Branches of Mathematics

Pure mathematics

• Algebra
• Calculus
• Geometry
• Topology
• Trignometry
• Combinatorics
• Logic
• Number theory

Applied mathematics

• Dynamical systems and differential equations
• Mathematical physics
• Computing
• Information theory and signal processing
• Probability and statistics
• Game theory
• Operations research

Related Topics

• Electromagnetic Spectrum
• Linear Equations
• Applied Physics
• Nano Technology
• Engineering Sciences
• Mathematical Medicine
• Fluid dynamics
• Computational Mathematics
• Gamma Ray Optics
• Onfrared Optics
• Relative Velocity
• Iciam
• Intelligent Imaging Neuroscience
• Biomedical Engineering
• Neuroscience Research
• Quantum Cosmology
• Brain Research

• Abu-Mahmud Khojandi
• Abū al-Wafā' Būzjānī
• Abū Ja'far al-Khāzin
• Abū Rayḥān al-Bīrūnī
• Abū Sahl al-Qūhī
• Adolph P. Yushkevich
• Ahmad al-Qalqashandi
• Ahmad ibn Yusuf
• Al-Azhar University
• Al-Birjandi
• Al-Isfahani
• Al-Karaji
• Al-Khayyam
• Al-Khazini
• Al-Kindi
• Al-Mahani
• Al-Nayrizi
• Al-Saghani
• Al-Sijzi
• Alhazen
• Alhazen's problem
• Ali Qushji
• Almanac
• Almoravid Dynasty
• Apollonius of Perga
• Archimedes
• Avicenna
• Banū Mūsā
• BBC
• Binomial theorem
• Blaise Pascal
• Book of Fixed Stars
• Book of Optics
• Brethren of Purity
• Byzantine science
• Caliphate
• Carl Benjamin Boyer
• Carl Brockelmann
• Circle
• Circumference
• Colin Ronan
• Conic section
• Cubic function
• David Eugene Smith
• De Gradibus
• Dirk Jan Struik
• Edmund F. Robertson
• Euclid
• Euclid's theorem
• Fuat Sezgin
• Gerald J. Toomer
• Greek mathematics
• Heinrich Suter
• House of Knowledge
• House of Wisdom
• Hunayn ibn Ishaq
• Iberian Peninsula
• Ibn Abi al-Shukr
• Ibn al-Haytham
• Ibn al-Shatir
• Ibn Ghazi al-Miknasi
• Ibn Sahl
• Ibn Yunus
• Ibrahim ibn Sinan
• Indian mathematics
• Indus
• Iran
• Irrational number
• Islamic Golden Age
• Islamic science
• Ivan van Sertima
• Jabir ibn Aflah
• Jamshīd al-Kāshī
• Jens Høyrup
• Jim Al-Khalili
• JSTOR
• Kamāl al-Dīn Fārisī
• Kushyar ibn Labban
• Len Beggren
• Madrasah
• Maktab
• Mali Empire
• Maragheh observatory
• Marcus du Sautoy
• Mathematical proof
• Mathematics
• Muhammad Baqir Yazdi
• Muslim world
• Na'im ibn Musa
• Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī
• Nazif ibn Yumn
• Naṣīr al-Dīn al-Ṭūsī
• Omar Khayyám
• Parabola
• Pascal's triangle
• Qotb al-Din Shirazi
• Qāḍī Zāda al-Rūmī
• Radius
• Roger Cooke
• Roshdi Rashed
• Sahl ibn Bishr
• Sinan ibn Thabit
• Sind ibn Ali
• Tables of Toledo
• Tabula Rogeriana
• Thabit ibn Qurra
• The Book of Healing
• The Story of Maths
• Thābit ibn Qurra
• Tus, Iran
• Ulugh Beg
• Victor J. Katz
• Zero of a function
• Zij
• Zij-i Ilkhani
• Zij-i-Sultani
• 
  

• 
  Iberian Peninsula
  The Iberian Peninsula (Asturian, Galician, Leonese, Mirandese, Portuguese and Spanish: Península Ibérica, Catalan: Península Ibèrica, Aragonese and Occitan: Peninsula Iberica, French: Péninsule Ibérique, Basque: Iberiar Penintsula), sometimes called Iberia, is a peninsula located in the extreme southwest of Europe and includes the modern-day sovereign states of Spain, Portugal and Andorra, as well as the British Overseas Territory of Gibraltar. It is the westernmost of the three major southern European peninsulas—the Iberian, Italian, and Balkan peninsulas. It is bordered on the southeast and east by the Mediterranean Sea, and on the north, west and southwest by the Atlantic Ocean. The Pyrenees form the northeast edge of the peninsula, separating it from the rest of Europe. In the south, it approaches the northern coast of Africa. It is the second-largest peninsula in Europe, with an area of approximately 582,000 km² (225,000 sq mi).
  The English word Iberia was adapted from the use of the Ancient Greek word Ιβηρία (Ibēría) by the Greek geographers under the Roman Empire to refer to what is known today in English as the Iberian Peninsula. At that time the name did not describe a single political entity or a distinct population of people. Strabo's Iberia was delineated from Keltikē by the Pyrenees and included the entire land mass south-west (he named it "west") of there.
  
  wn.com/Iberian_Peninsula
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  Indus
  The Indus River (Sanskrit: सिन्धु Sindhu; Urdu: دریائے سندھ Daryā-e Sindh; Hindi: सिन्धु नदी Sindhu; Sindhi: سنڌو Sindhu; Punjabi: سندھ Sindh; Gujarati: સિંધુ નદી Sindhu; Pashto: اباسين Abāsin "Father of Rivers"; Persian: رود سند Rūd-e Sind‎; Arabic: السند Al-Sind‎; Tibetan: སེང་གེ།་གཙང་པོ Sênggê Zangbo "Lion River"; Greek: Ινδός Indós; Turki: Nilab) is a major river which flows through Pakistan. It has courses through western Tibet (in China) and Northern India.
  Originating in the Tibetan plateau in the vicinity of Lake Mansarovar, the river runs a course through the Ladakh region of Jammu and Kashmir, Gilgit, Baltistan and flows through Pakistan in a southerly direction along the entire length of Pakistan to merge into the Arabian Sea near the port city of Karachi in Sindh. The total length of the river is 3,180 km (1,980 mi). It is Pakistan's longest river.
  The river has a total drainage area exceeding 1,165,000 km² (450,000 sq mi). Its estimated annual flow stands at around 207 km³ (50 cu mi), making it the twenty-first largest river in the world in terms of annual flow. Zanskar is its left bank tributary in Ladakh. In the plains, its left bank tributary is Chenab which itself has four major tributaries, namely, Jhelum, Ravi, Beas and Satluj. Its principal right bank tributaries are Shyok, Gilgit, Kabul, Gomal and Kurram. Beginning at the heights of the world in a spring and fed with glaciers and rivers in the Himalayas, the river supports ecosystems of temperate forests, plains and arid countryside.
  
  wn.com/Indus
• 
  Iran
  Coordinates: 32°N 53°E / 32°N 53°E / 32; 53
  Iran (ⁱ/ɪˈrɑːn/ or /aɪˈræn/;Persian: ایران‎ [ʔiˈɾɒn] ( listen)), officially the Islamic Republic of Iran (Persian: جمهوری اسلامی ایران‎ Jomhuri-ye Eslāmi-ye Irān), is a country in Southern and Western Asia. The name "Iran", which in Persian means "Land of the Aryans", has been in use natively since the Sassanian era. It came into use internationally in 1935, before which the country was known to the Western world as Persia ( /ˈpɜrʒə/ or /ˈpɜrʃə/). Both "Persia" and "Iran" are used interchangeably in cultural contexts; however, "Iran" is the name used officially in political contexts.
  The 18th-largest country in the world in terms of area at 1,648,195 km² (636,372 sq mi), Iran has a population of around 79 million. It is a country of particular geopolitical significance owing to its location in the Middle East and central Eurasia. Iran is bordered on the north by Armenia, Azerbaijan and Turkmenistan. As Iran is a littoral state of the Caspian Sea, which is an inland sea, Kazakhstan and Russia are also Iran's direct neighbors to the north. Iran is bordered on the east by Afghanistan and Pakistan, on the south by the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman, on the west by Iraq and on the northwest by Turkey. Tehran is the capital, the country's largest city and the political, cultural, commercial and industrial center of the nation. Iran is a regional power, and holds an important position in international energy security and world economy as a result of its large reserves of petroleum and natural gas. Iran has the second largest proven natural gas reserves in the world and the fourth largest proven petroleum reserves.
  
  wn.com/Iran
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  Maragheh observatory
  Maragheh observatory (Persian: رصدخانهٔ مراغه‎) is an institutionalized astronomical observatory which was established in 1259 CE under the patronage of the Ilkhanid Hulagu and the directorship of Nasir al-Din al-Tusi, an Iranian scientist and astronomer. Located in the heights west of Maragheh, East Azarbaijan Province, Iran, it was once considered one of the most prestigious observatories in the world.^{[citation needed]}
  It was financed by waqf revenues, which allowed it to continue to operate even after the death of its founder and was active for more than 50 years. The observatory served as a model for later observatories including the 15th-century Ulugh Beg Observatory at Samarkand, the 16th-century Taqi al-Din observatory at Istanbul, and the 18th-century Jai Singh observatory at Jaipur.
  Considerable parts of the groundwork are preserved in the ruins. In a 340 to 135 m² citadel-like area stood a four-story circular stone building of 28 m diameter. The mural quadrant to observe the positions of the stars and planets was aligned with the meridian. This meridian served as Prime meridian for the tables in the Zij-i Ilkhani, as we nowadays apply the meridian which passes the Royal Greenwich Observatory.
  
  wn.com/Maragheh_observatory
• 
  Tus, Iran
  Tus (Persian: توس or طوس‎) also spelled as Tous, Toos or Tūs, is an ancient city in the Iranian province of Razavi Khorasan. To the ancient Greeks, it was known as Susia (Ancient Greek: Σούσια). It was captured by Alexander the Great in 330 BCE.
  On his way to solve the unrest in Khorasan in 808, the Abbasid Caliph Harun Al-Rashid fell ill and died in Tus.
  The city was almost entirely destroyed by Genghis Khan's Mongol conquest during 1220-1259.
  Perhaps the most famous resident was the poet Ferdowsi, author of the Persian epic Shahnameh. His mausoleum, built in 1934 in time for the millennium of his birth, dominates the town.
  Some other notable residents of Toos include: Jābir ibn Hayyān, Asadi Tusi, Nizam al-Mulk, Ghazali, Nasir al-Din al-Tusi and the prominent Shia scholar Abu Ja'far Tusi.
  Media related to Tus, Iran at Wikimedia Commons
  Coordinates: 36°27′15″N 59°34′01″E / 36.45417°N 59.56694°E / 36.45417; 59.56694
  
  wn.com/Tus,_Iran

• Abu Nasr Mansur
  Abu Nasr Mansur ibn Ali ibn Iraq (Persian: ابو نصر منصور بن علی بن عراق‎; c. 960 – 1036) was a Persian Muslim mathematician. He is well known for his work with the spherical sine law.
  Abu Nasr Mansur was born in Gilan, Persia, to the ruling family of Khwarezm, the "Banu Iraq". He was thus a prince within the political sphere. He was a student of Abu'l-Wafa and a teacher of and also an important colleague of the mathematician, Al-Biruni. Together, they were responsible for great discoveries in mathematics and dedicated many works to one another.
  Most of Abu Nasr's work focused on math, but some of his writings were on astronomy. In mathematics, he had many important writings on trigonometry, which were developed from the writings of Ptolemy. He also preserved the writings of Menelaus of Alexandria and reworked many of the Greeks theorems.
  He died in the Ghaznavid Empire (modern-day Afghanistan) near the city of Ghazna.
  
  wn.com/Abu_Nasr_Mansur
• 
  Abū al-Wafā' Būzjānī
  Abū al-Wafāʾ, Muḥammad ibn Muḥammad ibn Yaḥyā ibn Ismāʿīl ibn al-ʿAbbās al-Būzjānī (10 June 940 – 15 July 998) was a Persianmathematician and astronomer who worked in Baghdad. He made important innovations in spherical trigonometry, and his work on arithmetics for businessmen contains the first instance of using negative numbers in a medieval Islamic text.
  He is also credited of compiling tables of sines and tangents at 15' intervals. He also introduced the sec and cosec and studied the interrelations between the six trigonometric lines associated with an arc. His Almagest was widely read by medieval Arabic astronomers in the centuries after his death. He is known to have written several other books that have not survived.
  He was born in Buzhgan, (now Torbat-e Jam) in Khorasan (in today's Iran). At age 19, in 959 AD, he moved to Baghdad and remained there for the next forty years, and died there in 998. He was a contemporary of the distinguished scientists Al-Quhi and Al-Sijzi who were in Baghdad at the time and others like Abu Nasr ibn Iraq, Abu-Mahmud Khojandi, Kushyar ibn Labban and Al-Biruni. In Baghdad, he received patronage by members of the Buyid court.
  
  wn.com/Abū_al-Wafā'_Būzjānī
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  Abū Rayḥān al-Bīrūnī
  Abū al-Rayḥān Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad al-Bīrūnī (born 5 September 973 in Kath, Khwarezm, died in the year 13 December 1048 in Ghazni), known as Alberonius in Latin and Al-Biruni in English, was a Persian-ChorasmianMuslim scholar and polymath of the 11th century.
  Al-Biruni is regarded as one of the greatest scholars of the medieval Islamic era and was well versed in physics, mathematics, astronomy, and natural sciences, and also distinguished himself as a historian, chronologist and linguist. He was conversant in Chorasmian, Persian, Arabic, Sanskrit and Turkic, and also knew Greek, Hebrew and Syriac. He spent a large part of his life in Ghazni in modern-day Afghanistan, capital of the Ghaznavid dynasty which ruled eastern Iranian lands and the northwestern Indian subcontinent. In 1017 he traveled to the Indian subcontinent and became the most important interpreter of Indian science to the Islamic world. He is given the titles the "founder of Indology" and the "first anthropologist". He was an impartial writer on custom and creeds of various nations, and was given the title al-Ustdadh ("The Master") for his remarkable description of early 11th-century India. He also made contributions to Earth sciences, and is regarded as the "father of geodesy" for his important contributions to that field, along with his significant contributions to geography.
  
  wn.com/Abū_Rayḥān_al-Bīrūnī
• Adolph P. Yushkevich
  Adolph–Andrei Pavlovich Yushkevich (Russian: Адо́льф–Андре́й Па́влович Юшке́вич; 15 July, 1906 – 17 July, 1993) was a Soviet historian of mathematics, leading expert in medieval mathematics of the East and the work of Leonhard Euler. He is a winner of George Sarton Medal by the History of Science Society for a lifetime of scholarly achievement.
  Yushkevich was born in Odessa, Russian Empire to a Jewish family. His father was a Sorbonne-educated philosopher and a mathematician, active in politics. He was a Menshevik who was in "ssylka" (deportation) in Siberia, and later in France. His uncle, Semen Solomonovich Yushkevich was a well-known Jewish writer. Yushkevich grew up in St. Petersburg and later in Paris where he lived until Russian Revolution of 1917, when Yushkevich family returned to Odessa. For a time, Sofya Yanovskaya was one of Adolf's teachers in a gymnasium.
  In 1923, Yushkevich started his studies at the Department of Mathematics of Moscow State University. His doctoral advisor was Dmitri Egorov, but he was awarded a Ph.D. degree without a defense. Between 1930 and 1952, he worked at Bauman Technical University where he rose to professorship in 1940 and head of the department of mathematics in 1941. In the years 1941–1943 he was evacuated to Izhevsk, together with the whole Bauman Technical University. Starting 1952, he became a full time researcher at Vavilov Institute of Natural History, where he worked until retirement.
  
  wn.com/Adolph_P._Yushkevich
• Ahmad al-Qalqashandi
  Shihab al-Din abu 'l-Abbas Ahmad ben Ali ben Ahmad Abd Allah al-Qalqashandi (1355 or 1356 – 1418) was a medieval Egyptian writer and mathematician born in a village in the Nile Delta. He is the author of Subh al-a 'sha, a fourteen volume encyclopedia in Arabic, which included a section on cryptology. This information was attributed to Ibn al-Durayhim who lived from 1312 to 1361, but whose writings on cryptology have been lost. The list of ciphers in this work included both substitution and transposition, and for the first time, a cipher with multiple substitutions for each plaintext letter. Also traced to Ibn al-Durayhim is an exposition on and worked example of cryptanalysis, including the use of tables of letter frequencies and sets of letters which can not occur together in one word.
  
  
  
  wn.com/Ahmad_al-Qalqashandi
• Ahmad ibn Yusuf
  Abu Ja'far Ahmad ibn Yusuf ibn Ibrahim ibn Tammam al-Siddiq Al-Baghdadi (835–912), known in the West by his Latinized name Hametus, was an Arab mathematician, like his father Yusuf ibn Ibrahim (Arabic: يوسف بن ابراهيم الصدَيق البغدادي ‎).
  Ahmad ibn Yusuf was born in Baghdad and moved with his father to Damascus in 839. He later moved to Cairo, but the exact date is unknown: since he was also known as al-Misri, which means the Egyptian, this probably happened at an early age. Eventually, he also died in Cairo. He probably grew up in a strongly intellectual environment: his father worked on Mathematics, Astronomy and Medicine, produced astronomical tables and was a member of a group of scholars. He achieved an important role in Egypt, which was caused by Egypt's relative independence from the Abbasid Caliph.
  For some of the work attributed to Ahmad, it is not exactly clear whether he wrote his, whether his father wrote it or whether they wrote it together. It is clear, however, that he worked on a book on ratio and proportion. This was translated to Latin by Gherard of Cremona and was a commentary of Euclid's Elements. This book influenced early European mathematicians such as Fibonacci. Further, in On similar arcs, he commented on Ptolemy's Karpos (or Centiloquium); many scholars believe that ibn Yusuf was in fact the true author of that work. He also wrote a book on the astrolabe. He invented methods to solve tax problems that were later presented in Fibonacci's Liber Abaci. He was also quoted by mathematicians such as Thomas Bradwardine, Jordanus de Nemore and Luca Pacioli.
  
  wn.com/Ahmad_ibn_Yusuf
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  Al-Birjandi
  Abd Ali ibn Muhammad ibn Husayn Birjandi Persian: عبدعلی مممدبن حسین بیرجندی‎ (died 1528) was a prominent 16th century Persian astronomer, mathematician and physicist who lived in Birjand, Iran.
  He wrote some more than 13 books and treatises; The following is a partial list of some of his works:
  He also wrote some treatises on theology.
  In Islamic astronomy and astrophysics, al-Birjandi continued Ali al-Qushji's debate on the Earth's rotation. In his analysis of what might occur if the Earth were moving, he develops a hypothesis similar to Galileo Galilei's notion of "circular inertia", which he described in the following observational test (as a response to one of Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi's arguments):
  
  wn.com/Al-Birjandi
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  Al-Khayyam
  Omar Khayyám (1048–1131; Persian: ‏عمر خیام‎) was a Persian polymath: philosopher, mathematician, astronomer and poet. He also wrote treatises on mechanics, geography, mineralogy, music, climatology and Islamic theology.
  Born in Nishapur, at a young age he moved to Samarkand and obtained his education there, afterwards he moved to Bukhara and became established as one of the major mathematicians and astronomers of the medieval period. He is the author of one of the most important treatises on algebra written before modern times, the Treatise on Demonstration of Problems of Algebra, which includes a geometric method for solving cubic equations by intersecting a hyperbola with a circle. He contributed to a calendar reform.
  His significance as a philosopher and teacher, and his few remaining philosophical works, have not received the same attention as his scientific and poetic writings. Al-Zamakhshari referred to him as “the philosopher of the world”. Many sources have testified that he taught for decades the philosophy of Avicenna in Nishapur where Khayyám was born and buried and where his mausoleum today remains a masterpiece of Iranian architecture visited by many people every year.
  
  wn.com/Al-Khayyam
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  Al-Kindi
  Abu Yusuf Yaʻqūb ibn Isḥāq al-Sabbah al-Kindī (Arabic: ابو يوسف يعقوب بن اسحاق الصبّاح الكندي‎, Latin: Alkindus) (c. 801–873 CE), known as "the Philosopher of the Arabs", was a Muslim Arab philosopher, mathematician, physician, and musician. Al-Kindi was the first of the Muslim peripatetic philosophers, and is unanimously hailed as the "father of Islamic or Arabic philosophy" for his synthesis, adaptation and promotion of Greek and Hellenistic philosophy in the Muslim world.
  Al-Kindi was a descendant of the Kinda tribe. He was born and educated in Kufa, before going to pursue further studies in Baghdad. Al-Kindi became a prominent figure in the House of Wisdom, and a number of Abbasid Caliphs appointed him to oversee the translation of Greek scientific and philosophical texts into the Arabic language. This contact with "the philosophy of the ancients" (as Greek philosophy was often referred to by Muslim scholars) had a profound effect on his intellectual development, and lead him to write hundreds of original treatises of his own on a range of subjects ranging from metaphysics, ethics, logic and psychology, to medicine, pharmacology,mathematics, astronomy, astrology and optics, and further afield to more practical topics like perfumes, swords, jewels, glass, dyes, zoology, tides, mirrors, meteorology and earthquakes.
  
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  Alhazen
  Abū ʿAlī al-Ḥasan ibn al-Ḥasan ibn al-Haytham (Arabic: أبو علي، الحسن بن الحسن بن الهيثم, Latinized: Alhacen or (deprecated)Alhazen) (965 in Basra – c. 1040 in Cairo) was a Muslimscientist and polymath described in various sources as either Arab or Persian. Alhazen made significant contributions to the principles of optics, as well as to physics, astronomy, mathematics, ophthalmology, philosophy, visual perception, and to the scientific method. He also wrote insightful commentaries on works by Aristotle, Ptolemy, and the Greek mathematician Euclid.
  He is frequently referred to as Ibn al-Haytham, and sometimes as al-Basri (Arabic: البصري), after his birthplace in the city of Basra. He was also nicknamed Ptolemaeus Secundus ("Ptolemy the Second") or simply "The Physicist" in medieval Europe.
  Born circa 965, in Basra, present-day Iraq, he lived mainly in Cairo, Egypt, dying there at age 74. Over-confident about practical application of his mathematical knowledge, he assumed that he could regulate the floods of the Nile. After being ordered by Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah, the sixth ruler of the Fatimid caliphate, to carry out this operation, he quickly perceived the impossibility of what he was attempting to do, and retired from engineering. Fearing for his life, he feigned madness and was placed under house arrest, during and after which he devoted himself to his scientific work until his death.
  
  wn.com/Alhazen
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  Ali Qushji
  Ala al-Dīn Ali ibn Muhammed (1403 – 16 December 1474), known as Ali Qushji (Ottoman Turkish/Persian language: علی قوشچی, kuşçu - falconer in Turkish;Latin: Ali Kushgii), was a Turkic or Persianastronomer, mathematician and physicist originally from Samarkand, who settled in the Ottoman Empire some time before 1472. As a disciple of Ulugh Beg, he is best known for the development of astronomical physics independent from natural philosophy, and for providing empirical evidence for the Earth's rotation in his treatise, Concerning the Supposed Dependence of Astronomy upon Philosophy. In addition to his contributions to Ulugh Beg's famous work Zij-i-Sultani and to the founding of Sahn-ı Seman University^{[citation needed]}, one of the first madrasahs in the Ottoman Empire, Ali Qushji was also the author of several scientific works and textbooks on astronomy.
  Ali Qushji was born in 1403 in the city of Samarkand, in present-day Uzbekistan. His full name at birth was Ala al-Dīn Ali ibn Muhammed al-Qushji. The last name Qushji derived from the Turkish term kuşçu - the falconer - due to the fact that Ali's father Muhammad was the royal falconer of Ulugh Beg.
  
  wn.com/Ali_Qushji
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  Almoravid Dynasty
  The Almoravids (Berber: ⵉⵎⵕⴰⴱⴹⴻⵏ Imṛabḍen, Arabic: المرابطون‎ Al-Murābiṭūn) were a Berber dynasty of Morocco, who formed an empire in the 11th-century that stretched over the western Maghreb and Al-Andalus. Their capital was Marrakesh, a city which they founded in 1062 CE. The dynasty originated amongst the Lamtuna and the Gudala, which were nomadic Berber tribes of the Sahara traversing the territory between southern Morocco, the Niger river and the Senegal river.
  The Almoravids were crucial in avoiding a precipitated fall of Al-Andalus to the Iberian Christian kingdoms, when they decisively beat a coalition of the Castilian and Aragonese armies at the Battle of Sagrajas. This enabled them to control an empire that stretched 3,000 kilometers north to south. However, the rule of the dynasty was relatively short-lived and the Almoravids fell - at the height of their power - when they failed to quell the Masmuda-led rebellion initiated by Ibn Tumart. As a result, their last king Ishaq ibn Ali was killed in Marrakesh in April 1147 CE by the Almohads who replaced them as a ruling dynasty both in Morocco and Al-Andalus.
  
  wn.com/Almoravid_Dynasty
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  Archimedes
  Archimedes of Syracuse (Ancient Greek: Ἀρχιμήδης; c. 287 BC – c. 212 BC) was a Greek mathematician, physicist, engineer, inventor, and astronomer. Although few details of his life are known, he is regarded as one of the leading scientists in classical antiquity. Among his advances in physics are the foundations of hydrostatics, statics and an explanation of the principle of the lever. He is credited with designing innovative machines, including siege engines and the screw pump that bears his name. Modern experiments have tested claims that Archimedes designed machines capable of lifting attacking ships out of the water and setting ships on fire using an array of mirrors.
  Archimedes is generally considered to be the greatest mathematician of antiquity and one of the greatest of all time. He used the method of exhaustion to calculate the area under the arc of a parabola with the summation of an infinite series, and gave a remarkably accurate approximation of pi. He also defined the spiral bearing his name, formulae for the volumes of surfaces of revolution and an ingenious system for expressing very large numbers.
  
  wn.com/Archimedes
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  Avicenna
  Abū ʿAlī al-Ḥusayn ibn ʿAbd Allāh ibn Sīnā (Persian پورسينا Pur Sina [ˈpuːr ˈsiːnɑː] "son of Sina"; c. 980, Afshana near Bukhara– 1037, Hamadan, Iran), commonly known as Ibn Sīnā or by his Latinized name Avicenna, was a Persianpolymath, who wrote almost 450 treatises on a wide range of subjects, of which around 240 have survived. In particular, 150 of his surviving treatises concentrate on philosophy and 40 of them concentrate on medicine.
  His most famous works are The Book of Healing, a vast philosophical and scientific encyclopaedia, and The Canon of Medicine, which was a standard medical text at many medieval universities. The Canon of Medicine was used as a text-book in the universities of Montpellier and Leuven as late as 1650. Ibn Sīnā's Canon of Medicine provides a complete system of medicine according to the principles of Galen (and Hippocrates).
  His corpus also includes writing on philosophy, astronomy, alchemy, geology, psychology, Islamic theology, logic, mathematics, physics, as well as poetry. He is regarded as the most famous and influential polymath of the Islamic Golden Age.
  
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  Banū Mūsā
  The Banū Mūsā brothers ("Sons of Moses"), namely Abū Jaʿfar, Muḥammad ibn Mūsā ibn Shākir (before 803 – February, 873), Abū al‐Qāsim, Aḥmad ibn Mūsā ibn Shākir (d. 9th century) and Al-Ḥasan ibn Mūsā ibn Shākir (d. 9th century), were three 9th-century Persian scholars of Baghdad who are known for their Book of Ingenious Devices on automata (automatic machines) and mechanical devices. Another important work of theirs is the Book on the Measurement of Plane and Spherical Figures, a foundational work on geometry that was frequently quoted by both Islamic and European mathematicians.
  The Banu Musa worked in astronomical observatories established in Baghdad by the Abbasid Caliph al-Ma'mun as well as doing research in the House of Wisdom. They also participated in an 9th-century expedition to make geodesic measurements to determine the length of a degree.
  The Banu Musa were the three sons of Mūsā ibn Shākir, who earlier in life had been a highwayman and astronomer in Khorasan of unknown pedigree. After befriending al-Maʾmūn, who was then a governor of Khorasan and staying in Marw, Musa was employed as an astrologer and astronomer. After his death, his young sons were looked after by the court of al-Maʾmūn. Al-Maʾmūn recognized the abilities of the three brothers and enrolled them in the famous House of Wisdom, a library and a translation center in Baghdad.
  
  wn.com/Banū_Mūsā
• 
  Blaise Pascal
  Blaise Pascal (French pronunciation: [blɛz paskal]; 19 June 1623 – 19 August 1662), was a French mathematician, physicist, inventor, writer and Catholic philosopher. He was a child prodigy who was educated by his father, a tax collector in Rouen. Pascal's earliest work was in the natural and applied sciences where he made important contributions to the study of fluids, and clarified the concepts of pressure and vacuum by generalizing the work of Evangelista Torricelli. Pascal also wrote in defense of the scientific method.
  In 1642, while still a teenager, he started some pioneering work on calculating machines, and after three years of effort and 50 prototypes he invented the mechanical calculator. He built twenty of these machines (called the Pascaline) in the following ten years. Pascal was an important mathematician, helping create two major new areas of research: he wrote a significant treatise on the subject of projective geometry at the age of sixteen, and later corresponded with Pierre de Fermat on probability theory, strongly influencing the development of modern economics and social science. Following Galileo and Torricelli, in 1646 he refuted Aristotle's followers who insisted that nature abhors a vacuum. Pascal's results caused many disputes before being accepted.
  
  wn.com/Blaise_Pascal
• 
  Brethren of Purity
  The Brethren of Purity (Arabic: اخوان الصفا‎ Ikhwān aṣ-Ṣafā; also The Brethren of Sincerity) were a secret society of Muslim philosophers in Basra, Iraq, in the 10th century CE.
  The structure of this mysterious organization and the identities of its members have never been clear. Their esoteric teachings and philosophy are expounded in an epistolary style in the Encyclopedia of the Brethren of Purity (Rasa'il Ikhwan al-safa'), a giant compendium of 52 epistles that would greatly influence later encyclopedias. A good deal of Muslim and Western scholarship has been spent on just pinning down the identities of the Brethren and the century in which they were active.
  The Arabic phrase Ikhwan al-Safa (short for, among many possible transcriptions, Ikhwān aṣ-Ṣafāʾ wa Khullān al-Wafā wa Ahl al-Ḥamd wa abnāʾ al-Majd, meaning "Brethren of Purity, Loyal Friends, People worthy of praise and Sons of Glory") can be translated as either the "Brethren of Purity" or the "Brethren of Sincerity"; various scholars such as Ian Netton prefer "of Purity" because of the group's ascetic impulses towards purity and salvation.
  
  wn.com/Brethren_of_Purity
• Carl Benjamin Boyer
  Carl Benjamin Boyer (November 3, 1906 – April 26, 1976) was a historian of sciences, and especially mathematics. David Foster Wallace called him the "Gibbon of math history". He wrote the books History of Analytic Geometry, The History of the Calculus and Its Conceptual Development, A History of Mathematics, and The Rainbow: From Myth to Mathematics. He served as book-review editor of Scripta Mathematica.
  Boyer was valedictorian of his high school class. He received an A.B. from Columbia College in 1928 and an M.A. in 1929. He received his Ph.D. in Mathematics from Columbia University in 1939.
  He was a full professor of Mathematics at Brooklyn College from 1952 until his death, although he had begun tutoring and teaching at Brooklyn College in 1928.
  Boyer was instrumental as an inspiration to the founding of The Metropolitan New York Section of the History of Science Society.
  He was a 1954 John Simon Guggenheim Memorial Foundation Fellow in History of Science & Technology.
  He died of a heart attack in New York in 1976.
  
  wn.com/Carl_Benjamin_Boyer
• Carl Brockelmann
  Carl Brockelmann (1868–1956), German Semiticist, was the foremost orientalist of his generation. He was a professor at the universities in Breslau, Berlin and, from 1903, Königsberg. He is best known for his multi-volume Geschichte der arabischen Litteratur (1898–1902) (History of Arabic literature) which included all writers in Arabic to 1937, and remains the fundamental reference volume for all Arabic literature, apart from the Christian Arabic texts (covered by Georg Graf).
  He also published Syrische Grammatik mit Litteratur, Chrestomathie und Glossar (1899), Semitische Sprachwissenschaft (1906), Lexicon syriacum (1928), and Arabische Grammatik (under his own name 1941, but this was the 11th edition of the grammar of Albert Socin, previously revised by Brockelmann several times).
  
  
  
  wn.com/Carl_Brockelmann
• Colin Ronan
  Colin A. Ronan (born 4 Jun 1920 London, England – 1 Jun 1995) was an author and specialist in the history and philosophy of science.
  He was educated at Abingdon School in Oxfordshire and served in the British Army from 1940–1946, achieving the rank of major. After the war he obtained a BSc in Astronomy, and then took an administrative post at the secretariat of The Royal Society. While there he did an MSc in the History and Philosophy of Science under Herbert Dingle at University College London. After leaving the Royal Society he took up writing, and during a long career as an author produced over forty books, mainly on astronomy, and the history and philosophy of science. Later in life he collaborated with Joseph Needham on an abridgement of Needham's great work on China, producing The Shorter Science and Civilization in China in several volumes. He played key roles in the administration of the British Astronomical Association, where he was president from 1989 to 1991, and for many years he was the editor of its journal, and director of the historical section.
  
  wn.com/Colin_Ronan
• David Eugene Smith
  David Eugene Smith, Ph.D., LL.D. (January 21, 1860 in Cortland, New York – July 29, 1944 in New York) was an American mathematician, educator, and editor.
  
  
  David Eugene Smith is considered one of the founders of the field of mathematics education. Smith was born in Cortland, New York, to Abram P. Smith, attorney and surrogate judge, and Mary Elizabeth Bronson, who taught her young son Latin and Greek. He attended Syracuse University, graduating in 1881 (Ph. D., 1887; LL.D., 1905). He studied to be a lawyer concentrating in arts and humanities, but accepted an instructorship in mathematics at the Cortland Normal School in 1884. He became a professor at the Michigan State Normal College in 1891 (later Eastern Michigan University), the principal at the State Normal School in Brockport, New York (1898), and a professor of mathematics at Teachers College, Columbia University (1901) where he remained until his retirement in 1926.
  Smith became president of the Mathematical Association of America in 1920. He also wrote a large number of publications of various types. He was editor of the Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society; contributed to other mathematical journals; published a series of textbooks; translated Klein's Famous Problems of Geometry, Fink's History of Mathematics, and the Treviso Arithmetic. He edited Augustus De Morgan's Budget of Paradoxes (1915) and wrote many books on Mathematics which are listed below.
  
  wn.com/David_Eugene_Smith
• Dirk Jan Struik
  Dirk Jan Struik (September 30, 1894 – October 21, 2000) was a Dutch mathematician and Marxian theoretician who spent most of his life in the United States.
  Dirk Jan Struik was born in 1894 in Rotterdam, Netherlands, as a teacher's son, Struik attended the Hogere Burgerschool (HBS) in The Hague. It was in this school that he was first introduced to left-wing politics by some of his teachers.
  In 1912 Struik entered University of Leiden, where he showed great interest in mathematics and physics, influenced by the eminent professors Paul Ehrenfest and Hendrik Lorentz.
  In 1917 he worked as a high school mathematics teacher for a while, after which he worked as a research assistant for J.A. Schouten. It was during this period that he developed his doctoral dissertation, "The Application of Tensor Methods to Riemannian Manifolds."
  In 1922 Struik obtained his doctorate in mathematics from University of Leiden. He was appointed to a teaching position at University of Utrecht in 1923. The same year he married Ruth Ramler, a Czech mathematician with a doctorate from the Charles University of Prague.
  
  wn.com/Dirk_Jan_Struik
• Edmund F. Robertson
  Edmund Frederick Robertson FRSE B.Sc M.Sc Ph.D., born on 1 June 1943, St Andrews, Scotland, is a Professor emeritus of pure mathematics at the University of St Andrews.
  He is one of the creators of the noted MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive along with John J. O'Connor. He has written over one hundred research articles, mainly in the theory of groups and semigroups. He is the author or co-author of seventeen textbooks.
  In 1998 he was elected a fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh.
  He lives at home with his wife Helena, and his two sons Colin and David.
  
  
  
  wn.com/Edmund_F._Robertson
• 
  Euclid
  Euclid ( /ˈjuːklɪd/ EWK-lid; Ancient Greek: Εὐκλείδης Eukleidēs), fl. 300 BC, also known as Euclid of Alexandria, was a Greek mathematician, often referred to as the "Father of Geometry". He was active in Alexandria during the reign of Ptolemy I (323–283 BC). His Elements is one of the most influential works in the history of mathematics, serving as the main textbook for teaching mathematics (especially geometry) from the time of its publication until the late 19th or early 20th century. In the Elements, Euclid deduced the principles of what is now called Euclidean geometry from a small set of axioms. Euclid also wrote works on perspective, conic sections, spherical geometry, number theory and rigor.
  "Euclid" is the anglicized version of the Greek name Εὐκλείδης, meaning "Good Glory".
  Little is known about Euclid's life, as there are only a handful of references to him. The date and place of Euclid's birth and the date and circumstances of his death are unknown, and only roughly estimated in proximity to contemporary figures mentioned in references. No likeness or description of Euclid's physical appearance made during his lifetime survived antiquity. Therefore, Euclid's depiction in works of art is the product of the artist's imagination.
  
  wn.com/Euclid
• Fuat Sezgin
  Fuat Sezgin (born 24 October 1924 in Bitlis, Turkey) is an orientalist who specializes in the history of Arabic-Islamic science. He is professor emeritus of the History of Natural Science at Johann Wolfgang Goethe University in Frankfurt, Germany and the founder and honorary director of the Institute of the History of the Arab Islamic Sciences there. He also created museums in Frankfurt and Istanbul with replicas of historical Arabic-Islamic scientific instruments, tools and maps. His best known publication is the 13-volume Geschichte des Arabischen Schrifttums, a standard reference in the field.
  Sezgin obtained his Ph.D. from Istanbul University under the German orientalist Hellmut Ritter in 1954. His thesis titled "Buhari'nin Kaynaklari" (The Sources of Al-Bukhari) showed that, contrary to the common belief among European orientalists, Al-Bukhari's edition of Hadith collection was based on written sources dating back to the 7th century as well as oral history. He obtained a position at Istanbul University, but was dismissed in the wake of the 1960 coup. He moved to Germany in 1961 and started working as a visiting professor at the University of Frankfurt. He was appointed professor at the university in 1965. His research in Frankfurt focused on Islam's Golden Age of Science. In 1982, Sezgin established the Institute of the History of the Arab Islamic Sciences. Today the Institute houses the most comprehensive collection of texts on the history of Arabic-Islamic science in the world. In 1983 Sezgin also founded a unique museum within the institute, bringing together more than 800 replicas of historical scientific instruments, tools and maps, mostly belonging to the Golden Age of Islamic science. A very similar museum was opened in 2008 in Istanbul.
  
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• 
  Hunayn ibn Ishaq
  Hunayn ibn Ishaq (also Hunain or Hunein) (Syriac: ܚܢܝܢ ܒܪ ܐܝܣܚܩ, Arabic: أبو زيد حنين بن إسحاق العبادي‎; ’Abū Zayd Ḥunayn ibn ’Isḥāq al-‘Ibādī, known in Latin as Johannitius) (809–873) was a famous and influential AssyrianNestorian Christian scholar, physician, and scientist, known for his work in translating Greek scientific and medical works into Arabic and Syriac during the heyday of the Islamic Abbasid Caliphate. Ḥunayn ibn Isḥaq was the most productive translator of Greek medical and scientific treatises in his day. He studied Greek and became known among the Arabs as the "Sheikh of the translators." He mastered four languages: Arabic, Syriac, Greek and Persian. His translations did not require corrections. Hunayn’s method was widely followed by later translators. He was originally from southern Iraq but he spent his working life in Baghdad, the center of the great ninth-century Greek-into-Arabic/Syriac translation movement.
  In the Abbasid era, a new interest in extending the study of Greek science had arisen. At that time, there was a vast amount of untranslated ancient Greek literature pertaining to philosophy, mathematics, natural science, and medicine. This valuable information was only accessible to a very small minority of Middle Eastern scholars who knew the Greek language; the need for an organized translation movement was urgent. In time, Hunayn ibn Ishaq became arguably the chief translator of the era, and laid the foundations of Islamic medicine. In his lifetime, ibn Ishaq translated 116 works, including Plato’s Timaeus, Aristotle’s Metaphysics, and the Old Testament, into Syriac and Arabic. Ibn Ishaq also produced 36 of his own books, 21 of which covered the field of medicine. His son Ishaq, and his nephew Hubaysh, worked together with him at times to help translate. Hunayn ibn Ishaq is known for his translations, his method of translation, and his contributions to medicine.
  
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• 
  Ibn al-Haytham
  Abū ʿAlī al-Ḥasan ibn al-Ḥasan ibn al-Haytham (Arabic: أبو علي، الحسن بن الحسن بن الهيثم, Latinized: Alhacen or (deprecated)Alhazen) (965 in Basra – c. 1040 in Cairo) was a Muslimscientist and polymath described in various sources as either Arab or Persian. Alhazen made significant contributions to the principles of optics, as well as to physics, astronomy, mathematics, ophthalmology, philosophy, visual perception, and to the scientific method. He also wrote insightful commentaries on works by Aristotle, Ptolemy, and the Greek mathematician Euclid.
  He is frequently referred to as Ibn al-Haytham, and sometimes as al-Basri (Arabic: البصري), after his birthplace in the city of Basra. He was also nicknamed Ptolemaeus Secundus ("Ptolemy the Second") or simply "The Physicist" in medieval Europe.
  Born circa 965, in Basra, present-day Iraq, he lived mainly in Cairo, Egypt, dying there at age 74. Over-confident about practical application of his mathematical knowledge, he assumed that he could regulate the floods of the Nile. After being ordered by Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah, the sixth ruler of the Fatimid caliphate, to carry out this operation, he quickly perceived the impossibility of what he was attempting to do, and retired from engineering. Fearing for his life, he feigned madness and was placed under house arrest, during and after which he devoted himself to his scientific work until his death.
  
  wn.com/Ibn_al-Haytham
• Ibrahim ibn Sinan
  Ibrahim ibn Sinan ibn Thābit ibn Qurra (908, Baghdad – 946, Baghdad) was a Syriac speaking Mandean from Harran in northern Mesopotamia/Assyria. He was mathematician and astronomer who studied geometry and in particular tangents to circles. He also made advances in the theory of integration^{[citation needed]}. He is often referenced as one of the most important mathematicians of his time.
  
  
  
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• Ivan van Sertima
  Ivan Gladstone Van Sertima (26 January 1935 – 25 May 2009) was an associate professor of Africana Studies at Rutgers University in the United States.
  He is best known for his Olmec alternative origin speculations, a brand of pre-Columbian contact theory, which he proposed in his book They Came Before Columbus (1976). While his Olmec theory has "spread widely in the African American community, both lay and scholarly", it was mostly ignored in Mesoamericanist scholarship, or else dismissed as Afrocentric pseudohistory to the effect of "robbing native American cultures".
  Van Sertima was born in Karina Village, Guyana, when Guyana was still a British colony; he retained his British citizenship throughout his life. He completed primary and secondary school in Guyana, and started writing poetry.^{[citation needed]} He attended the School of Oriental and African Studies (SOAS) at the University of London from 1959. In addition to his creative writing, Van Sertima completed his undergraduate studies in African languages and literature at SOAS in 1969, where he graduated with honors.^{[citation needed]} During his studies, he learned Swahili and Hungarian.^{[citation needed]} From 1957 to 1959, worked a Press and Broadcasting Officer in the Guyana Information Services During the 1960s, he worked for several years in Great Britain as a journalist, doing weekly broadcasts to the Caribbean and Africa. Van Sertima married Maria Nagy in 1964; they adopted two sons.
  
  wn.com/Ivan_van_Sertima
• Jamshīd al-Kāshī
  
  Ghiyāth al-Dīn Jamshīd Masʾūd al-Kāshī (or al-Kāshānī) (Persian: غیاث‌الدین جمشید کاشانی‎ Qiyās-ud-din Jamshid Kāshānī) (c. 1380 Kashan, Iran – 22 June 1429 Samarkand, Transoxania) was a Persian astronomer and mathematician.
  Al-Kashi was one of the best mathematicians in the Islamic world. He was born in 1380, in Kashan, in central Iran. This region was controlled by Tamurlane, better known as Timur. Al-Kashi lived in poverty during his childhood and the beginning years of his adulthood.
  The situation changed for the better when Timur died in 1405, and his son, Shah Rokh, ascended into power. Shah Rokh and his wife, Goharshad, a Persian princess, were very interested in the sciences, and they encouraged their court to study the various fields in great depth. Their son, Ulugh Beg, was enthusiastic about science as well, and made some noted contributions in mathematics and astronomy himself. Consequently, the period of their power became one of many scholarly accomplishments. This was the perfect environment for al-Kashi to begin his career as one of the world’s greatest mathematicians.
  
  wn.com/Jamshīd_al-Kāshī
• 
  Jim Al-Khalili
  Jim Al-Khalili OBE (born 20 September 1962) is an Iraqi-born British theoretical physicist, author and science communicator. He is Professor of Theoretical Physics and Chair in the Public Engagement in Science at the University of Surrey. He has hosted several BBC productions about science and is a frequent commentator about science in other British media venues.
  Born in Baghdad in 1962 to an Iraqi father and English mother, Al-Khalili studied physics at the University of Surrey. He graduated with a B.Sc. degree in 1986 and stayed on to pursue a Ph.D. degree in nuclear reaction theory, which he obtained in 1989. In 1989, he was awarded a Science and Engineering Research Council (SERC) postdoctoral fellowship at University College London.
  Al-Khalili returned to Surrey in 1991, first as a research assistant then lecturer. In 1994, Al-Khalili was awarded an Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC) Advanced Research Fellowship for five years, during which time he established himself as a leading expert on mathematical models of exotic atomic nuclei. He has published widely in his field.
  
  wn.com/Jim_Al-Khalili
• 
  Marcus du Sautoy
  Marcus Peter Francis du Sautoy OBE (born in London, 26 August 1965) is the Simonyi Professor for the Public Understanding of Science and a Professor of Mathematics at the University of Oxford. Formerly a Fellow of All Souls College, and Wadham College, he is now a Fellow of New College. He is President of the Mathematical Association. He was previously an EPSRC Senior Media Fellow and a Royal Society University Research Fellow. His academic work concerns mainly group theory and number theory. In October 2008, he was appointed to the Simonyi Professorship for the Public Understanding of Science, succeeding the inaugural holder Richard Dawkins. His surname is pronounced  /dʉˈsoʊtɔɪ/ (doo-SOH-toy).
  He grew up in Henley-on-Thames and was educated at local comprehensives Gillott's School and King James's College (VI Form, now Henley College) and Wadham College, Oxford where he obtained first class honours in Mathematics, although he "messed up" his first year, only attaining a second class grade. He went on to complete his DPhil in mathematics. He currently lives in London with his wife and three children. He plays football and the trumpet.
  
  wn.com/Marcus_du_Sautoy
• Muhammad Baqir Yazdi
  Muhammad Baqir Yazdi was an Iranian mathematician who lived in the 16th century. He gave the pair of amicable numbers 9,363,584 and 9,437,056 many years before Euler's contribution to amicable numbers. He was the last notable Islamic mathematician. His major book is Oyoun Alhesab (Arabic:عيون الحساب).
  
  
  
  wn.com/Muhammad_Baqir_Yazdi
• Na'im ibn Musa
  Na‘īm ibn Mūsā (Arabic: نعيم بن موسى‎) was a mathematician of the Islamic Golden Age and a pupil of Thabit Ibn Qurra. Na'im was from Baghdad and lived in the second half of the 9th century. He was the son of Muḥammad ibn Mūsā ibn Shākir, the older of the three brothers Banu Musa.
  Although not regarded as a major mathematician, his treatise, Collection of geometrical propositions, was "one of the first examples of a particular kind of mathematical treatises that became quite usual during the 10th century, and it reflects quite well 'the mathematical culture' of a 9th-century Baghdadi mathematician educated at Thabit ibn Qurra’s school". Only one copy of this work is known, preserved at the University Library of Istanbul. The treatise was edited and translated to French by Roshdi Rashed and Christian Houzel.
  
  wn.com/Na'im_ibn_Musa
• 
  Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī
  Khawaja Muḥammad ibn Muḥammad ibn Ḥasan Ṭūsī (Persian: محمد بن محمد بن الحسن طوسی‎) (born 18 February 1201 in Ṭūs, Khorasan – died on 26 June 1274 in al-Kāżimiyyah district of metropolitan Baghdad), better known as Naṣīr al-Dīn al-Ṭūsī (Persian: نصیر الدین طوسی‎‎; or simply Tusi in the West), was a Persianpolymath and prolific writer: an astronomer, biologist, chemist, mathematician, philosopher, physician, physicist, scientist, theologian and Marja Taqleed. He was of the Ismaili-, and subsequently Twelver Shī‘ah Islamic belief. The Muslim scholar Ibn Khaldun (1332–1406) considered Tusi to be the greatest of the later Persian scholars.
  Nasir al-Din Tusi was born in the city of Tus in medieval Khorasan (now in north-eastern Iran) in the year 1201 and began his studies at an early age. In Hamadan and Tus he studied the Qur'an, Hadith, Shi'a jurisprudence, logic, philosophy, mathematics, medicine and astronomy.
  He was apparently born into a Shī‘ah family and lost his father at a young age. Fulfilling the wish of his father, the young Muhammad took learning and scholarship very seriously and travelled far and wide to attend the lectures of renowned scholars and acquire the knowledge which guides people to the happiness of the next world. At a young age he moved to Nishapur to study philosophy under Farid al-Din Damad and mathematics under Muhammad Hasib. He met also Farid al-Din al-'Attar, the legendary Sufi master who was later killed by Mongol invaders and attended the lectures of Qutb al-Din al-Misri.
  
  wn.com/Nasīr_al-Dīn_al-Tūsī
• 
  Naṣīr al-Dīn al-Ṭūsī
  Khawaja Muḥammad ibn Muḥammad ibn Ḥasan Ṭūsī (Persian: محمد بن محمد بن الحسن طوسی‎) (born 18 February 1201 in Ṭūs, Khorasan – died on 26 June 1274 in al-Kāżimiyyah district of metropolitan Baghdad), better known as Naṣīr al-Dīn al-Ṭūsī (Persian: نصیر الدین طوسی‎‎; or simply Tusi in the West), was a Persianpolymath and prolific writer: an astronomer, biologist, chemist, mathematician, philosopher, physician, physicist, scientist, theologian and Marja Taqleed. He was of the Ismaili-, and subsequently Twelver Shī‘ah Islamic belief. The Muslim scholar Ibn Khaldun (1332–1406) considered Tusi to be the greatest of the later Persian scholars.
  Nasir al-Din Tusi was born in the city of Tus in medieval Khorasan (now in north-eastern Iran) in the year 1201 and began his studies at an early age. In Hamadan and Tus he studied the Qur'an, Hadith, Shi'a jurisprudence, logic, philosophy, mathematics, medicine and astronomy.
  He was apparently born into a Shī‘ah family and lost his father at a young age. Fulfilling the wish of his father, the young Muhammad took learning and scholarship very seriously and travelled far and wide to attend the lectures of renowned scholars and acquire the knowledge which guides people to the happiness of the next world. At a young age he moved to Nishapur to study philosophy under Farid al-Din Damad and mathematics under Muhammad Hasib. He met also Farid al-Din al-'Attar, the legendary Sufi master who was later killed by Mongol invaders and attended the lectures of Qutb al-Din al-Misri.
  
  wn.com/Naṣīr_al-Dīn_al-Ṭūsī
• 
  Omar Khayyám
  Omar Khayyám (1048–1131; Persian: ‏عمر خیام‎) was a Persian polymath: philosopher, mathematician, astronomer and poet. He also wrote treatises on mechanics, geography, mineralogy, music, climatology and Islamic theology.
  Born in Nishapur, at a young age he moved to Samarkand and obtained his education there, afterwards he moved to Bukhara and became established as one of the major mathematicians and astronomers of the medieval period. He is the author of one of the most important treatises on algebra written before modern times, the Treatise on Demonstration of Problems of Algebra, which includes a geometric method for solving cubic equations by intersecting a hyperbola with a circle. He contributed to a calendar reform.
  His significance as a philosopher and teacher, and his few remaining philosophical works, have not received the same attention as his scientific and poetic writings. Al-Zamakhshari referred to him as “the philosopher of the world”. Many sources have testified that he taught for decades the philosophy of Avicenna in Nishapur where Khayyám was born and buried and where his mausoleum today remains a masterpiece of Iranian architecture visited by many people every year.
  
  wn.com/Omar_Khayyám
• Qāḍī Zāda al-Rūmī
  Qāḍī Zāda al-Rūmī (1364 in Bursa, Ottoman Empire – 1436 in Samarqand, Persia), whose actual name was Salah al-Din Musa Pasha (qāḍī zāda means "son of the judge", al-rūmī "the Roman" indicating he came from Asia Minor, which was once Roman), was a Turkish astronomer and mathematician who worked at the observatory in Samarkand. He computed sin 1° to an accuracy of 10⁻¹².
  Together with Ulugh Beg, al-Kāshī and a few other astronomers Qāḍī Zāda produced the Zij-i-Sultani, the first comprehensive stellar catalogue since the Maragheh observatory's Zij-i Ilkhani two centuries earlier. The Zij-i Sultani contained the positions of 992 stars.
  
  
  
  wn.com/Qāḍī_Zāda_al-Rūmī
• Sahl ibn Bishr
  Sahl ibn Bishr al-Israili, often known as Zahel or Zael (c. 786–845 ?) was a Jewish astrologer, astronomer and mathematician from Tabaristan. He was the father of Ali ibn Sahl the famous scientist and physician, who became a convert to Islam.
  Sahl is believed to be the first who translated the Almagest of Ptolemy into Arabic.
  Sahl ibn Bishr wrote in the Greek astrological tradition. Sahl's first five books were preserved in the translation of John of Seville (Johannes Hispanus) (circa 1090 – circa 1150). See the English translation by Holden. The sixth book deals with three thematic topics regarding the influences on the world and its inhabitants was translated by Herman of Carinthia. The work contains divinations based on the movements of the planets and comets.
  There are some books by Sahl ibn Bishr in Arabic such as:
  
  
  
  wn.com/Sahl_ibn_Bishr
• Sinan ibn Thabit
  Sinan ibn Thabit ibn Qurra سنان بن ثابت بن قرة ) was an ethnic Mandean physician and a Sabian who later converted to Islam. He was the son of Thabit ibn Qurra and the father of Ibrahim ibn Sinan.
  
  
  
  wn.com/Sinan_ibn_Thabit
• Sind ibn Ali
  Sind ibn Ali-Musa, Sind ibn ʿAlī (died after 864 AD), was a renowned Sindhi Muslim astronomer, translator, mathematician and engineer. His father Ali-Musa was a convert to Islam and an aristocrat who lived in Mansura, Sindh. Sind ibn ʿAlī traveled to Baghdad and received the best education available.
  He is known to have translated and modified the Zij al-Sindhind. The Zij al-Sindhind was the first astronomical table ever introduced in the Muslim World. As a mathematician Sind ibn ʿAlī was a colleague of al-Khwarizmi and worked closely with Yaqūb ibn Tāriq together they calculated the diameter of the Earth and other astronomical bodies. He also wrote a commentary on Kitāb al-ğabr wa-l-muqābala and helped prove the works of al-Khwarizmi. The decimal point notation to the Arabic numerals was introduced by Sind ibn Ali.
  According to Ibn Abi Usaibia: the Banū Mūsā brothers out of professional jealousy kept him away from Abbasid Caliph al-Mutawakkil at his new capital Samarra and had caused Sind ibn ʿAlī to be sent away to Baghdad. Both Ja'far Muhammad ibn Mūsā ibn Shākir and Ahmad ibn Mūsā ibn Shākir delegated the work of digging a great canal instead to Al-Farghani and thus ignoring Sind ibn ʿAlī, the better engineer.
  
  wn.com/Sind_ibn_Ali
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  Thabit ibn Qurra
  Al-Ṣābiʾ Thābit ibn Qurra al-Ḥarrānī (Arabic: ثابت بن قرة‎, Latin: Thebit/Thebith/Tebit; 826 – February 18, 901) was a mathematician, physician, astronomer and translator of the Islamic Golden Age who lived in Baghdad in the second half of the ninth century.
  Ibn Qurra made important discoveries in algebra, geometry and astronomy. In astronomy, Thabit is considered one of the first reformers of the Ptolemaic system, and in mechanics he was a founder of statics.
  Thabit was born in Harran (known as Carrhae in antiquity) in Higher Mesopotamia/Assyria (in modern day Turkey). At the invitation of Muhammad bin Musa bin Shakir, one of the Banu Musa brothers, Thabit went to study in Baghdad at the House of Wisdom. He was an ethnic Assyrian, a native Syriac/Aramaic speaker, and belonged to the Sabians of Harran, a sect of Hermeticists. Other sources credit him to be a Mandaean. In either case, both sects have a great interest in astronomy, astrology, and mathematics (especially in the case of Mandaeans).
  
  wn.com/Thabit_ibn_Qurra
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  Thābit ibn Qurra
  Al-Ṣābiʾ Thābit ibn Qurra al-Ḥarrānī (Arabic: ثابت بن قرة‎, Latin: Thebit/Thebith/Tebit; 826 – February 18, 901) was a mathematician, physician, astronomer and translator of the Islamic Golden Age who lived in Baghdad in the second half of the ninth century.
  Ibn Qurra made important discoveries in algebra, geometry and astronomy. In astronomy, Thabit is considered one of the first reformers of the Ptolemaic system, and in mechanics he was a founder of statics.
  Thabit was born in Harran (known as Carrhae in antiquity) in Higher Mesopotamia/Assyria (in modern day Turkey). At the invitation of Muhammad bin Musa bin Shakir, one of the Banu Musa brothers, Thabit went to study in Baghdad at the House of Wisdom. He was an ethnic Assyrian, a native Syriac/Aramaic speaker, and belonged to the Sabians of Harran, a sect of Hermeticists. Other sources credit him to be a Mandaean. In either case, both sects have a great interest in astronomy, astrology, and mathematics (especially in the case of Mandaeans).
  
  wn.com/Thābit_ibn_Qurra
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  Ulugh Beg
  Ulugh Beg (Uzbek: Muhammad Tarag'ay Ulug'beg, Муҳаммад Тарағай Улуғбек; Persian: میرزا محمد طارق بن شاہرخ الغ‌بیگ‎ – Mīrzā Muhammad Tāraghay bin Shāhrukh Uluġ Beg) (March 22, 1394 in Sultaniyeh (Persia) – October 27, 1449 (Samarkand)) was a Timurid ruler as well as an astronomer, mathematician and sultan. His commonly-known name is not truly a personal name, but rather a moniker, which can be loosely translated as "Great Ruler" or "Patriarch Ruler" and was the Turkic equivalent of Timur's Perso-Arabic title Amīr-e Kabīr. His real name was Mīrzā Mohammad Tāraghay bin Shāhrokh. Ulugh Beg was also notable for his work in astronomy-related mathematics, such as trigonometry and spherical geometry. Being an genius astronomer he built the great Ulugh Beg Observatory in Samarkand between 1424 and 1429. It was considered by scholars to have been one of the finest observatories in the Islamic world at the time and the largest in Central Asia. He also build the Ulugh Beg Madrasah (1417–1420) in Samarkand and Bukhara, transforming the cities into cultural center of learning in Central Asia. He was also a mathematics genius of the 15th century — albeit his mental aptitude was perseverance rather than any unusual endowment of intellect. He ruled Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Kyrgyzstan, southern Kazakhstan for almost half an century from 1411 to 1449 and occupied the Herat province in Afghanistan for an short time in 1448.
  
  wn.com/Ulugh_Beg