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Afghanistan
{{Infobox country
http://wn.com/Afghanistan -
Albania
Albania ( , , Gheg Albanian: Shqipnia/Shqypnia), officially known as the Republic of Albania (, pronounced ), is a country in South Eastern Europe. It is bordered by Montenegro to the northwest, Kosovo to the northeast, the Republic of Macedonia to the east and Greece to the south and southeast. It has a coast on the Adriatic Sea to the west, and on the Ionian Sea to the southwest. It is less than from Italy, across the Strait of Otranto which links the Adriatic Sea to the Ionian Sea.
http://wn.com/Albania -
Angola
Angola, officially the Republic of Angola (, ; ), is a country in south-central Africa bordered by Namibia on the south, Democratic Republic of the Congo on the north, and Zambia on the east; its west coast is on the Atlantic Ocean with Luanda as its capital city. The exclave province of Cabinda has a border with the Republic of the Congo and the Democratic Republic of the Congo.
http://wn.com/Angola -
Benin
Benin (), officially the Republic of Benin, is a country in West Africa. It borders Togo to the west, Nigeria to the east and Burkina Faso and Niger to the north. Its small southern coastline on the Bight of Benin is where a majority of the population is located. The capital of Benin is Porto-Novo, but the seat of government is located in the country's largest city of Cotonou. Benin covers an area of approximately 110,000 square kilometers (42,000 sq mi), with a population of approximately 8.8 million. Benin is a tropical, sub-Saharan nation, highly dependent on agriculture, with substantial employment and income arising from subsistence farming.
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Bulgaria
Bulgaria ( , Balgariya, ), officially the Republic of Bulgaria (, Republika Balgariya, ), is a country in Southern Europe. Bulgaria borders five other countries: Romania to the north (mostly along the Danube), Serbia and the Republic of Macedonia to the west, and Greece and Turkey to the south. The Black Sea defines the extent of the country to the east.
http://wn.com/Bulgaria -
Cambodia
http://wn.com/Cambodia -
Chile
http://wn.com/Chile -
China
China is seen variously as an ancient civilization extending over a large area in East Asia, a nation and/or a multinational entity.
http://wn.com/China -
Cuba
The Republic of Cuba (; , ) is an island country in the Caribbean. The nation of Cuba consists of the main island of Cuba, the Isla de la Juventud, and several archipelagos.
http://wn.com/Cuba -
Czechoslovakia
http://wn.com/Czechoslovakia -
East Germany
The German Democratic Republic (GDR; German: Deutsche Demokratische Republik or DDR), informally called East Germany by the West, was the socialist state established in 1949 in the Soviet zone of occupied Germany and in the East Berlin portion of the Allied-occupied capital city. The German Democratic Republic, which consisted geographically of northeast Germany rather than all of eastern Germany, had an area of 107,771 km2. (41,610 mi.2), bordering Czechoslovakia in the south, West Germany (officially: Federal Republic of Germany) in the south and west, the Baltic Sea to the north, and Poland in the east.
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Ethiopia
{{Infobox country
http://wn.com/Ethiopia -
Eugene V. Debs
http://wn.com/Eugene_V_Debs -
Germany
Germany (), officially the Federal Republic of Germany (, ), is a country in Western Europe. It is bordered to the north by the North Sea, Denmark, and the Baltic Sea; to the east by Poland and the Czech Republic; to the south by Austria and Switzerland; and to the west by France, Luxembourg, Belgium, and the Netherlands. The territory of Germany covers 357.021 km2 and is influenced by a temperate seasonal climate. With 81.8 million inhabitants, it is the most populous member state of the European Union, and home to the third-largest number of international migrants worldwide.
http://wn.com/Germany -
Grenada
Grenada () is an island country and Commonwealth Realm consisting of the island of Grenada and six smaller islands at the southern end of the Grenadines in the southeastern Caribbean Sea. Grenada is located northwest of Trinidad and Tobago, northeast of Venezuela, and southwest of Saint Vincent and the Grenadines.
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Hungary
http://wn.com/Hungary -
India
India (), officially the Republic of India ( ; see also official names of India), is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by geographical area, the second-most populous country with over 1.18 billion people, and the most populous democracy in the world. Mainland India is bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the west, and the Bay of Bengal on the east; and it is bordered by Pakistan to the west; Bhutan, the People's Republic of China and Nepal to the north; and Bangladesh and Burma to the east. In the Indian Ocean, mainland India and the Lakshadweep Islands are in the vicinity of Sri Lanka and the Maldives, while India's Andaman and Nicobar Islands share maritime border with Thailand and the Indonesian island of Sumatra in the Andaman Sea. India has a coastline of .
http://wn.com/India -
Italy
http://wn.com/Italy -
Karl Marx House
The Karl Marx House museum () is the house in Trier (Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany) in which Karl Marx was born in 1818; it is now a museum. The significance of the house went unnoticed until 1904, at which point the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD) worked hard to buy it, succeeding in 1928. After the Nazi party came to power in 1933 the building was confiscated and turned into a printing house.
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Kerala
Kerala (Malayalam: , {{audio|Ml-Kerala.ogg|) is a state in India. It is located on the south-western region of the country. It was created on 1 November 1956, with the passing of the States Reorganisation Act bringing together the areas where Malayalam was the dominant language.
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Laos
Laos (, , or ), officially the '''Lao People's Democratic Republic''', is a landlocked country in Southeast Asia, bordered by Burma and People's Republic of China to the northwest, Vietnam to the east, Cambodia to the south and Thailand to the west.
http://wn.com/Laos -
Moldova
Moldova , officially the Republic of Moldova (Moldovan/) is a landlocked country in Eastern Europe, located between Romania to the west and Ukraine to the north, east and south. It declared itself an independent state with the same boundaries as the preceding Moldovan SSR in 1991, as part of the dissolution of the Soviet Union. A strip of Moldova's internationally recognized territory on the east bank of the river Dniester has been under the de facto control of the breakaway government of Transnistria since 1990.
http://wn.com/Moldova -
Mongolia
Mongolia (; ) is a landlocked country in East and Central Asia. It is bordered by Russia to the north and the People's Republic of China to the south, east and west. Although Mongolia does not share a border with Kazakhstan, its western-most point is only from Kazakhstan's eastern tip. Ulaanbaatar, the capital and largest city, is home to about 38% of the population. Mongolia's political system is a parliamentary republic.
http://wn.com/Mongolia -
Mozambique
http://wn.com/Mozambique -
Netherlands
{{Infobox country
http://wn.com/Netherlands -
Nicaragua
Nicaragua ( ) officially the Republic of Nicaragua (, ), is a representative democratic republic. It is the largest country in Central America with an area of 130,373 km2. The country is bordered by Honduras to the north and Costa Rica to the south. The Pacific Ocean lies to the west of the country, the Caribbean Sea to the east. The country's Caribbean coast is part of the Western Caribbean Zone. Falling within the tropics, Nicaragua sits between 11 degrees and 14 degrees north of the Equator in the Northern Hemisphere. Nicaragua's abundance of biologically significant and unique ecosystems contribute to Mesoamerica's designation as a biodiversity hotspot. The capital city of Nicaragua is Managua. Roughly one quarter of the nation's population lives in the Nicaraguan capital, making it the second largest city and metropolitan area in Central America (following Guatemala City).
http://wn.com/Nicaragua -
North Korea
http://wn.com/North_Korea -
Poland
Poland (), officially the Republic of Poland (Rzeczpospolita Polska), is a country in Central Europe bordered by Germany to the west; the Czech Republic and Slovakia to the south; Ukraine, Belarus and Lithuania to the east; and the Baltic Sea and Kaliningrad Oblast, a Russian exclave, to the north. The total area of Poland is , making it the 69th largest country in the world and the 9th largest in Europe. Poland has a population of over 38 million people, which makes it the 34th most populous country in the world and the sixth most populous member of the European Union, being its most populous Slavic member.
http://wn.com/Poland -
Republic of Congo
http://wn.com/Republic_of_Congo -
Romania
Romania ( ; dated: Rumania; ) is a country located at the crossroads of Central and Southeastern Europe, north of the Balkan Peninsula, on the Lower Danube, within and outside the Carpathian arch, bordering on the Black Sea. Romania shares a border with Hungary and Serbia to the west, Ukraine and the Republic of Moldova to the northeast, and Bulgaria to the south.
http://wn.com/Romania -
Russia
Russia (; ), also officially known as the Russian Federation (), is a state in northern Eurasia. It is a federal semi-presidential republic, comprising 83 federal subjects. From northwest to southeast, Russia shares borders with Norway, Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania and Poland (both via Kaliningrad Oblast), Belarus, Ukraine, Georgia, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, the People's Republic of China, Mongolia, and North Korea. It also has maritime borders with Japan by the Sea of Okhotsk and the United States by the Bering Strait. At , Russia is the largest country in the world, covering more than a ninth of the Earth's land area. Russia is also the ninth most populous nation with 142 million people. It extends across the whole of northern Asia and 40% of Europe, spanning 9 time zones and incorporating a wide range of environments and landforms. Russia has the world's largest reserves of mineral and energy resources. It has the world's largest forest reserves and its lakes contain approximately one-quarter of the world's fresh water.
http://wn.com/Russia -
South Yemen
http://wn.com/South_Yemen -
Soviet Union
http://wn.com/Soviet_Union -
Tripura
http://wn.com/Tripura -
USSR
http://wn.com/USSR -
Venezuela
http://wn.com/Venezuela -
Vietnam
Vietnam ( ; , ), officially the Socialist Republic of Vietnam (, ), is the easternmost country on the Indochina Peninsula in Southeast Asia. It is bordered by People's Republic of China (PRC) to the north, Laos to the northwest, Cambodia to the southwest, and the South China Sea, referred to as East Sea (), to the east. With a population of over 86 million, Vietnam is the 13th most populous country in the world.
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West Bengal
http://wn.com/West_Bengal -
Yugoslavia
http://wn.com/Yugoslavia
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Abimael Guzmán
http://wn.com/Abimael_Guzmán -
Agostinho Neto
http://wn.com/Agostinho_Neto -
Alex Callinicos
Alexander Theodore Callinicos (born 24 July 1950, Southern Rhodesia - now Zimbabwe) is a Trotskyist political theorist, a member of the Central Committee of the Socialist Workers Party and its International Secretary, and is Director of the Centre for European Studies at King's College London. He is also editor of International Socialism, the SWP's theoretical journal.
http://wn.com/Alex_Callinicos -
Alfonso Cano
http://wn.com/Alfonso_Cano -
Amadeo Bordiga
Amadeo Bordiga (13 June 1889 – 23 July 1970) was an Italian Marxist, a contributor to Communist theory, the founder of the Communist Party of Italy, a leader of the Communist International and, after World War II, leading figure of the International Communist Party.
http://wn.com/Amadeo_Bordiga -
Anton Pannekoek
http://wn.com/Anton_Pannekoek -
Antonie Pannekoek
Antonie (Anton) Pannekoek ( 2 January 1873, Vaassen, Gelderland - 28 April 1960, Wageningen) was a Dutch astronomer and Marxist theorist. He was one of the main theorists of council communism (Dutch: radencommunisme).
http://wn.com/Antonie_Pannekoek -
Antonio Gramsci
Antonio Gramsci () (January 22, 1891 – April 27, 1937) was an Italian philosopher, writer, politician and political theorist. A founding member and onetime leader of the Communist Party of Italy, he was imprisoned by Benito Mussolini's Fascist regime. His writings mostly deal with the analysis of culture and political leadership. He is notable as a highly original thinker within the Marxist tradition. He is renowned for his concept of cultural hegemony as a means of maintaining the state in a capitalist society.
http://wn.com/Antonio_Gramsci -
Antonio Negri
Antonio Negri (born August 1, 1933) is an Italian Marxist sociologist and political philosopher.
http://wn.com/Antonio_Negri -
Avicenna
http://wn.com/Avicenna -
Ben Tillett
Benjamin Tillett (11 September 1860 – 27 January 1943) was a British socialist, trade union leader and politician. He was born in Bristol and began his working life as a sailor, before travelling to London and taking up work as a docker.
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Bruce Trigger
http://wn.com/Bruce_Trigger -
Capitalist roader
In Maoist thought, a capitalist roader () or () is a person or group on the political left who demonstrates a marked tendency to bow to pressure from Bourgeois forces and subsequently attempts to pull the Revolution in a capitalist direction.
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Cedric Robinson
''For the Morecambe Bay sand pilot, see Queen's Guide to the Sands''
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Charles Bettelheim
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Charles Fourier
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Charu Majumdar
http://wn.com/Charu_Majumdar -
Che Guevara
http://wn.com/Che_Guevara -
Chen Boda
Chen Boda () was born in 1904 in Hui'an (Fujian province, China) and died on 20 September 1989 in Beijing.
http://wn.com/Chen_Boda -
China
China is seen variously as an ancient civilization extending over a large area in East Asia, a nation and/or a multinational entity.
http://wn.com/China -
Clement Attlee
http://wn.com/Clement_Attlee -
Cultural Revolution
http://wn.com/Cultural_Revolution -
Daniel De Leon
Daniel DeLeon (18521914) was an American socialist newspaper editor, politician, Marxist theoretician, and trade union organizer. He is regarded as the forefather of the idea of revolutionary industrial unionism and was the leading figure in the Socialist Labor Party of America from 1890 until the time of his death.
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Daniel Ortega
http://wn.com/Daniel_Ortega -
Deng Xiaoping
Deng Xiaoping (; 22 August 1904 19 February 1997) was a Chinese politician, statesman, theorist, and diplomat. As leader of the Communist Party of China, Deng was a reformer who led China towards a market economy. While Deng never held office as the head of state, head of government or General Secretary of the Communist Party of China (historically the highest position in Communist China), he nonetheless served as the paramount leader of the People's Republic of China from 1978 to the early 1990s.
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Deng Xiaoping Theory
Deng Xiaoping Theory (), also known as Dengism, is the series of political and economic ideologies first developed by Chinese leader Deng Xiaoping. In theory, it does not reject Marxism or Mao Zedong Thought but instead seeks to adapt them to the existing socio-economic conditions of China.
http://wn.com/Deng_Xiaoping_Theory -
E.T. Kingsley
Eugene Thornton Kingsley (1856 - December 9, 1929) was a founder and leader of the Socialist Party of Canada and an editor of the Western Clarion newspaper in the first decade of the 20th century. He ran for Parliament in the riding of Vancouver City in the 1908 and 1911 federal elections as a candidate of the Socialist Party of Canada and in the 1926 federal election in the riding of Vancouver Centre as a candidate of the British Columbia Independent Labour Party. He also ran for the British Columbia Legislative Assembly in the 1907 and 1909 provincial elections. He served as editor of the Western Clarion from 1903 until 1908 and was later active in the British Columbia Federated Labour Party where he served as a vice-president and eventually the British Columbia Independent Labour Party.
http://wn.com/ET_Kingsley -
Earl Browder
http://wn.com/Earl_Browder -
Eduard Bernstein
Eduard Bernstein (January 6, 1850December 18, 1932) was a German social democratic theoretician and politician, a member of the SPD, and the founder of evolutionary socialism and revisionism.
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Edvard Kardelj
http://wn.com/Edvard_Kardelj -
Enrico Barone
http://wn.com/Enrico_Barone -
Enver Hoxha
(pronounced , 16 October 1908 11 April 1985) was the leader of Albania from the end of World War II until his death in 1985, as the First Secretary of the Party of Labour of Albania. He also served as Prime Minister of Albania from 1944 to 1954, Minister of Defense from 1944 to 1953, Minister of Foreign Affairs from 1946 to 1953, Chairman of the Democratic Front from 1945 to his death, and as Commander-in-Chief of the Albanian armed forces from 1944 to his death.
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Ernst Thälmann
http://wn.com/Ernst_Thälmann -
Eugene V. Debs
http://wn.com/Eugene_V_Debs -
Evo Morales
Juan Evo Morales Ayma (born October 26, 1959), popularly known as Evo (), has been the President of Bolivia since 2006.
http://wn.com/Evo_Morales -
Faiz Ahmad
http://wn.com/Faiz_Ahmad -
Ferdinand Lassalle
Ferdinand Lassalle (11 April 1825 — 31 August 1864), also known as Ferdinand Lassalle-Wolfson was a German-Jewish jurist and socialist political activist.
http://wn.com/Ferdinand_Lassalle -
Fidel Castro
Fidel Alejandro Castro Ruz (born August 13, 1926) is a Cuban politician. One of the primary leaders of the Cuban Revolution, Castro served as the Prime Minister of Cuba from February 1959 to December 1976, and then as the President of the Council of State of Cuba and the President of Council of Ministers of Cuba until his resignation from the office in February 2008. He currently serves as First Secretary of the Communist Party of Cuba, a position he has held since 1965.
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Franz Mehring
http://wn.com/Franz_Mehring -
François-Noël Babeuf
http://wn.com/François-Noël_Babeuf -
Friedrich Engels
http://wn.com/Friedrich_Engels -
Friedrich Hayek
Friedrich August Hayek CH (8 May 189923 March 1992), born Friedrich August von Hayek, was an Austrian-born economist and philosopher best known for his defense of classical liberalism and free-market capitalism against socialist and collectivist thought. He is considered to be one of the most important economists and political philosophers of the twentieth century. Hayek's account of how changing prices communicate signals which enable individuals to coordinate their plans is widely regarded as an important achievement in economics. Hayek also produced significant work in the fields of systems thinking, jurisprudence, neuroscience and the history of ideas.
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Gavril Myasnikov
Gavril Ilyich Myasnikov (1889-1945), also transliterated as '''Gavriil Il'ich Miasnikov''', was a Russian metalworker from the Urals, who participated in the Revolution of 1905 and became a Bolshevik underground activist in 1906. Tsarist police arrested him and he spent over seven years at hard labor in Siberia. In 1917, Myasnikov was active in factory committees, the soviet, and the Bolshevik party in his hometown of Motovilikha and in Perm.
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Georgi Plekhanov
http://wn.com/Georgi_Plekhanov -
Gonchigiin Bumtsend
http://wn.com/Gonchigiin_Bumtsend -
Guy Debord
Guy Ernest Debord (December 28, 1931 - November 30, 1994) was a French Marxist theorist, writer, filmmaker, hypergraphist and founding member of the groups Lettrist International and Situationist International (SI). He was also briefly a member of Socialisme ou Barbarie.
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Hal Draper
Hal Draper (born Harold Dubinsky, 1914-January 26, 1990) was an American socialist activist and author who played a significant role in the Berkeley, California, Free Speech Movement and is perhaps best known for his extensive scholarship on the history and meaning of the thought of Karl Marx.
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Harry Cleaver
Harry Cleaver is Associate Professor in the Department of Economics at the University of Texas at Austin, where Cleaver teaches Marxism and Marxist economics. He is best known as the author of Reading Capital Politically, an autonomist reading of Karl Marx's Capital. Dr. Cleaver is currently active in the Zapatista movement in Chiapas, Mexico, and is also a contributor on the aut-op-sy email list.
http://wn.com/Harry_Cleaver -
Henri de Saint-Simon
http://wn.com/Henri_de_Saint-Simon -
Henry Bamford Parkes
Henry Bamford Parkes (13 November 1904 – 7 January 1972) was an author and professor of history at New York University. He was born in Sheffield, England.
http://wn.com/Henry_Bamford_Parkes -
Hjalmar Branting
http://wn.com/Hjalmar_Branting -
Ho Chi Minh
http://wn.com/Ho_Chi_Minh -
Hugo Chávez
http://wn.com/Hugo_Chávez -
İbrahim Kaypakkaya
http://wn.com/İbrahim_Kaypakkaya -
Ignacy Daszyński
http://wn.com/Ignacy_Daszyński -
Jawaharlal Nehru
http://wn.com/Jawaharlal_Nehru -
Jean Jaurès
http://wn.com/Jean_Jaurès -
Jiang Qing
http://wn.com/Jiang_Qing -
Joel Kovel
Joel Kovel (born 27 August 1936) is an American politician, academic, writer, and eco-socialist. A practicing psychiatrist and psychoanalyst until the mid-1980s, he has lectured in psychiatry, anthropology, political science and communication studies. He has published many books on his work in psychiatry, psychoanalysis and political activism. Kovel is a member of the Green Party of the United States (GPUS).
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John Curtin
http://wn.com/John_Curtin -
John Dewey
http://wn.com/John_Dewey -
Jon Elster
Jon Elster (born 1940) is a Norwegian social and political theorist who has authored works in the philosophy of social science and rational choice theory. He is also a notable proponent of Analytical Marxism, and a critic of neoclassical economics and public choice theory, largely on behavioral and psychological grounds.
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Jose Maria Sison
Jose Maria Sison (born February 8, 1939, Cabugao, Ilocos Sur, Philippines) is a writer and activist who reorganized the Communist Party of the Philippines and added elements of Maoism to its philosophy.
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Joseph Stalin
http://wn.com/Joseph_Stalin -
Josip Broz Tito
http://wn.com/Josip_Broz_Tito -
Jules Guesde
Jules Basile Guesde (November 11, 1845 – July 28, 1922) was a French socialist journalist and politician.
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Karl Kautsky
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Karl Korsch
Karl Korsch (August 15, 1886 - October 21, 1961) was a German Marxist theorist.
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Karl Liebknecht
(13 August 1871, Leipzig, Saxony, Germany – 15 January 1919, Berlin, Germany) was a German socialist and a co-founder with Rosa Luxemburg of the Spartacist League and the Communist Party of Germany. He is best known for his role in the Spartacist uprising of 1919. The uprising was crushed by the social democrat government and the Freikorps (WWI veterans defending the Weimar Republic) and Liebknecht and Luxemburg were killed.
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Karl Marx
http://wn.com/Karl_Marx -
Karl Schröder (KAPD)
http://wn.com/Karl_Schröder_(KAPD) -
Kim Il-Sung
http://wn.com/Kim_Il-Sung -
Kim Il-sung
http://wn.com/Kim_Il-sung -
Korean War
http://wn.com/Korean_War -
Leon Trotsky
http://wn.com/Leon_Trotsky -
Leszek Kołakowski
http://wn.com/Leszek_Kołakowski -
Li Minqi
http://wn.com/Li_Minqi -
Lin Biao
http://wn.com/Lin_Biao -
Louis Althusser
http://wn.com/Louis_Althusser -
Louis Blanc
http://wn.com/Louis_Blanc -
Mainland China
Mainland China, Continental China, the Chinese mainland or simply the mainland, is a geopolitical term that refers to the area under the jurisdiction of the People's Republic of China (PRC). This term excludes the PRC Special Administrative Regions of Hong Kong and Macau.
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Mao Zedong
Mao Zedong (; December 26, 1893 September 9, 1976) was a Han Chinese revolutionary, political theorist and communist leader. He led the People's Republic of China (PRC) from its establishment in 1949 until his death in 1976. His theoretical contribution to Marxism-Leninism, military strategies, and his brand of Communist policies are now collectively known as Maoism.
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Marc Chirik
http://wn.com/Marc_Chirik -
Margaret Thatcher
http://wn.com/Margaret_Thatcher -
Mary Harris Jones
http://wn.com/Mary_Harris_Jones -
Mathieu Kérékou
http://wn.com/Mathieu_Kérékou -
Max Weber
http://wn.com/Max_Weber -
Mazdak
http://wn.com/Mazdak -
Michael Albert
Michael Albert (born April 8, 1947) is an American activist, speaker, and writer. He is co-editor of ZNet, and co-editor and co-founder of Z Magazine. He also co-founded South End Press and has written numerous books and articles. He developed along with Robin Hahnel the economic vision called participatory economics.
http://wn.com/Michael_Albert -
Michael Löwy
http://wn.com/Michael_Löwy -
Moses Hess
http://wn.com/Moses_Hess -
Nepalese Civil War
The Nepali Civil War (labelled '''People's War''' by the Maoists) was a conflict between government forces and Maoist rebels in Nepal which lasted from 1996 until 2006. The war was started by the Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist) on 13 February 1996, with the aim of overthrowing the Nepalese monarchy and establishing the "People's Republic of Nepal." It ended with a Comprehensive Peace Accord signed on 21 November 2006 which is now monitored by United Nations Mission in Nepal.
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New Democracy
:For different uses of the term, including political parties with the name "New Democracy", see New Democracy (disambiguation).
http://wn.com/New_Democracy -
Nikita Khrushchev
http://wn.com/Nikita_Khrushchev -
Noam Chomsky
Avram Noam Chomsky ( or ; born December 7, 1928) is an American linguist, philosopher, cognitive scientist, and political activist. He is an Institute Professor and professor emeritus of linguistics at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Chomsky is well known in the academic and scientific community as one of the fathers of modern linguistics, and a major figure of analytic philosophy. Since the 1960s, he has become known more widely as a political dissident and an anarchist, referring to himself as a libertarian socialist. Chomsky is the author of more than 100 books and has received worldwide attention for his views, despite being typically absent from the mainstream media.
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Norman Thomas
Norman Mattoon Thomas (November 20, 1884 – December 19, 1968) was a leading American socialist, pacifist, and six-time presidential candidate for the Socialist Party of America.
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Obafemi Awolowo
http://wn.com/Obafemi_Awolowo -
Olof Palme
http://wn.com/Olof_Palme -
Onorato Damen
http://wn.com/Onorato_Damen -
Otto Rühle
http://wn.com/Otto_Rühle -
Paul Lafargue
Paul Lafargue (June 16, 1842 – November 26, 1911) was a French revolutionary Marxist socialist journalist, literary critic, political writer and activist; he was Karl Marx's son-in-law, having married his second daughter Laura. His best known work is The Right to Be Lazy. Born in Cuba to French and Creole parents, Lafargue spent most of his life in France, with periods in England and Spain. At the age of 69, he and Laura died together in a suicide pact.
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Paul Mattick
http://wn.com/Paul_Mattick -
People's war
'''People's War (), also called protracted people's war''', is a military-political strategy invented by Mao Zedong. The basic concept behind People's War is to maintain the support of the population and draw the enemy deep into the interior where the population will bleed them dry through a mix of 'Mobile Warfare' and Guerrilla warfare.
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Peter Kropotkin
http://wn.com/Peter_Kropotkin -
Pierre Mulele
http://wn.com/Pierre_Mulele -
Pol Pot
http://wn.com/Pol_Pot -
Prachanda
Prachanda ( , ; born Chhabilal Dahal on 11 December 1954, later Pushpa Kamal Dahal ( ) is a former guerrilla leader and chairman of the Unified Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist). Prachanda led CPN (M) as it launched an insurgency on 13 February 1996. In 2008 the ensuing civil war culminated in the overthrow of the Shah dynasty in favor of a republic. About 13,000 Nepalese died in this conflict.
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R. J. Rummel
Rudolph Joseph Rummel (born October 21, 1932) is professor emeritus of political science at the University of Hawaii. He has spent his career assembling data on collective violence and war with a view toward helping their resolution or elimination. Rummel coined the term democide for murder by government, his research claiming that six times as many people died of democide during the 20th century than in all that century's wars combined. He concludes that democracy is the form of government least likely to kill its citizens and that democracies do not wage war against each other (see Democratic peace theory).
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Rafael Correa
Rafael Vicente Correa Delgado (; born April 6, 1963) is the President of the Republic of Ecuador and the current President pro tempore of the Union of South American Nations. An economist educated in Ecuador, Belgium and the United States, he briefly served as his country's Finance Minister in 2005. He was elected President in late 2006 and took office in January 2007. In December 2008, he declared Ecuador's national debt illegitimate because it was contracted by corrupt/despotic prior regimes, pledging to fight creditors in international courts, and succeeded in reducing the price of the debt letters and continued paying all the debt. He brought Ecuador into the Bolivarian Alliance for the Americas in June 2009.
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Ralf Dahrendorf
http://wn.com/Ralf_Dahrendorf -
Ralph Nader
Ralph Nader (; born February 27, 1934) is an American attorney, author, lecturer, political activist, and four-time candidate for President of the United States, having run as a Green Party candidate in 1996 and 2000, and as an independent candidate in 2004 and 2008.
http://wn.com/Ralph_Nader -
Ramsay MacDonald
http://wn.com/Ramsay_MacDonald -
Robert Owen
Robert Owen (14 May 1771 – 17 November 1858), (born in Newtown, Montgomeryshire, Wales), was a social reformer and one of the founders of socialism and the cooperative movement.
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Robin Hahnel
Robin Hahnel (b. March 25, 1946) is a Professor of Economics at Portland State University. He is best known for his work on participatory economics with Z Magazine editor Michael Albert. He is currently a visiting professor at Lewis & Clark College.
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Romanian philosophy
Romanian philosophy is a name covering either a) the philosophy done in Romania or by Romanians, or b) an ethnic philosophy, which expresses at a high level the fundamental features of the Romanian spirituality, or which elevates to a philosophical level the Weltanschauung of the Romanian people, as deposited in language and folklore, traditions, architecture and other linguistic and cultural artifacts.
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Ronald Reagan
http://wn.com/Ronald_Reagan -
Rudolf Hilferding
Rudolf Hilferding (10 August 1877, probably in the house of Malzgasse 9/10, Leopoldstadt, Vienna February 11, 1941, Paris) was an Austrian-born Marxist economist, leading socialist theorist, politician and chief theoretician for the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD) during the Weimar Republic, almost universally recognized as the SPD's foremost theoretician of his century, and physician.
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Russian philosophy
http://wn.com/Russian_philosophy -
Samir Amin
Samir Amin () (born 3 September 1931) is an Egyptian economist. He currently lives in Dakar, Senegal.
http://wn.com/Samir_Amin -
Samora Machel
http://wn.com/Samora_Machel -
Shlomo Avineri
http://wn.com/Shlomo_Avineri -
Social imperialism
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Social-imperialism
Social-imperialism is a Marxist expression, typically used in a derogatory fashion, to describe people, parties, or nations that are "socialist in words, imperialist in deeds". The phrase was first used in Marxist circles during the early 20th century discussions on the position of the international workers' movement towards the impending European war and particularly in regards to the Social Democratic Party of Germany . In this context it is very similar to, but not interchangeable with, the terms social chauvinism and social patriotism.
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Spanish Civil War
http://wn.com/Spanish_Civil_War -
Struggle session
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Sylvia Pankhurst
Estelle Sylvia Pankhurst (5 May 1882 27 September 1960) was a notable campaigner for the suffragette movement in the United Kingdom. She was for a time a prominent left communist who then devoted herself to the cause of anti-fascism.
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Thomas Hodgskin
Thomas Hodgskin (b. 12 December 1787 Chatham, Kent, d. -
http://wn.com/Thomas_Hodgskin -
Tommy Douglas
http://wn.com/Tommy_Douglas -
V. Gordon Childe
http://wn.com/V_Gordon_Childe -
Vietnam War
http://wn.com/Vietnam_War -
Vladimir Lenin
http://wn.com/Vladimir_Lenin -
Warsaw Pact
http://wn.com/Warsaw_Pact -
William Morris
http://wn.com/William_Morris -
World War I
World War I was a military conflict centered on Europe that began in the summer of 1914. The fighting ended in late 1918. This conflict involved all of the world's great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances: the Allies (centred around the Triple Entente) and the Central Powers. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilized in one of the largest wars in history. More than 9 million combatants were killed, due largely to great technological advances in firepower without corresponding ones in mobility. It was the second deadliest conflict in history.
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Yao Wenyuan
Yao Wenyuan () (1931 Zhuji, Shaoxing, Zhejiang – December 23, 2005) was a Chinese literary critic, a politician, and a member of the "Gang of Four" during China's Cultural Revolution.
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Zhang Chunqiao
Zhang Chunqiao () (1917 Juye County, Heze, Shandong –April 21, 2005) was a prominent Chinese political theorist, writer, and politician. He came to the national spotlight during the late stages of the Cultural Revolution, and was a member of the Maoist radical group dubbed the "Gang of Four".
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Zhang Junmai
http://wn.com/Zhang_Junmai -
Zulfikar Ali Bhutto
Zulfikar Ali Bhutto (Urdu: lang|ur|, , ) (January 5, 1928 – April 4, 1979) was a Pakistani politician who served as the fourth President of Pakistan from 1971 to 1973 and as the ninth Prime Minister of Pakistan from 1973 to 1977. He was the founder of the Pakistan Peoples Party (PPP), the largest and most influential political party in Pakistan. His daughter Benazir Bhutto also served twice as prime minister. She was assassinated on December 27, 2007.
http://wn.com/Zulfikar_Ali_Bhutto
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Marxist Philosophy
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:02
- Published: 24 Aug 2009
- Updated: 04 Oct 2012
Marxist Philosophy and the Marxism Leninism Worldview (Part 3 of 15). Summit Ministries covers another segment of Marxism/Leninism as compared to a comprehensive Biblical Worldview. Please visit my buddies at www.Summit.org for more videos and resources for understanding the Marxist Leninist world view, and developing a Biblical Christian Worldview, including various Summit camps and retreats. Also, visit http for more information on Marxist Philosophy, Marxism-Leninism, Communism, Christian Worldview, and Christian Apologetics.
http://wn.com/Marxist_Philosophy
Introduction to Marxism
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:08
- Published: 17 Sep 2009
- Updated: 05 Oct 2012
Introduction to the main concepts, theories and issues of Marxism.
http://wn.com/Introduction_to_Marxism
Marx's Theory of Economic Crisis
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 9:14
- Published: 05 May 2009
- Updated: 03 Oct 2012
A short explanation of why the world economy is in a mess, from Karl Marx. Read by me, Cliff Bowman.
http://wn.com/Marx's_Theory_of_Economic_Crisis
"Why Marxism?" An Evening at FEE with C. Bradley Thompson
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 51:14
- Published: 17 Apr 2012
- Updated: 03 Oct 2012
The lecture "Why Marxism?", is an examination of why so many people are still attracted to Marxism despite the history of totalitarianism and genocide. Professor C. Bradley Thompson is the BB&T Research Professor at Clemson University and the Executive Director of the Clemson Institute for the Study of Capitalism. He has also been a visiting fellow at Princeton and Harvard universities and at the University of London.
http://wn.com/Why_Marxism?_An_Evening_at_FEE_with_C_Bradley_Thompson
What Is Marxism?: A Brief Introduction
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 10:14
- Published: 19 Feb 2011
- Updated: 01 Oct 2012
Conservatives like Rush Limbaugh, Glenn Beck, and Sean Hannity want you to hate and fear the ideas of the 19th century thinker Karl Marx. They consider the very word, "Marxism" itself to be some kind of obscenity. But why might this be the case? What inspires this loathing? Regrettably, far too few of us are properly acquainted with Marx and his ideas, and generally the only mention Marxism gets, is when the aforementioned group of foam-at-the-mouth right wingers trash talk it. This video attempts to briefly sketch out and introduce the core concepts of Marxist thought within a roughly 10 minute time frame, and hopefully demystify Marx for those still in the dark.
http://wn.com/What_Is_Marxism?_A_Brief_Introduction
Marxism
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:54
- Published: 25 Jan 2008
- Updated: 06 Oct 2012
Heres a video i made for my grade 12 world history class to define what marxism. I know that Marxism is very open to interpretation so if you disagree with anything, please keep it to yourself.
http://wn.com/Marxism
Class 01 Reading Marx's Capital Vol I with David Harvey
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 111:08
- Published: 28 Oct 2010
- Updated: 06 Oct 2012
Class 1 Introduction. An open course consisting of a close reading of the text of Volume I of Marx's Capital in 13 video lectures by Professor David Harvey. The page numbers Professor Harvey refers to are valid for both the Penguin Classics and Vintage Books editions of Capital.
http://wn.com/Class_01_Reading_Marx's_Capital_Vol_I_with_David_Harvey
David Harvey: The Crisis Today: Marxism 2009
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 25:33
- Published: 07 Jul 2009
- Updated: 05 Oct 2012
Debate with Chris Harman at Marxism 2009 www.counterfire.org If you have problems watching this video you can download it here www.flashload.net
http://wn.com/David_Harvey_The_Crisis_Today_Marxism_2009
CULTURAL MARXISM: The Corruption of America
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 98:39
- Published: 30 Aug 2011
- Updated: 06 Oct 2012
A James Jaeger Film featuring RON PAUL, Congressman/Presidential Candidate; PAT BUCHANAN, Author/Political Analyst; G. EDWARD GRIFFIN, Author/Producer; EDWIN VIEIRA, Author/Constitutional Attorney and TED BAEHR, Founder of MovieGuide and Christian Film & TV Commission -- CULTURAL MARXISM explores the love affair with collectivist ideologies that has lead to ever bigger government and the welfare-warfare state. Find out how the Frankfurt School, a Marxist splinter group, established itself at Columbia University and began "the long march through the institutions." The idea was, and still is, to infiltrate every corner of Western culture and pervert traditional Christian values with "political correctness" and Marxist ideologies. The ultimate goal is to destroy American free-enterprise capitalism by undermining its economic engine, the Middle Class, and the basic building block of society: the Family Unit. If you liked this film, help us make our new film "MOLON LABE - How the Second Amendment Guarantees America's Freedom". See www.molon.us Get this, and other James Jaeger films, on higher quality DVD at www.MoviePubs.Net Donations and DVD sales are what make these films possible. If you can't afford a DVD, we understand, but please, at least refer this movie and its URLs to your list of family, friends and associates. You KNOW corporate mainstream media won't! Thanks.
http://wn.com/CULTURAL_MARXISM_The_Corruption_of_America
Marxism and Revolution Today - Introductions - Neil Davidson and Alex Callinicos
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 50:34
- Published: 28 Sep 2012
- Updated: 30 Sep 2012
"Why Marxism?" | An Interview with C. Bradley Thompson
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:26
- Published: 17 Apr 2012
- Updated: 28 Sep 2012
The lecture "Why Marxism?", is an examination of why so many people are still attracted to Marxism despite the history of totalitarianism and genocide. Professor C. Bradley Thompson is the BB&T Research Professor at Clemson University and the Executive Director of the Clemson Institute for the Study of Capitalism. He has also been a visiting fellow at Princeton and Harvard universities and at the University of London. Like this mini-lecture? Watch the full one here: youtu.be
http://wn.com/Why_Marxism?_|_An_Interview_with_C_Bradley_Thompson
"Marxism in America" by Lt. Gen. (Ret.) WG Boykin - OAK
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 6:01
- Published: 28 Oct 2010
- Updated: 06 Oct 2012
In this video entitled "Marxism in America" General Jerry Boykin discusses his background and training in understanding Marxist insurgencies and how current government actions parallel Marxist tactics. Click "Share" above to send to your friends. Find out more about The Oak Initiative at www.theoakinitiative.org
http://wn.com/Marxism_in_America_by_Lt_Gen_Ret_WG_Boykin_OAK
College Acquaintance: Young Obama Was Pure Marxist Socialist: 1/2
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 10:32
- Published: 17 Feb 2010
- Updated: 06 Oct 2012
"He definitely saw America as the enemy... We all saw the Soviet Union as a better model of where the United States should go" ...
http://wn.com/College_Acquaintance_Young_Obama_Was_Pure_Marxist_Socialist_1_2
Marxist Sociology
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:58
- Published: 24 Aug 2009
- Updated: 24 Sep 2012
Marxist Sociology and the Marxism Leninism Worldview (Part 7 of 15). Summit Ministries covers another segment of Marxism/Leninism as compared to a comprehensive Biblical Christian Worldview. Please visit my friends at www.Summit.org for more videos and resources for understanding the Marxist Leninist world view, and developing a Biblical Christian Worldview, including various Summit camps and retreats. Also, visit http for more information on Marxist Sociology, Marxism-Leninism, Communism, Christian Worldview, and Christian Apologetics.
http://wn.com/Marxist_Sociology
Marxist Theology
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:28
- Published: 24 Aug 2009
- Updated: 03 Sep 2012
Marxist Theology and the Marxism Leninism Worldview (Part 2 of 15). Summit Ministries covers one segment of Marxism/Leninism as compared to a comprehensive Biblical Worldview. Please visit my buddies at www.Summit.org for more videos and resources for understanding the Marxist Leninist world view, and developing a Biblical Christian Worldview, including various Summit camps and retreats. Also, visit http for more information on Marxist Theology, Marxism-Leninism, Communism, Christian Worldview, and Christian Apologetics.
http://wn.com/Marxist_Theology
Marxist Economics
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 7:46
- Published: 24 Aug 2009
- Updated: 22 Sep 2012
Marxist Economics and the Marxism Leninism Worldview (Part 10 of 15). Summit Ministries covers another segment of Marxism/Leninism as compared to a comprehensive Christian Worldview. Please visit my buddies at www.Summit.org for more videos and resources for understanding the Marxist Leninist world view, and developing a Biblical Christian Worldview, including various Summit camps and retreats. Also, visit http for more information on Marxist Economics, Marxism-Leninism, Socialism, Communism, Christian Worldview, and Christian Apologetics.
http://wn.com/Marxist_Economics
Barack Obama's Marxism
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:49
- Published: 07 Aug 2008
- Updated: 01 Oct 2012
CNN Headline News' Glenn Beck says about Obama: "This guy really is a Marxist." WAKE UP PEOPLE!!!
http://wn.com/Barack_Obama's_Marxism
Howard Zinn on Anarchism and Marxism
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:49
- Published: 29 Jan 2010
- Updated: 01 Oct 2012
Message from the filmmaker: SUPPORT WORKER COOPERATIVES: www.MightySmallFilms.com No bosses! Full length DVD available from PMPress.org An excerpt from the DVD "Theory and Practice: Conversations With Noam Chomsky and Howard Zinn" in which Prof. Zinn answers interviewer Sasha Lilley's questions about a synthesis of anarchism and Marxism, the Paris Commune, and social change.
http://wn.com/Howard_Zinn_on_Anarchism_and_Marxism
Politically Correct Marxism
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 7:59
- Published: 23 May 2011
- Updated: 03 Oct 2012
rockingmre.blogspot.com twitter.com www.facebook.com It feels to me as though Political Correctness is the religion for the left. While the left will often complain about the bigotry of the Conservative Christian right, I see PC as equally prone to dishonesty. In this video I discuss how PC has gone too far... Useful Info & Links: en.wikipedia.org en.wikipedia.org en.wikipedia.org en.wikipedia.org en.wikipedia.org www.guardian.co.uk saveyourmarriagenow.net pakalulu.com www.foxnews.com
http://wn.com/Politically_Correct_Marxism
Marxist History
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:47
- Published: 24 Aug 2009
- Updated: 03 Sep 2012
Marxist History and the Marxism Leninism Worldview (Part 11 of 15). Summit Ministries covers another segment of Marxism/Leninism as compared to a comprehensive Biblical Worldview. Please visit my buddies at www.Summit.org for more videos and resources for understanding the Marxist Leninist world view, and developing a Biblical Christian Worldview, including various Summit camps and retreats. Also, visit http for more information on Marxist History, Marxism-Leninism, Communism, Christian Worldview, and Christian Apologetics.
http://wn.com/Marxist_History
John Pilger speaks @ Marxism 2012 (Full Talk)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 18:04
- Published: 23 Apr 2012
- Updated: 01 Oct 2012
Hosted by SOCIALIST ALTERNATIVE - www.sa.org.au - www.marxismconference.org Marxism 2012: Revolution in the air hosted radical journalist, writer and film-maker John Pilger. Back for his fourth year, Pilger says about the Marxism conference: "Marxism in Melbourne is now Australia's premier festival of debate and free speech on issues that are either excluded from or suppressed by the mass media: issues such as the government's agenda for Indigenous Australians, Palestine and propaganda in its many disguises." Pilger is recognized the world over for his investigative journalism. His many awards include: - British Academy of Film and Television Arts - The Richard Dimbleby Award - American Television Academy Award ('Emmy') - International Reporter of the Year - Journalist of the Year Marxism 2012, hosted by Socialist Alternative (AU) and the International Socialist Organisation of Aotearoa (NZ) was held over the Easter long weekend at the University of Melbourne. It hosted a wide variety of international guest speakers involved in struggles all around the world and a record attendance of 925, cementing it as Australia's largest left wing political conference. The weekend featured over 60 sessions of discussion and debate on ideas to challenge capitalism in the midst of one of the worst economic crises in history and the shining inspiration of revolution across the Arab spring. Marxism 2013 will be held over the Easter Weekend of 2013, the 28th to the 31st of March in <b>...</b>
http://wn.com/John_Pilger_speaks_@_Marxism_2012_Full_Talk
Obama Occidental Friend:"Obama Was A Marxist-Leninist,Looked Toward Coming Revolution" PART1
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 10:27
- Published: 28 Jul 2012
- Updated: 20 Sep 2012
Obama Occidental College Friend: "Obama Was A Marxist-Leninist, Looked Toward Coming Revolution" PART1 By Kris Zane www.westernjournalism.com In doing research for his just-released book The Communist Frank Marshall Davis: The Untold Story of Barack Obama's Mentor, Paul Kengor interviewed John Drew, a former friend of Obama during the Occidental years. John Drew states unequivocally that Obama at this time was a fervent Marxist-Leninist that looked towards a literal proletariat revolution in the United States. Of course we know that President Obama has surrounded himself to the hilt with radicals that included openly communist Van Jones, who would have remained until this day if not for the likes of Glenn Beck and an army of bloggers that daily uncovered more and more of Jones' radical connections. Was Team Obama that dense that they didn't know Jones was a communist? This is hardly likely since there were YouTube videos of Jones spouting off about revolution literally months before Obama appointed him Green Jobs czar. Obama knew he was a communist because Obama during his Occidental years, during his Columbia years, during his Harvard years and today is, as John Drew states, a Marxist-Leninist. Hopefully the "revolution" that Obama seeks will be the overthrow of his presidency in November—or if we're lucky his impeachment.
http://wn.com/Obama_Occidental_FriendObama_Was_A_Marxist-Leninist,Looked_Toward_Coming_Revolution_PART1
Lukacs' contribution to Marxism | Chris Nineham | Counterforum 19 June
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 40:12
- Published: 22 Jun 2010
- Updated: 25 Sep 2012
Organised and produced by www.counterfire.org Counterforum looks at the role of two leading Marxist revolutionaries, Lenin was the leader of the Bolshevik Party and the architect of the Russian revolution. He remains the foremost Marxist theorist of political organisation. Georg Lukacs is the greatest Marxist philosopher since Marx. But he was also an active revolutionary - a commissar in the Hungarian Workers Republic of 1919. Together the writings of Lenin and Lukacs are a unique inheritance for activists today. Chris Nineham examines Lukacs unique contribution to our understanding of class consciousness and the role of political organisation in social change.
http://wn.com/Lukacs'_contribution_to_Marxism_|_Chris_Nineham_|_Counterforum_19_June
Creative Commons
Creative Commons / Soman
Xinhua photo
Photo: DOD / Public Domain
04 Oct 2012
In Afghanistan, the US military has tried training sessions, embedded cultural advisers, recommended reading lists, and even a video game designed to school American troops in local custom. But 11...
Photo: AP / Kirsty Wigglesworth
06 Oct 2012
AFP - Radical Islamist preacher Abu Hamza and four other terror suspects were on their way from Britain to the United States on Saturday after a court rejected their last-ditch court bid to block...
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DENVER -- In the first presidential debate of the fall campaign, Mitt Romney defended himself Wednesday night against charges from President Barack Obama that his tax-cut plan would favor the wealthy....
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Protesters are appearing in court in the Greek capital Athens a day after a rally by shipyard workers against job cuts descended into violence. A line of blue police lorries flanked the courthouse as...
CCTB, SJTU Co-build Marxism and European Culture Research Base (Shanghai Jiaotong University)
24 Sep 2012
noodls
CCTB, SJTU Co-build Marxism and European Culture Research Base September 24, 2012 Author: Cao Jie Shanghai Jiao Tong University and Central Compilation & Translation Bureau (CCTB) cooperated to set up "CCTB-SJTU Marxism and European Culture Research Base". The...(size: 2.1Kb)
Green MP Adam Bandt opens on Marxism
22 Sep 2012
The Australian
GREENS deputy leader Adam Bandt kept prying eyes from his PhD thesis exploring the theories of Karl Marx by slapping a three-year suppression order on the tome. The former teen Marxist, who confesses he once described the Greens as "bourgeois", revealed...(size: 1.7Kb)
November election: Marxism vs. Capitalism
19 Sep 2012
The Examiner
Related topics Politics2012 electionRomneyObamaMarxismCapitalism Advertisement In about seven weeks, the American electorate will go to the polls to determine who will occupy the Oval Office for the next four years. The choice is clear. Will we re-elect a Marxist or will we elect a Capitalist?...(size: 8.4Kb)
Obama's mainstreaming of Marxism
29 Aug 2012
WorldNetDaily
Later in the day, through part-history, part-nostalgia and a huge part-self-congratulations at how long I’ve lived – not the years, but the eras I’ve survived – I thought hard upon it. “We have a president running for re-election who not only has the endorsement of the Communist...(size: 4.5Kb)
Marxism on Facebook?
17 Aug 2012
noodls
Marxism on Facebook? 08.17.2012 | Culture and Society, Faculty, Research Many have argued the Marxist theories of a classless society died with the collapse of the Soviet Union and a faltering Cuba, but a University of Dayton researcher has found a place where such approaches may have a shot of...(size: 4.8Kb)
Foreign Marxism research center established
17 Aug 2012
CNTV
BEIJING, Aug. 16 (Xinhua) -- The Central Compilation and Translation Bureau of the Communist Party of China Central Committee has established a research center committed to providing information on development of Marxism and left-wing theory in other countries. The center will advise the leading...(size: 5.7Kb)
Socialism, Marxism and now Obamarism
05 Aug 2012
The Examiner
Related topics socialismObama Advertisement When President Obama finally leaves office on January 20, 2013 the full detriment of his reign will begin to be uncovered. To make America whole again a full accounting of all stimulus funds must occur. Cash now hemorrhaging from the Federal treasury must...(size: 8.0Kb)
Business Day
LAST week in this space, perhaps in a fit of frustration about the slightly unhinged nature of South African politics, I wrote a personal plea to the South African Communist Party to drop the pose. SA is one of the very few countries where communists get to claim a handful of Cabinet seats without...(size: 12.3Kb)
Why Marxism is on the rise again
08 Jul 2012
Taipei Times
Class conflict once seemed so straightforward. Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels wrote in the second-best-selling book of all time, The Communist Manifesto: âWhat the bourgeoisie therefore produces, above all, are its own grave-diggers. Its fall and the victory of the proletariat are equally...(size: 3.4Kb)
Marxism is an economic and sociopolitical worldview and method of socioeconomic inquiry that centers upon a materialist interpretation of history, a dialectical view of social change, and an analysis and critique of the development of capitalism. Marxism was pioneered in the early to mid 19th century by two German philosophers, Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. Marxism encompasses Marxian economic theory, a sociological theory and a revolutionary view of social change that has influenced political movements around the world.[1]
The Marxian analysis begins with an analysis of material conditions, taking at its starting point the necessary economic activities required by human society to provide for its material needs. The form of economic organization, or mode of production, is understood to be the basis from which the majority of other social phenomena — including social relations, political and legal systems, morality and ideology — arise (or at the least by which they are greatly influenced). These social relations form the superstructure, for which the economic system forms the base. As the forces of production, most notably technology, improve, existing forms of social organization become inefficient and stifle further progress.[citation needed]
These inefficiencies manifest themselves as social contradictions in society in the form of class struggle. Under the capitalist mode of production, this struggle materializes between the minority (the bourgeoisie) who own the means of production, and the vast majority of the population (the proletariat) who produce goods and services. Taking the idea that social change occurs because of the struggle between different classes within society who are under contradiction against each other, the Marxist analysis leads to the conclusion that capitalism oppresses the proletariat, which leads to a proletarian revolution.
Capitalism according to Marxist theory can no longer sustain the living standards of the population due to its need to compensate for falling rates of profit by driving down wages, cutting social benefits and pursuing military aggression. The socialist system would succeed capitalism as humanity's mode of production through workers' revolution. According to Marxism, Socialism is a historical necessity (but not an inevitability).[2]
In a socialist society private property in the means of production would be superseded by co-operative ownership. A socialist economy would not base production on the creation of private profits, but would instead base production and economic activity on the criteria of satisfying human needs - that is, production would be carried out directly for use.[citation needed]
Eventually, socialism would give way to a communist stage of history: a classless, stateless system based on common ownership and free-access, superabundance and maximum freedom for individuals to develop their own capacities and talents. As a political movement, Marxism advocates the creation of such a society.[citation needed]
A Marxist understanding of history and of society has been adopted by academics studying in a wide range of disciplines, including archaeology, anthropology,[3] media studies,[4] political science, theater, history, sociological theory, art history and theory, cultural studies, education, economics, geography, literary criticism, aesthetics, critical psychology, and philosophy.[5]
Contents
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History[link]
Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels[link]
Main articles: Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels
Karl Heinrich Marx (5 May 1818 – 14 March 1883) was a German philosopher, political economist, and socialist revolutionary, who addressed the matters of alienation and exploitation of the working class, the capitalist mode of production, and historical materialism. He is famous for analysing history in terms of class struggle, summarised in the initial line introducing the Communist Manifesto (1848): “The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles”. His ideas were influential in his time, and it was greatly expanded by the successful Bolshevik October Revolution of 1917 in Imperial Russia.
Friedrich Engels (28 November 1820 – 5 August 1895) was a German political philosopher and Karl Marx’s co-developer of communist theory. Marx and Engels met in September 1844; discovering that they shared like views of philosophy and socialism, they collaborated and wrote works such as Die heilige Familie (The Holy Family). After the French deported Marx from France in January 1845, Engels and Marx moved to Belgium, which then permitted greater freedom of expression than other European countries; later, in January 1846, they returned to Brussels to establish the Communist Correspondence Committee.
In 1847, they began writing The Communist Manifesto (1848), based upon Engels’ The Principles of Communism; six weeks later, they published the 12,000-word pamphlet in February 1848. In March, Belgium expelled them, and they moved to Cologne, where they published the Neue Rheinische Zeitung, a politically radical newspaper. Again, by 1849, they had to leave Cologne for London. The Prussian authorities pressured the British government to expel Marx and Engels, but Prime Minister Lord John Russell refused.
After Karl Marx’s death in 1883, Friedrich Engels became the editor and translator of Marx's writings. With his Origins of the Family, Private Property, and the State (1884) — analysing monogamous marriage as guaranteeing male social domination of women, a concept analogous, in communist theory, to the capitalist class’s economic domination of the working class — Engels made intellectually significant contributions to feminist theory and Marxist feminism.
Early 20th century[link]
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The impact that Marxist theory had on the socialist movement became far more pronounced in the first part of the 20th century.[citation needed]
Late 20th century[link]
Political Marxism[link]
In 1959, the Cuban Revolution led to the victory of anti-imperialist Fidel Castro (1926-) and his July 26 Movement. Although the revolution had not been explicitly socialist, upon victory Castro ascended to the position of Prime Minister and eventually adopted the Leninist model of socialist development, forging an alliance with the Soviet Union.[6] One of the leaders of the revolution, the Argentine Leninist Che Guevara (1928–1967), subsequently went on to aid revolutionary socialist movements in Congo-Kinshasa and Bolivia, eventually being killed by the Bolivian government, possibly on the orders of the CIA, though the CIA agent sent to search for Guevara, Felix Rodriguez expressed a desire to keep him alive as a possible bargaining tool with the Cuban government; he would posthumously go on to become an internationally recognised icon.
In the People's Republic of China, the Maoist government undertook the Cultural Revolution from 1966 through to 1976 in order to purge capitalist elements from Chinese society and entrench socialism. However, upon Mao's death, his non-Marxist rivals seized political power and under the Premiership of Deng Xiaoping (1978-1992), Maoism was abandoned and much of the state sector privatised.
The late 1980s and early 1990s saw the collapse of most of those socialist states that had professed a Marxist-Leninist ideology. In the late 1970s and 1980s, the emergence of the New Right and neoliberal capitalism as the dominant ideological trends in western politics - championed by U.S. President Ronald Reagan and U.K. Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher - led the west to take a more aggressive stand against the Soviet Union and its Leninist allies. Meanwhile, in the Soviet Union, the reformist Mikhael Gorbachev (1931-) became Premier in 1988, and began to move away from Leninist-based models of development towards social democracy. Ultimately, Gorbachev's reforms, coupled with rising levels of popular ethnic nationalism in the Soviet Union, led to the state's dissolution in 1991 into a series of constituent nations, all of which abandoned Marxist-Leninist models for socialism, with most converting to capitalist economies.
21st century[link]
Political Marxism[link]
At the turn of the 21st century, Cuba remained the only officially Marxist-Leninist state, although a Maoist government led by Prachanda (1954-) was elected into power in Nepal in 2008 following a long guerilla struggle. The early 21st century also saw the election of socialist and anti-imperialist governments in several Latin American nations, in what has come to be known as the "Pink tide". Dominated by the Venezuelan government of Hugo Chávez, this trend also saw the election of Evo Morales in Bolivia, Rafael Correa in Ecuador and Daniel Ortega in Nicaragua; forging political and economic alliances through international organisations like the Bolivarian Alliance for the Americas, these socialist governments allied themselves with Marxist-Leninist Cuba, and although none of them espoused a Leninist path directly, most admitted to being significantly influenced by Marxist theory.
Classical Marxism[link]
Main article: Classical Marxism
The term Classical Marxism denotes the theory propounded by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels.[citation needed] As such, Classical Marxism distinguishes between “Marxism” as broadly perceived, and “what Marx believed”; thus, in 1883, Marx wrote to the French labour leader Jules Guesde and to Paul Lafargue (Marx’s son-in-law) — both of whom claimed to represent Marxist principles — accusing them of “revolutionary phrase-mongering” and of denying the value of reformist struggle; from which derives the paraphrase: “If that is Marxism, then I am not a Marxist”.[7] American Marx scholar Hal Draper responded to this comment by saying, “there are few thinkers in modern history whose thought has been so badly misrepresented, by Marxists and anti-Marxists alike”.[8]
Concepts[link]
Historical Materialism[link]
"The discovery of the materialist conception of history, or rather, the consistent continuation and extension of materialism into the domain of social phenomenon, removed two chief defects of earlier historical theories. In the first place, they at best examined only the ideological motives of the historical activity of human beings, without grasping the objective laws governing the development of the system of social relations... in the second place, the earlier theories did not cover the activities of the masses of the population, whereas historical materialism made it possible for the first time to study with the accuracy of the natural sciences the social conditions of the life of the masses and the changes in these conditions."
Russian Marxist theoretician and revolutionary Vladimir Lenin, 1913.[9]
"Society does not consist of individuals, but expresses the sum of interrelations, the relations within which these individuals stand."
The historical materialist theory of history, also synonymous to “the economic interpretation of history” (a coinage by Eduard Bernstein),[11] looks for the causes of societal development and change in the collective ways humans use to make the means for living. The social features of a society (social classes, political structures, ideologies) derive from economic activity; “base and superstructure” is the metaphoric common term describing this historic condition.
The base and superstructure metaphor explains that the totality of social relations regarding “the social production of their existence” i.e. civil society forms a society’s economic base, from which rises a superstructure of political and legal institutions i.e. political society. The base corresponds to the social consciousness (politics, religion, philosophy, etc.), and it conditions the superstructure and the social consciousness. A conflict between the development of material productive forces and the relations of production provokes social revolutions, thus, the resultant changes to the economic base will lead to the transformation of the superstructure.[12] This relationship is reflexive; the base determines the superstructure, in the first instance, and remains the foundation of a form of social organization which then can act again upon both parts of the base and superstructure, whose relationship is dialectical, not literal.[citation needed][clarification needed]
Marx considered that these socio-economic conflicts have historically manifested themselves as distinct stages (one transitional) of development in Western Europe.[13]
- Primitive Communism: as in co-operative tribal societies.
- Slave Society: a development of tribal progression to city-state; Aristocracy is born.
- Feudalism: aristocrats are the ruling class; merchants evolve into capitalists.
- Capitalism: capitalists are the ruling class, who create and employ the proletariat.
- Socialism: workers gain class consciousness, and via proletarian revolution depose the capitalist dictatorship of the bourgeoisie, replacing it in turn with dictatorship of the proletariat through which the socialization of the means of production can be realized.
- Communism: a classless and stateless society.
Criticism of capitalism[link]
"We are, in Marx's terms, 'an ensemble of social relations' and we live our lives at the core of the intersection of a number of unequal social relations based on hierarchically interrelated structures which, together, define the historical specificity of the capitalist modes of production and reproduction and underlay their observable manifestations."—Martha E. Gimenez, Marxism and Class, Gender and Race: Rethinking the Trilogy[14]
According to the Marxist theoretician and revolutionary Vladimir Lenin, "the principal content of Marxism" was "Marx's economic doctrine".[15] Marx believed that the capitalist bourgeois and their economists were promoting what he saw as the lie that "The interests of the capitalist and those of the worker are... one and the same"; he believed that they did this by purporting the concept that "the fastest possible growth of productive capital" was best not only for the wealthy capitalists but also for the workers because it provided them with employment.[16]
Exploitation is a matter of surplus labour — the amount of labour one performs beyond what one receives in goods. Exploitation has been a socio-economic feature of every class society, and is one of the principal features distinguishing the social classes. The power of one social class to control the means of production enables its exploitation of the other classes.
In capitalism, the labour theory of value is the operative concern; the value of a commodity equals the socially necessary labour time required to produce it. Under that condition, surplus value (the difference between the value produced and the value received by a labourer) is synonymous with the term “surplus labour”; thus, capitalist exploitation is realised as deriving surplus value from the worker.
In pre-capitalist economies, exploitation of the worker was achieved via physical coercion. In the capitalist mode of production, that result is more subtly achieved; because the worker does not own the means of production, he or she must voluntarily enter into an exploitive work relationship with a capitalist in order to earn the necessities of life. The worker's entry into such employment is voluntary in that he or she chooses which capitalist to work for. However, the worker must work or starve. Thus, exploitation is inevitable, and the "voluntary" nature of a worker participating in a capitalist society is illusory.
Alienation denotes the estrangement of people from their humanity (German: Gattungswesen, “species-essence”, “species-being”), which is a systematic result of capitalism. Under capitalism, the fruits of production belong to the employers, who expropriate the surplus created by others, and so generate alienated labourers.[17] Alienation objectively describes the worker’s situation in capitalism — his or her self-awareness of this condition is not prerequisite.
The identity of a social class derives from its relationship to the means of production; Marx describes the social classes in capitalist societies:
- Proletariat: “those individuals who sell their labour power, and who, in the capitalist mode of production, do not own the means of production“.[citation needed] The capitalist mode of production establishes the conditions enabling the bourgeoisie to exploit the proletariat because the workers’ labour generates a surplus value greater than the workers’ wages.
- Bourgeoisie: those who “own the means of production” and buy labour power from the proletariat, thus exploiting the proletariat; they subdivide as bourgeoisie and the petit bourgeoisie.
- Petit bourgeoisie are those who employ labourers, but who also work, i.e. small business owners, peasant landlords, trade workers et al. Marxism predicts that the continual reinvention of the means of production eventually would destroy the petit bourgeoisie, degrading them from the middle class to the proletariat.
- Lumpenproletariat: criminals, vagabonds, beggars, et al., who have no stake in the economy, and so sell their labour to the highest bidder.
- Landlords: an historically important social class who retain some wealth and power.
- Peasantry and farmers: a disorganised class incapable of effecting socio-economic change, most of whom would enter the proletariat, and some become landlords.
Class consciousness denotes the awareness — of itself and the social world — that a social class possesses, and its capacity to rationally act in their best interests; hence, class consciousness is required before they can effect a successful revolution.
Without defining ideology,[18] Marx used the term to denote the production of images of social reality; according to Engels, “ideology is a process accomplished by the so-called thinker consciously, it is true, but with a false consciousness. The real motive forces impelling him remain unknown to him; otherwise it simply would not be an ideological process. Hence he imagines false or seeming motive forces”.[19] Because the ruling class controls the society’s means of production, the superstructure of society, the ruling social ideas are determined by the best interests of said ruling class. In The German Ideology, “the ideas of the ruling class are in every epoch the ruling ideas, i.e. the class which is the ruling material force of society, is, at the same time, its ruling intellectual force”.[20]
The term political economy originally denoted the study of the conditions under which economic production was organised in the capitalist system. In Marxism, political economy studies the means of production, specifically of capital, and how that manifests as economic activity.
"Marxism taught me what society was. I was like a blindfolded man in a forest, who doesn't even know where north or south is. If you don't eventually come to truly understand the history of the class struggle, or at least have a clear idea that society is divided between the rich and the poor, and that some people subjugate and exploit other people, you're lost in a forest, not knowing anything."
Cuban revolutionary and Marxist-Leninist politician Fidel Castro on discovering Marxism, 2009.[21]
Revolution, socialism and communism[link]
Marxists believe that the transition from capitalism to socialism is an inevitable part of the development of human society; as Lenin stated, "it is evident that Marx deduces the inevitability of the transformation of capitalist society [into a socialist society] wholly and exclusively from the economic law of motion of contemporary society."[22]
Marxists believe that a socialist society will be far better for the majority of the populace than its capitalist counterpart, for instance, prior to the Russian revolution of 1917, Lenin wrote that "The socialization of production is bound to lead to the conversion of the means of production into the property of society... This conversion will directly result in an immense increase in productivity of labour, a reduction of working hours, and the replacement of the remnants, the ruins of small-scale, primitive, disunited production by collective and improved labour."[23]
Academic Marxism[link]
File:Gordon Childe.jpg
One of the 20th century's most prominent Marxist academics; the Australian archaeologist V. Gordon Childe.
Marxism has been adopted by a large number of academics and other scholars working in various disciplines.
The theoretical development of Marxist archaeology was first developed in the Soviet Union in 1929, when a young archaeologist named Vladislav I. Ravdonikas (1894–1976) published a report entitled "For a Soviet history of material culture". Within this work, the very discipline of archaeology as it then stood was criticised as being inherently bourgeoisie and therefore anti-socialist, and so, as a part of the academic reforms instituted in the Soviet Union under the administration of Premier Stalin, a great emphasis was placed on the adoption of Marxist archaeology throughout the country.[24] These theoretical developments were subsequently adopted by archaeologists working in capitalist states outside of the Leninist bloc, most notably by the Australian academic V. Gordon Childe (1892–1957), who used Marxist theory in his understandings of the development of human society.[25]
Criticism[link]
Some Marxists have criticised the academic institutionalisation of Marxism for being too detached from political action. For instance, Zimbabwean Trotskyist Alex Callinicos, himself a professional academic, stated that "Its practitioners remind one of Narcissus, who in the Greek legend fell in love with his own reflection... Sometimes it is necessary to devote time to clarifying and developing the concepts that we use, but indeed for Western Marxists this has become an end in itself. The result is a body of writings incomprehensible to all but a tiny minority of highly qualified scholars."[26]
Political Marxism[link]
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Since Marx's death in 1883, various groups around the world have appealed to Marxism as the theoretical basis for their politics and policies, which have often proved to be dramatically different and conflicting.[citation needed] One of the first major political splits occurred between the advocates of 'reformism', who argued that the transition to socialism could occur within existing bourgeois parliamentarian frameworks, and communists, who argued that the transition to a socialist society required a revolution and the dissolution of the capitalist state. The 'reformist' tendency, later known as social democracy, came to be dominant in most of the parties affiliated to the Second International and these parties supported their own governments in the First World War.[citation needed] This issue caused the communists to break away, forming their own parties which became members of the Third International.[citation needed]
The following countries had governments at some point in the 20th century who at least nominally adhered to Marxism:[27] Albania, Afghanistan, Angola, Benin, Bulgaria, Chile, China, Republic of Congo, Cuba, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Ethiopia, Grenada, Hungary, Laos, Moldova, Mongolia, Mozambique, Nepal, Nicaragua, North Korea, Poland, Romania, Russia, the USSR and its republics, South Yemen, Yugoslavia, Venezuela, Vietnam. In addition, the Indian states of Kerala, Tripura and West Bengal have had Marxist governments, but change takes place in the government due to electoral process. Some of these governments such as in Venezuela, Nicaragua, Chile, Moldova and parts of India have been democratic in nature and maintained regular multiparty elections.
History[link]
The 1917 October Revolution, led by Vladimir Lenin, was the first large scale attempt to put Marxist ideas about a workers' state into practice. The new government faced counter-revolution, civil war and foreign intervention.[28] Lenin consistently explained "this elementary truth of Marxism, that the victory of socialism requires the joint efforts of workers in a number of advanced countries" (Lenin, Sochineniya (Works), 5th ed Vol XLIV p418.) It could not be developed in Russia in isolation, he argued, but needed to be spread internationally.
The 1917 October Revolution did help inspire a revolutionary wave over the years that followed,[29][30][31][32] with the development of Communist Parties worldwide, but without success in the vital advanced capitalist countries of Western Europe. Socialist revolution in Germany and other western countries failed, leaving the Soviet Union on its own. An intense period of debate and stopgap solutions ensued, war communism and the New Economic Policy (NEP). Lenin died and Joseph Stalin gradually assumed control, eliminating rivals and consolidating power as the Soviet Union faced the events of the 1930s and its global crisis-tendencies. Amidst the geopolitical threats which defined the period and included the probability of invasion, he instituted a ruthless program of industrialization which, while successful,[33] was executed at great cost in human suffering, along with long-term environmental devastation.[33]
Modern followers of Leon Trotsky maintain that as predicted by Lenin, Trotsky, and others already in the 1920s, Stalin's "socialism in one country" was unable to maintain itself, and according to some Marxist critics, the USSR ceased to show the characteristics of a socialist state long before its formal dissolution.
In the 1920s the economic calculation debate between Austrian Economists and Marxist economists took place. The Austrians claimed that Marxism is flawed because prices could not be set to recognize opportunity costs of factors of production, and so socialism could not make rational decisions.
The Kuomintang party, a Chinese nationalist revolutionary party, had Marxist members who opposed the Chinese Communist Party. They viewed the Chinese revolution in different terms than the Communists, claiming that China already went past its feudal stage and in a stagnation period rather than in another mode of production. These Marxists in the Kuomintang opposed the Chinese communist party ideology.[34]
Following World War II, Marxist ideology, often with Soviet military backing, spawned a rise in revolutionary communist parties all over the world. Some of these parties were eventually able to gain power, and establish their own version of a Marxist state. Such nations included the People's Republic of China, Vietnam, Romania, East Germany, Albania, Cambodia, Ethiopia, South Yemen, Yugoslavia, Cuba, and others. In some cases, these nations did not get along. Rifts occurred between the Soviet Union and China,[35] as well as Soviet Union and Yugoslavia (in 1948), whose leaders disagreed on certain elements of Marxism and how it should be implemented into society.[36]
Many of these self-proclaimed Marxist nations (often styled People's Republics) eventually became authoritarian states, with stagnating economies. This caused some debate about whether Marxism was doomed in practise or these nations were in fact not led by "true Marxists". Critics of Marxism speculated that perhaps Marxist ideology itself was to blame for the nations' various problems. Followers of the currents within Marxism which opposed Stalin, principally cohered around Leon Trotsky, tended to locate the failure at the level of the failure of world revolution: for communism to have succeeded, they argue, it needed to encompass all the international trading relationships that capitalism had previously developed.
The Chinese experience seems to be unique. Rather than falling under a single family's self-serving and dynastic interpretation of Marxism as happened in North Korea and before 1989 in Eastern Europe, the Chinese government — after the end of the struggles over the Mao legacy in 1980 and the ascent of Deng Xiaoping — seems to have solved the succession crises[citation needed] that have plagued self-proclaimed Leninist governments since the death of Lenin himself. Key to this success is another Leninism which is a NEP (New Economic Policy) writ very large; Lenin's own NEP of the 1920s was the "permission" given to markets including speculation to operate by the Party which retained final control. The Russian experience in Perestroika was that markets under socialism were so opaque as to be both inefficient and corrupt but especially after China's application to join the WTO this does not seem to apply universally.
The death of "Marxism" in China has been prematurely announced but since the Hong Kong handover in 1997, the Beijing leadership has clearly retained final say over both commercial and political affairs.[citation needed]
In 1991 the Soviet Union was dismantled and the new Russian state, alongside the other emerging republics, ceased to identify themselves with Marxism. Other nations around the world followed suit. Since then, radical Marxism or Communism has generally ceased to be a prominent political force in global politics, and has largely been replaced by more moderate versions of democratic socialism—or, more commonly, by neoliberal capitalism. Marxism has also had to engage with the rise in the Environmental movement. Theorists including Joel Kovel and Michael Löwy have synthesized Marxism, socialism, ecology and environmentalism into an ideology known as Eco-socialism.[37]
Social democracy[link]
Main article: Social democracy
Social democracy is a political ideology that emerged in the late 19th and early 20th century. Many parties in the second half of the 19th century described themselves as social democratic, such as the British Social Democratic Federation, and the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party. In most cases these were revolutionary socialist or Marxist groups, who were not only seeking to introduce socialism, but also democracy in un-democratic countries. Many social democrats reject the idea that socialism can be accomplished only through class conflict, revolution and dictatorship of the proletariat.
The modern social democratic current came into being through a break within the socialist movement in the early 20th century, between two groups holding different views on the ideas of Karl Marx. Many related movements, including pacifism, anarchism, and syndicalism, arose at the same time (often by splitting from the main socialist movement, but also through the emergence of new theories) and had various, quite different objections to Marxism. The social democrats argued that socialism should be achieved through evolution rather than revolution. Such views were strongly opposed by the revolutionary socialists,[38][39] who argued that any attempt to reform capitalism was doomed to fail, because the reformists would be gradually corrupted and eventually turn into capitalists themselves.
Despite their differences, the reformist and revolutionary branches of socialism remained united until the outbreak of World War I. The war proved to be the final straw that pushed the tensions between them to breaking point.[citation needed] The reformist socialists supported their respective national governments in the war, a fact that was seen by the revolutionary socialists as outright treason against the working class (Since[citation needed] it betrayed the principle that the workers "have no nation", and the fact that usually the lowest classes are the ones sent into the war to fight, and die, putting the cause at the side). Bitter arguments ensued within socialist parties, as for example between Eduard Bernstein (reformist socialist) and Rosa Luxemburg (revolutionary socialist) within the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD). Eventually, after the Russian Revolution of 1917, most of the world's socialist parties fractured. The reformist socialists kept the name "Social democrats", while the revolutionary socialists began calling themselves "Communists", and soon formed the modern Communist movement, the Comintern.
Since the 1920s, doctrinal differences have been constantly growing between social democrats and Communists (who themselves are not unified on the way to achieve socialism), and Social Democracy is mostly used as a specifically Central European label for Labour Parties since then, especially in Germany and the Netherlands and especially since the 1959 Godesberg Program of the German SPD that rejected the praxis of class struggle altogether.
Socialism[link]
Main articles: Socialism and Socialism (Marxism)
The term "socialism" could be used to describe two fundamentally different ideologies - democratic socialism and Marxist-Leninist socialism. The Marxist-Leninists sought to work towards the workers' utopia in Marxist ideology by first creating a socialist state, which historically had almost always been a single-party dictatorship. On the other hand, democratic socialists attempt to work towards an ideal state by social reform and are often little different from social democrats, with the democratic socialists having a more leftist stance.
The Marxist-Leninist form of government has been in decline since the dissolution of the Soviet Union and its satellite states. Very few countries have governments which describe themselves as socialist. As of 2011, Laos, Vietnam, Nepal, Cuba, and the People's Republic of China had governments in power which describe themselves as socialist in the Marxist sense.[citation needed]
On the contrary, electoral parties which describe themselves as socialist or democratic socialist are on the rise, joined together by international organizations such as the Socialist International and the Fourth International. Parties described as socialist are currently dominant in the democracies of the developing world and serve as the ruling party or the main opposition party in most European democracies. Eco-socialism, and Green politics with a strong leftist tinge, are on the rise in European democracies.
The characterization of a party or government often has little to do with its actual economical and social platform. The government of mainland China, which describes itself as socialist, allows a large private sector to flourish and is socially conservative compared to most Western democracies. A more specific example is universal health-care, which is a trademark issue of many European socialist parties but does not exist in mainland China. Therefore, the historical and cultural aspects of a movement must be taken into context in order for one to arrive at an accurate conclusion of its political ideology from its nominal characterization.
Communism[link]
Main article: Communist state
A number of states declared an allegiance to the principles of Marxism and have been ruled by self-described Communist Parties, either as a single-party state or a single list, which includes formally several parties, as was the case in the German Democratic Republic. Due to the dominance of the Communist Party in their governments, these states are often called "communist states" by Western political scientists. However, they have described themselves as "socialist", reserving the term "communism" for a future classless society,[40] in which the state would no longer be necessary (on this understanding of communism, "communist state" would be an oxymoron) – for instance, the USSR was the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics.
Communist governments have historically been characterized by state ownership of productive resources in a planned economy and sweeping campaigns of economic restructuring such as nationalization of industry and land reform (often focusing on collective farming or state farms.) While they promote collective ownership of the means of production, Communist governments have been characterized by a strong state apparatus in which decisions are made by the ruling Communist Party. Libertarian communists have characterized the Soviet model as state socialism or state capitalism.
Marxism–Leninism[link]
Main articles: Marxism–Leninism and Leninism
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Marxism-Leninism, strictly speaking, refers to the version of Marxism developed by Vladimir Lenin known as Leninism. However, in various contexts, different (and sometimes opposing) political groups have used the term "Marxism–Leninism" to describe the ideologies that they claimed to be upholding. The core ideological features of Marxism-Leninism are those of Marxism and Leninism, that is to say, belief in the necessity of a revolutionary overthrow of capitalism through communist revolution, to be followed by a dictatorship of the proletariat as the first stage of moving towards communism, and the need for a vanguard party to lead the proletariat in this effort. Those who view themselves as Marxist-Leninists, however, vary with regards to the leaders and thinkers that they choose to uphold as progressive (and to what extent).[citation needed]
Leninism holds that capitalism can only be overthrown by revolutionary means; that is, any attempts to reform capitalism from within, such as Social Democracy, Fabianism and non-revolutionary forms of democratic socialism, are doomed to fail due to the inherent contradictions of the capitalist and labour class relations.[40] The first goal of a Leninist party is to educate the proletariat, so as to remove the various modes of false consciousness the bourgeois have instilled in them, instilled in order to make them more docile and easier to exploit economically, such as religion and nationalism.[citation needed] Once the proletariat has gained class consciousness the party will coordinate the proletariat's total might to overthrow the bourgeois government, thus the proletariat will seize all political and economic power. Lastly the proletariat (thanks to their education by the party) will implement a dictatorship of the proletariat which would bring upon them the construction and development of socialism, the lower phase of communism. After this, partisan and non-partisan distinction would essentially dissolve as the entire proletariat is elevated to the level of revolutionaries.
The dictatorship of the proletariat refers to the absolute power of the working class. It is governed by a system of proletarian direct democracy, in which workers hold political power through local councils, known in the Russian Revolution as "soviets".
Trotskyism[link]
Main article: Trotskyism
Trotskyism is the theory of Marxism as advocated by Leon Trotsky. Trotsky considered himself a Bolshevik-Leninist, arguing for the establishment of a vanguard party. He considered himself an advocate of orthodox Marxism. His politics differed sharply from those of Stalin or Mao, most importantly in declaring the need for an international "permanent revolution". Numerous groups around the world continue to describe themselves as Trotskyist and see themselves as standing in this tradition, although they have diverse interpretations of the conclusions to be drawn from this.
Trotsky advocated proletarian revolution as set out in his theory of "permanent revolution", and he argued that in countries where the bourgeois-democratic revolution had not triumphed already (in other words, in places that had not yet implemented a capitalist democracy, such as Russia before 1917), it was necessary that the proletariat make it permanent by carrying out the tasks of the social revolution (the "socialist" or "communist" revolution) at the same time, in an uninterrupted process. Trotsky believed that a new socialist state would not be able to hold out against the pressures of a hostile capitalist world unless socialist revolutions quickly took hold in other countries as well, especially in the industrial powers with a developed proletariat.
On the political spectrum of Marxism, Trotskyists are considered to be on the left. They fervently support democracy, oppose political deals with the imperialist powers, and advocate a spreading of the revolution until it becomes global.
Trotsky developed the theory that the Russian workers' state had become a "bureaucratically degenerated workers' state". Capitalist rule had not been restored, and nationalized industry and economic planning, instituted under Lenin, were still in effect.[citation needed] However, the state was controlled by a bureaucratic caste with interests hostile to those of the working class. Trotsky defended the Soviet Union against attack from imperialist powers and against internal counter-revolution, but called for a political revolution within the USSR to restore socialist democracy. He argued that if the working class did not take power away from the Stalinist bureaucracy, the bureaucracy would restore capitalism in order to enrich itself.[citation needed] In the view of many Trotskyists, this is exactly what has happened since the beginning of Glasnost and Perestroika in the USSR. Some[who?] argue that the adoption of market socialism by the People's Republic of China has also led to capitalist counter-revolution.[citation needed] Most modern Trotskyist organisations are organised internationally, such as the International Marxist Tendency, International Socialist Tendency and the Committee for a Worker's International. They are mostly rather small groupings.
Maoism[link]
Main article: Maoism
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Maoism or Mao Zedong Thought (simplified Chinese: 毛泽东思想; traditional Chinese: 毛澤東思想; pinyin: Máo Zédōng Sīxiǎng), is a variant of Marxism–Leninism derived from the teachings of the Chinese communist leader Mao Zedong (Wade-Giles transliteration: "Mao Tse-tung").
The term "Mao Zedong Thought" has always been the preferred term by the Communist Party of China, and the word "Maoism" has never been used in its English-language publications except pejoratively. Likewise, Maoist groups[which?] outside China have usually called themselves Marxist-Leninist rather than Maoist, a reflection of Mao's view that he did not change, but only developed, Marxism-Leninism. However, some[who?] Maoist groups believing Mao's theories to have been sufficiently substantial additions to the basics of the Marxist canon, call themselves "Marxist-Leninist-Maoist" (MLM) or simply "Maoist".
In the People's Republic of China, Mao Zedong Thought is part of the official doctrine of the Communist Party of China, but since the 1978 beginning of Deng Xiaoping's market economy-oriented reforms, the concept of "socialism with Chinese characteristics" has come to the forefront of Chinese politics, Chinese economic reform has taken hold, and the official definition and role of Mao's original ideology in the PRC has been radically altered and reduced (see History of China).
Unlike the earlier forms of Marxism-Leninism in which the urban proletariat was seen as the main source of revolution, and the countryside was largely ignored, Mao believed that peasantry could be the main force behind a revolution, led by the proletariat and a vanguard Communist party. The model for this was of course the Chinese communist rural Protracted People's War of the 1920s and 1930s, which eventually brought the Communist Party of China to power.[citation needed] Furthermore, unlike other forms of Marxism-Leninism in which large-scale industrial development was seen as a positive force, Maoism made all-round rural development the priority.[citation needed]
Mao felt that this strategy made sense during the early stages of socialism in a country in which most of the people were peasants. Unlike most other political ideologies, including other socialist and Marxist ones, Maoism contains an integral military doctrine and explicitly connects its political ideology with military strategy. In Maoist thought, "political power grows from the barrel of the gun" (a famous quote by Mao), and the peasantry can be mobilized to undertake a "people's war" of armed struggle involving guerrilla warfare in three stages.
Left communism[link]
Main article: Left communism
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Left communism is the range of communist viewpoints held by the Communist Left, which criticizes the political ideas of the Bolsheviks from a position that is asserted to be more authentically Marxist and proletarian than the views of Leninism held by the Communist International after its first two Congresses.
Two major traditions can be observed within Left communism: the Dutch-German tradition; and the Italian tradition. The political positions those traditions have in common are a shared opposition to what is termed frontism, nationalism, all kinds of national liberation movements and parliamentarianism and there is an underlying commonality at a level of abstract theory. Crucially, Left Communist groups from both traditions tend to identify elements of commonality in each other.[vague]
The historical origins of Left Communism can be traced to the period before the First World War, but it only came into focus after 1918 . All[according to whom?] Left Communists were supportive of the October Revolution in Russia,[citation needed] but retained a critical view of its development. Some[which?], however, would in later years come to reject the idea that the revolution had a proletarian or socialist nature, asserting that it had simply carried out the tasks of the bourgeois revolution by creating a state capitalist system.[citation needed]
Left Communism first came into being as a clear movement in or around 1918.[citation needed] Its essential features were: a stress on the need to build a Communist Party entirely separate from the reformist and centrist elements who were seen as having betrayed socialism in 1914, opposition to all but the most restricted participation in elections, and an emphasis on the need for revolutionaries to move on the offensive.[citation needed] Apart from that, there was little in common between the various wings. Only the Italians[original research?] accepted the need for electoral work at all for a very short period of time, and the German-Dutch, Italian and Russian wings opposed the "right of nations to self-determination", which they denounced as a form of bourgeois nationalism.
Dispute that the Soviet Union was Marxist[link]
Marx defined "communism" as a classless, egalitarian and stateless society. To Marx, the notion of a communist state would have seemed an oxymoron,[41][42][43] as he defined communism as the phase reached when class society and the state had already been abolished. Once the lower stage towards communism, commonly referred to as socialism, had been established, society would develop new social relations over the course of several generations, reaching what Marx called the higher phase of communism when not only bourgeois relations but every class social relations had been abandoned. Such a development has yet to occur in any historical self-claimed socialist state.[41][42][43]
Even within the Stalinist state at its height, there were repressed[41] expressions of Marxist orthodoxy, revealed after the fall of the USSR, arguing that it had developed new class structures: those who are in government and therefore have power (sometimes referred to as the political class), and those who are not in government and do not have power, the working class. This is taken to be a different form of capitalism, in which the government, as owner of the means of production, takes on the role formerly played by the capitalist class; this arrangement is referred to as "state capitalism."[41] These statist regimes have generally followed a planned economy model without making a transition to this hypothetical final stage.[44]
Some academics such as Noam Chomsky disputed the claim that the political movements in the former Soviet Union were Marxist.[44] Communist governments have historically been characterized by state ownership of productive resources in a planned economy and sweeping campaigns of economic restructuring such as nationalization of industry and land reform (often focusing on collective farming or state farms). While they promote collective ownership of the means of production, Communist governments have been characterized by a strong state apparatus in which decisions are made by the ruling Communist Party. Dissident communists have characterized the Soviet model as state socialism or state capitalism.
Variants[link]
Marxists can interpret the Manifesto differently, and therefore all variants cannot be covered in this article.
Marxism-Leninism[link]
Main article: Marxism-Leninism
At least in terms of adherents and the impact on the world stage, Marxism-Leninism, also known colloquially as Bolshevism or simply communism is the biggest trend within Marxism, easily dwarfing all of the other schools of thought combined.[45] Marxism-Leninism is a term originally coined by the CPSU in order to denote the ideology that Vladimir Lenin had built upon the thought of Karl Marx. There are two broad areas that have set apart Marxism-Leninism as a school of thought.
First, Lenin's followers generally view his additions to the body of Marxism as the practical corollary to Marx's original theoretical contributions of the 19th century; insofar as they apply under the conditions of advanced capitalism that they found themselves working in. Lenin called this time-frame the era of Imperialism. For example, Joseph Stalin wrote that
| “ | Leninism grew up and took shape under the conditions of imperialism, when the contradictions of capitalism had reached an extreme point, when the proletarian revolution had become an immediate practical question, when the old period of preparation of the working class for revolution had arrived at and passed into a new period, that of direct assault on capitalism.[46] | ” |
The most important consequence of a Leninist-style theory of Imperialism is the strategic need for workers in the industrialized countries to bloc or ally with the oppressed nations contained within their respective countries' colonies abroad in order to overthrow capitalism. This is the source of the slogan, which shows the Leninist conception that not only the proletariat, as is traditional to Marxism, are the sole revolutionary force, but all oppressed people:
| “ | Workers and Oppressed Peoples of the World, Unite![47] | ” |
Second, the other distinguishing characteristic of Marxism-Leninism is how it approaches the question of organization. Lenin believed that the traditional model of the Social Democratic parties of the time, which was a loose, multitendency organization was inadequate for overthrowing the Tsarist regime in Russia. He proposed a cadre of professional revolutionaries that disciplined itself under the model of Democratic Centralism.
Marxism-Leninism after Stalin[link]
For better or worse, Marxism-Leninism as a body of thought and practice was closely identified with the figure of Joseph Stalin after the death of Lenin. After the death of Stalin, the leader of the USSR, Nikita Khrushchev made several ideological and practical ruptures with his predecessor which lead to the eventual split of Marxism-Leninism into two main branches, post-Stalin "Moscow-aligned" communism and anti-revisionism. In turn, these branches evolved into multiple schools of thought over time.
Post-Stalin Moscow-aligned communism[link]
At the 20th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, Khrushchev made several ideological ruptures with his predecessor, Joseph Stalin. First, Khrushchev denounced the so-called Cult of Personality that had developed around Stalin, which ironically enough Khrushchev had had a pivotal role in fostering decades earlier. More importantly, however, Khrushchev rejected the heretofore orthodox Marxist-Leninist tenet that class struggle continues even under socialism. Rather, the State ought to rule in the name of all classes. A related principle that flowed from the former was the notion of peaceful co-existence, or that the newly emergent socialist bloc could peacefully compete with the capitalist world, solely by developing the productive forces of society.
Eurocommunism[link]
Beginning around the 1970s, various communist parties in Western Europe, such as the Partito Comunista Italiano in Italy and the Partido Comunista de España under Santiago Carillo tried to hew to a more independent line from Moscow. Particularly in Italy, they leaned on the theories of Antonio Gramsci, despite the fact that by 1921 Gramsci believed that a Communist Party in the Leninist sense was needed. This trend went by the name Eurocommunism.
Anti-revisionism[link]
There are many proponents of Marxist-Leninism who rejected the theses of Khrushchev. They believed that Khrushchev was unacceptably altering or "revising" the fundamental tenets of Marxism-Leninism, a stance from which the label "anti-revisionist" is derived. Usually, they are referred to externally by the following epithets, although anti-revisionists typically refer to themselves simply as Marxist-Leninists.
Maoism[link]
Maoism takes its name from Mao Zedong, the erstwhile leader of the Peoples Republic of China; it is the variety of anti-revisionism that took inspiration, and in some cases received material support, from China, especially during the Mao period. There are several key concepts that were developed by Mao. First, Mao concurred with Stalin that not only does class struggle continue under the dictatorship of the proletariat, it actually accelerates as long as gains are being made by the proletariat at the expense of the disenfranchised bourgeoisie. Second, Mao developed a strategy for revolution called Prolonged People's War in what he termed the semi-feudal countries of the Third World. Prolonged People's War relied heavily on the peasantry. Third, Mao wrote many theoretical articles on epistemology and dialectics, which he called contradictions.
Hoxhaism[link]
Hoxhaism, so named because of the central contribution of Albanian statesman Enver Hoxha, was closely aligned with the People's Republic of China for a number of years, but grew critical of Maoism because of the so-called Three Worlds Theory put forth by elements within the Communist Party of China and because it viewed the actions of Chinese leader Deng Xiaoping unfavorably. Ultimately, however, Hoxhaism as a trend came to the understanding that Socialism had never existed in China at all.
Trotskyism[link]
Main article: Trotskyism
Trotskyism is the usual term for followers of the ideas of Russian Marxist Leon Trotsky, the second most prominent leader of the Russian Revolution. Trotsky was a contemporary of Lenin from the early years of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party, where he led a small trend in competition with both Lenin's Bolsheviks and the Mensheviks; nevertheless Trotsky's followers claim to be the heirs of Lenin in the same way that mainstream Marxist-Leninists do. There are several distinguishing characteristics of this school of thought; foremost is the theory of Permanent Revolution. Another shared characteristic between Trotskyists is a variety of theoretical justifications for their negative appraisal of the post-Lenin Soviet Union; that is to say, after Trotsky was expelled by a majority vote from the CPSU[48] and subsequently from the Soviet Union. Trotsky characterized the government of the USSR after his expulsion as being dominated by a "bureaucratic caste" and called for it to be overthrown.[49] Trotskyists as a consequence usually advocate the overthrow of socialist governments around the world that are ruled by Marxist-Leninist parties.
Left Communism[link]
Main article: Left Communism
Left communism is the range of communist viewpoints held by the communist left, which criticizes the political ideas of the Bolsheviks from a position that is asserted to be more authentically Marxist and proletarian than the views of Leninism held by the Communist International after its first two congresses.
Although she lived before left communism became a distinct tendency, Rosa Luxemburg has been heavily influential for most left communists, both politically and theoretically. Proponents of left communism have included Herman Gorter, Anton Pannekoek, Otto Rühle, Karl Korsch, Amadeo Bordiga, and Paul Mattick.
Prominent left communist groups existing today include the International Communist Current and the International Bureau for the Revolutionary Party. Also, different factions from the old Bordigist International Communist Party are considered left communist organizations.
Western Marxism[link]
Main article: Western Marxism
Western Marxism is a term used to describe a wide variety of Marxist theoreticians based in Western and Central Europe (and more recently North America ), in contrast with philosophy in the Soviet Union, the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia or the People's Republic of China.
Structural Marxism[link]
Main article: Structural Marxism
Structural Marxism is an approach to Marxism based on structuralism, primarily associated with the work of the French theorist Louis Althusser and his students.In Althusser's theory, the structural order of the capitalist mode of production is distinct both from the actual, real agents involved in its relations and from the ideological forms in which those relations are understood. Structural Marxism was influential in France during the late 1960s and 1970s, and also came to influence philosophers, political theorists and sociologists outside of France during the 1970s.
Autonomist Marxism[link]
Main article: Autonomism
Autonomism is a term applied to a variety of social movements around the world, which emphasizes the ability to organize in autonomous and horizontal networks, as opposed to hierarchical structures such as unions or parties. Autonomist Marxists, including Harry Cleaver, broaden the definition of the working-class to include salaried and unpaid labour, such as skilled professions and housework; it focuses on the working class in advanced capitalist states as the primary force of change in the construct of capital. Modern autonomist theorists such as Antonio Negri and Michael Hardt argue that network power constructs are the most effective methods of organization against the neoliberal regime of accumulation, and predict a massive shift in the dynamics of capital into a 21st century Empire.
Marxist humanism[link]
Main article: Marxist humanism
Marxist humanism is a branch of Marxism that primarily focuses on Marx's earlier writings, especially the Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts of 1844 in which Marx develops his theory of alienation, as opposed to his later works, which are considered to be concerned more with his structural conception of capitalist society. It was opposed by Louis Althusser's "antihumanism", who qualified it as a revisionist movement.
Marxist humanists contend that ‘Marxism’ developed lopsidedly because Marx’s early works were unknown until after the orthodox ideas were in vogue – the Manuscripts of 1844 were published only in 1932 – and it is necessary to understand Marx’s philosophical foundations to understand his latter works properly.
Marxism-Deleonism[link]
Marxism-Deleonism, is a form of syndicalist Marxism developed by Daniel De Leon. De Leon was an early leader of the first US socialist political party, the Socialist Labor Party. This party exists to the present day. De Leonism lies outside the Leninist tradition of communism. The highly decentralized and democratic nature of the proposed De Leonist government is in contrast to the democratic centralism of Marxism-Leninism and what they see as the dictatorial nature of the Soviet Union. The success of the De Leonist plan depends on achieving majority support among the people both in the workplaces and at the polls, in contrast to the Leninist notion that a small vanguard party should lead the working class to carry out the revolution. Daniel De Leon and other De Leonist writers have issued frequent polemics against 'democratic socialist' movements, especially the Socialist Party of America, and consider them to be "reformist" or "bourgeois socialist". De Leonists have traditionally refrained from any activity or alliances viewed by them as trying to reform capitalism, though the Socialist Labor Party in De Leon's time was active during strikes and such, such as social justice movements.[citation needed]
Marxist feminism[link]
Main article: Marxist feminism
Marxist feminism is a sub-type of feminist theory which focuses on the dismantling of capitalism as a way to liberate women. Marxist feminism states that private property, which gives rise to economic inequality, dependence, political confusion and ultimately unhealthy social relations between men and women, is the root of women's oppression. According to Marxist theory, in capitalist societies the individual is shaped by class relations; that is, people's capacities, needs and interests are seen to be determined by the mode of production that characterises the society they inhabit. Marxist feminists see gender inequality as determined ultimately by the capitalist mode of production. Gender oppression is class oppression and women's subordination is seen as a form of class oppression which is maintained (like racism) because it serves the interests of capital and the ruling class. Marxist feminists have extended traditional Marxist analysis by looking at domestic labour as well as wage work in order to support their position.[citation needed]
Criticisms[link]
Main article: Criticisms of Marxism
Criticisms of Marxism have come from various political ideologies. Democratic socialists and social democrats reject the idea that socialism can be accomplished only through class conflict and a proletarian revolution. Many anarchists reject the need for a transitory state phase. Other critiques come from an economic standpoint. Economists such as Friedrich Hayek have criticized Marxism for allocating resources inefficiently.
Some contemporary supporters of Marxism argue that many aspects of Marxist thought are viable, but that the corpus is incomplete or outdated in regards to certain aspects of economic, political or social theory. They may therefore combine some Marxist concepts with the ideas of other theorists such as Max Weber: the Frankfurt school is one example.
V. K. Dmitriev, writing in 1898,[50] Ladislaus von Bortkiewicz, writing in 1906-07,[51] and subsequent critics have alleged that Marx's value theory and law of the tendency of the rate of profit to fall are internally inconsistent. In other words, the critics allege that Marx drew conclusions that actually do not follow from his theoretical premises. Once these alleged errors are corrected, his conclusion that aggregate price and profit are determined by, and equal to, aggregate value and surplus value no longer holds true. This result calls into question his theory that the exploitation of workers is the sole source of profit.[52]
See also[link]
References[link]
Footnotes[link]
- ^ http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/551385/social-science/38930/Marxist-influences
- ^ Free will, non-predestination and non-determinism are emphasized in Marx’s famous quote “Men make their own history...” The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte, Karl Marx 1852.
- ^ Bridget O'Laughlin (1975) Marxist Approaches in Anthropology Annual Review of Anthropology Vol. 4: pp. 341–70 (October 1975) (doi:10.1146/annurev.an.04.100175.002013).
William Roseberry (1997) Marx and Anthropology Annual Review of Anthropology, Vol. 26: pp. 25–46 (October 1997) (doi:10.1146/annurev.anthro.26.1.25) - ^ S. L. Becker (1984) “Marxist Approaches to Media Studies: The British Experience”, Critical Studies in Mass Communication, 1(1): pp. 66–80.
- ^ See Manuel Alvarado, Robin Gutch, and Tana Wollen (1987) Learning the Media: Introduction to Media Teaching, Palgrave Macmillan.
- ^ See Coltman 2003 and Bourne 1986.
- ^ "Accusing Guesde and Lafargue of 'revolutionary phrase-mongering' and of denying the value of reformist struggles, Marx made his famous remark that, if their politics represented Marxism, 'ce qu'il y a de certain c'est que moi, je ne suis pas Marxiste' ('what is certain is that I myself am not a Marxist')." See: http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1880/05/parti-ouvrier.htm
- ^ Not found in search function at Draper Arkiv
- ^ Lenin 1967 (1913). p. 15.
- ^ Grundrisse: Foundations of the Critique of Political Economy, by Karl Marx & Martin Nicolaus, Penguin Classics, 1993, ISBN 0-14-044575-7, pg 265
- ^ Evans, p. 53; Marx’s account of the theory is the Preface to A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy (1859). [1]. Another exposition of th theory is in The German Ideology. It, too, is available online from marxists.org.
- ^ See A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy (1859), Preface, Progress Publishers, Moscow, 1977, with some notes by R. Rojas, and Engels: Anti-Dühring (1877), Introduction General
- ^ Marx does not claim to have produced a master-key to history. Historical materialism is not “an historico-philosophic theory of the marche generale, imposed by fate upon every people, whatever the historic circumstances in which it finds itself”, K. Marx, Letter to editor of the Russian newspaper paper Otetchestvennye Zapiskym, 1877. He explains that his ideas are based upon a concrete study of the actual conditions in Europe.
- ^ Marxism and Class, Gender and Race: Rethinking the Trilogy, by Martha E. Gimenez, Published (2001) in Race, Gender and Class, Vol. 8, No. 2, pp. 23-33.
- ^ Lenin 1967 (1913). p. 07.
- ^ Marx 1849.
- ^ “Alienation” entry, A Dictionary of Sociology
- ^ Joseph McCarney: Ideology and False Consciousness, April 2005
- ^ Engels: Letter to Franz Mehring, (London 14 July 1893), Donna Torr, translator, in Marx and Engels Correspondence, International Publishers, 1968
- ^ "Karl Marx, The German Ideology". http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1845/german-ideology/ch01b.htm.
- ^ Castro and Ramonet 2009. p. 100.
- ^ Lenin 1967 (1913). p. 35.
- ^ Lenin 1967 (1913). p. 35-36.
- ^ Trigger 2007. p. 326-340.
- ^ Green 1981. p. 79.
- ^ Callinicos 2010. p. 12.
- ^ Service, Robert (2008), Comrades: Communism: A World History, Pan MacMillan, ISBN 0-330-43968-5
- ^ "Documents on the Russian Revolution". Marxists Internet Archive. http://www.marxists.org/history/ussr/events/revolution/index.htm. Retrieved 16 May 2011.
- ^ Rees, Simon. "historicaleye.com". http://www.historicaleye.com/Munich1.html. Retrieved 16 May 2011.
- ^ "The Hungarian Revolution of 1919 (i)". http://en.internationalism.org/ir/139/1919-Hungarian-Revolution-01. Retrieved 16 May 2011.
- ^ "Working-class activity and councils — Germany 1918‑1923 - Peter Rachleff". http://libcom.org/history/working-class-activity-councils-germany-1918%E2%80%911923-peter-rachleff. Retrieved 16 May 2011.
- ^ "The History of the German Revolution: 1918-1923". Marxists Internet Archive. http://www.marxists.org/subject/germany-1918-23/. Retrieved 16 May 2011.
- ^ a b "Collectivization and Industrialization". Ibiblio. http://www.ibiblio.org/expo/soviet.exhibit/collect.html. Retrieved 16 May 2011.
- ^ T. J. Byres, Harbans Mukhia (1985). Feudalism and non-European societies. Psychology Press. p. 207. ISBN 0-7146-3245-7. http://books.google.com/books?id=usOMZjTWrJ0C&pg=PA207&dq=china+stagnated+feudalism+political&hl=en&ei=AvO4TPjFE4T6lwfa5oWwDA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCoQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=guomindang%20marxists&f=false. Retrieved 2010-11-28.
- ^ "The Great Debate: Documents of the Sino-Soviet Split.". Marxists Internet Archive. http://www.marxists.org/history/international/comintern/sino-soviet-split/index.htm. Retrieved 16 May 2011.
- ^ "Behind the Stalin-Tito Clash". http://www.marxist.com/History-old/yugoslavia48.html. Retrieved 16 May 2011.
- ^ Joel Kovel; Michael Löwy (September 2001). "An Ecosocialist Manifesto". International Endowment for Democracy. http://www.iefd.org/manifestos/ecosocialist_manifesto.php. Retrieved 2 September 2010.
- ^ "V. I. Lenin: The Tasks of the Proletariat in the Present Revolution (a.k.a. the April Theses)". Marxists Internet Archive. http://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1917/apr/04.htm. Retrieved 17 May 2011.
- ^ Lenin, Vladimir. "The State and Revolution" (in an English Translation). Marxists Internet Archive. http://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1917/staterev/. Retrieved 17 May 2011.
- ^ a b "Marxism and the National Question". Marxists Internet Archive. http://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/stalin/works/1913/03.htm. Retrieved 25 May 2011.
- ^ a b c d The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics is a Capitalist Society Raya Dunayevskaya under the name of Freddie James 1941
- ^ a b "www.wsu.edu/~brians/hum_303/manifesto.html". http://www.wsu.edu/~brians/hum_303/manifesto.html.
- ^ a b "www.historiography101.blogspot.com/2006_12_10_archive.html". http://www.historiography101.blogspot.com/2006_12_10_archive.html.
- ^ a b The Soviet Union Versus Socialism Chomsky, 1986
- ^ For example, the Communist Party of China alone has more than 66 million members. See http://www.chinatoday.com/org/cpc/
- ^ "www.marx2mao.com/Stalin/FL24.html#c1". http://www.marx2mao.com/Stalin/FL24.html#c1.
- ^ "www.workers.org/2008/us/ww_1982_1120/". http://www.workers.org/2008/us/ww_1982_1120/.
- ^ "www.plp.org/books/Stalin/node14.html#SECTION00500000000000000000". http://www.plp.org/books/Stalin/node14.html#SECTION00500000000000000000.
- ^ "The characterisation of the anti-bureaucratic revolution as “political revolution” referred to the fact that the bureaucracy had politically expropriated the proletariat ..." http://www.radicalsocialist.in/index.php/articles/marxist-theory/100-capitalist-restoration-in-the-former-soviet-union
- ^ V. K. Dmitriev, 1974 (1898), Economic Essays on Value, Competition and Utility. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press
- ^ Ladislaus von Bortkiewicz, 1952 (1906–1907), "Value and Price in the Marxian System", International Economic Papers 2, 5–60; Ladislaus von Bortkiewicz, 1984 (1907), "On the Correction of Marx’s Fundamental Theoretical Construction in the Third Volume of Capital". In Eugen von Böhm-Bawerk 1984 (1896), Karl Marx and the Close of his System, Philadelphia: Orion Editions.
- ^ M. C. Howard and J. E. King. (1992) A History of Marxian Economics: Volume II, 1929–1990, chapter 12, sect. III. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press.
Bibliography[link]
- Bourne, Peter G. (1986). Fidel: A Biography of Fidel Castro. New York: Dodd, Mead & Company.
- Callinicos, Alex (2010 [1983]). The Revolutionary Ideas of Karl Marx. Bloomsbury, London: Bookmarks. ISBN 978-1-905192-68-7.
- Castro, Fidel; Ramonet, Ignacio (interviewer) (2009). My Life: A Spoken Autobiography. New York: Scribner. ISBN 978-1-4165-6233-7.
- Coltman, Leycester (2003). The Real Fidel Castro. New Haven and London: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-10760-9.
- Green, Sally (1981). Prehistorian: A Biography of V. Gordon Childe. Bradford-on-Avon, Wiltshire: Moonraker Press. ISBN 0-239-00206-7.
- Lenin, Vladimir (1967 [1913]). Karl Marx: A Brief Biographical Sketch with an Exposition of Marxism. Peking: Foreign Languages Press. Available online at here
- Marx, Karl (1849). Wage Labour and Capital. Germany: Neue Rheinische Zeitung. Available online here
- Trigger, Bruce G. (2007). A History of Archaeological Thought (Second Edition). New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-60049-1.
- Avineri, Shlomo (1968). The Social and Political Thought of Karl Marx. Cambridge University Press.
- Dahrendorf, Ralf (1959). Class and Class Conflict in Industrial Society. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
- Jon Elster, An Introduction to Karl Marx. Cambridge, England, 1986.
- Michael Evans, Karl Marx. London, 1975.
- Kołakowski, Leszek (1976). Main Currents of Marxism. Oxford University Press.
- Parkes, Henry Bamford (1939). Marxism: An Autopsy. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
- Robinson, Cedric J. : Black Marxism: The Making of the Black Radical Tradition, 1983, Reissue: Univ North Carolina Press, 2000
- Rummel, R.J. (1977) Conflict In Perspective Chap. 5 Marxism, Class Conflict, and the Conflict Helix
- Screpanti, E; S. Zamagna (1993). An Outline of the History of Economic Thought.
- McLellan, David (2007). Marxism After Marx. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
External links[link]
General resources[link]
- Marxists Internet Archive (MIA)
- Marxmail.org
- Marx Myths & Legends
- Marxism Page
- London Philosophy Study Guide on Marxism (offers many suggestions on what to read, depending on the student's familiarity with the subject)
- Libertarian Communist Library Marxism archive
- Marxist.net Marxist Resources from the Committee for a Workers' International (a Trotskyist organization)
- Marxism FAQ at the website of Youth for International Socialism (a Trotskyist organization)
Introductory articles[link]
- Introductory article by Michael A. Lebowitz - link missing
- History of Economic Thought: Marxian School
- History of Economic Thought: Neo Marxian
Marxist websites[link]
- MRZine a project of the Monthly Review Foundation
- World Socialist Web Site
- La Bataille socialiste information and documents for living Marxism
- In Defence of Marxism website of the International Marxist Tendency
- International Socialism a journal of Marxist theory linked to the International Socialist Tendency
- KarlMarx.net Marxist website of news and analysis.
- League for the Fifth International Website the League for the Fifth International
- Pathfinder Press online Marxist bookstore
- Rethinking Marxism a journal of economics, society, and culture
- Socialist Project issues, events, theory, and debate
- Solidarity Economy Marxist theory, analysis, and debate
- World Socialist Movement
- For Democratic Communism
Specific topics[link]
- Marx and Engels on India and colonialism and Marx on caste and the village community from anti-caste
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Bradley Thompson is an American television producer and writer, best known for episodes of Star Trek: Deep Space Nine (1996–1999), The Twilight Zone (2002–2003), Battlestar Galactica (2004–2009), and CSI: Crime Scene Investigation (2009-2011) with writing partner David Weddle. They also wrote for the short-lived series Ghost Stories (1997) and The Fearing Mind (2000). Thompson and Weddle are currently writing and producing for the TNT series Falling Skies.
Contents |
Biography[link]
Thompson graduated from the USC School of Cinema, as did writing partner David Weddle, whom he originally met in an acting class. Weddle and Thompson first pitched stories for Deep Space Nine at Paramount Pictures. In 1995, the two joined the writing staff for DS9's final four seasons, crafting 12 episodes. On the series, they worked with producer Ronald D. Moore, who hired them for Battlestar Galactica in 2004.
Together with Weddle, Thompson served as a story editor on the first season of Battlestar Galactica, and they became co-producers in the second season. Their responsibilities as producers increased during the third season, and they achieved supervising producer status for the fourth season. They wrote a total of 15 episodes for BSG.
In 2008, Thompson and Weddle joined the staff of CSI: Las Vegas mid-way through Season 9 as writers and supervising producers.[1] In Season 10, they became co-executive producers, writing nine episodes in all over three seasons. An episode they wrote for the 11th season, "Fracked," won the Environmental Media Association's 21st Annual Environmental Media Award for Television Episodic Drama.[2]
In 2011, they joined the writing staff for the second season of the Steven Spielberg alien-invasion drama Falling Skies.
Credits[link]
Star Trek: Deep Space Nine[link]
- "Rules of Engagement"
- "The Assignment"
- "Business as Usual"
- "Sons and Daughters"
- "One Little Ship"
- "Inquisition"
- "The Reckoning"
- "Time's Orphan"
- "Treachery, Faith, and the Great River"
- "Prodigal Daughter"
- "'Til Death Do Us Part"
- "Extreme Measures"
Ghost Stories[link]
The Fearing Mind[link]
- "Upgrades"
- "Call of the Wild"
- "Maximum Security" (originally unaired)
- "On the Road" (originally unaired)
The Twilight Zone[link]
Battlestar Galactica[link]
- "Act of Contrition"
- "The Hand of God"
- "Scattered"
- "Valley of Darkness"
- "Flight of the Phoenix"
- "Scar"
- "Downloaded"
- "Exodus, Parts 1 and 2"
- "Rapture"
- "Maelstrom"
- "He That Believeth in Me"
- "Revelations"
- "Sometimes a Great Notion"
- "Someone to Watch Over Me"
CSI: Crime Scene Investigation[link]
- "The Grave Shift"
- "Kill Me If You Can"
- "A Space Oddity"
- "Family Affair"
- "The Lost Girls"
- "Irradiator"
- "Shock Waves"
- "Fracked"
- "Targets of Obsession"
Video games[link]
References[link]
- ^ "Writing Duo Finds 'CSI' After 'Battlestar'". SyFy Portal. 2008-07-04. Archived from the original on 2008-07-15. http://web.archive.org/web/20080715014244/http://www.syfyportal.com/news425187.html. Retrieved 2008-07-16.
- ^ "21st Annual Environmental Media Awards". Environmental Media Association. 2011-10-15. http://www.ema-online.org/21stAnnualAwards.php. Retrieved 2011-10-29.
External links[link]
- Bradley Thompson at the Internet Movie Database
- Bradley Thompson at Memory Alpha (a Star Trek wiki)
- Bradley Thompson at the Battlestar Wiki
| Persondata | |
|---|---|
| Name | Thompson, Bradley |
| Alternative names | |
| Short description | |
| Date of birth | |
| Place of birth | |
| Date of death | |
| Place of death | |
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| File:Alex Callinicos.jpg Alex Callinicos |
|
| Born | Alexander Theodore Callinicos (1950-07-24) 24 July 1950 (age 61) Salisbury, Southern Rhodesia |
|---|---|
| Era | 20th- / 21st-century philosophy |
| Region | Western philosophy |
| School | Marxism |
| Main interests | Politics · Political economy · social theory |
Alexander Theodore Callinicos (born 24 July 1950, Southern Rhodesia - now Zimbabwe) is a Trotskyist political theorist, a member of the Central Committee of the Socialist Workers Party and its International Secretary, and is a Lecturer in International Political Economy at King's College London. He is also editor of International Socialism, the Socialist Workers Party's theoretical journal.
Contents |
Biography[link]
Callinicos is a descendant, through his mother, of the 19th century English historian Lord Acton. During World War II his Greek father was active in the Greek Resistance to Nazi occupation, whilst his mother, the Hon. Ædgyth Bertha Milburg Mary Antonia Frances Lyon-Dalberg-Acton, was the daughter of the 2nd Lord Acton.[1] He was educated at St George's College, Harare.[citation needed]
Callinicos himself first became involved in revolutionary politics as a student at Balliol College, Oxford, from which he received his BA and where he was recruited by Christopher Hitchens into the International Socialists (forerunners of the SWP).[2] His first writings for the IS were an analysis of the student movement of the period. In 1977, Callinicos married Joanna Seddon,[1] a fellow Oxford doctoral student. He received his DPhil at Oxford.
His early writings focused on southern Africa and the French structuralist-Marxist philosopher Louis Althusser. In the 1980s, Callinicos was elected to the central committee of the SWP, a position he still retains.
Callinicos participated in the Counter-Summit to the IMF/World Bank Meeting in Prague, September 2000 and the demonstration against the G8 in Genoa, June 2001. He has also been involved in organising the Social Forum movement in Europe. He was a contributor to Dictionnaire Marx Contemporain (2001),[3] and has written a number of articles in New Left Review.
He was Professor of Politics at the University of York before being appointed Professor of European Studies at King's College London in September 2005. He succeeded the late Chris Harman as editor of International Socialism in January 2010 and is a British correspondent for Actuel Marx. He has no children.
Works[link]
Books[link]
- 1976: Althusser's Marxism (London: Pluto Press) ISBN 0-904383-02-4
- 1977: Southern Africa after Soweto (with John Rogers) (London: Pluto Press), ISBN 0-904383-42-3
- 1981: Southern Africa after Zimbabwe (London: Pluto) ISBN 0-86104-336-7
- 1982: Is there a future for Marxism? (London: Macmillan). ISBN 0-333-28477-1
- 1983: Marxism and Philosophy (Oxford Paperbacks) (Oxford: Clarendon). ISBN 0-19-876126-0
- 1983: The revolutionary ideas of Karl Marx (London: Bookmarks). ISBN 0-906224-09-8
- 1985: South Africa: the Road to Revolution (Toronto: International Socialists). ISBN 0-905998-55-3
- 1985: The Great Strike : the miners’ strike of 1984-5 and its lessons (London: Socialist Worker) ISBN 0-905998-50-2
- 1986: The Revolutionary Road to Socialism (London: Socialist Workers Party). ISBN 0-905998-53-7
- 1987: The Changing Working Class: Essays on Class Structure Today (with Chris Harman) (London: Bookmarks) ISBN 0-906224-40-3
- 1988: South Africa Between Reform and Revolution (London: Bookmarks). ISBN 0-906224-46-2
- 1988: Making History: Agency, Structure, and Change in Social Theory (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press). ISBN 0-8014-2121-7
- 1989: Marxist Theory (editor) (Oxford: Oxford University Press). ISBN 0-19-827294-4
- 1990: Trotskyism (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press). ISBN 0-8166-1904-2
- 1991: The Revenge of History: Marxism and the East European Revolutions ISBN 0-271-00767-2
- 1991: Against Postmodernism: a Marxist critique (Cambridge: Polity Press). ISBN 0-312-04224-8
- 1992: Between Apartheid and Capitalism: conversations with South African socialists (editor) (London: Bookmarks). ISBN 0-906224-68-3
- 1994: Marxism and the New Imperialism (London ; Chicago, Ill. : Bookmarks). ISBN 0-906224-81-0
- 1995: Theories and Narratives (Cambridge: Polity Press). ISBN 0-7456-1201-6
- 1995: Race and Class (London: Bookmark Publications). ISBN 0-906224-83-7
- 1995: Socialists in the trade unions (London: Bookmarks) ISBN 1-898876-01-0
- 1999: Social Theory: Historical Introduction (New York: New York University Press). ISBN 0-8147-1593-1
- 2000: Equality (Themes for the 21st Century) (Cambridge: Polity Press). ISBN 0-7456-2324-7
- 2002: Against the Third Way (Cambridge: Polity Press). ISBN 0-7456-2674-2
- 2003: An anti-Capitalist manifesto (Cambridge: Polity Press). ISBN 0-7456-2903-2
- 2003: New Mandarins of American Power: the Bush administration’s plans for the world (Cambridge: Polity Press). ISBN 0-7456-3274-2
- 2006: The Resources of Critique (Cambridge: Polity). ISBN 0-7456-3160-6
- 2009: Imperialism and Global Political Economy (Cambridge, Polity). ISBN 0-7456-4045-1
- 2010: Bonfire of Illusions: The Twin Crises of the Liberal World (Polity). ISBN 0-7456-4876-2
Articles[link]
- "The Anti-Capitalist Movement And The Revolutionary Left"
- "The 'New Middle Class' and socialists" (1983)
- "The grand strategy of the American Empire"
- "Plumbing the depths: Marxism and the Holocaust"
- "Interview with Alex Callinicos: The Imperial Assault on the Middle East"
- "Imperialism and Global Political Economy", International Socialism, 108, Autumn 2005.
- "Where is the radical left going?", International Socialism, 120, Autumn 2008.
References[link]
- ^ a b The Peerage.com
- ^ https://www.socialistworker.co.uk/art.php?id=27053
- ^ J. Bidet and E. Kouvelakis, eds., Dictionnaire Marx Contemporain Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 2001
External links[link]
- Alex Callinicos Internet Archive
- Callinicos lecture on "Imperialism and the Global Political Economy," UK: 2009.
| Persondata | |
|---|---|
| Name | Callinicos, Alex |
| Alternative names | |
| Short description | |
| Date of birth | 24 July 1950 |
| Place of birth | Salisbury, Southern Rhodesia |
| Date of death | |
| Place of death | |
http://wn.com/Alex_Callinicos
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"Barack" and "Obama" redirect here. For other uses, see Barak (disambiguation) and Obama (disambiguation). For President Obama's father, the Kenyan economist, see Barack Obama, Sr.
| Barack Obama | |
|---|---|
 |
|
| 44th President of the United States | |
| Incumbent | |
| Assumed office January 20, 2009 |
|
| Vice President | Joe Biden |
| Preceded by | George W. Bush |
| United States Senator from Illinois |
|
| In office January 3, 2005 – November 16, 2008 |
|
| Preceded by | Peter Fitzgerald |
| Succeeded by | Roland Burris |
| Member of the Illinois Senate from the 13th District |
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| In office January 8, 1997 – November 4, 2004 |
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| Preceded by | Alice Palmer |
| Succeeded by | Kwame Raoul |
| Personal details | |
| Born | Barack Hussein Obama II (1961-08-04) August 4, 1961 (age 50)[1] Honolulu, Hawaii, U.S.[2] |
| Political party | Democratic |
| Spouse(s) | Michelle Robinson (1992–present) |
| Children | Malia (born 1998) Sasha (born 2001) |
| Residence | White House (Official) Chicago, Illinois (Private) |
| Alma mater | Occidental College Columbia University (B.A.) Harvard Law School (J.D.) |
| Profession | Community organizer Lawyer Constitutional law professor Author |
| Religion | Christianity[3] |
| Awards | Nobel Peace Prize |
| Signature |  |
| Website | barackobama.com |
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This article is part of a series on Barack Obama |
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Barack Hussein Obama II (
i/bəˈrɑːk huːˈseɪn oʊˈbɑːmə/; born August 4, 1961) is the 44th and current President of the United States. He is the first African American to hold the office. In January 2005, Obama was sworn in as a U.S. Senator in the state of Illinois. He would hold this office until November 2008, when he resigned following his victory in the 2008 presidential election.
Born in Honolulu, Hawaii, Obama is a graduate of Columbia University and Harvard Law School, where he was the president of the Harvard Law Review. He was a community organizer in Chicago before earning his law degree. He worked as a civil rights attorney in Chicago and taught constitutional law at the University of Chicago Law School from 1992 to 2004. He served three terms representing the 13th District in the Illinois Senate from 1997 to 2004.
Following an unsuccessful bid against the Democratic incumbent for a seat in the United States House of Representatives in 2000, Obama ran for the United States Senate in 2004. Several events brought him to national attention during the campaign, including his victory in the March 2004 Illinois Democratic primary for the Senate election and his keynote address at the Democratic National Convention in July 2004. He won election to the U.S. Senate in Illinois in November 2004. His presidential campaign began in February 2007, and after a close campaign in the 2008 Democratic Party presidential primaries against Hillary Rodham Clinton, he won his party's nomination. In the 2008 presidential election, he defeated Republican nominee John McCain, and was inaugurated as president on January 20, 2009. Nine months later, Obama was named the 2009 Nobel Peace Prize laureate. In April 2011, he announced that he would be running for re-election in 2012.
As president, Obama signed economic stimulus legislation in the form of the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 and the Tax Relief, Unemployment Insurance Reauthorization, and Job Creation Act of 2010. Other domestic policy initiatives include the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act, the Dodd–Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act, the Don't Ask, Don't Tell Repeal Act of 2010, and the Budget Control Act of 2011. In May 2012, he became the first sitting U.S. president to openly support legalizing same-sex marriage. In foreign policy, he ended the war in Iraq, increased troop levels in Afghanistan, signed the New START arms control treaty with Russia, ordered U.S. involvement in the 2011 Libya military intervention, and ordered the military operation that resulted in the death of Osama bin Laden.
Contents |
Early life and career[link]
Main article: Early life and career of Barack Obama
Obama was born on August 4, 1961, at Kapiʻolani Maternity & Gynecological Hospital (now Kapiʻolani Medical Center for Women and Children) in Honolulu, Hawaii,[2][4][5] and is the first President to have been born in Hawaii.[6] His mother, Stanley Ann Dunham, was born in Wichita, Kansas, and was of mostly English ancestry,[7] along with Scottish, Irish, German, and Swiss.[8][9][10][11][12] His father, Barack Obama, Sr., was a Luo from Nyang’oma Kogelo, Nyanza Province, Kenya. Obama's parents met in 1960 in a Russian class at the University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa, where his father was a foreign student on scholarship.[13][14] The couple married on February 2, 1961,[15] separated when Obama Sr. went to Harvard University on scholarship, and divorced in 1964.[13] Obama Sr. remarried and returned to Kenya, visiting Barack in Hawaii only once, in 1971. He died in an automobile accident in 1982.[16]
After her divorce, Dunham married Indonesian Lolo Soetoro, who was attending college in Hawaii. When Suharto, a military leader in Soetoro's home country, came to power in 1967, all Indonesian students studying abroad were recalled, and the family moved to the Menteng neighborhood of Jakarta.[4][17] From ages six to ten, Obama attended local schools in Jakarta, including Besuki Public School and St. Francis of Assisi School.[18]
File:Ann Dunham with father and children.jpg
Barack Obama with his half-sister Maya Soetoro-Ng, mother Ann Dunham and grandfather Stanley Dunham, in Hawaii
In 1971, Obama returned to Honolulu to live with his maternal grandparents, Madelyn and Stanley Armour Dunham, and with the aid of a scholarship attended Punahou School, a private college preparatory school, from fifth grade until his graduation from high school in 1979.[19] Obama's mother returned to Hawaii in 1972, remaining there until 1977 when she went back to Indonesia to work as an anthropological field worker. She finally returned to Hawaii in 1994 and lived there for one year before dying of ovarian cancer.[15][20]
Of his early childhood, Obama recalled, "That my father looked nothing like the people around me—that he was black as pitch, my mother white as milk—barely registered in my mind."[14] He described his struggles as a young adult to reconcile social perceptions of his multiracial heritage.[21] Reflecting later on his years in Honolulu, Obama wrote: "The opportunity that Hawaii offered—to experience a variety of cultures in a climate of mutual respect—became an integral part of my world view, and a basis for the values that I hold most dear."[22] Obama has also written and talked about using alcohol, marijuana, and cocaine during his teenage years to "push questions of who I was out of my mind."[23] At the 2008 Civil Forum on the Presidency, Obama described his high-school drug use as a great moral failure.[24]
Following high school, Obama moved to Los Angeles in 1979 to attend Occidental College. In February 1981, he made his first public speech, calling for Occidental to divest from South Africa in response to its policy of apartheid.[25] In mid-1981, Obama traveled to Indonesia to visit his mother and sister Maya, and visited the families of college friends in Pakistan and India for three weeks.[25] Later in 1981, he transferred to Columbia University in New York City, where he majored in political science with a specialty in international relations[26] and graduated with a Bachelor of Arts in 1983. He worked for a year at the Business International Corporation,[27] then at the New York Public Interest Research Group.[28][29]
Chicago community organizer and Harvard Law School[link]
Two years after graduating, Obama was hired in Chicago as director of the Developing Communities Project (DCP), a church-based community organization originally comprising eight Catholic parishes in Roseland, West Pullman, and Riverdale on Chicago's South Side. He worked there as a community organizer from June 1985 to May 1988.[29][30] He helped set up a job training program, a college preparatory tutoring program, and a tenants' rights organization in Altgeld Gardens.[31] Obama also worked as a consultant and instructor for the Gamaliel Foundation, a community organizing institute.[32] In mid-1988, he traveled for the first time in Europe for three weeks and then for five weeks in Kenya, where he met many of his paternal relatives for the first time.[33] He returned to Kenya in August 2006 for a visit to his father's birthplace, a village near Kisumu in rural western Kenya.[34]
In late 1988, Obama entered Harvard Law School. He was selected as an editor of the Harvard Law Review at the end of his first year,[35] and president of the journal in his second year.[31][36] During his summers, he returned to Chicago, where he worked as an associate at the law firms of Sidley Austin in 1989 and Hopkins & Sutter in 1990.[37] After graduating with a J.D. magna cum laude[38] from Harvard in 1991, he returned to Chicago.[35] Obama's election as the first black president of the Harvard Law Review gained national media attention[31][36] and led to a publishing contract and advance for a book about race relations,[39] which evolved into a personal memoir. The manuscript was published in mid-1995 as Dreams from My Father.[39]
University of Chicago Law School and civil rights attorney[link]
In 1991, Obama accepted a two-year position as Visiting Law and Government Fellow at the University of Chicago Law School to work on his first book.[39][40] He then taught at the University of Chicago Law School for twelve years—as a Lecturer from 1992 to 1996, and as a Senior Lecturer from 1996 to 2004—teaching constitutional law.[41]
From April to October 1992, Obama directed Illinois's Project Vote, a voter registration campaign with ten staffers and seven hundred volunteer registrars; it achieved its goal of registering 150,000 of 400,000 unregistered African Americans in the state, leading Crain's Chicago Business to name Obama to its 1993 list of "40 under Forty" powers to be.[42] In 1993, he joined Davis, Miner, Barnhill & Galland, a 13-attorney law firm specializing in civil rights litigation and neighborhood economic development, where he was an associate for three years from 1993 to 1996, then of counsel from 1996 to 2004. His law license became inactive in 2002.[43]
From 1994 to 2002, Obama served on the boards of directors of the Woods Fund of Chicago, which in 1985 had been the first foundation to fund the Developing Communities Project; and of the Joyce Foundation.[29] He served on the board of directors of the Chicago Annenberg Challenge from 1995 to 2002, as founding president and chairman of the board of directors from 1995 to 1999.[29]
Legislative career: 1997–2008[link]
State Senator: 1997–2004[link]
Main article: Illinois Senate career of Barack Obama
Obama was elected to the Illinois Senate in 1996, succeeding State Senator Alice Palmer as Senator from Illinois's 13th District, which at that time spanned Chicago South Side neighborhoods from Hyde Park – Kenwood south to South Shore and west to Chicago Lawn.[44] Once elected, Obama gained bipartisan support for legislation that reformed ethics and health care laws.[45] He sponsored a law that increased tax credits for low-income workers, negotiated welfare reform, and promoted increased subsidies for childcare.[46] In 2001, as co-chairman of the bipartisan Joint Committee on Administrative Rules, Obama supported Republican Governor Ryan's payday loan regulations and predatory mortgage lending regulations aimed at averting home foreclosures.[47]
Obama was reelected to the Illinois Senate in 1998, defeating Republican Yesse Yehudah in the general election, and was reelected again in 2002.[48] In 2000, he lost a Democratic primary run for the U.S. House of Representatives to four-term incumbent Bobby Rush by a margin of two to one.[49]
In January 2003, Obama became chairman of the Illinois Senate's Health and Human Services Committee when Democrats, after a decade in the minority, regained a majority.[50] He sponsored and led unanimous, bipartisan passage of legislation to monitor racial profiling by requiring police to record the race of drivers they detained, and legislation making Illinois the first state to mandate videotaping of homicide interrogations.[46][51] During his 2004 general election campaign for U.S. Senate, police representatives credited Obama for his active engagement with police organizations in enacting death penalty reforms.[52] Obama resigned from the Illinois Senate in November 2004 following his election to the U.S. Senate.[53]
U.S. Senate campaign[link]
In May 2002, Obama commissioned a poll to assess his prospects in a 2004 U.S. Senate race; he created a campaign committee, began raising funds, and lined up political media consultant David Axelrod by August 2002. Obama formally announced his candidacy in January 2003.[54]
Obama was an early opponent of the George W. Bush administration's 2003 invasion of Iraq.[55] On October 2, 2002, the day President Bush and Congress agreed on the joint resolution authorizing the Iraq War,[56] Obama addressed the first high-profile Chicago anti-Iraq War rally,[57] and spoke out against the war.[58] He addressed another anti-war rally in March 2003 and told the crowd that "it's not too late" to stop the war.[59]
Decisions by Republican incumbent Peter Fitzgerald and his Democratic predecessor Carol Moseley Braun to not participate in the election resulted in wide-open Democratic and Republican primary contests involving fifteen candidates.[60] In the March 2004 primary election, Obama won in an unexpected landslide—which overnight made him a rising star within the national Democratic Party, started speculation about a presidential future, and led to the reissue of his memoir, Dreams from My Father.[61] In July 2004, Obama delivered the keynote address at the 2004 Democratic National Convention,[62] seen by 9.1 million viewers. His speech was well received and elevated his status within the Democratic Party.[63]
Obama's expected opponent in the general election, Republican primary winner Jack Ryan, withdrew from the race in June 2004.[64] Six weeks later, Alan Keyes accepted the Republican nomination to replace Ryan.[65] In the November 2004 general election, Obama won with 70 percent of the vote.[66]
U.S. Senator: 2005–2008[link]
Main article: United States Senate career of Barack Obama
Obama was sworn in as a senator on January 3, 2005,[67] becoming the only Senate member of the Congressional Black Caucus.[68] CQ Weekly characterized him as a "loyal Democrat" based on analysis of all Senate votes in 2005–2007. Obama announced on November 13, 2008, that he would resign his Senate seat on November 16, 2008, before the start of the lame-duck session, to focus on his transition period for the presidency.[69]
Legislation[link]
Obama cosponsored the Secure America and Orderly Immigration Act.[70] He introduced two initiatives that bore his name: Lugar–Obama, which expanded the Nunn–Lugar cooperative threat reduction concept to conventional weapons;[71] and the Federal Funding Accountability and Transparency Act of 2006, which authorized the establishment of USAspending.gov, a web search engine on federal spending.[72] On June 3, 2008, Senator Obama—along with Senators Tom Carper, Tom Coburn, and John McCain—introduced follow-up legislation: Strengthening Transparency and Accountability in Federal Spending Act of 2008.[73]
Obama sponsored legislation that would have required nuclear plant owners to notify state and local authorities of radioactive leaks, but the bill failed to pass in the full Senate after being heavily modified in committee.[74] Regarding tort reform, Obama voted for the Class Action Fairness Act of 2005 and the FISA Amendments Act of 2008, which grants immunity from civil liability to telecommunications companies complicit with NSA warrantless wiretapping operations.[75]
In December 2006, President Bush signed into law the Democratic Republic of the Congo Relief, Security, and Democracy Promotion Act, marking the first federal legislation to be enacted with Obama as its primary sponsor.[77] In January 2007, Obama and Senator Feingold introduced a corporate jet provision to the Honest Leadership and Open Government Act, which was signed into law in September 2007.[78] Obama also introduced Deceptive Practices and Voter Intimidation Prevention Act, a bill to criminalize deceptive practices in federal elections,[79] and the Iraq War De-Escalation Act of 2007,[80] neither of which was signed into law.
Later in 2007, Obama sponsored an amendment to the Defense Authorization Act to add safeguards for personality-disorder military discharges.[81] This amendment passed the full Senate in the spring of 2008.[82] He sponsored the Iran Sanctions Enabling Act supporting divestment of state pension funds from Iran's oil and gas industry, which has not passed committee; and co-sponsored legislation to reduce risks of nuclear terrorism.[83] Obama also sponsored a Senate amendment to the State Children's Health Insurance Program, providing one year of job protection for family members caring for soldiers with combat-related injuries.[84]
Committees[link]
Obama held assignments on the Senate Committees for Foreign Relations, Environment and Public Works, and Veterans' Affairs through December 2006.[85] In January 2007, he left the Environment and Public Works committee and took additional assignments with Health, Education, Labor, and Pensions and Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs.[86] He also became Chairman of the Senate's subcommittee on European Affairs.[87] As a member of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee, Obama made official trips to Eastern Europe, the Middle East, Central Asia and Africa. He met with Mahmoud Abbas before Abbas became President of the Palestinian National Authority, and gave a speech at the University of Nairobi in which he condemned corruption within the Kenyan government.[88]
Presidential campaigns[link]
2008 presidential campaign[link]
Main articles: United States presidential election, 2008, Barack Obama presidential primary campaign, 2008, and Barack Obama presidential campaign, 2008
On February 10, 2007, Obama announced his candidacy for President of the United States in front of the Old State Capitol building in Springfield, Illinois.[89][90] The choice of the announcement site was viewed as symbolic because it was also where Abraham Lincoln delivered his historic "House Divided" speech in 1858.[89][91] Obama emphasized issues of rapidly ending the Iraq War, increasing energy independence, and providing universal health care,[92] in a campaign that projected themes of "hope" and "change".[93]
A large number of candidates entered the Democratic Party presidential primaries. The field narrowed to a duel between Obama and Senator Hillary Rodham Clinton after early contests, with the race remaining close throughout the primary process but with Obama gaining a steady lead in pledged delegates due to better long-range planning, superior fundraising, dominant organizing in caucus states, and better exploitation of delegate allocation rules.[94] On June 7, 2008, Clinton ended her campaign and endorsed Obama.[95]
On August 23, Obama announced his selection of Delaware Senator Joe Biden as his vice presidential running mate.[96] Biden was selected from a field speculated to include former Indiana Governor and Senator Evan Bayh and Virginia Governor Tim Kaine.[97] At the Democratic National Convention in Denver, Colorado, Hillary Clinton called for her supporters to endorse Obama, and she and Bill Clinton gave convention speeches in his support.[98] Obama delivered his acceptance speech, not at the center where the Democratic National Convention was held, but at Invesco Field at Mile High to a crowd of over 75,000; the speech was viewed by over 38 million people worldwide.[99][100]
During both the primary process and the general election, Obama's campaign set numerous fundraising records, particularly in the quantity of small donations.[101] On June 19, 2008, Obama became the first major-party presidential candidate to turn down public financing in the general election since the system was created in 1976.[102]
McCain was nominated as the Republican candidate and the two engaged in three presidential debates in September and October 2008.[103] On November 4, Obama won the presidency with 365 electoral votes to 173 received by McCain.[104] Obama won 52.9 percent of the popular vote to McCain's 45.7 percent.[105] He became the first African American to be elected president.[106] Obama delivered his victory speech before hundreds of thousands of supporters in Chicago's Grant Park.[107]
2012 presidential campaign[link]
Main articles: United States presidential election, 2012 and Barack Obama presidential campaign, 2012
On April 4, 2011, Obama announced his re-election campaign for 2012 in a video titled "It Begins with Us" that he posted on his website and filed election papers with the Federal Election Commission.[108][109][110] As the incumbent president he ran almost unopposed in the Democratic Party presidential primaries,[111] and on April 3, 2012, Obama had secured the 2778 convention delegates needed to win the Democratic nomination.[112]
Presidency[link]
Main article: Presidency of Barack Obama
See also: Confirmations of Barack Obama's Cabinet and List of presidential trips made by Barack Obama
First days[link]
The inauguration of Barack Obama as the 44th President, and Joe Biden as Vice President, took place on January 20, 2009. In his first few days in office, Obama issued executive orders and presidential memoranda directing the U.S. military to develop plans to withdraw troops from Iraq.[113] He ordered the closing of the Guantanamo Bay detention camp,[114] but Congress prevented the closure by refusing to appropriate the required funds.[115][116][117] Obama reduced the secrecy given to presidential records,[118] and changed procedures to promote disclosure under the Freedom of Information Act.[119] He also reversed George W. Bush's ban on federal funding to foreign establishments that allow abortions.[120]
Domestic policy[link]
The first bill signed into law by Obama was the Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Act of 2009, relaxing the statute of limitations for equal-pay lawsuits.[121] Five days later, he signed the reauthorization of the State Children's Health Insurance Program (SCHIP) to cover an additional 4 million uninsured children.[122] In March 2009, Obama reversed a Bush-era policy which had limited funding of embryonic stem cell research and pledged to develop "strict guidelines" on the research.[123]
Obama appointed two women to serve on the Supreme Court in the first two years of his Presidency. Sonia Sotomayor, nominated by Obama on May 26, 2009, to replace retiring Associate Justice David Souter, was confirmed on August 6, 2009,[124] becoming the first Hispanic to be a Supreme Court Justice.[125] Elena Kagan, nominated by Obama on May 10, 2010, to replace retiring Associate Justice John Paul Stevens, was confirmed on August 5, 2010, bringing the number of women sitting simultaneously on the Court to three, for the first time in American history.[126]
On September 30, 2009, the Obama administration proposed new regulations on power plants, factories and oil refineries in an attempt to limit greenhouse gas emissions and to curb global warming.[127][128]
On October 8, 2009, Obama signed the Matthew Shepard and James Byrd, Jr. Hate Crimes Prevention Act, a measure that expands the 1969 United States federal hate-crime law to include crimes motivated by a victim's actual or perceived gender, sexual orientation, gender identity, or disability.[129][130]
On March 30, 2010, Obama signed the Health Care and Education Reconciliation Act, a reconciliation bill which ends the process of the federal government giving subsidies to private banks to give out federally insured loans, increases the Pell Grant scholarship award, and makes changes to the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act.[131][132]
In a major space policy speech in April 2010, Obama announced a planned change in direction at NASA, the U.S. space agency. He ended plans for a return of human spaceflight to the moon and development of the Ares I rocket, Ares V rocket and Constellation program, in favor of funding Earth science projects, a new rocket type, and research and development for an eventual manned mission to Mars, and ongoing missions to the International Space Station.[133]
On December 22, 2010, Obama signed the Don't Ask, Don't Tell Repeal Act of 2010, fulfilling a key promise made in the 2008 presidential campaign[134][135] to end the Don't ask, don't tell policy of 1993 that had prevented gay and lesbian people from serving openly in the United States Armed Forces.[136]
President Obama's 2011 State of the Union Address focused on themes of education and innovation, stressing the importance of innovation economics to make the United States more competitive globally. He spoke of a five-year freeze in domestic spending, eliminating tax breaks for oil companies and reversing tax cuts for wealthy Americans, banning congressional earmarks, and reducing healthcare costs. He promised that the United States would have one million electric vehicles on the road by 2015 and would be 80% reliant on "clean" electricity.[137][138]
As a candidate for the Illinois state senate Obama had said in 1996 that he favored legalizing same-sex marriage;[139] but by the time of his run for the U.S. senate in 2004, he said that while he supported civil unions and domestic partnerships for same-sex partners, for strategic reasons he opposed same-sex marriages.[140] On May 9, 2012, shortly after the official launch of his campaign for re-election as president, Obama said his views had evolved, and he publicly affirmed his personal support for the legalization of same-sex marriage, becoming the first sitting U.S. president to do so.[141][142]
Economic policy[link]
Main article: Economic policy of Barack Obama
On February 17, 2009, Obama signed the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009, a $787 billion economic stimulus package aimed at helping the economy recover from the deepening worldwide recession.[143] The act includes increased federal spending for health care, infrastructure, education, various tax breaks and incentives, and direct assistance to individuals,[144] which is being distributed over the course of several years.
In March, Obama's Treasury Secretary, Timothy Geithner, took further steps to manage the financial crisis, including introducing the Public-Private Investment Program for Legacy Assets, which contains provisions for buying up to $2 trillion in depreciated real estate assets.[145] Obama intervened in the troubled automotive industry[146] in March 2009, renewing loans for General Motors and Chrysler to continue operations while reorganizing. Over the following months the White House set terms for both firms' bankruptcies, including the sale of Chrysler to Italian automaker Fiat[147] and a reorganization of GM giving the U.S. government a temporary 60 percent equity stake in the company, with the Canadian government shouldering a 12 percent stake.[148] In June 2009, dissatisfied with the pace of economic stimulus, Obama called on his cabinet to accelerate the investment.[149] He signed into law the Car Allowance Rebate System, known colloquially as "Cash for Clunkers", that temporarily boosted the economy.[150][151][152]
Although spending and loan guarantees from the Federal Reserve and the Treasury Department authorized by the Bush and Obama administrations totaled about $11.5 trillion, only $3 trillion had been spent by the end of November 2009.[153] However, Obama and the Congressional Budget Office predicted that the 2010 budget deficit will be $1.5 trillion or 10.6 percent of the nation's gross domestic product (GDP) compared to the 2009 deficit of $1.4 trillion or 9.9 percent of GDP.[154][155] For 2011, the administration predicted the deficit will slightly shrink to $1.34 trillion, while the 10-year deficit will increase to $8.53 trillion or 90 percent of GDP.[156] The most recent increase in the U.S. debt ceiling to $16.4 trillion was signed into law on January 26, 2012.[157] On August 2, 2011, after a lengthy congressional debate over whether to raise the nation's debt limit, Obama signed the bipartisan Budget Control Act of 2011. The legislation enforces limits on discretionary spending until 2021, establishes a procedure to increase the debt limit, creates a Congressional Joint Select Committee on Deficit Reduction to propose further deficit reduction with a stated goal of achieving at least $1.5 trillion in budgetary savings over 10 years, and establishes automatic procedures for reducing spending by as much as $1.2 trillion if legislation originating with the new joint select committee does not achieve such savings.[158] By passing the legislation, Congress was able to prevent an unprecedented U.S. government default on its obligations.[159]
The unemployment rate rose in 2009, reaching a peak in October at 10.1 percent and averaging 10.0 percent in the fourth quarter. Following a decrease to 9.7 percent in the first quarter of 2010, the unemployment rate fell to 9.6 percent in the second quarter, where it remained for the rest of the year.[162] Between February and December 2010, employment rose by 0.8 percent, which was less than the average of 1.9 percent experienced during comparable periods in the past four employment recoveries.[163] GDP growth returned in the third quarter of 2009, expanding at a rate of 1.6 percent, followed by a 5.0 percent increase in the fourth quarter.[164] Growth continued in 2010, posting an increase of 3.7 percent in the first quarter, with lesser gains throughout the rest of the year.[164] In July 2010, the Federal Reserve expressed that although economic activity continued to increase, its pace had slowed, and Chairman Ben Bernanke stated that the economic outlook was "unusually uncertain."[165] Overall, the economy expanded at a rate of 2.9 percent in 2010.[166]
The Congressional Budget Office and a broad range of economists credit Obama's stimulus plan for economic growth.[167][168] The CBO released a report stating that the stimulus bill increased employment by 1–2.1 million,[168][169][170][171] while conceding that "It is impossible to determine how many of the reported jobs would have existed in the absence of the stimulus package."[167] Although an April 2010 survey of members of the National Association for Business Economics showed an increase in job creation (over a similar January survey) for the first time in two years, 73 percent of 68 respondents believed that the stimulus bill has had no impact on employment.[172]
Within a month of the 2010 midterm elections, Obama announced a compromise deal with the Congressional Republican leadership that included a temporary, two-year extension of the 2001 and 2003 income tax rates, a one-year payroll tax reduction, continuation of unemployment benefits, and a new rate and exemption amount for estate taxes.[173] The compromise overcame opposition from some in both parties, and the resulting $858 billion Tax Relief, Unemployment Insurance Reauthorization, and Job Creation Act of 2010 passed with bipartisan majorities in both houses of Congress before Obama signed it on December 17, 2010.[174]
Health care reform[link]
Main article: Health care reform in the United States
Obama called for Congress to pass legislation reforming health care in the United States, a key campaign promise and a top legislative goal.[175] He proposed an expansion of health insurance coverage to cover the uninsured, to cap premium increases, and to allow people to retain their coverage when they leave or change jobs. His proposal was to spend $900 billion over 10 years and include a government insurance plan, also known as the public option, to compete with the corporate insurance sector as a main component to lowering costs and improving quality of health care. It would also make it illegal for insurers to drop sick people or deny them coverage for pre-existing conditions, and require every American carry health coverage. The plan also includes medical spending cuts and taxes on insurance companies that offer expensive plans.[176][177]
On July 14, 2009, House Democratic leaders introduced a 1,017-page plan for overhauling the U.S. health care system, which Obama wanted Congress to approve by the end of 2009.[175] After much public debate during the Congressional summer recess of 2009, Obama delivered a speech to a joint session of Congress on September 9 where he addressed concerns over the proposals.[178] In March 2009, Obama lifted a ban on stem cell research.[179]
File:PPACA Premium Chart.jpg
Maximum Out-of-Pocket Premium as Percentage of Family Income and federal poverty level, under Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act, starting in 2014. (Source: CRS)
On November 7, 2009, a health care bill featuring the public option was passed in the House.[180][181] On December 24, 2009, the Senate passed its own bill—without a public option—on a party-line vote of 60–39.[182] On March 21, 2010, the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act passed by the Senate in December was passed in the House by a vote of 219 to 212.[183] Obama signed the bill into law on March 23, 2010.[184]
The Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act includes health-related provisions to take effect over four years, including expanding Medicaid eligibility for people making up to 133 percent of the federal poverty level (FPL) starting in 2014,[185] subsidizing insurance premiums for people making up to 400 percent of the FPL ($88,000 for family of four in 2010) so their maximum "out-of-pocket" payment for annual premiums will be from 2 to 9.5 percent of income,[186][187] providing incentives for businesses to provide health care benefits, prohibiting denial of coverage and denial of claims based on pre-existing conditions, establishing health insurance exchanges, prohibiting annual coverage caps, and support for medical research. According to White House and Congressional Budget Office figures, the maximum share of income that enrollees would have to pay would vary depending on their income relative to the federal poverty level.[186][188]
The costs of these provisions are offset by taxes, fees, and cost-saving measures, such as new Medicare taxes for those in high-income brackets, taxes on indoor tanning, cuts to the Medicare Advantage program in favor of traditional Medicare, and fees on medical devices and pharmaceutical companies;[189] there is also a tax penalty for those who do not obtain health insurance, unless they are exempt due to low income or other reasons.[190] In March, 2010, the Congressional Budget Office estimated that the net effect of both laws will be a reduction in the federal deficit by $143 billion over the first decade.[191]
In March 2012, the Supreme Court heard arguments by a coalition of 26 states maintaining that it is unconstitutional to force individuals to buy health insurance.[192]
Gulf of Mexico oil spill[link]
On April 20, 2010, an explosion destroyed an offshore drilling rig at the Macondo Prospect in the Gulf of Mexico, causing a major sustained oil leak. The well's operator, BP, initiated a containment and cleanup plan, and began drilling two relief wells intended to stop the flow. Obama visited the Gulf on May 2 among visits by members of his cabinet, and again on May 28 and June 4. On May 22, he announced a federal investigation and formed a bipartisan commission to recommend new safety standards, after a review by Secretary of the Interior Ken Salazar and concurrent Congressional hearings. On May 27, he announced a 6-month moratorium on new deepwater drilling permits and leases, pending regulatory review.[193] As multiple efforts by BP failed, some in the media and public expressed confusion and criticism over various aspects of the incident, and stated a desire for more involvement by Obama and the federal government.[194]
Foreign policy[link]
Main articles: Foreign policy of the Barack Obama administration and Barack Obama foreign policy
In February and March, Vice President Joe Biden and Secretary of State Hillary Rodham Clinton made separate overseas trips to announce a "new era" in U.S. foreign relations with Russia and Europe, using the terms "break" and "reset" to signal major changes from the policies of the preceding administration.[195] Obama attempted to reach out to Arab leaders by granting his first interview to an Arab cable TV network, Al Arabiya.[196]
On March 19, Obama continued his outreach to the Muslim world, releasing a New Year's video message to the people and government of Iran.[197] This attempt at outreach was rebuffed by the Iranian leadership.[198] In April, Obama gave a speech in Ankara, Turkey, which was well received by many Arab governments.[199] On June 4, 2009, Obama delivered a speech at Cairo University in Egypt calling for "a new beginning" in relations between the Islamic world and the United States and promoting Middle East peace.[200]
On June 26, 2009, in response to the Iranian government's actions towards protesters following Iran's 2009 presidential election, Obama said: "The violence perpetrated against them is outrageous. We see it and we condemn it."[201] On July 7, while in Moscow, he responded to a Vice President Biden comment on a possible Israeli military strike on Iran by saying: "We have said directly to the Israelis that it is important to try and resolve this in an international setting in a way that does not create major conflict in the Middle East."[202]
On September 24, 2009, Obama became the first sitting U.S. president to preside over a meeting of the United Nations Security Council.[203]
In March 2010, Obama took a public stance against plans by the government of Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu to continue building Jewish housing projects in predominantly Arab neighborhoods of East Jerusalem.[204][205] During the same month, an agreement was reached with the administration of Russian President Dmitry Medvedev to replace the 1991 Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty with a new pact reducing the number of long-range nuclear weapons in the arsenals of both countries by about one-third.[206] The New START treaty was signed by Obama and Medvedev in April 2010, and was ratified by the U.S. Senate in December 2010.[207]
On December 6, 2011, he instructed agencies to consider LGBT rights when issuing financial aid to foreign countries.[208]
Iraq War[link]
On February 27, 2009, Obama declared that combat operations in Iraq would end within 18 months. His remarks were made to a group of Marines preparing for deployment to Afghanistan. Obama said, "Let me say this as plainly as I can: By August 31, 2010, our combat mission in Iraq will end."[209] The Obama administration scheduled the withdrawal of combat troops to be completed by August 2010, decreasing troops levels from 142,000 while leaving a transitional force of 35,000 to 50,000 in Iraq until the end of 2011. On August 19, 2010, the last United States combat brigade exited Iraq. The plan is to transition the mission of the remaining troops from combat operations to counter-terrorism and the training, equipping, and advising of Iraqi security forces.[210][211] On August 31, 2010, Obama announced that the United States combat mission in Iraq was over.[212] On October 21, 2011 President Obama announced that all U.S. troops would leave Iraq in time to be, "home for the holidays".[213]
War in Afghanistan[link]
Main article: War in Afghanistan (2001–present)
Early in his presidency, Obama moved to bolster U.S. troop strength in Afghanistan.[214] He announced an increase to U.S. troop levels of 17,000 in February 2009 to "stabilize a deteriorating situation in Afghanistan", an area he said had not received the "strategic attention, direction and resources it urgently requires".[215] He replaced the military commander in Afghanistan, General David D. McKiernan, with former Special Forces commander Lt. Gen. Stanley A. McChrystal in May 2009, indicating that McChrystal's Special Forces experience would facilitate the use of counterinsurgency tactics in the war.[216] On December 1, 2009, Obama announced the deployment of an additional 30,000 military personnel to Afghanistan.[217] He also proposed to begin troop withdrawals 18 months from that date.[218][219] McChrystal was replaced by David Petraeus in June 2010, after McChrystal's staff criticized White House personnel in a magazine article.[220]
Israel[link]
During the initial years of the Obama administration, the U.S. increased military cooperation with Israel, including a record number of U.S. troops participating in military exercises in the country, increased military aid, the re-establishment of the U.S.-Israeli Joint Political Military Group and the Defense Policy Advisory Group, and an increase in visits among high-level military officials of both countries, including Ehud Barak and Admiral Mike Mullen.[221]
In 2011, the United States vetoed a Security Council resolution condemning Israeli settlements, with the United States being the only nation to do so.[222] Obama supports the two-state solution to the Arab–Israeli conflict based on the 1967 borders with land swaps.[223]
War in Libya[link]
Main article: 2011 military intervention in Libya
In March 2011, as forces loyal to Muammar Gaddafi advanced on rebels across Libya, calls for a no-fly zone came from around the world, including Europe, the Arab League, and a resolution[224] passed unanimously by the U.S. Senate.[225] In response to the unanimous passage of United Nations Security Council Resolution 1973 on March 17, Gaddafi who had previously vowed to "show no mercy" to the citizens of Benghazi[226]—announced an immediate cessation of military activities,[227] yet reports came in that his forces continued shelling Misrata. The next day, on Obama's orders, the U.S. military took a lead role in air strikes to destroy the Libyan government's air defense capabilities in order to protect civilians and enforce a no-fly-zone,[228] including the use of Tomahawk missiles, B-2 Spirits, and fighter jets.[229][230][231] Six days later, on March 25, by unanimous vote of all of its 28 members, NATO took over leadership of the effort, dubbed Operation Unified Protector.[232] Some Representatives[233] questioned whether Obama had the constitutional authority to order military action in addition to questioning its cost, structure and aftermath.[234][235]
Osama bin Laden[link]
Main article: Death of Osama bin Laden
See also: The Situation Room (photograph)
Starting with information received in July 2010, intelligence developed by the CIA over the next several months determined what they believed to be the location of Osama bin Laden in a large compound in Abbottabad, Pakistan, a suburban area 35 miles from Islamabad.[236] CIA head Leon Panetta reported this intelligence to President Obama in March 2011.[236] Meeting with his national security advisers over the course of the next six weeks, Obama rejected a plan to bomb the compound, and authorized a "surgical raid" to be conducted by United States Navy SEALs.[236] The operation took place on May 1, 2011, resulting in the death of bin Laden and the seizure of papers and computer drives and disks from the compound.[237][238] Bin Laden's body was identified through DNA testing,[239] and buried at sea several hours later.[240] Within minutes of the President's announcement from Washington, DC, late in the evening on May 1, there were spontaneous celebrations around the country as crowds gathered outside the White House, and at New York City's Ground Zero and Times Square.[237][241] Reaction to the announcement was positive across party lines, including from former Presidents Bill Clinton and George W. Bush,[242] and from many countries around the world.[243]
2010 midterm election[link]
Obama called the November 2, 2010 election, where the Democratic Party lost 63 seats in, and control of, the House of Representatives,[244] "humbling" and a "shellacking".[245] He said that the results came because not enough Americans had felt the effects of the economic recovery.[246]
Cultural and political image[link]
Main article: Public image of Barack Obama
Obama's family history, upbringing, and Ivy League education differ markedly from those of African American politicians who launched their careers in the 1960s through participation in the civil rights movement.[248] Obama is also not a descendant of American slaves.[249] Expressing puzzlement over questions about whether he is "black enough", Obama told an August 2007 meeting of the National Association of Black Journalists that "we're still locked in this notion that if you appeal to white folks then there must be something wrong".[250] Obama acknowledged his youthful image in an October 2007 campaign speech, saying: "I wouldn't be here if, time and again, the torch had not been passed to a new generation."[251]
Obama is frequently referred to as an exceptional orator.[252] During his pre-inauguration transition period and continuing into his presidency, Obama has delivered a series of weekly Internet video addresses.[253]
According to the Gallup Organization, Obama began his presidency with a 68 percent approval rating[254] before gradually declining for the rest of the year, and eventually bottoming out at 41 percent in August 2010,[255] a trend similar to Ronald Reagan's and Bill Clinton's first years in office.[256] He experienced a small poll bounce shortly after the death of Osama bin Laden, which lasted until around June 2011, when his approval numbers dropped back to where they were prior to the operation.[257][258][259] Polls show strong support for Obama in other countries,[260] and before being elected President he has met with prominent foreign figures including then-British Prime Minister Tony Blair,[261] Italy's Democratic Party leader and then Mayor of Rome Walter Veltroni,[262] and French President Nicolas Sarkozy.[263]
In a February 2009 poll conducted by Harris Interactive for France 24 and the International Herald Tribune, Obama was rated as the most respected world leader, as well as the most powerful.[264] In a similar poll conducted by Harris in May 2009, Obama was rated as the most popular world leader, as well as the one figure most people would pin their hopes on for pulling the world out of the economic downturn.[265][266]
Obama won Best Spoken Word Album Grammy Awards for abridged audiobook versions of Dreams from My Father in February 2006 and for The Audacity of Hope in February 2008.[267] His concession speech after the New Hampshire primary was set to music by independent artists as the music video "Yes We Can", which was viewed 10 million times on YouTube in its first month[268] and received a Daytime Emmy Award.[269] In December 2008, Time magazine named Obama as its Person of the Year for his historic candidacy and election, which it described as "the steady march of seemingly impossible accomplishments".[270]
On October 9, 2009, the Norwegian Nobel Committee announced that Obama had won the 2009 Nobel Peace Prize "for his extraordinary efforts to strengthen international diplomacy and cooperation between peoples".[271] Obama accepted this award in Oslo, Norway on December 10, 2009, with "deep gratitude and great humility."[272] The award drew a mixture of praise and criticism from world leaders and media figures.[273][274] Obama is the fourth U.S. president to be awarded the Nobel Peace Prize and the third to become a Nobel laureate while in office.
Family and personal life[link]
Main article: Family of Barack Obama
In a 2006 interview, Obama highlighted the diversity of his extended family: "It's like a little mini-United Nations", he said. "I've got relatives who look like Bernie Mac, and I've got relatives who look like Margaret Thatcher."[275] Obama has a half-sister with whom he was raised, Maya Soetoro-Ng, the daughter of his mother and her Indonesian second husband and seven half-siblings from his Kenyan father's family – six of them living.[276] Obama's mother was survived by her Kansas-born mother, Madelyn Dunham,[277] until her death on November 2, 2008,[278] two days before his election to the Presidency. Obama also has roots in Ireland; he met with his Irish cousins in Moneygall in May 2011.[279] In Dreams from My Father, Obama ties his mother's family history to possible Native American ancestors and distant relatives of Jefferson Davis, President of the Confederate States of America during the American Civil War.[280]
Obama was known as "Barry" in his youth, but asked to be addressed with his given name during his college years.[281] Besides his native English, Obama speaks Indonesian at the conversational level, having learned the language during his four childhood years in Jakarta.[282] He plays basketball, a sport he participated in as a member of his high school's varsity team.[283]
Obama is a well known supporter of the Chicago White Sox, and threw out the first pitch at the 2005 ALCS when he was still a senator.[284] In 2009, he threw out the ceremonial first pitch at the all star game while wearing a White Sox jacket.[285] He is also primarily a Chicago Bears fan in the NFL, but in his childhood and adolescence was a fan of the Pittsburgh Steelers, and recently rooted for them ahead of their victory in Super Bowl XLIII 12 days after Obama took office as President.[286] In 2011, Obama invited the 1985 Bears to the White House; in 1986, the team did not attend due to the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster.[287]
In June 1989, Obama met Michelle Robinson when he was employed as a summer associate at the Chicago law firm of Sidley Austin.[288] Assigned for three months as Obama's adviser at the firm, Robinson joined him at group social functions, but declined his initial requests to date.[289] They began dating later that summer, became engaged in 1991, and were married on October 3, 1992.[290] The couple's first daughter, Malia Ann, was born on July 4, 1998,[291] followed by a second daughter, Natasha ("Sasha"), on June 10, 2001.[292] The Obama daughters attended the private University of Chicago Laboratory Schools. When they moved to Washington, D.C., in January 2009, the girls started at the private Sidwell Friends School.[293] The Obamas have a Portuguese Water Dog named Bo, a gift from Senator Ted Kennedy.[294]
Applying the proceeds of a book deal, the family moved in 2005 from a Hyde Park, Chicago condominium to a $1.6 million house in neighboring Kenwood, Chicago.[295] The purchase of an adjacent lot—and sale of part of it to Obama by the wife of developer, campaign donor and friend Tony Rezko—attracted media attention because of Rezko's subsequent indictment and conviction on political corruption charges that were unrelated to Obama.[296]
In December 2007, Money magazine estimated the Obama family's net worth at $1.3 million.[297] Their 2009 tax return showed a household income of $5.5 million—up from about $4.2 million in 2007 and $1.6 million in 2005—mostly from sales of his books.[298][299] On his 2010 income of $1.7 million, he gave 14 percent to non-profit organizations, including $131,000 to Fisher House Foundation, a charity assisting wounded veterans' families, allowing them to reside near where the veteran is receiving medical treatments.[300][301]
As per the latest financial disclosure, Obama may be worth as much as $10 million.[302]
Obama tried to quit smoking several times, sometimes using nicotine replacement therapy, and, in early 2010, Michelle Obama said that he had successfully quit smoking.[303][304]
Religious views[link]
Obama is a Christian whose religious views developed in his adult life. He wrote in The Audacity of Hope that he "was not raised in a religious household". He described his mother, raised by non-religious parents (whom Obama has specified elsewhere as "non-practicing Methodists and Baptists"), to be detached from religion, yet "in many ways the most spiritually awakened person that I have ever known". He described his father as "raised a Muslim", but a "confirmed atheist" by the time his parents met, and his stepfather as "a man who saw religion as not particularly useful". Obama explained how, through working with black churches as a community organizer while in his twenties, he came to understand "the power of the African-American religious tradition to spur social change".[305]
In an interview with the evangelical periodical Christianity Today, Obama stated: "I am a Christian, and I am a devout Christian. I believe in the redemptive death and resurrection of Jesus Christ. I believe that that faith gives me a path to be cleansed of sin and have eternal life."[306]
On September 27, 2010, Obama released a statement commenting on his religious views saying "I'm a Christian by choice. My family didn't—frankly, they weren't folks who went to church every week. And my mother was one of the most spiritual people I knew, but she didn't raise me in the church. So I came to my Christian faith later in life, and it was because the precepts of Jesus Christ spoke to me in terms of the kind of life that I would want to lead—being my brothers' and sisters' keeper, treating others as they would treat me."[307][308]
Obama was baptized at the Trinity United Church of Christ, a black liberation church, in 1988, and was an active member there for two decades.[309] Obama resigned from Trinity during the Presidential campaign after controversial statements made by Rev. Jeremiah Wright became public.[310] After a prolonged effort to find a church to attend regularly in Washington, Obama announced in June 2009 that his primary place of worship would be the Evergreen Chapel at Camp David.[311]
Notes[link]
- ^ "President Barack Obama". Washington, D.C.: The White House. 2008. http://www.whitehouse.gov/administration/president-obama. Retrieved December 12, 2008.
- ^ a b "Certificate of Live Birth: Barack Hussein Obama II, August 4, 1961, 7:24 pm, Honolulu". Department of Health, State of Hawaii. The White House. April 27, 2011. http://www.whitehouse.gov/sites/default/files/rss_viewer/birth-certificate-long-form.pdf. Retrieved April 27, 2011.
- ^ "American President: Barack Obama". Charlottesville, VA: Miller Center of Public Affairs, University of Virginia. 2009. http://millercenter.org/academic/americanpresident/obama. Retrieved January 23, 2009. "Religion: Christian"
- "The Truth about Barack's Faith". Obama for America. http://www.fightthesmears.com/file_download/2/baracksfaith.pdf. Retrieved April 8, 2011.
- Miller, Lisa (July 18, 2008). "Finding his faith". Newsweek. http://www.newsweek.com/id/145971. Retrieved February 4, 2010. "He is now a Christian, having been baptized in the early 1990s at Trinity United Church of Christ in Chicago."
- Barakat, Matthew (November 17, 2008). "Obama's church choice likely to be scrutinized; D.C. churches have started extending invitations to Obama and his family". Associated Press. MSNBC. http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/27775757. Retrieved January 20, 2009. "The United Church of Christ, the denomination from which Obama resigned when he left Wright's church, issued a written invitation to join a UCC denomination in Washington and resume his connections to the church." .
- "Barack Obama, long time UCC member, inaugurated forty-fourth U.S. President". News. United Church of Christ. January 20, 2009. http://www.ucc.org/news/obama-inauguration.html. Retrieved January 21, 2009. "Barack Obama, who spent more than 20 years as a UCC member, is the forty-fourth President of the United States."
- Sullivan, Amy (June 29, 2009). "The Obama's find a church home—away from home". Time. http://www.time.com/time/nation/article/0,8599,1907610,00.html. Retrieved February 5, 2010. "instead of joining a congregation in Washington, D.C., he will follow in George W. Bush's footsteps and make his primary place of worship Evergreen Chapel, the nondenominational church at Camp David." .
- Kornblut, Anne E. (February 4, 2010). "Obama's spirituality is largely private, but it's influential, advisers say". The Washington Post: p. A6. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2010/02/03/AR2010020303619.html. Retrieved February 5, 2010. "Obama prays privately ... And when he takes his family to Camp David on the weekends, a Navy chaplain ministers to them, with the daughters attending a form of Sunday school there."
- ^ a b Maraniss, David (August 24, 2008). "Though Obama had to leave to find himself, it is Hawaii that made his rise possible". The Washington Post: p. A22. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/08/23/AR2008082301620.html. Retrieved October 28, 2008.
- ^ Nakaso, Dan (December 22, 2008). "Twin sisters, Obama on parallel paths for years". The Honolulu Advertiser: p. B1. http://the.honoluluadvertiser.com/article/2008/Dec/22/ln/hawaii812220320.html. Retrieved January 22, 2011.
- ^ Rudin, Ken (December 23, 2009). "Today's Junkie segment On TOTN: a political review Of 2009". Talk of the Nation (Political Junkie blog). NPR. http://www.npr.org/blogs/politicaljunkie/2009/12/todays_junkie_segment_on_totn_5.html. Retrieved April 18, 2010. "We began with the historic inauguration on January 20—yes, the first president ever born in Hawaii"
- ^ for Stanley Ann's first name, see Obama (1995, 2004), p. 19.
- ^ Ewen MacAskill in Washington and Nicholas Watt (May 20, 2011). "Obama looks forward to rediscovering his Irish roots on European tour". The Guardian (London). http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2011/may/20/obama-irish-roots-european-tour. Retrieved August 3, 2011.
- ^ Mason, Jeff (May 23, 2011). "Obama visits family roots in Ireland". Reuters. http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/05/23/us-obama-ireland-idUSTRE74M09F20110523. Retrieved August 3, 2011.
- ^ "Obama urged to create own tartan". BBC News. January 20, 2009. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/7838208.stm. Retrieved April 9, 2012.
- ^ "Researchers: Obama has German roots". USA Today. June 4, 2009. http://www.usatoday.com/news/washington/2009-06-04-obama-roots_N.htm. Retrieved April 9, 2012.
- ^ "Honorary citizenship papers sent to Obama". Swissinfo.ch. July 14, 2010. http://www.swissinfo.ch/eng/swiss_news/Honorary_citizenship_papers_sent_to_Obama.html?cid=17963746. Retrieved April 9, 2012.
- ^ a b Jones, Tim (March 27, 2007). "Barack Obama: Mother not just a girl from Kansas; Stanley Ann Dunham shaped a future senator". Chicago Tribune: p. 1 (Tempo). Archived from the original on February 21, 2009. http://www.chicagotribune.com/news/politics/obama/chi-0703270151mar27-archive,0,5853572,full.story. Retrieved May 18, 2012.
- ^ a b Obama (1995, 2004), pp. 9–10.
- ^ a b Ripley, Amanda (April 9, 2008). "The story of Barack Obama's mother". Time. http://www.time.com/time/nation/article/0,8599,1729524,00.html. Retrieved April 9, 2007.
- ^ Ochieng, Philip (November 1, 2004). "From home squared to the US Senate: how Barack Obama was lost and found". The EastAfrican. Archived from the original on September 27, 2007. http://web.archive.org/web/20070927223905/http://www.nationmedia.com/EastAfrican/01112004/Features/PA2-11.html. Retrieved June 25, 2008.
- Merida, Kevin (December 14, 2007). "The ghost of a father". The Washington Post: p. A12. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/story/2007/12/13/ST2007121301893.html. Retrieved June 25, 2008.
- ^ Karana, Kinanti Pinta (December 9, 2009). "Statue of a young Obama to watch over Indonesian capital". Jakarta Globe. http://thejakartaglobe.com/home/statue-of-us-president-barack-obama-to-be-unveiled-in-jakarta-park/346178. Retrieved December 8, 2009.
- Obama (1995, 2004), pp. 44–45.
- ^ Pickler, Nedra (January 24, 2007). "Obama debunks claim about Islamic school". The Washington Post. Associated Press. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/01/24/AR2007012400371_pf.html. Retrieved December 31, 2009.
- "Statue of boy Obama erected in Jakarta". Xinhua News Agency. December 10, 2009. http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2009-12/10/content_12624443.htm. Retrieved December 31, 2009.
- ^ Serafin, Peter (March 21, 2004). "Punahou grad stirs up Illinois politics". Honolulu Star-Bulletin. http://archives.starbulletin.com/2004/03/21/news/story4.html. Retrieved March 20, 2008.
- Scott, Janny (March 14, 2008). "A free-spirited wanderer who set Obama's path". The New York Times: p. A1. http://www.nytimes.com/2008/03/14/us/politics/14obama.html?pagewanted=all. Retrieved November 18, 2011.
- Obama (1995, 2004), Chapters 3 and 4.
- ^ Suryakusuma, Julia (November 29, 2006). "Obama for President... of Indonesia". The Jakarta Post. http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2006/11/29/obama-president-indonesia.html. Retrieved June 25, 2008.
- ^ Serrano, Richard A. (March 11, 2007). "Obama's peers didn't see his angst". Los Angeles Times: p. A20. http://www.latimes.com/news/politics/la-na-obamahawaii11-2007mar11,0,199085,full.story. Retrieved March 13, 2007.
- Obama (1995, 2004), Chapters 4 and 5.
- ^ Reyes, B.J. (February 8, 2007). "Punahou left lasting impression on Obama". Honolulu Star-Bulletin. http://archives.starbulletin.com/2007/02/08/news/story02.html. Retrieved February 10, 2007. "As a teenager, Obama went to parties and sometimes sought out gatherings on military bases or at the University of Hawaii that were mostly attended by blacks."
- ^ Elliott, Philip (November 21, 2007). "Obama gets blunt with N.H. students". The Boston Globe. Associated Press: p. 8A. http://articles.boston.com/2007-11-21/news/29233371_1_barack-obama-education-plan-campaign-trail. Retrieved May 18, 2012.
- Obama (1995, 2004), pp. 93–94.
- for analysis of the political impact of the quote and Obama's more recent admission that he smoked marijuana as a teenager ("When I was a kid, I inhaled"), see:
- Seelye, Katharine Q. (October 24, 2006). "Obama offers more variations from the norm". The New York Times: p. A21. http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9D07E2DB173FF937A15753C1A9609C8B63. Retrieved October 29, 2006.
- Romano, Lois (January 3, 2007). "Effect of Obama's candor remains to be seen". The Washington Post: p. A1. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/01/02/AR2007010201359.html. Retrieved January 14, 2007.
- ^ Hornick, Ed (August 17, 2008). "Obama, McCain talk issues at pastor's forum". CNN. http://www.cnn.com/2008/POLITICS/08/16/warren.forum/. Retrieved May 18, 2012.
- ^ a b Gordon, Larry (January 29, 2007). "Occidental recalls 'Barry' Obama". Los Angeles Times: p. B1. http://articles.latimes.com/2007/jan/29/local/me-oxy29. Retrieved May 12, 2010.
- Possley, Maurice (March 30, 2007). "Activism blossomed in college". Chicago Tribune: p. 20. http://www.chicagotribune.com/news/nationworld/chi-0703291042mar30-archive,0,1533921.story. Retrieved May 12, 2010.
- Kovaleski, Serge F. (February 9, 2008). "Old friends say drugs played bit part in Obama's young life". The New York Times: p. A1. http://www.nytimes.com/2008/02/09/us/politics/09obama.html?pagewanted=all. Retrieved May 12, 2010.
- Rohter, Larry (April 10, 2008). "Obama says real-life experience trumps rivals' foreign policy credits". The New York Times: p. A18. http://www.nytimes.com/2008/04/10/us/politics/10obama.html. Retrieved May 12, 2010.
- Goldman, Adam; Tanner, Robert (May 15, 2008). "Old friends recall Obama's years in LA, NYC". USA Today. Associated Press. http://www.usatoday.com/news/politics/2008-05-15-3144401415_x.htm. Retrieved May 12, 2010.
- Helman, Scott (August 25, 2008). "Small college awakened future senator to service". The Boston Globe: p. 1A. http://www.boston.com/news/politics/2008/articles/2008/08/25/small_college_awakened_future_senator_to_service/?page=full. Retrieved May 12, 2010.
- Jackson, Brooks (June 5, 2009). "More 'birther' nonsense: Obama's 1981 Pakistan trip". FactCheck.org. http://www.factcheck.org/2009/06/more-birther-nonsense-obamas-1981-pakistan-trip. Retrieved May 12, 2010.
- Remnick, David (2010). The Bridge: The Life and Rise of Barack Obama. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. pp. 98–112. ISBN 978-1-4000-4360-6.
- Obama (1995, 2004), pp. 92–112.
- Mendell (2007), pp. 55–62.
- ^ Boss-Bicak, Shira (January 2005). "Barack Obama '83". Columbia College Today. ISSN 0572-7820. http://www.college.columbia.edu/cct_archive/jan05/cover.php. Retrieved October 1, 2006.
- ^ Obama, Barack (1998). "Curriculum vitae". The University of Chicago Law School. Archived from the original on May 9, 2001. http://web.archive.org/web/20010509024017/http://www.law.uchicago.edu/faculty/obama/cv.html. Retrieved October 1, 2006.
- Issenberg, Sasha (August 6, 2008). "Obama shows hints of his year in global finance; Tied markets to social aid". The Boston Globe: p. 1A. http://www.boston.com/news/nation/articles/2008/08/06/obama_shows_hints_of_his_year_in_global_finance/?page=1. Retrieved August 6, 2008.
- ^ Scott, Janny (July 30, 2007). "Obama's account of New York often differs from what others say". The New York Times: p. B1. http://www.nytimes.com/2007/10/30/us/politics/30obama.html?pagewanted=all. Retrieved July 31, 2007.
- Obama (1995, 2004), pp. 133–140.
- Mendell (2007), pp. 62–63.
- ^ a b c d Chassie, Karen, ed. (2007). Who's Who in America, 2008. New Providence, NJ: Marquis Who's Who. p. 3468. ISBN 978-0-8379-7011-0.
- ^ Lizza, Ryan (March 19, 2007). "The agitator: Barack Obama's unlikely political education". The New Republic 236 (12): 22–26, 28–29. ISSN 0028-6583. http://www.tnr.com/article/the-agitator-barack-obamas-unlikely-political-education. Retrieved August 21, 2007.
- Secter, Bob; McCormick, John (March 30, 2007). "Portrait of a pragmatist". Chicago Tribune: p. 1. Archived from the original on December 14, 2009. http://web.archive.org/web/20091214172131/http://www.chicagotribune.com/news/nationworld/chi-0703300121mar30-archive,0,2491692,full.story. Retrieved May 18, 2012.
- Obama (1995, 2004), pp. 140–295.
- Mendell (2007), pp. 63–83.
- ^ a b c Matchan, Linda (February 15, 1990). "A Law Review breakthrough". The Boston Globe: p. 29. http://www.boston.com/news/politics/2008/articles/1990/02/15/a_law_review_breakthrough. Retrieved June 15, 2008.
- Corr, John (February 27, 1990). "From mean streets to hallowed halls" (paid archive). The Philadelphia Inquirer: p. C01. http://nl.newsbank.com/nl-search/we/Archives?p_multi=PI%7CDN%7C&p_product=PHNP&p_theme=phnp&p_action=search&p_maxdocs=200&s_trackval=PHNP&s_dispstring=Author%28John%20Corr%29%20AND%20date%2802/27/1990%20to%2002/27/1990%29%20AND%20date%28all%29&p_field_advanced-0=Author&p_text_advanced-0=%28John%20Corr%29&p_bool_advanced-1=AND&p_params_advanced-1=date:B,E&p_field_advanced-1=YMD_date&p_text_advanced-1=%2802/27/1990%20to%2002/27/1990%29&xcal_numdocs=20&p_perpage=10&p_sort=YMD_date:D&xcal_useweights=no. Retrieved June 6, 2008.
- ^ Obama, Barack (August–September 1988). "Why organize? Problems and promise in the inner city". Illinois Issues 14 (8–9): 40–42. ISSN 0738-9663. reprinted in:
Knoepfle, Peg, ed. (1990). After Alinsky: community organizing in Illinois. Springfield, IL: Sangamon State University. pp. 35–40. ISBN 0-9620873-3-5. "He has also been a consultant and instructor for the Gamaliel Foundation, an organizing institute working throughout the Midwest." - ^ Obama (1995, 2004), pp. 299–437.
- ^ Gnecchi, Nico (February 27, 2006). "Obama receives hero's welcome at his family's ancestral village in Kenya". Voice of America. Archived from the original on March 21, 2008. http://web.archive.org/web/20080321161040/http://www.voanews.com/english/archive/2006-08/2006-08-27-voa17.cfm. Retrieved June 25, 2008.
- ^ a b Levenson, Michael; Saltzman, Jonathan (January 28, 2007). "At Harvard Law, a unifying voice". The Boston Globe: p. 1A. http://www.boston.com/news/local/articles/2007/01/28/at_harvard_law_a_unifying_voice/?page=full. Retrieved June 15, 2008.
- Kantor, Jodi (January 28, 2007). "In law school, Obama found political voice". The New York Times: p. A1. http://www.nytimes.com/2007/01/28/us/politics/28obama.html?pagewanted=all. Retrieved June 15, 2008.
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- Mendell (2007), pp. 80–92.
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- ^ Samuelsohn, Darren (October 9, 2009). "Obama Wins Nobel Prize in Part for Confronting 'Great Climatic Challenges'". The New York Times. Greenwire. http://www.nytimes.com/gwire/2009/10/09/09greenwire-obama-wins-nobel-prize-in-part-for-confronting-55250.html. Retrieved April 18, 2010.
- ^ "Keeping Hope Alive: Barack Obama Puts Family First". The Oprah Winfrey Show. October 18, 2006. http://www.oprah.com/slideshow/oprahshow/oprahshow1_ss_20061018/10. Retrieved June 24, 2008.
- ^ Fornek, Scott (September 9, 2007). "Half Siblings: 'A Complicated Family'". Chicago Sun-Times. Archived from the original on January 18, 2010. http://www.webcitation.org/5msGZ6sKn. Retrieved June 24, 2008. See also:"Interactive Family Tree". Chicago Sun-Times. September 9, 2007. Archived from the original on July 3, 2008. http://web.archive.org/web/20080703042659/http://www.suntimes.com/images/cds/special/family_tree.html. Retrieved June 24, 2008.
- ^ Fornek, Scott (September 9, 2007). "Madelyn Payne Dunham: 'A Trailblazer'". Chicago Sun-Times. Archived from the original on May 14, 2009. http://www.webcitation.org/5gm7oJqn9. Retrieved June 24, 2008.
- ^ "Obama's grandmother dies after battle with cancer". CNN. November 3, 2008. http://www.cnn.com/2008/POLITICS/11/03/obama.grandma/index.html. Retrieved November 4, 2008.
- ^ Smolenyak, Megan (May 9, 2011). "Tracing Barack Obama's Roots to Moneygall". The Huffington Post. http://www.huffingtonpost.com/megan-smolenyak-smolenyak/tracing-barack-obamas-roo_b_859151.html.
- ^ Obama (1995, 2004), p. 13. For reports on Obama's maternal genealogy, including slave owners, Irish connections, and common ancestors with George W. Bush, Dick Cheney, and Harry Truman, see:Nitkin, David; Harry Merritt (March 2, 2007). "A New Twist to an Intriguing Family History". Baltimore Sun. Archived from the original on September 30, 2007. http://web.archive.org/web/20070930033339/http://www.baltimoresun.com/news/nationworld/politics/bal-te.obama02mar02,0,3453027.story. Retrieved June 24, 2008. Jordan, Mary (May 13, 2007). "Tiny Irish Village Is Latest Place to Claim Obama as Its Own". The Washington Post. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/05/12/AR2007051201551.html. Retrieved June 24, 2008. "Obama's Family Tree Has a Few Surprises". CBS 2 (Chicago). Associated Press. September 8, 2007. Archived from the original on June 2, 2008. http://web.archive.org/web/20080602215833/http://cbs2chicago.com/topstories/Barack.Obama.family.2.339709.html. Retrieved June 24, 2008.
- ^ "When Barry Became Barack". Newsweek. March 31, 2008. http://www.newsweek.com/id/128633. Retrieved November 6, 2008.
- ^ Zimmer, Benjamin (2009). "Obama's Indonesian Redux". Language Log. http://languagelog.ldc.upenn.edu/nll/?p=1025. Retrieved March 12, 2009.
- ^ Kantor, Jodi (June 1, 2007). "One Place Where Obama Goes Elbow to Elbow". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2007/06/01/us/politics/01hoops.html. Retrieved April 28, 2008. See also: "The Love of the Game" (video). Real Sports with Bryant Gumbel (HBO). April 15, 2008. http://www.hbo.com/real-sports-with-bryant-gumbel/episodes#/real-sports-with-bryant-gumbel/episodes/0/133-april-15-2008/index.html. Retrieved October 12, 2011.
- ^ "Barack Obama: White Sox 'serious' ball". The Swamp. August 25, 2008. http://www.swamppolitics.com/news/politics/blog/2008/08/barack_obama_white_sox_serious.html. Retrieved December 6, 2009.
- ^ "Barack Obama Explains White Sox Jacket, Talks Nats in All-Star Booth Visit". MLB Fanhouse. July 14, 2009. http://mlb.fanhouse.com/2009/07/14/barack-obama-explains-white-sox-jacket-talks-nats-in-all-star-b/. Retrieved December 6, 2009.
- ^ Branigin, William (January 30, 2009). "Steelers Win Obama's Approval". The Washington Post. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/01/29/AR2009012903196.html. "But other than the Bears, the Steelers are probably the team that's closest to my heart."
- ^ "1985 Bears honored by President Obama". Chicagobears.com. 2011-10-07. http://www.chicagobears.com/news/NewsStory.asp?story_id=8232. Retrieved 2012-05-29.
- ^ Obama (2006), pp. 327–332. See also:Brown, Sarah (December 7, 2005). "Obama '85 masters balancing act". The Daily Princetonian. http://www.dailyprincetonian.com/2005/12/07/14049. Retrieved February 9, 2009.
- ^ Obama (2006), p. 329.
- ^ Fornek, Scott (October 3, 2007). "Michelle Obama: 'He Swept Me Off My Feet'". Chicago Sun-Times. Archived from the original on January 18, 2010. http://www.webcitation.org/5msGZDbMO. Retrieved April 28, 2008.
- ^ Martin, Jonathan (July 4, 2008). "Born on the 4th of July". Politico. http://www.politico.com/blogs/jonathanmartin/0708/Born_on_the_4th_of_July.html. Retrieved July 10, 2008.
- ^ Obama (1995, 2004), p. 440, and Obama (2006), pp. 339–340. See also:"Election 2008 Information Center: Barack Obama". Gannett News Service. http://www.gannettnewsservice.com/?cat=153. Retrieved April 28, 2008.
- ^ "Obamas choose private Sidwell Friends School", International Herald Tribune, November 22, 2008
- ^ Cooper, Helene (April 13, 2009). "One Obama Search Ends With a Puppy Named Bo". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2009/04/13/us/politics/13obama.html. Retrieved December 22, 2010.
- ^ Zeleny, Jeff (December 24, 2005). "The first time around: Sen. Obama's freshman year". Chicago Tribune. http://www.chicagotribune.com/news/local/chi-051224obama,0,1779783,full.story. Retrieved April 28, 2008.
- ^ Slevin, Peter (December 17, 2006). "Obama says he regrets land deal with fundraiser". The Washington Post. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/12/16/AR2006121600729.html. Retrieved June 10, 2008.
- Robinson, Mike (June 4, 2008). "Rezko found guilty in corruption case". Associated Press. MSNBC. http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/24973282/. Retrieved June 24, 2008.
- ^ Harris, Marlys (December 7, 2007). "Obama's Money". CNNMoney.com. http://money.cnn.com/galleries/2007/moneymag/0712/gallery.candidates.moneymag/5.html. Retrieved April 28, 2008.
See also:Goldfarb, Zachary A (March 24, 2007). "Measuring Wealth of the '08 Candidates". The Washington Post. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/03/24/AR2007032400305.html. Retrieved April 28, 2008. - ^ Zeleny, Jeff (April 17, 2008). "Book Sales Lifted Obamas' Income in 2007 to a Total of $4.2 Million". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2008/04/17/us/politics/17obama.html. Retrieved April 28, 2008.
- ^ Shear, Michael D.; Hilzenrath, David S. (April 16, 2010). "Obamas report $5.5 million in income on 2009 tax return". The Washington Post. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2010/04/15/AR2010041504485.html. Retrieved December 22, 2010.
- ^ Solman, Paul (April 18, 2011). "How Much Did President Obama Make in 2010?". PBS NewsHour. http://www.pbs.org/newshour/businessdesk/2011/04/how-much-did-president-obama-m.html. Retrieved January 27, 2012.
- ^ Solman, Paul (April 27, 2011). "The Obamas Gave $131,000 to Fisher House Foundation in 2010; What Is It?". PBS NewsHour. http://www.pbs.org/newshour/rundown/2011/04/the-obamas-gave-131000-to-the-fisher-house-foundation-last-year-what-is-it.html. Retrieved January 27, 2012.
- ^ Jackson, David (May 15, 2012). "Obama worth as much as $10 million". USA Today. Retrieved May 15, 2012.
- ^ Elsner, Alan (December 7, 2008). Obama says he won't be smoking in White House". Reuters. Retrieved February 28, 2010.
- ^ Zengerle, Patricia (February 8, 2011). "Yes, he did: first lady says Obama quit smoking". Reuters. Retrieved May 9, 2011.
- ^ Obama (2006), pp. 202–208. Portions excerpted in:Obama, Barack (October 16, 2006). "My Spiritual Journey". Time. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1546579,00.html. Retrieved April 28, 2008.
- Obama, Barack (June 28, 2006). "'Call to Renewal' Keynote Address". Barack Obama: U.S. Senator for Illinois. Archived from the original on January 4, 2009. http://web.archive.org/web/20090104231501/http://obama.senate.gov/speech/060628-call_to_renewal/. Retrieved June 16, 2008.
- ^ Christianity Today: "Q&A: Barack Obama" Interview by Sarah Pulliam and Ted Olsen, January 23, 2008
- ^ Obama 'Christian By Choice': President Responds To Questioner by Charles Babington and Darlene Superville, Associated Press, September 28, 2010
- ^ Video – President Obama: "I am a Christian By Choice" by ABC News, September 29, 2010.
- ^ Kantor, Jodi (April 30, 2007). "Barack Obama's search for faith". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2007/04/30/world/americas/30iht-30obama.5501905.html. Retrieved April 30, 2007.
- ^ "Obama's church choice likely to be scrutinized". Associated Press. MSNBC. November 17, 2008. Retrieved January 20, 2009.
- ^ Sullivan, Amy (June 29, 2009.) "The Obamas Find a Church Home—Away from Home". Time. Retrieved December 14, 2009.
References[link]
- Mendell, David (2007). Obama: From Promise to Power. New York: Amistad/HarperCollins. ISBN 0-06-085820-6.
- Obama, Barack (1995, 2004). Dreams from My Father: A Story of Race and Inheritance. New York: Three Rivers Press. ISBN 1-4000-8277-3.
- Obama, Barack (2006). The Audacity of Hope: Thoughts on Reclaiming the American Dream. New York: Crown Publishing Group. ISBN 0-307-23769-9.
Further reading[link]
- Graff, Garrett. "The Legend of Barack Obama", Washingtonian, November 1, 2006. Retrieved January 14, 2008.
- Koltun, Dave (2005) "The 2004 Illinois Senate Race: Obama Wins Open Seat and Becomes National Political "Star"" in "The Road to Congress 2004" Editors: Sunil Ahuja (Youngstown State University) and Robert Dewhirst (Truman State University), Nova Science Publishers, Hauppauge, New York, 2005, ISBN 1-59454-360-7
- Lizza, Ryan. "Above the Fray", GQ, September 2007. Retrieved October 27, 2010.
- MacFarquhar, Larissa. "The Conciliator: Where is Barack Obama Coming From?", New Yorker, May 7, 2007. Retrieved January 14, 2008.
- McClelland, Edward, Young Mr. Obama: Chicago and the Making of a Black President, Bloomsbury Press, 2010.
- Zutter, Hank De. "What Makes Obama Run?", Chicago Reader, December 8, 1995. Retrieved January 14, 2008.
External links[link]
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| Persondata | |
|---|---|
| Name | Obama, Barack |
| Alternative names | |
| Short description | American politician, 44th President of the United States |
| Date of birth | August 4, 1961 |
| Place of birth | Honolulu, Hawaii, United States |
| Date of death | |
| Place of death | |
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| Howard Zinn | |
|---|---|
 Zinn lecturing in at the Monona Terrace in Madison, Wisconsin: May 2, 2009 |
|
| Born | (1922-08-24)August 24, 1922 Brooklyn, New York, U.S. |
| Died | January 27, 2010(2010-01-27) (aged 87)[1] Santa Monica, California, U.S. |
| Alma mater | New York University (B.A.) Columbia University (M.A.) (Ph.D.) |
| Occupation | Historian |
| Spouse | Roslyn Zinn (died 2008)[1] |
Howard Zinn (August 24, 1922 – January 27, 2010) was an American historian, academic, author, playwright, and social activist. Before and during his tenure as a political science professor at Boston University from 1964-88 he wrote more than 20 books, which included his best-selling and influential A People's History of the United States.[2] He wrote extensively about the civil rights and anti-war movements, as well as of the labor history of the United States. His memoir, You Can't Be Neutral on a Moving Train, was also the title of a 2004 documentary about Zinn's life and work.[3]
Contents |
Life and career[link]
Early life[link]
Zinn was born to a Jewish immigrant family in Brooklyn. His father, Eddie Zinn, born in Austria-Hungary, emigrated to the U.S. with his brother Samuel before the outbreak of World War I. Howard's mother Jenny Zinn emigrated from the Eastern Siberian city of Irkutsk.
Both parents were factory workers with limited education when they met and married, and there were no books or magazines in the series of apartments where they raised their children. Zinn's parents introduced him to literature by sending 10 cents plus a coupon to the New York Post for each of the 20 volumes of Charles Dickens' collected works.[4] He also studied creative writing at Thomas Jefferson High School in a special program established by poet Elias Lieberman.[5]
World War II[link]
Eager to fight fascism, Zinn joined the Army Air Force during World War II and was assigned as a bombardier in the 490th Bombardment Group,[6] bombing targets in Berlin, Czechoslovakia, and Hungary.[7] A U.S. bombardier in April 1945, Zinn dropped napalm bombs on Royan, a seaside resort in southwestern France.[8] The anti-war stance Zinn developed later was informed, in part, by his experiences.
On a post-doctoral research mission nine years later, Zinn visited the resort near Bordeaux where he interviewed residents, reviewed municipal documents, and read wartime newspaper clippings at the local library. In 1966, Zinn returned to Royan after which he gave his fullest account of that research in his book, The Politics of History. On the ground, Zinn learned that the aerial bombing attacks in which he participated had killed more than 1000 French civilians as well as some German soldiers hiding near Royan to await the war's end, events that are described "in all accounts" he found as "une tragique erreur" that leveled a small but ancient city and "its population that was, at least officially, friend, not foe." In The Politics of History, Zinn described how the bombing was ordered — three weeks before the war in Europe ended — by military officials who were, in part, motivated more by the desire for their own career advancement than in legitimate military objectives. He quotes the official history of the U.S. Army Air Forces' brief reference to the Eighth Air Force attack on Royan and also, in the same chapter, to the bombing of Pilsen in what was then Czechoslovakia. The official history stated that the famous Skoda works in Pilsen "received 500 well-placed tons," and that "because of a warning sent out ahead of time the workers were able to escape, except for five persons."
Zinn wrote, "I recalled flying on that mission, too, as deputy lead bombardier, and that we did not aim specifically at the 'Skoda works' (which I would have noted, because it was the one target in Czechoslovakia I had read about) but dropped our bombs, without much precision, on the city of Pilsen. Two Czech citizens who lived in Pilsen at the time told me, recently, that several hundred people were killed in that raid (that is, Czechs) — not five."[9]
Zinn said his experience as a wartime bombardier, combined with his research into the reasons for, and effects of the bombing of Royan and Pilsen, sensitized him to the ethical dilemmas faced by G.I.s during wartime.[10] Zinn questioned the justifications for military operations that inflicted massive civilian casualties during the Allied bombing of cities such as Dresden, Royan, Tokyo, and Hiroshima and Nagasaki in World War II, Hanoi during the War in Vietnam, and Baghdad during the war in Iraq and the civilian casualties during bombings in Afghanistan during the current and nearly decade-old war there. In his pamphlet, Hiroshima: Breaking the Silence[11] written in 1995, he laid out the case against targeting civilians with aerial bombing.
Six years later, he wrote: "Recall that in the midst of the Gulf War, the U.S. military bombed an air raid shelter, killing 400 to 500 men, women, and children who were huddled to escape bombs. The claim was that it was a military target, housing a communications center, but reporters going through the ruins immediately afterward said there was no sign of anything like that. I suggest that the history of bombing — and no one has bombed more than this nation — is a history of endless atrocities, all calmly explained by deceptive and deadly language like 'accident', 'military target', and 'collateral damage'".[12]
Education[link]
After World War II, Zinn attended New York University on the GI Bill, graduating with a B.A. in 1951. At Columbia University, he later earned an M.A. (1952) and a Ph.D. in history with a minor in political science (1958). His masters' thesis examined the Colorado coal strikes of 1914.[13] His doctoral dissertation LaGuardia in Congress was a study of Fiorello LaGuardia's congressional career, and it depicted LaGuardia representing "the conscience of the twenties" as LaGuardia fought for public power, the right to strike, and the redistribution of wealth by taxation.[citation needed] "His specific legislative program," Zinn wrote, "was an astonishingly accurate preview of the New Deal." It was published by the Cornell University Press for the American Historical Association. La Guardia in Congress was nominated for the American Historical Association's Beveridge Prize as the best English-language book on American history.[14]
While at Columbia, his professors included Harry Carman, Henry Steele Commager, and David Donald.[13] But it was Columbia historian Richard Hofstadter's The American Political Tradition that made the most lasting impression. Zinn regularly included it in his lists of recommended readings, and after Barack Obama was elected President of the United States, Zinn wrote, "If Richard Hofstadter were adding to his book The American Political Tradition, in which he found both 'conservative' and 'liberal' presidents, both Democrats and Republicans, maintaining for dear life the two critical characteristics of the American system, nationalism and capitalism, Obama would fit the pattern."[15]
In 1960–61, Zinn was a post-doctoral fellow in East Asian Studies at Harvard University.
Academic career[link]
"We were not born critical of existing society. There was a moment in our lives (or a month, or a year) when certain facts appeared before us, startled us, and then caused us to question beliefs that were strongly fixed in our consciousness-embedded there by years of family prejudices, orthodox schooling, imbibing of newspapers, radio, and television. This would seem to lead to a simple conclusion: that we all have an enormous responsibility to bring to the attention of others information they do not have, which has the potential of causing them to rethink long-held ideas."
— Howard Zinn, 2005 [16]
Zinn was professor of history at Spelman College in Atlanta from 1956 to 1963, and visiting professor at both the University of Paris and University of Bologna.
In 1964, Zinn accepted a position at Boston University, after writing two books and participating in the Civil Rights movement in the South. His classes in civil liberties were among the most popular at the university with as many as 400 students subscribing each semester to the non-required class. A professor of political science, he taught at BU for 24 years and retired in 1988 at age 64.
"He had a deep sense of fairness and justice for the underdog. But he always kept his sense of humor. He was a happy warrior," said Caryl Rivers, journalism professor at Boston University. Rivers and Zinn were among a group of faculty members who in 1979 defended the right of the school's clerical workers to strike and were threatened with dismissal after refusing to cross a picket line.[17]
Zinn came to believe that the point of view expressed in traditional history books was often limited. He wrote a history textbook, A People's History of the United States, to provide other perspectives on American history. The textbook depicts the struggles of Native Americans against European and U.S. conquest and expansion, slaves against slavery, unionists and other workers against capitalists, women against patriarchy, and African-Americans for civil rights. The book was a finalist for the National Book Award in 1981.[18]
In the years since the first edition of A People's History was published in 1980, it has been used as an alternative to standard textbooks in many high school and college history courses, and it is one of the most widely known examples of critical pedagogy. The New York Times Book Review stated in 2006 that the book "routinely sells more than 100,000 copies a year".[19]
In 2004, Zinn published Voices of A People's History of the United States with Anthony Arnove. Voices is a sourcebook of speeches, articles, essays, poetry and song lyrics by the people themselves whose stories are told in A People's History.
In 2008, the Zinn Education Project was launched to support educators using A People's History of the United States as a source for middle and high school history. The Project was started when a former student of Zinn, who wanted to bring Zinn's lessons to students around the country, provided the financial backing to allow two other organizations to coordinate the Project. The Project hosts a website that has over 85 free downloadable lesson plans to complement A People's History of the United States.
The People Speak, released in 2010, is a documentary movie inspired by the lives of ordinary people who fought back against oppressive conditions over the course of the history of the United States. The film includes performances by Zinn, Matt Damon, Morgan Freeman, Bob Dylan, Bruce Springsteen, Eddie Vedder, Viggo Mortensen, Josh Brolin, Danny Glover, Marisa Tomei, Don Cheadle, and Sandra Oh.[20][21][22]
Civil Rights movement[link]
From 1956 through 1963, Zinn chaired the Department of History and social sciences at Spelman College. He participated in the Civil Rights movement and lobbied with historian August Meier[23] "to end the practice of the Southern Historical Association of holding meetings at segregated hotels".[24]
While at Spelman, Zinn served as an adviser to the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) and wrote about sit-ins and other actions by SNCC for The Nation and Harper's.[25] In 1964, Beacon Press published his book SNCC: The New Abolitionists[26]
Zinn collaborated with historian Staughton Lynd mentoring student activists, among them Alice Walker,[27] who would later write The Color Purple; and Marian Wright Edelman, founder and president of the Children’s Defense Fund. Edelman identified Zinn as a major influence in her life and, in that same journal article, tells of his accompanying students to a sit-in at the segregated white section of the Georgia state legislature.[28]
Although Zinn was a tenured professor, he was dismissed in June 1963 after siding with students in the struggle against segregation. As Zinn described[29] in The Nation, though Spelman administrators prided themselves for turning out refined "young ladies," its students were likely to be found on the picket line, or in jail for participating in the greater effort to break down segregation in public places in Atlanta. Zinn's years at Spelman are recounted in his autobiography You Can't Be Neutral on a Moving Train: A Personal History of Our Times. His seven years at Spelman College, Zinn said, "are probably the most interesting, exciting, most educational years for me. I learned more from my students than my students learned from me."[30]
While living in Georgia, Zinn wrote that he observed 30 violations of the First and Fourteenth amendments to the United States Constitution in Albany, Georgia, including the rights to freedom of speech, freedom of assembly and equal protection under the law. In an article on the civil rights movement in Albany, Zinn described the people who participated in the Freedom Rides to end segregation, and the reluctance of President John F. Kennedy to enforce the law.[31] Zinn has also pointed out that the Justice Department under Robert F. Kennedy and the Federal Bureau of Investigation, headed by J. Edgar Hoover, did little or nothing to stop the segregationists from brutalizing civil rights workers.[32]
Zinn wrote about the struggle for civil rights, as both participant and historian.[33] His second book, The Southern Mystique[34] was published in 1964, the same year as his SNCC: The New Abolitionists in which he describes how the sit-ins against segregation were initiated by students and, in that sense, were independent of the efforts of the older, more established civil rights organizations.
In 2005, forty-one years after his firing, Zinn returned to Spelman where he was given an honorary Doctor of Humane Letters and delivered the commencement address[35][36] where he said in part, during his speech titled, "Against Discouragement," that "the lesson of that history is that you must not despair, that if you are right, and you persist, things will change. The government may try to deceive the people, and the newspapers and television may do the same, but the truth has a way of coming out. The truth has a power greater than a hundred lies."[37]
Anti-war efforts[link]
Zinn wrote one of the earliest books calling for the U.S. withdrawal from its war in Vietnam. Vietnam: The Logic of Withdrawal was published by Beacon Press in 1967 based on his articles in Commonweal, The Nation, and Ramparts.
In Noam Chomsky's view, The Logic of Withdrawal was Zinn's most important book. "He was the first person to say—loudly, publicly, very persuasively—that this simply has to stop; we should get out, period, no conditions; we have no right to be there; it's an act of aggression; pull out. It was so surprising at the time that there wasn't even a review of the book. In fact, he asked me if I would review it in Ramparts just so that people would know about the book."[38]
In December 1969, radical historians tried unsuccessfully to persuade the American Historical Association to pass an anti-Vietnam War resolution. "A debacle unfolded as Harvard historian (and AHA president in 1968) John Fairbank literally wrestled the microphone from Zinn's hands."[39] Correspondence by Fairbank, Zinn and other historians, published by the AHA in 1970, is online in what Fairbank called "our briefly-famous Struggle for the Mike".[40]
In later years, Zinn was an adviser to the Disarm Education Fund.[41]
Vietnam[link]
Zinn's diplomatic visit to Hanoi with Rev. Daniel Berrigan, during the Tet Offensive in January 1968, resulted in the return of three American airmen, the first American POWs released by the North Vietnamese since the U.S. bombing of that nation had begun. The event was widely reported in the news media and discussed in a variety of books including Who Spoke Up? American Protest Against the War in Vietnam 1963–1975 by Nancy Zaroulis and Gerald Sullivan.[42] Zinn and the Berrigan brothers, Dan and Philip, remained friends and allies over the years.
Also in January 1968, he signed the “Writers and Editors War Tax Protest” pledge, vowing to refuse tax payments in protest against the war.[43]
Daniel Ellsberg, a former RAND consultant who had secretly copied The Pentagon Papers, which described the internal planning and policy decisions of the United States government during the Vietnam War, gave a copy of them to Howard and Roslyn Zinn.[44] Along with Noam Chomsky, Zinn edited and annotated the copy of The Pentagon Papers that Ellsberg entrusted to him. Zinn's longtime publisher, Beacon Press, published what has come to be known as the Senator Mike Gravel edition of The Pentagon Papers, four volumes plus a fifth volume with analysis by Chomsky and Zinn.
At Ellsberg's criminal trial for theft, conspiracy, and espionage in connection with the publication of the Pentagon Papers by The New York Times, defense attorneys called Zinn as an expert witness to explain to the jury the history of U.S. involvement in Vietnam from World War II to 1963. Zinn discussed that history for several hours, later reflecting on his time before the jury. "I explained there was nothing in the papers of military significance that could be used to harm the defense of the United States, that the information in them was simply embarrassing to our government because what was revealed, in the government's own interoffice memos, was how it had lied to the American public. The secrets disclosed in the Pentagon Papers might embarrass politicians, might hurt the profits of corporations wanting tin, rubber, oil, in far-off places. But this was not the same as hurting the nation, the people," Zinn wrote in his autobiography. Most of the jurors later said that they voted for acquittal. [p. 161] However, the federal judge dismissed the case on the ground that it had been tainted by the Nixon administration's burglary of the office of Ellsberg's psychiatrist.
Zinn's testimony as to the motivation for government secrecy was confirmed in 1989 by Erwin Griswold, who as U.S. solicitor general during the Nixon administration, prosecuted The New York Times in the Pentagon Papers case in 1971.[45] Griswold persuaded three Supreme Court justices to vote to stop The New York Times from continuing to publish the Pentagon Papers, an order known as "prior restraint" that has been held to be illegal under the First Amendment to the U.S. Constitution. The papers were simultaneously published in The Washington Post, effectively nulling the effect of the prior restraint order. In 1989, Griswold admitted that there was no national security damage resulting from the publication of the papers.[45] In a column in the Washington Post, Griswold wrote: "It quickly becomes apparent to any person who has considerable experience with classified material that there is massive over classification and that the principal concern of the classifiers is not with national security, but with governmental embarrassment of one sort or another."
Zinn supported the G.I. antiwar movement during the U.S. war in Vietnam. In the 2001 film Unfinished Symphony, Zinn provides a historical context for the 1971 antiwar march by Vietnam Veterans against the War. The marchers traveled from Lexington, Massachusetts, to Bunker Hill, "which retraced Paul Revere's ride of 1775 and ended in the massive arrest of 410 veterans and civilians by the Lexington police." The film depicts "scenes from the 1971 Winter Soldier hearings,[46] during which former G.I.s testified, with little to no actual evidence, about "atrocities" they either participated in or said they had witnessed committed by U.S. forces in Vietnam.[47]
Iraq[link]
Zinn opposed the invasion and occupation of Iraq and wrote several books about it. He asserted that the U.S. would end Gulf War II when resistance within the military increased in the same way resistance within the military contributed to ending the U.S. war in Vietnam. The war eventually ended in December 2011, however, it was the immense depletion of insurgent attacks and sectarian violence that led to the end of American occupation. Zinn compared the demand by a growing number of contemporary U.S. military families to end the war in Iraq to parallel demands "in the Confederacy in the Civil War, when the wives of soldiers rioted because their husbands were dying and the plantation owners were profiting from the sale of cotton, refusing to grow grains for civilians to eat."[48] Zinn argued that "There is no flag large enough to cover the shame of killing innocent people for a purpose which is unattainable".[49]
Jean-Christophe Agnew, Professor of History and American Studies at Yale University, told the Yale Daily News in May 2007 that Zinn’s historical work is "highly influential and widely used".[50] He observed that it is not unusual for prominent professors such as Zinn to weigh in on current events, citing a resolution opposing the war in Iraq that was recently ratified by the American Historical Association.[51] Agnew added: "In these moments of crisis, when the country is split—so historians are split".[52]
Socialism[link]
Zinn described himself as "something of an anarchist, something of a socialist. Maybe a democratic socialist",[53] He suggested looking at socialism in its full historical context as a popular, positive idea that got a bad name from its association with Soviet Communism. In Madison, Wisconsin, in 2009, Zinn said:
Let's talk about socialism. I think it's very important to bring back the idea of socialism into the national discussion to where it was at the turn of the [last] century before the Soviet Union gave it a bad name. Socialism had a good name in this country. Socialism had Eugene Debs. It had Clarence Darrow. It had Mother Jones. It had Emma Goldman. It had several million people reading socialist newspapers around the country. Socialism basically said, hey, let's have a kinder, gentler society. Let's share things. Let's have an economic system that produces things not because they're profitable for some corporation, but produces things that people need. People should not be retreating from the word socialism because you have to go beyond capitalism.[54]
FBI files[link]
Due to a Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) request, on July 30, 2010, the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) released a file with 423 pages of information on Howard Zinn’s life and activities. During the height of McCarthyism in 1949, the FBI first opened a domestic security investigation on Zinn (FBI File # 100-360217), based on Zinn’s activities in what the agency considered to be communist front groups and informant reports that Zinn was an active member of the Communist Party of the United States (CPUSA).[55] Zinn denied ever being a member and said that he had participated in the activities of various organizations which might be considered Communist fronts but that his participation was motivated by his belief that in this country people had the right to believe, think, and act according to their own ideals.[55]
Later in the 1960s, as a result of Zinn’s campaigning against the Vietnam War and his influence on Martin Luther King, the FBI designated Zinn a high security risk to the country, a category that allowed them to summarily arrest him if a state of emergency were to be declared.[55][56] The FBI memos also show that they were concerned with Zinn’s repeated criticism of the FBI for failing to protect blacks against white mob violence. Zinn's daughter said she was not surprised by the files; "He always knew they had a file on him".[55]
Death[link]
Zinn was swimming in a hotel pool when he died of an apparent heart attack[57] in Santa Monica, California, on January 27, 2010. He had been scheduled to speak at the Santa Monica Museum of Art for an event titled "A Collection of Ideas... the People Speak."[58]
In one of his last interviews[59] he said he'd like to be remembered "for introducing a different way of thinking about the world, about war, about human rights, about equality," and "for getting more people to realize that the power which rests so far in the hands of people with wealth and guns, that the power ultimately rests in people themselves and that they can use it. At certain points in history, they have used it. Black people in the South used it. People in the women's movement used it. People in the anti-war movement used it. People in other countries who have overthrown tyrannies have used it."
He said he wanted to be known as "somebody who gave people a feeling of hope and power that they didn't have before."[60]
Notable recognition[link]
- 2008 Howard Zinn was selected as a special senior advisor to Miguel d'Escoto Brockmann, the President of the United Nations General Assembly 63rd session.
- Established by school teachers while he was alive, the Zinn Education Project is Howard Zinn's legacy to middle- and high-school teachers and their students. The nonprofit organization offers classroom teachers free and low-cost teaching activities based on A People's History and like-minded history texts.
Awards[link]
"I can't think of anyone who had such a powerful and benign influence. His historical work changed the way millions of people saw the past. The happy thing about Howard was that in the last years he could gain satisfaction that his contributions were so impressive and recognized."
For his leadership in the Peace Movement, Zinn received the Peace Abbey Courage of Conscience Award in 1996. He received the Thomas Merton Award and, in 1998, the Eugene V. Debs Award.[61] In 1998, he won the Lannan Literary Award[62] for nonfiction and the following year won the Upton Sinclair Award, which honors social activism. In 2003, Zinn was awarded the Prix des Amis du Monde diplomatique[63] for the French version of his seminal work, Une histoire populaire des Etats-Unis.
On October 5, 2006, Zinn received the Haven's Center Award for Lifetime Contribution to Critical Scholarship in Madison, Wisconsin.[64]
References in popular culture[link]
- An interview with Zinn is featured in the documentary film Sacco and Vanzetti (2007).
- The Pearl Jam song "Down" from the album Lost Dogs was inspired by the band's friendship with Zinn.[citation needed] In the March 13, 2010, episode of Saturday Night Live, lead singer Eddie Vedder's guitar sports a sticker reading "ZINN". The band dedicated a performance of their song "Undone" as a tribute to Zinn during their 5/17/10 concert at TD Garden in Boston, MA. A tribute to Howard Zinn's wife, Roslyn, was prominently featured in the tour program for Eddie Vedder's solo tour of 2008.
- Actors Matt Damon and Ben Affleck, who grew up near Zinn and were family friends, gave A People's History a plug in their Academy Award-winning screenplay for Good Will Hunting.[3]
- Musician Bruce Springsteen's bleak album Nebraska was inspired in part by A People's History.[3]
- A People's History was the basis for the 2007 documentary Profit Motive and the Whispering Wind."[3]
- In 2002 punkrock record label Alternative Tentacles, released Apocalypse Always!, a compilation CD featuring many punk rock bands as well as a spoken word track by Howard Zinn.
- In the System Of A Down song "Deer Dance", about police brutality against peaceful protest, Zinn is paraphrased in the line "We can't afford to be neutral on a moving train" and in their song "AD.D" from their album "Steal This Album!": "There is no flag large enough, to hide the shame of a man in cuffs."
- Viggo Mortensen and Buckethead used snippets of one of Zinn's speeches in the song "What Kind of Nation" from their album Intelligence Failure.[65][66][67]
- The 2010 Spanish film También la lluvia (Even the Rain), depicting the struggle of the indigenous people of Bolivia against the privatization of their water supply, is dedicated to his memory.
- Lupe Fiasco samples part of Howard Zinn's speech "War and Social Justice" on the Introduction track of his mixtape "Friend of the People: I Fight Evil"
- The song Franco Un-American off the 2003 album The War on Errorism by American punk rock band NOFX references lead singer Fat Mike reading Howard Zinn as part of learning more about the world.[68]
Bibliography[link]
Author[link]
- LaGuardia in Congress (1959) ISBN 0-8371-6434-6, ISBN 0-393-00488-0.
- The Southern Mystique (1962) ISBN 0-89608-680-1.
- SNCC: The New Abolitionists (1964) ISBN 0-89608-679-8.
- New Deal Thought (editor) (1965) ISBN 0-87220-685-8.
- Vietnam: The Logic of Withdrawal (1967) ISBN 0-89608-681-X.
- Disobedience and Democracy: Nine Fallacies on Law and Order (1968, re-issued 2002) ISBN 0-89608-675-5.
- The Politics of History (1970) (2nd edition 1990) ISBN 0-252-06122-5.
- The Pentagon Papers Senator Gravel Edition. Vol. Five. Critical Essays. Boston. Beacon Press, 1972. 341p. plus 72p. of Index to Vol. I–IV of the Papers, Noam Chomsky, Howard Zinn, editors.
- Postwar America: 1945–1971 (1973) ISBN 0-89608-678-X.
- Justice in Everyday Life: The Way It Really Works (Editor) (1974) ISBN 0-89608-677-1.
- Justice? Eyewitness Accounts (1977) ISBN 0-8070-4479-2.
- A People's History of the United States: 1492 – Present (1980), revised (1995)(1998)(1999)(2003)(2004)(2005)(2010) ISBN 0-06-052837-0.
- Playbook by Maxine Klein, Lydia Sargent and Howard Zinn (1986) ISBN 0-89608-309-8.
- Declarations of Independence: Cross-Examining American Ideology (1991) ISBN 0-06-092108-0.[69]
- A People's History of the United States: The Civil War to the Present Kathy Emery and Ellen Reeves, Howard Zinn (2003 teaching edition) ISBN 1-56584-725-3.
- Failure to Quit: Reflections of an Optimistic Historian (1993) ISBN 0-89608-676-3.
- You Can't Be Neutral on a Moving Train: A Personal History of Our Times (1994) ISBN 0-8070-7127-7
- A People's History of the United States: The Wall Charts by Howard Zinn and George Kirschner (1995) ISBN 1-56584-171-9.
- Hiroshima: Breaking the Silence (pamphlet, 1995) ISBN 1-884519-14-8.
- The Zinn Reader: Writings on Disobedience and Democracy (1997) ISBN 1-888363-54-1; 2nd edition (2009) ISBN 978-1-58322-870-8.
- The Cold War & the University: Toward an Intellectual History of the Postwar Years (Noam Chomsky (Editor) Authors: Ira Katznelson, R. C. Lewontin, David Montgomery, Laura Nader, Richard Ohmann,[70] Ray Siever, Immanuel Wallerstein, Howard Zinn (1997) ISBN 1-56584-005-4.
- Marx in Soho: A Play on History (1999) ISBN 0-89608-593-7.
- The Future of History: Interviews With David Barsamian (1999) ISBN 1-56751-157-0.
- Howard Zinn on War (2000) ISBN 1-58322-049-6.
- Howard Zinn on History (2000) ISBN 1-58322-048-8.
- La Otra Historia De Los Estados Unidos (2000) ISBN 1-58322-054-2.
- Three Strikes: Miners, Musicians, Salesgirls, and the Fighting Spirit of Labor's Last Century (Dana Frank, Robin Kelley, and Howard Zinn) (2002) ISBN 0-8070-5013-X.
- Terrorism and War (2002) ISBN 1-58322-493-9 (interviews, Anthony Arnove (Ed.))
- The Power of Nonviolence: Writings by Advocates of Peace Editor (2002) ISBN 0-8070-1407-9.
- Emma: A Play in Two Acts About Emma Goldman, American Anarchist (2002) ISBN 0-89608-664-X.
- Artists in Times of War (2003) ISBN 1-58322-602-8.
- The 20th century: A People's History (2003) ISBN 0-06-053034-0.
- A People's History of the United States: Teaching Edition Abridged (2003 updated) ISBN 1-56584-826-8.
- Passionate Declarations: Essays on War and Justice (2003) ISBN 0-06-055767-2.
- Howard Zinn On Democratic Education Donaldo Macedo, Editor (2004) ISBN 1-59451-054-7.
- The People Speak: American Voices, Some Famous, Some Little Known (2004) ISBN 0-06-057826-2.
- Voices of a People’s History of the United States (with Anthony Arnove, 2004) ISBN 1-58322-647-8; 2nd edition (2009) ISBN 978-1-58322-916-3.
- A People's History of the Civil War: Struggles for the Meaning of Freedom by David Williams, Howard Zinn (Series Editor) (2005) ISBN 1-59558-018-2.
- A Power Governments Cannot Suppress (2006) ISBN 978-0-87286-475-7.
- Original Zinn: Conversations on History and Politics (2006) Howard Zinn and David Barsamian.
- A People's History of American Empire (2008) by Howard Zinn, Mike Konopacki and Paul Buhle. ISBN 978-0-8050-8744-4.
- A Young People's History of the United States, adapted from the original text by Rebecca Stefoff; illustrated and updated through 2006, with new introduction and afterword by Howard Zinn; two volumes, Seven Stories Press, New York, 2007.
- Vol. 1: Columbus to the Spanish-American War. ISBN 978-1-58322-759-6.
- Vol. 2: Class Struggle to the War on Terror. ISBN 978-1-58322-760-2.
- One-volume edition (2009) ISBN 978-1-58322-869-2.
- The Bomb (City Lights Publishers, 2010) ISBN 978-0-87286-509-9
- The Historic Unfulfilled Promise (City Lights Publishers, 2012) ISBN 978-0-87286-555-6
Contributor[link]
- Ars Americana Ars Politica: Partisan Expression in Contemporary American Literature and Culture. by Peter Swirski (2010) ISBN 978-0-7735-3766-8
- Admirable Radical: Staughton Lynd and Cold War Dissent, 1945–1970 (2010), Kent State University Press by Carl Mirra ISBN 978-1-60635-051-5
- A Gigantic Mistake by Mickey Z, (2004) ISBN 1-930997-97-3.
- A People's History of the Supreme Court by Peter H. Irons (2000) ISBN 0-14-029201-2.
- A Political Dynasty In North Idaho, 1933–1967 by Randall Doyle (2004) ISBN 0-7618-2843-5.
- American Political Prisoners: Prosecutions Under the Espionage and Sedition Acts by Stephen M. Kohn (1994) ISBN 0-275-94415-8.
- American Power and the New Mandarins by Noam Chomsky (2002) ISBN 1-56584-775-X.
- Broken Promises Of America: At Home And Abroad, Past And Present: An Encyclopedia For Our Times by (Douglas F. Dowd (2004) ISBN 1-56751-313-1.
- Deserter From Death: Dispatches From Western Europe 1950-2000 by Daniel Singer (2005) ISBN 1-56025-642-7.
- Ecocide of Native America: Environmental Destruction of Indian Lands and Peoples by Donald Grinde, Bruce Johansen (1994) ISBN 0-940666-52-9.
- Eugene V. Debs Reader: Socialism and the Class Struggle by William A. Pelz (2000) ISBN 0-9704669-0-0.
- From a Native Son: Selected Essays in Indigenism, 1985–1995 by Ward Churchill (1996) ISBN 0-89608-553-8.
- Green Parrots: A War Surgeon's Diary by Gino Strada, (2005) ISBN 88-8158-420-4.
- Hijacking Catastrophe: 9/11, Fear And The Selling Of American Empire by Sut Jhally editor, Jeremy Earp editor, (2004) ISBN 1-56656-581-2.
- If You're Not a Terrorist…Then Stop Asking Questions! by Micah Ian Wright, (2004) ISBN 1-58322-626-5.
- Iraq: The Logic of Withdrawal by Anthony Arnove, (2006) ISBN 978-1-59558-079-5.
- Impeach the President: The Case Against Bush and Cheney Dennis Loo (Editor), Peter Phillips (Editor) Seven Stories Press: 2006) ISBN 1-58322-743-1.
- Life of an Anarchist: The Alexander Berkman Reader by Alexander Berkman Gene Fellner, editor, (2004) ISBN 1-58322-662-1.
- Long Shadows: Veterans' Paths to Peace by David Giffey editor, (2006) ISBN 1-891859-64-9.
- Masters of War: Latin America and United States Aggression from the Cuban Revolution Through the Clinton Years by Clara Nieto, Chris Brandt (trans) (2003) ISBN 1-58322-545-5.
- Peace Signs: The Anti-War Movement Illustrated by James Mann, editor (2004) ISBN 3-283-00487-0.
- Prayer for the Morning Headlines: On the Sanctity of Life and Death by Daniel Berrigan (poetry) and Adrianna Amari (photography), (2007) ISBN 978-1-934074-16-9.
- Silencing Political Dissent: How Post-9-11 Anti-terrorism Measures Threaten Our Civil Liberties by Nancy Chang, Center for Constitutional Rights (2002) ISBN 1-58322-494-7.
- Soldiers In Revolt: GI Resistance During The Vietnam War by David Cortright, (2005) ISBN 1-931859-27-2.
- Sold to the Highest Bidder: The Presidency from Dwight D. Eisenhower to George W. Bush by Daniel M. Friedenberg (2002) ISBN 1-57392-923-9.
- The Autobiography of Abbie Hoffman Intro by Norman Mailer, Afterword by HZ (2000) ISBN 1-56858-197-1.
- The Case for Socialism by Alan Maass, (2004) ISBN 1-931859-09-4.
- The Forging of the American Empire: From the Revolution to Vietnam, a History of U.S. Imperialism by Sidney Lens (2003) ISBN 0-7453-2101-1.
- The Higher Law: Thoreau on Civil Disobedience and Reform by Henry David Thoreau, Wendell Glick, editor, (2004) ISBN 0-691-11876-0.
- The Iron Heel by Jack London, (1971) ISBN 0-14-303971-7.
- The Sixties Experience: Hard Lessons about Modern America by Edward P. Morgan, (1992) ISBN 1-56639-014-1.
- You Back the Attack, We'll Bomb Who We Want by Micah Ian Wright, (2003) ISBN 1-58322-584-6.
- A People's History of the American Revolution by Ray Raphael, (2002) ISBN 0-06-000440-1 Howard Zinn Foreword for New Press People's History Series.
Recordings[link]
- A People's History of the United States (1999)
- Artists in the Time of War (2002)
- Heroes & Martyrs: Emma Goldman, Sacco & Vanzetti, and the Revolutionary Struggle (2000)
- Stories Hollywood Never Tells (2000)
- You Can't Blow Up A Social Relationship, CD including Zinn lectures and performances by rock band Resident genius (Thick Records, 2005)[71]
Theatre[link]
- Emma (1976)
- Daughter of Venus (1985)
- Marx in Soho (1999)
Biographies[link]
- Ellis, Deb and Mueller, Denis. Howard Zinn: You Can't Be Neutral on a Moving Train. (film 2004)[72]
- Joyce, Davis D. Howard Zinn: A Radical American Vision. (Prometheus Books, 2003), ISBN 1-59102-131-6
- Gagliano, Giuseppe. L'intellettuale in rivolta. L'antagonismo politico attraverso le riflessioni di Zinn, Buber, Chomsky. (Editrice Uniservice, 2010), ISBN 978-88-6178-652-3
See also[link]
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References[link]
- ^ a b Feeney, Mark (27 January 2010). "Howard Zinn, historian who challenged status quo, dies at 87". USA: Boston.com. http://www.boston.com/news/local/breaking_news/2010/01/howard_zinn_his.html. Retrieved 2010-01-27.
- ^ Howard Zinn, Historian, Is Dead at 87, January 28, 2010.
- ^ a b c d e Howard Zinn Dead, Author Of 'People's History Of The United States' Died At 87 by Hillel Italie, The Huffington Post, January 27, 2010.
- ^ Howard Zinn – One Step Ahead of the Landlord.
- ^ Appel, Jacob M. Chronicling Lives From Spelman College to B.U. Education Update, April 2004.
- ^ The Politics of History 2nd ed. by Howard Zinn (University of Illinois Press, 1990) pp. 258–274) ISBN 0-252-01673-4.
- ^ "Film clip of Zinn". http://www.youtube.com/v/Ehc3V1g5pm0&rel=1&border=0. Retrieved 2010-01-28.
- ^ Zinn, Howard (1990). Declarations of Independence. New York, NY: HarperPerennial. ISBN 0-06-092108-0.
- ^ The Politics of History p. 260.
- ^ "Interview with Zinn". Progressive.org. http://progressive.org/mag_zinn0106. Retrieved 2010-01-28.
- ^ Zinn Hiroshima: Breaking the Silence by Howard Zinn.
- ^ Zinn, Howard. ""A Just Cause, Not a Just War" ''The Progressive'' December 2001". Commondreams.org. http://www.commondreams.org/view/2010/01/28-7. Retrieved 2012-03-05.
- ^ a b Appel, JM. Howard Zinn: Chronicling Lives from Spelman College to Boston U., April 2004.
- ^ January 29, 2010 "Howard Zinn, Historian, Is Dead at 87".
- ^ "What next for struggle in the Obama era?" The Socialist Worker November 5, 2008, Issue 684.
- ^ Changing Minds, One at a Time by Howard Zinn, Published in the March 2005 issue of The Progressive.
- ^ Activist, historian Howard Zinn dies at 87 by Ros Krasny at Reuters January 28, 2010. Retrieved 2010-03-09.
- ^ The National Book Awards Winners & Finalists. Retrieved 2010-03-09.
- ^ "Backlist to the Future" by Rachel Donadio, July 30, 2006.
- ^ "People's history moves small screen". Bu.edu. 2009-11-04. http://www.bu.edu/today/2009/11/03/people-s-history-moves-small-screen. Retrieved 2010-01-28.
- ^ "Howardzinn.org". howardzinn.org. http://howardzinn.org/default/index.php?option=content&task=view&id=103&Itemid=55. Retrieved 2010-01-28.
- ^ "History channel". History.com. http://www.history.com/content/people-speak. Retrieved 2010-01-28.
- ^ "Biography of August Meier". Oah.org. http://www.oah.org/pubs/nl/2003may/meier.html. Retrieved 2010-01-28.
- ^ Organization of American Historians. Obituary of August Meier, May 2003 by John Bracey University of Massachusetts Amherst, Amherst, OAH.org.
- ^ Carol Polsgrove, Divided Minds: Intellectuals and the Civil Rights Movement (2001), pp. 115, 196; "In Memory: Howard Zinn and the Civil Rights Movement," Carol Polsgrove on Writers' Lives, [1]
- ^ Carol Polsgrove, Divided Minds, p. 238.
- ^ Alice Walker remembers Howard Zinn. January 31, 2010 in the Boston Globe.
- ^ Edelman, Marian Wright. "Spelman College: A Safe Haven for A Young Black Woman." The Journal of Blacks in Higher Education, no. 27 (2000): 118–123.
- ^ "Finishing School for Pickets" By Howard Zinn in The Nation August 6, 1960.
- ^ "Interview with Zinn". Globetrotter.berkeley.edu. http://globetrotter.berkeley.edu/people/Zinn/zinn-con2.html. Retrieved 2010-01-28.
- ^ Zmag.org[dead link]
- ^ "Media Filter article on Zinn". Mediafilter.org. http://mediafilter.org/mff/fbi.html. Retrieved 2010-01-28.
- ^ "Reporting Civil Rights, Part one: American Journalism 1941–1963". The Library of America. http://www.reportingcivilrights.org/authors/biblio.jsp?authorId=85. Retrieved 2010-01-28.
- ^ "Intervew with Zinn". Identitytheory.com. http://www.identitytheory.com/people/birnbaum10.html. Retrieved 2010-01-28.
- ^ "Exodus News article on Zinn". Atlanta Inquirer (Georgia) via Exodusnews.com. 2005-05-11. http://www.exodusnews.com/education/education051.htm. Retrieved 2010-01-28.
- ^ Brittain, Victoria (28 January 2010). "Howard Zinn's Lesson To Us All". The Guardian. http://www.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/2010/jan/28/howard-zinn-america.
- ^ "Tomgram: Graduation Day with Howard Zinn". Tomdispatch.com. http://www.tomdispatch.com/post/2728/graduation_day_with_howard_zinn. Retrieved 2010-01-28. full text of "Against Discouragement."
- ^ Howard Zinn (1922–2010): A Tribute to the Legendary Historian with Noam Chomsky, Alice Walker, Naomi Klein and Anthony Arnove.
- ^ "Forty Years On: Looking Back at the 1969 Annual Meeting" by Carl Mirra February 2010 issue of Perspectives on History published by the American Historical Association.
- ^ From the June 1970 AHA Newsletter "Professional Comment and Controversy: An Open Letter to Howard Zinn".
- ^ Disarm National Advisory Board. Retrieved 2010-03-09.
- ^ Who Spoke Up? American Protest Against the War in Vietnam 1963–1975. Horizon Book Promotions. 1989. ISBN 0-385-17547-7.
- ^ “Writers and Editors War Tax Protest” January 30, 1968 New York Post
- ^ Ellsberg autobiography, Zinn autobiography.
- ^ a b Blanton, Tom (2006-05-21). "The lie behind the secrets". Los Angeles Times. http://www.latimes.com/news/printedition/opinion/la-op-blanton21may21,0,1992884.story. Retrieved 2008-01-21. [dead link]
- ^ Winter Soldier Investigation. 1971.
- ^ Cineaste pp. 91, 96. Retrieved 2010-03-09.
- ^ Interview with Zinn.
- ^ "Terrorism Over Tripoli from Zinn Reader, Seven Stories Press (1993) excerpted online". Thirdworldtraveler.com. http://www.thirdworldtraveler.com/Zinn/Tripoli_ZR.html. Retrieved 2010-01-28.
- ^ "Zinn calls for activism". Yale Daily News. 2007-05-03. Archived from the original on October 16, 2007. http://web.archive.org/web/20071016182602/http://yaledailynews.com/articles/view/21049. Retrieved 2010-01-28.
- ^ "American Historical Association Blog: Iraq War Resolution is Ratified by AHA Members". Blog.historians.org. 2007-03-12. http://blog.historians.org/news/166/iraq-war-resolution-is-ratified-by-aha-members. Retrieved 2010-01-28.
- ^ Yu, Lea. "Historian Howard Zinn Calls for Activism – CommonDreams.org". CommonDreams.org. http://www.commondreams.org/archive/2007/05/04/963/. Retrieved 2010-01-28.
- ^ "War is the Health of the State: An Interview with Howard Zinn", By Paul Glavin & Chuck Morse, Perspectives on Anarchist Theory, Vol. 7, No. 1, Spring 2003.
- ^ Howard Zinn: The Historian Who Made History by Dave Zirin, The Huffington Post, January 28, 2010.
- ^ a b c d The FBI’s File on Howard Zinn by Matthew Rothschild, The Progressive, July 31, 2010
- ^ [2][dead link]
- ^ "Howard Zinn, Historian, Is Dead at 87" The New York Times January 29, 2010.
- ^ Howard Zinn dies at 87; author of best-selling People's History of the United States: Activist collapsed in Santa Monica, where he was scheduled to deliver a lecture. by Robert J. Lopez, January 28, 2010. Retrieved 2010-03-09.
- ^ Howard Zinn video in nine parts.
- ^ Howard Zinn: How I Want to Be Remembered.
- ^ Eugene V Debs Foundation Member Awards. Retrieved 2010-03-09.
- ^ "Lannan Foundation – Howard Zinn". Lannan.org. http://www.lannan.org/lf/bios/detail/howard-zinn/. Retrieved 2010-01-28.
- ^ "Prix des Amis du Monde diplomatique 2003 – Les Amis du Monde diplomatique". Amis.monde-diplomatique.fr. http://www.amis.monde-diplomatique.fr/article.php3?id_article=252. Retrieved 2010-01-28.
- ^ "Zinn to receive Havens Center award (October 4, 2006)". News.wisc.edu. 2006-10-04. http://www.news.wisc.edu/12985.html. Retrieved 2010-01-28.
- ^ "Viggo Mortensen". TDRS Music. 2007-11-23. http://www.tdrsmusic.com/viggo.htm. Retrieved 2010-11-17.
- ^ "Intelligence Failure". Perceval Press. 2007. http://www.percevalpress.com/intel_failure.html. Retrieved 2010-11-17.
- ^ "Buckethead & Viggo - Intelligence Failure". Discogs. 2010. http://www.discogs.com/BucketheadViggo-Mortensen-Intelligence-Failure/release/2023349. Retrieved 2010-11-17.
- ^ NOFX (2004). "Franco Un-american lyrics". LyricsFreak. http://www.lyricsfreak.com/n/nofx/franco+un+american_20101673.html. Retrieved 2012-03-08.
- ^ Declarations of independence: cross-examining American ideology By Howard Zinn.
- ^ "Politics of Knowledge: Richard Ohmann". UPNE. 2010-01-21. http://www.upne.com/0-8195-6589-X.html. Retrieved 2010-01-28.
- ^ "You Can't Blow Up A Social Relationship".
- ^ FRF's Judith Mizrachy interviews Deb Ellis and Denis Mueller, directors of the film Howard Zinn: You can't be neutral on a moving train. Retrieved 2010-03-09.
External links[link]
- HowardZinn.org
- Howard Zinn at The Internet Movie Database
- Howard Zinn at ZSpace
- Column archive at The Progressive
- Appearances on C-SPAN
- Works by or about Howard Zinn in libraries (WorldCat catalog)
- Howard Zinn collected news and commentary at The New York Times
- "Howard Zinn," FBI Records: The Vault, vault.fbi.gov/
- Articles and videos featuring Howard Zinn at AnarchismToday.org.
- Zinn Education Project
- "In memory: Howard Zinn and the Civil Rights Movement" in "Carol Polsgrove on Writers' Lives" [3]
- Interviews
- 2004 Interview With Howard Zinn.
- Interview with Guernica: a magazine of arts and politics.
- The Tavis Smiley Show: "Howard Zinn and the Omissions of U.S. History", November 27, 2003, National Public Radio.
- Howard Zinn speaks on "Confronting Empire" at Harvard Law School in March 2008
- An Interview with Howard Zinn on Anarchism: Rebels Against Tyranny by AK Press
- "War is the Health of the State: An Interview with Howard Zinn", By Paul Glavin & Chuck Morse, Perspectives on Anarchist Theory, Vol. 7, No. 1, Spring 2003
- "A Great Faith in Human Beings." In Klin, Richard and Lily Prince (photos), Something to Say: Thoughts on Art and Politics in America. (Leapfrog Press, 2011)
- Obituaries
- Helene Atwan, director of Beacon Press on "The Loss of Howard Zinn" January 29, 2010.
- Howard Zinn, Historian, is Dead at 87, By Michael Powell, New York Times, January 28, 2010
- Associated Press obituary January 27, 2010
- Obituary in the Oxonian Review
- Videos
- The Legacy of Howard Zinn – video by Big Think
- Howard Zinn on why there are no just wars: "Holy Wars" – video by Democracy Now!
- Empire or Humanity?: What the Classroom Didn't Teach Me about the American Empire; by Howard Zinn; Narrated by Viggo Mortensen
- Howard Zinn’s talk to teachers at the 2008 National Conference for the Social Studies (NCSS) hosted by the Zinn Education Project
- Zinn Speaking About his Book ~ A Power Governments Cannot Suppress - one hour speech by C-SPAN
- Howard Zinn on Marxism, Anarchism, and the Paris Commune interviewed by Sasha Lilley, November 5, 2009
- Howard Zinn (1922-2010): A Tribute to the Legendary Historian with Noam Chomsky, Alice Walker, Naomi Klein and Anthony Arnove
- American Feud: A History of Conservatives and Liberals documentary featuring interviews with Howard Zinn and others
- Zinn on Class in America - Interview series on The Real News (TRNN) (6 videos) - April 2009
- Interview with Howard Zinn Media Education Foundation (MEF) - July 2005
| Persondata | |
|---|---|
| Name | Zinn, Howard |
| Alternative names | |
| Short description | Author and historian |
| Date of birth | August 24, 1922 |
| Place of birth | Brooklyn, New York, United States |
| Date of death | January 27, 2010 |
| Place of death | Santa Monica, California, United States |
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This page contains text from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Howard_Zinn
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This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
