Buffet, and Don Caballero at the Amphitheatre at Station Square in Pittsburgh on July 31, 2009, where he announced that his relationship with Warner Bros. was over.^[15]

Wiz Khalifa performing at Columbia University in New York City in April 2010.

[edit] 2009–10: Deal or No Deal

Continuing his association with Rostrum Records, Khalifa released the single "Teach U to Fly", and the mixtape How Fly, a collaboration with New Orleans rapper Curren$y, on August 9, 2009.^[14] Khalifa introduced a more melodic style on the mixtape, alternating between singing and rapping. He opened for Wu-Tang Clan member U-God at the 2009 CMJ Music Marathon in New York City.^[16] Khalifa released the mixtape Burn After Rolling on November 2, 2009, where he raps over familiar beats from other artists, including the songs "If I Were A Boy" and "Diva" by Beyoncé, "Walking on a Dream" by Empire of the Sun, "Luchini AKA This Is It" by Camp Lo, and "Best I Ever Had" by Drake.^[17] Khalifa released his second album, Deal or No Deal, on November 24, 2009.^[18]

Khalifa performed at Emo's in Austin, Texas in March 2010 as part of the 2010 South by Southwest Music Festival.^[19] He appeared on the cover of XXL magazine that same month, for the magazine's annual list of Top 10 Freshman, which included Donnis, J. Cole, Pill, Freddie Gibbs, and Fashawn. Wiz Khalifa was named 2010 "Rookie Of The Year" by "The Source", with alongside Rick Ross, "The Man Of The Year".^[20] He toured with rapper Yelawolf on a 20-date tour, the Deal Or No Deal Tour.^[21] Khalifa released the free mixtape Kush and Orange Juice for download on April 14, 2010. Due to Khalifa's devoted grassroots fan base, the mixtape became the No. 1 trending topic on Twitter with the hash tag #kushandorangejuice, and "Kush and Orange Juice download” ranked No. 1 on Google’s hot search trends.^[22]

2010: Signing with Atlantic Records[link]

Citing music industry insiders, New York magazine wrote that Khalifa signed with Atlantic Records in April 2010, although the rapper did not confirm it.^[23] He stated to AllHipHop in June 2010 that he was working on a new album, but was weighing his options and had not yet decided on a label to distribute it.^[24] Khalifa confirmed to MTV on July 30 that he was signing an Atlantic Records deal.^[25]

Wiz Khalifa on stage in Boston in August 2010.

Khalifa was featured in a remix and video for the 2010 Rick Ross single "Super High", alongside Curren$y.^[26] He guested on the mixtape Grey Goose, Head Phones, and Thirsty Women by St. Louis rapper M.C,^[27] and was featured on the track "The Breeze (Cool)" on rapper Wale's August 2010 mixtape More About Nothing.^[28] Khalifa was named MTV's Hottest Breakthrough MC of 2010, winning with nearly 70,000 votes, and beating out finalists Nicki Minaj, J. Cole, Travis Porter, and Diggy Simmons.^[29]

Khalifa appeared at the Soundset 2010 festival in May 2010 in Minneapolis, Minnesota, alongside Method Man & Redman, Del the Funky Homosapien and Hieroglyphics, Atmosphere, Murs, Cage, and others.^[30] He also performed at the 2010 Rock the Bells festival, along with hip hop veterans Wu-Tang Clan, Snoop Dogg, Lauryn Hill, A Tribe Called Quest, Rakim, KRS-One, Jedi Mind Tricks and Slick Rick.^[31] Khalifa declined an invitation to tour with rapper Drake and launched his own "Waken Baken" tour, a 50-city national tour with rapper Yelawolf. The tour, scheduled to last from September to November 2010, has, as of October, sold out every venue.^[8] On November 2010, during his "Waken Baken" tour at East Carolina University, Wiz Khalifa was arrested for possession and trafficking of marijuana. He was then released the next morning after a $300K bail, and resumed his tour. Khalifa performed in a cypher during the 2010 BET Hip-Hop Awards. He recited his verse from the song, "The Check Point", from his mixtape with Curren$y, How Fly.^[32]

[edit] 2010–11: Mainstream success and Rolling Papers

Wiz Khalifa at SXSW in 2010

Khalifa released "Black and Yellow", his first single for Rostrum/Atlantic, produced by Stargate, which has received radio airplay.^[8][33] The single was peaked at number 1 on the Billboard Hot 100; the title of the song refers to the colours of the City of Pittsburgh.^[34] Khalifa released his debut album with Atlantic Records in 2011.^[35] He appeared with Curren$y on the track "Scaling the Building" on producer Ski Beatz' 2010 album, 24 Hour Karate School.^[36] Khalifa's record label is Taylor Gang Records, named after his love of Chuck Taylor All-Stars^[8], and Taylor Allderdice High School in Pittsburgh, PA, where he graduated from.

On March 29, 2011, Khalifa released his first studio album, Rolling Papers. The album debuted at number two on the US Billboard 200 chart, with first-week sales of 197,000 copies in the United States.^[37] Shortly afterward on March 31, 2011 Wiz Khalifa performed at Emory University in Atlanta, Georgia as part of the school's annual Dooley's Weekend.^[38] On June 26, 2011, Khalifa was nominated and won Best New Artist at the BET Awards of 2011.^[39] Khalifa collaborated with British rapper Tinie Tempah whom Tinie announced in an interview with Rolling Stone that his next single is to be called "Till I'm Gone" and would feature Wiz Khalifa and is to be produced by Stargate.^[40][41] The single and the video song were released at the end of June 2011.^[42]

Personal life[link]

Thomaz proposed to model Amber Rose on March 1, 2012 showing off the ring on Twitter.^[43] He is personal friends with Snoop Dogg, Juicy J, Yelawolf, and fellow Pittsburgh rapper Mac Miller.^[44]

In March 2012, Thomaz purchased a 2.8 private wooded acres with a 3,891-square-foot residence in Canonsburg, Pennsylvania, a small community southwest of Pittsburgh. The residence includes 5-bedroom, 4-bath eco-friendly, Brazilian Koa floors, stainless steel appliances, a separate guest house, and a lavish master suite with high ceilings.^[45] He currently resides there with his fiancée Amber Rose.

Discography[link]

Studio albums

• 2006: Show and Prove
• 2009: Deal or No Deal
• 2011: Rolling Papers
• 2012: O.N.I.F.C. ^[11][46][47]

Collaborative albums

• 2011: Mac & Devin Go to High School (with Snoop Dogg)
• 2012: TBA (with Taylor Gang)

Awards and nominations[link]

References[link]

External links[link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Wiz Khalifa

• Official website
• Wiz Khalifa on Facebook
• Wiz Khalifa on Myspace
• Wiz Khalifa on Twitter
• Wiz Khalifa at MTV
• Non-commercial Wiz Khalifa mixtapes

This biographical article needs additional citations for verification. Please help by adding reliable sources. Contentious material about living persons that is unsourced or poorly sourced must be removed immediately, especially if potentially libelous or harmful. (February 2011)

Mami Kawada (川田まみ, Kawada Mami^?, born February 13) is a Japanese pop singer^[1] from Sapporo, Japan who is currently signed to Geneon Entertainment. She is a member of the I've Sound who performs soundtracks for eroge games and anime. Some of her music was used as the opening or ending themes for anime series such as Please Teacher!, Please Twins!, Starship Operators, Shakugan no Shana, Baldr Force EXE Resolution OVA and Hayate the Combat Butler. Her debut single "Radiance", released on February 23, 2005, was used as the opening theme for the anime Starship Operators. Her most successful single was "Joint," released on October 31, 2007, and used as the first opening theme for the sequel of Shakugan no Shana, Shakugan no Shana II.

Biography[link]

Debut[link]

Mami Kawada's vocal talent was first discovered by Eiko Shimamiya, who was her teacher at a vocal school in Sapporo, Hokkaido. She was introduced to I've Sound, a music production group whom Shimamiya was a member of. Kawada would later become a member of I've Sound. In 2001, she released her debut song with I've Sound was "Kaze to Kimi wo Daite" (風と君を抱いて^?), which was the opening theme for the eroge miss you. The song was featured in the I've Sound's 5th Compilation Album Out Flow.

In 2002, she began performing anime theme songs, as well as theme songs for visual novels. Her first anime song was "Sora no Mori de" (空の森で^?), which serves as the ending theme for the anime Please Teacher!, while co-I've Sound singer Kotoko performed the opening theme "Shooting Star". In the same year, Kawada and Shimamiya grouped themselves as the band Healing Leaf and performed theme songs for some visual novels.^[which?] Only one of the songs, however, was featured in the I've Girls Compilation, "Ame ni Utau Ballad" (雨に歌う譚詩曲^?).

In mid-2003, she performed the ending theme of the anime Please Twins!, the sequel to Please Teacher!, "Asu e no Namida" (明日への涙^?) while Kotoko performed the opening theme "Second Flight" together with J-pop singer Hiromi Satō.

[edit] Seed (2005–2006)

In 2005, Mami Kawada signed a contract with Geneon Entertainment and released her major debut single "Radiance / Chi ni Kaeru: On the Earth", which was used as the opening theme for the anime Starship Operators. This marked the beginning of her career as a songwriter/vocalist. "Radiance" was written by her and accompanied by Kotoko. She began to write her own lyrics in her following releases.

In late 2005, she released her second single "Hishoku no Sora" (緋色の空^?, Scarlet-Colored Sky), which became the opening theme for the anime series Shakugan no Shana. It became her best-selling single and sold approximately 37,000 copies, garnering 11th in the Oricon weekly charts.

In March 2006, Kawada and Kotoko released a split single for the OVA adaptation of the game Baldr Force. Kawada performed the ending theme, "Undelete," while Kotoko performed the opening theme "Face of Fact (Resolution ver.)", a remix of her first song which was featured in the game version. Four weeks after the release of this split single, Kawada released her debut album Seed, which contained seven new songs, four songs from her first three singles, and one visual novel theme song which was released back in 2004^[which?]. The album reached #12 in the Oricon weekly charts and charted for five weeks selling more than 25,000 units.

After almost two months, Mami Kawada had her first live tour wherein she performed her album songs live and distributed a pamphlet CD containing two songs—one instrumental, and her first composed song "Carpe Diem".

[edit] Savia (2007)

After her success with "Hishoku no Sora", Kawada performed an insert song for the Shakugan no Shana movie "Akai Namida" (赤い涙, Red Tears^?) in May 2007. She also sang "Tenjou wo Kakeru Monotachi" (天壌を翔る者たち^?), the movie's ending theme together with Kotoko, Shimamiya, Mell and Kaori Utatsuki under the name Love Planet Five.

Three months later, she performed the second ending theme of the series Hayate the Combat Butler "Get My Way!". This single is different from her previous singles, since the song has a more punk rock feel.

Soon after, Kawada came back with a more developed rock sound, evident in her opening theme single for the second installment of the anime series Shakugan no Shana, "Joint", as well as the ending theme "Triangle". "Joint" was released on October 31, 2007 and marked her first top 10 single entry since it reached #9 in its first week on the Oricon weekly charts. Overall, it sold 36,572 copies and charted for a total 19 weeks making this her longest-charting single.

After Kawada's success with her fifth single, she made her first live tour outside Japan, on January 19, 2008, at the KHS Hall in Taiwan.

In late March 2008, Kawada released her second album Savia, which contained nine new songs. The album included the final ending theme to the second installment of Shakugan no Shana, "Sense", as well as her first non-anime theme song and four songs from the three singles she released^[which?]. Although it did not do well in the Oricon charts, after less than six months, Kawada had her second live tour for her second album.

[edit] Linkage (2008–2010)

After a year of not releasing a single, Kawada performed the opening themes of the anime series Toaru Majutsu no Index, "PSI-Missing" and "Masterpiece". Both of the coupling songs, "Ame" (雨^?) and "Jellyfish", were also used as insert songs in the series. In autumn 2008, Kawada established her official website together with her official fan club "M.A.L.L.", which stands for "Mami Artist Lasting Live."

In June 2009, Kawada released her maxi single "L'Oiseau bleu". This single is also present in the I've Sound 10th Anniversary 「Departed to the future」 Special CD BOX, which was released earlier by the group on March 25, 2009.

Kawada also performed the opening and ending themes for the original video animation series of Shakugan no Shana, Shakugan no Shana S, which was her fifth time performing for the anime series. The opening theme "Prophecy" came out as a maxi single on November 18, 2009 while the ending theme "All in Good Time", was not included in the single.

On March 24, 2010, Kawada released her third album Linkage, which contains 13 tracks. Her latest singles "PSI-Missing," "Masterpiece" and "Prophecy" were all included in the album. The album also contained the ending theme Shakugan no Shana S, "All in Good Time", as well as a cover of the song "Dreams", originally performed by the Irish rock band The Cranberries. After two weeks, Kawada had her third live tour to promote her latest album.

Kawada started writing lyrics for other I've singers. Her first song written for other I've Sound members was "A piece of my heart", the ending theme for the eroge Koi to Senkyo to Chocolate, sung by newcomer Nami Maisaki, who became an I've singer in May of that year.^[2]

2010 to present[link]

After another year of not releasing a single, Kawada performed the opening theme of the second season of the anime series Toaru Majutsu no Index, "No buts!", which eventually became her highest charting single to date reaching #6 on its first week in the Oricon weekly charts.^[3][4]

On February 16, 2011, she released her 10th single "See visionS", the second opening theme for the second season of Toaru Majutsu no Index. Four months later, she wrote the lyrics for the song "Lead to the smile", the solo debut of I've singer Rin Asami, who started her career that year. She also performed the second opening theme of the third installment of Shakugan no Shana "Serment". The song was released as a single on February 1, 2012. She also performed the song "u/n" which served as the ending theme of episode 15 of Shakugan no Shana Final as well as that series' final ending theme "Kōbō" (光芒, Beam of Light^?). She is set to release a new album titled Square the circle in August 2012.

Discography[link]

• Seed (2006)
• Savia (2008)
• Linkage (2010)
• Square the circle (2012)
• Borderland (Single, 30.05.2012)

Live performances[link]

• I've in BUDOKAN 2005 ～Open the Birth Gate～ (October 15, 2005)
• MAMI KAWADA FIRST LIVE TOUR 2006 "SEED" (May 20, 2006)
• MAMI KAWADA 2008 January LIVE IN TAIWAN (January 19, 2008)
• Mami Kawada Official Fan Club Establishment Commemoration Event Special Video Concert "MAMI KAWADA 2008 January LIVE IN TAIWAN"
• MAMI KAWADA LIVE TOUR 2008 "SAVIA"
• I've in BUDOKAN 2009 ～Departed to the Future～ (January 2, 2009)
• MAMI KAWADA LIVE IN SHIBUYA 2011 "See visionS" (May 4 and May 5, 2011)

References[link]

External links[link]

• Geneon page (Japanese)
• Official Website (Japanese)
• I've Sound Explorer (Japanese)
• I've Sound Forum (Chinese)
• Oricon Profile (Japanese)
• Twitter profile (Japanese)
• Mami Kawada at Anime News Network's Encyclopedia
• Mami Kawada discography at MusicBrainz