Branches of Mathematics

Pure mathematics

• Algebra
• Calculus
• Geometry
• Topology
• Trignometry
• Combinatorics
• Logic
• Number theory

Applied mathematics

• Dynamical systems and differential equations
• Mathematical physics
• Computing
• Information theory and signal processing
• Probability and statistics
• Game theory
• Operations research

Related Topics

• Electromagnetic Spectrum
• Linear Equations
• Applied Physics
• Nano Technology
• Engineering Sciences
• Mathematical Medicine
• Fluid dynamics
• Computational Mathematics
• Gamma Ray Optics
• Onfrared Optics
• Relative Velocity
• Iciam
• Intelligent Imaging Neuroscience
• Biomedical Engineering
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• Quantum Cosmology
• Brain Research

• Accretion theory
• Age of the universe
• Albert Einstein
• Alexander Friedman
• Andromeda (galaxy)
• Andromeda Galaxy
• Angle
• Ariel Goobar
• Arno Allan Penzias
• Arthur Michael Wolfe
• ArXiv
• Astrophysics
• Atom
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• Bibcode
• Big Bang
• Big Bang cosmology
• Black hole
• Blackbody spectrum
• Blue
• Blueshift
• BOOMERanG experiment
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• C.H.D. Buys Ballot
• Celestial sphere
• CfA Redshift Survey
• Chemical element
• Christian Doppler
• Classical physics
• Color
• Color temperature
• Comoving distance
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• Data set
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• Distance
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• Doppler effect
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• Dynamics (mechanics)
• Earth's atmosphere
• Edwin Hubble
• Electric charge
• Electrical charge
• Elementary particle
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• Energy
• Entropy
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• Exoplanet Tracker
• Expanding universe
• Extrasolar planet
• FAQ
• Filter (optics)
• Fingers of God
• Frame of reference
• Fraunhofer lines
• Frequency
• Friedmann equations
• Fritz Zwicky
• Galaxy
• Galaxy filament
• Gamma ray burst
• Gamma-ray burst
• General relativity
• Geodesic equation
• Geoffrey Burbidge
• George Gamow
• George Smoot
• Georges Lemaître
• Gravitation
• Gravitational field
• GRB 090423
• Green
• Halton Arp
• Helios II
• Helioseismology
• Hermann Carl Vogel
• Hippolyte Fizeau
• Hubble constant
• Hubble Deep Field
• Hubble Law
• Hubble's law
• Hydrogen
• Hydrogen line
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• Index of refraction
• Infrared
• Interstellar cloud
• Interstellar gas
• Interstellar medium
• Intrinsic redshift
• IOK-1
• Isaac Newton
• Jan Hendrik Oort
• John Baez
• John C. Mather
• K correction
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• Kilometer per second
• Laboratory
• Lambda-CDM model
• LASCO
• Light
• Light intensity
• Light years
• Light-year
• Local Group
• Lorentz covariance
• Lorentz factor
• Luminosity
• Lyman-alpha forest
• Mass
• Mass to light ratio
• Matter
• Metric (mathematics)
• Metric tensor
• Milky Way
• Minkowski metric
• Minkowski space
• Monotonic function
• Motion (physics)
• Mössbauer effect
• Nanometer
• NASA
• Nature (journal)
• Netherlands
• Neutrino
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• Observational error
• Observer (physics)
• Orange (colour)
• Parsec
• Peculiar motion
• Peculiar velocity
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• Photometric redshift
• Photon
• Photosphere
• Physical cosmology
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• Physics
• Pitch (music)
• Planck satellite
• Planet
• Population III stars
• Portal Astronomy
• PubMed Central
• PubMed Identifier
• Quasar
• Radar gun
• Radiative transfer
• Radio astronomy
• Rainer Kurt Sachs
• Randomness
• Rayleigh scattering
• Recessional velocity
• Red
• Redshift
• Redshift survey
• Reionization
• Right angle
• Robert H. Dicke
• Rotation
• Rotation curve
• Sachs-Wolfe effect
• Scalar resolute
• Scattering
• Scientific American
• Sky
• Sound
• Sound wave
• Space telescope
• Spacetime
• Spacetime interval
• Spacetime topology
• Special relativity
• Spectral line
• Spectrograph
• Spectroscopic
• Spectroscopy
• Speed of light
• Spherical symmetry
• Spiral nebula
• Star
• Stationary spacetime
• Stephen Hawking
• Steven Weinberg
• Structure formation
• Sun
• Sunrise
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• Supercluster
• Telescope
• Temperature
• Thermal motion
• Time dilation
• Tired light
• Type Ia supernova
• Type Ia supernovae
• UDFy-38135539
• ULAS J1120+0641
• Universe
• Variance
• Velocity
• Venus
• Vera Rubin
• Vesto Slipher
• Virgo Cluster
• Virial theorem
• Visible spectrum
• Walter S. Adams
• Wave
• Wave theory of light
• Wavelength
• Whistler (radio)
• White noise
• Willem de Sitter
• William Huggins
• Wolf effect
• Yakov Zel'dovich
• Yellow
• Øyvind Grøn
• 
  

• 
  NASA
  Coordinates: 38°52′59″N 77°0′59″W / 38.88306°N 77.01639°W / 38.88306; -77.01639
  The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) is the agency of the United States government that is responsible for the nation's civilian space program and for aeronautics and aerospace research. Since February 2006, NASA's mission statement has been to "pioneer the future in space exploration, scientific discovery and aeronautics research." On September 14, 2011, NASA announced that it had selected the design of a new Space Launch System that it said would take the agency's astronauts farther into space than ever before and provide the cornerstone for future human space exploration efforts by the U.S.
  NASA was established by the National Aeronautics and Space Act on July 29, 1958, replacing its predecessor, the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA). The agency became operational on October 1, 1958. U.S. space exploration efforts have since been led by NASA, including the Apollo moon-landing missions, the Skylab space station, and later the Space Shuttle. Currently, NASA is supporting the International Space Station and is overseeing the development of the Orion Multi-Purpose Crew Vehicle and Commercial Crew vehicles. The agency is also responsible for the Launch Services Program (LSP) which provides oversight of launch operations and countdown management for unmanned NASA launches.
  
  wn.com/NASA
• 
  Netherlands
  The Netherlands (ⁱ/ˈnɛðərləndz/; Dutch: Nederland [ˈneːdə(r)lɑnt] or [ˈneɪ̯də(r)lɑnt] ( listen); West Frisian: Nederlân; Papiamento: Hulanda) is a constituent country of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, located mainly in North-West Europe and with some islands in the Caribbean. Mainland Netherlands borders the North Sea to the north and west, Belgium to the south, and Germany to the east, and shares maritime borders with Belgium, Germany and the United Kingdom. It is a parliamentary democracy organised as a unitary state. The country capital is Amsterdam and the seat of government is The Hague. The Netherlands in its entirety is often referred to as Holland, although North and South Holland are actually only two of its twelve provinces (a case of pars pro toto; see terminology of "the Netherlands").
  
  wn.com/Netherlands

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  Albert Einstein
  Albert Einstein ( /ˈælbərt ˈaɪnstaɪn/; German: [ˈalbɐt ˈaɪnʃtaɪn] ( listen); 14 March 1879 – 18 April 1955) was a German theoretical physicist who developed the theory of general relativity, effecting a revolution in physics. For this achievement, Einstein is often regarded as the father of modern physics. While best known for his mass–energy equivalence formula E = mc² (which has been dubbed "the world's most famous equation"), he received the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics "for his services to theoretical physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect". The latter was pivotal in establishing quantum theory within physics.
  Near the beginning of his career, Einstein thought that Newtonian mechanics was no longer enough to reconcile the laws of classical mechanics with the laws of the electromagnetic field. This led to the development of his special theory of relativity. He realized, however, that the principle of relativity could also be extended to gravitational fields, and with his subsequent theory of gravitation in 1916, he published a paper on the general theory of relativity. He continued to deal with problems of statistical mechanics and quantum theory, which led to his explanations of particle theory and the motion of molecules. He also investigated the thermal properties of light which laid the foundation of the photon theory of light. In 1917, Einstein applied the general theory of relativity to model the structure of the universe as a whole.
  
  wn.com/Albert_Einstein
• 
  Arno Allan Penzias
  Arno Allan Penzias (born 26 April 1933) is an American physicist and Nobel laureate in physics.
  Penzias was born in Munich, Germany. At age six he was among the Jewish children evacuated to Britain as part of the Kindertransport rescue operation. Some time later, his parents also fled Nazi Germany for the U.S., and the family settled in the Garment District of New York City in 1940. In 1946, Penzias became a naturalized citizen of the United States. He graduated from Brooklyn Technical High School in 1951 and received a bachelor's degree from the City College of New York in 1954. From Columbia University, he received his Master's degree in 1958 and his Ph.D. in 1962.
  He went on to work at Bell Labs in Holmdel, New Jersey, where, with Robert Woodrow Wilson, he worked on ultra-sensitive cryogenic microwave receivers, intended for radio astronomy observations. In 1964, on building their most sensitive antenna/receiver system, the pair encountered radio noise which they could not explain. It was far less energetic than the radiation given off by the Milky Way, and it was isotropic, so they assumed their instrument was subject to interference by terrestrial sources. They tried, and then rejected, the hypothesis that the radio noise emanated from New York City. An examination of the microwave horn antenna showed it was full of pigeon droppings (which Penzias described as "white dielectric material"). After the pair removed the guano buildup, and the pigeons were shot (each physicist says the other ordered the deed), the noise remained. Having rejected all sources of interference, the pair published a paper announcing their findings. This was later identified by Robert Dicke as the cosmic microwave background radiation (CMB), the radio remnant of the Big Bang. This allowed astronomers to confirm the Big Bang, and to correct many of their previous assumptions about it.
  
  wn.com/Arno_Allan_Penzias
• Arthur Michael Wolfe
  Arthur Michael Wolfe (born 29 April 1939, Brooklyn) is an American astrophysicist, professor and the former Director of the Center for Astrophysics & Space Sciences at the University of California, San Diego. Together with Rainer Kurt Sachs, he authored the Sachs-Wolfe effect.
  
  
  
  wn.com/Arthur_Michael_Wolfe
• 
  Christian Doppler
  Christian Andreas Doppler (pronounced [ˈkʁɪsti̯aːn ˈdɔplɐ]) (29 November 1803 – 17 March 1853) was an Austrian mathematician and physicist.
  Christian Doppler was raised in Salzburg, Austria, the son of a stonemason. Doppler could not work in his father's business because of his generally weak physical condition. After completing high school Doppler studied philosophy in Salzburg and mathematics and physics at the k. k. Polytechnisches Institut (now Vienna University of Technology) where he worked as an assistant since 1829. In 1835 started to work at the Prague Polytechnic (now Czech Technical University), where he was appointed in 1841.
  Only a year later, at the age of 39, Doppler published his most notable work, "Über das farbige Licht der Doppelsterne und einiger anderer Gestirne des Himmels" (On the coloured light of the binary stars and some other stars of the heavens). There is a facsimile edition with an English translation by Alec Eden. In this work, Doppler postulated his principle (later coined the Doppler effect) that the observed frequency of a wave depends on the relative speed of the source and the observer, and he tried to use this concept for explaining the colour of binary stars. The Doppler effect of sound was verified by Buys Ballot in 1845. In Doppler's time in Prague as a professor he published over 50 articles on mathematics, physics and astronomy. In 1847 he left Prague for the professorship of mathematics, physics, and mechanics at the Academy of Mines and Forests in Schemnitz (Banská Štiavnica, Slovakia), and in 1849 he moved to Vienna.
  
  wn.com/Christian_Doppler
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  Edwin Hubble
  Edwin Powell Hubble (November 20, 1889 – September 28, 1953) was an American astronomer who is known for Hubble's law. He is incorrectly credited with the discovery of the existence of galaxies other than the Milky Way and galactic red shift- discoveries made by the astronomer Vesto Slipher in 1912. He popularized Vesto Slipher's discovery that the loss in frequency—the redshift—observed in the spectra of light from other galaxies increased in proportion to a particular galaxy's distance from Earth. This relationship which was based Slipher's data became known as Hubble's law. Vesto Slipher, the unsung hero of twentieth-century astronomy was the first to present his findings in a meeting of the American Astronomical Society in August 1914. Stephen Hawking wryly notes in his book the Universe in a Nutshell "Hubble heard the presentation". Due to Vesto Slipher's reserved and reticent personality, his discoveries are incorrectly credited to Hubble.
  Hubble doubted the Doppler shift interpretation of the observed redshift that had been proposed earlier by Vesto Slipher, whose data he used, and that led to the theory of the metric expansion of space. He tended to believe the frequency of any beam of light could, by some so far unknown means, be diminished ever stronger, the longer the beam travels through space.
  
  wn.com/Edwin_Hubble
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  Fritz Zwicky
  Fritz Zwicky (February 14, 1898 – February 8, 1974) was a Swiss astronomer. He worked most of his life at the California Institute of Technology in the United States of America, where he made many important contributions in theoretical and observational astronomy.
  Fritz Zwicky was born in Varna, Bulgaria to a Swiss father. His father, Fridolin (b. 1868), was a prominent industrialist in the Bulgarian city and also served as ambassador of Norway in Varna (1908–1933). The Zwicky House in Varna was designed and built by Fridolin Zwicky. Fritz's mother, Franziska Vrček (b. 1871), was an ethnic Czech of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Fritz was the oldest of the Zwicky family's three children: he had a younger brother named Rudolf and a sister called Leoni. Fritz's mother died in Varna in 1927 and his father Fridolin remained in Bulgaria until 1945, when he returned to Switzerland. His sister Leoni married to a Bulgarian from Varna and spent her entire life in the city.
  In 1904, at the age of six, Fritz was sent to his grandparents in Glarus, Switzerland, "the Zwicky's ancestral Swiss canton, to study commerce." His interests shifted to math and physics and he received an advanced education in mathematics and experimental physics at the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, located in Zürich, Switzerland. In 1925, he emigrated to the United States to work with Robert Millikan at California Institute of Technology (Caltech) after receiving the "international fellowship from the Rockefeller Foundation."
  
  wn.com/Fritz_Zwicky
• Geoffrey Burbidge
  Geoffrey Ronald Burbidge FRS (24 September 1925 – 26 January 2010) was an English astronomy professor, most recently at the University of California, San Diego. He was married to astrophysicist Dr. Margaret Burbidge.
  Burbidge was born in Chipping Norton, where he attended grammar school. His father was Geoffrey Ronald Burbidge, a builder.
  He first attended the University of Bristol to study history, but changed to physics. He went to London and received his PhD from University College London in 1951.
  In this period, he met Margaret Peachey and they married in 1948.
  The Burbidges worked at Harvard, the University of Chicago and Cambridge University, before Margaret obtained work at the California Institute of Technology, while Geoffrey worked at the Mount Wilson Observatory and Palomar Observatory.
  They obtained positions at the University of California, San Diego, in 1962.
  He was the Director of Kitt Peak National Observatory from 1978 to 1984.
  In 1957 he and his wife were co-authors, together with William Fowler, the American physicist, and Fred Hoyle, the British astronomer, of a famous paper on stellar nucleosynthesis, which was referred to as the B²FH paper, after the initials of the surnames of the four authors. This paper described the process of stars burning lighter elements into successively heavier atoms which were then expelled to form other structures in the universe, including planets.
  
  wn.com/Geoffrey_Burbidge
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  George Gamow
  George Gamow (Russian pronunciation: [ˈɡaməf]; March 4 [O.S. February 20] 1904 – August 19, 1968), born Georgiy Antonovich Gamov (Russian: Георгий Антонович Гамов), was a Ukrainian-born theoretical physicist and cosmologist - notably an early advocate and developer of Lemaître's Big Bang theory. He discovered a theoretical explanation of alpha decay via quantum tunneling, and worked on radioactive decay of the atomic nucleus, star formation, stellar nucleosynthesis and Big Bang nucleosynthesis (which he collectively called nucleocosmogenesis), the cosmic microwave background, and molecular genetics.
  In his middle and late career, Gamow focussed more on teaching, and became well-known as an author of popular books on science, including One, Two, Three...Infinity, and the Mr. Tompkins... series of books (1939–1967). Some of his books are still in print more than a half-century after their original publication, and have become classic but still-relevant introductions to fundamental principles of mathematics and science.
  
  wn.com/George_Gamow
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  George Smoot
  George Fitzgerald Smoot III (born February 20, 1945) is an American astrophysicist, cosmologist, Nobel laureate, and $1 million TV quiz show prize winner (Are You Smarter Than a 5th Grader?). He won the Nobel Prize in Physics in 2006 for his work on the Cosmic Background Explorer with John C. Mather that led to the measurement "of the black body form and anisotropy of the cosmic microwave background radiation."
  This work helped further the Big Bang theory of the universe using the Cosmic Background Explorer Satellite (COBE). According to the Nobel Prize committee, "the COBE project can also be regarded as the starting point for cosmology as a precision science." Smoot donated his share of the Nobel Prize money, less travel costs, to a charitable foundation.
  Currently he is a professor of physics at the University of California, Berkeley, senior scientist at the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, and since 2010, a professor of physics at the Paris Diderot University, France. In 2003, he was awarded the Einstein Medal.
  
  wn.com/George_Smoot
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  Georges Lemaître
  Monsignor Georges Henri Joseph Édouard Lemaître ( lemaitre.ogg (help·info) 17 July 1894 – 20 June 1966) was a Belgian priest, astronomer and professor of physics at the Catholic University of Leuven. He was the first person to propose the theory of the expansion of the Universe, widely misattributed to Edwin Hubble. He was also the first to derive what is now known as the Hubble's law and made the first estimation of what is now called the Hubble constant which he published in 1927, two years before Hubble's article. Lemaître also proposed what became known as the Big Bang theory of the origin of the Universe, which he called his 'hypothesis of the primeval atom'. As he was a secular priest, he was called Abbé, then, after being made a canon, Monseigneur.
  After a classical education at a Jesuit secondary school (Collège du Sacré-Coeur, Charleroi), Lemaître began studying civil engineering at the Catholic University of Leuven at the age of 17. In 1914, he interrupted his studies to serve as an artillery officer in the Belgian army for the duration of World War I. At the end of hostilities, he received the Belgian War Cross with palms.
  
  wn.com/Georges_Lemaître
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  Halton Arp
  Halton Christian Arp (aka "Chip") is an American astronomer. He is known for his 1966 Atlas of Peculiar Galaxies, which (it was later realized) catalogues many examples of interacting and merging galaxies. Arp is also known as a critic of the Big Bang theory and for advocating a non-standard cosmology incorporating intrinsic redshift.
  Arp was born March 21, 1927, in New York City. He has been married three times, has four daughters and four grandchildren.^{[citation needed]} His bachelor's degree was awarded by Harvard (1949), and his Ph.D. by Caltech (1953). Afterward he became a Fellow of the Carnegie Institution of Washington in 1953, performing research at the Mount Wilson Observatory and Palomar Observatory. Arp became a Research Assistant at Indiana University in 1955, and then in 1957 became a staff member at Palomar Observatory, where he worked for 29 years. In 1983 he joined the staff of the Max Planck Institute for Astrophysics in Germany.
  Arp compiled a catalog of unusual galaxies titled Atlas of Peculiar Galaxies, which was first published in 1966. Arp realized that astronomers understood little about how galaxies change over time, which led him to work on this project. This atlas was intended to provide images that would give astronomers data from which they could study the evolution of galaxies. Arp later used the atlas as evidence in his debate on QSOs.
  
  wn.com/Halton_Arp
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  Hermann Carl Vogel
  Hermann Carl Vogel (April 3, 1841 – August 13, 1907) was a German astronomer. He was born in Leipzig, Kingdom of Saxony.
  Vogel pioneered the use of the spectroscope in astronomy. He applied this instrument to chemically analyze planetary atmospheres and to determine the Sun's rotational period using the Doppler effect.
  In 1882, Vogel became the Director at the Astrophysical Observatory Potsdam. and he is best known for a discovery he made there in 1890. Vogel found that the spectra of certain stars shifted slightly over time, moving toward the red and then later toward the blue. His interpretation of this result was that the star was moving toward and then away from the Earth, and that the accompanying spectral shifts were the result of the Doppler effect. These stars appeared to be orbiting around a hidden center of mass, and thus they were double-star systems. However, in each case the companion star could not be resolved using a telescope, and so these double-star systems were designated spectroscopic binaries.
  
  wn.com/Hermann_Carl_Vogel
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  Hippolyte Fizeau
  Armand Hippolyte Louis Fizeau (September 23, 1819 – September 18, 1896) was a French physicist.
  Fizeau was born in Paris. His earliest work was concerned with improvements in photographic processes. Following suggestions by François Arago, Léon Foucault and Fizeau collaborated in a series of investigations on the interference of light and heat. In 1848, he predicted the redshifting of electromagnetic waves.
  In 1849 he published the first results obtained by his method for determining the speed of light (see Fizeau-Foucault apparatus). Fizeau in 1864 made the first suggestion that the "length of a light wave be used as a length standard".
  He was involved in the discovery of the Doppler effect.
  In 1853 he described the use of the capacitor (then called the condenser) as a means to increase the efficiency of the induction coil. Subsequently he studied the thermal expansion of solids, and applied the phenomenon of interference of light to the measurement of the dilatations of crystals. He became a member of the Académie des Sciences in 1860 and of the Bureau des Longitudes in 1878. He died at Venteuil on September 18, 1896.
  
  wn.com/Hippolyte_Fizeau
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  Isaac Newton
  Sir Isaac Newton PRS MP (25 December 1642 – 20 March 1727 [NS: 4 January 1643 – 31 March 1727]) was an English physicist, mathematician, astronomer, natural philosopher, alchemist, and theologian, who has been "considered by many to be the greatest and most influential scientist who ever lived." His monograph Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica, published in 1687, lays the foundations for most of classical mechanics. In this work, Newton described universal gravitation and the three laws of motion, which dominated the scientific view of the physical universe for the next three centuries. Newton showed that the motions of objects on Earth and of celestial bodies are governed by the same set of natural laws, by demonstrating the consistency between Kepler's laws of planetary motion and his theory of gravitation, thus removing the last doubts about heliocentrism and advancing the Scientific Revolution.
  
  wn.com/Isaac_Newton
• Rainer Kurt Sachs
  Rainer Kurt Sachs (born June 13, 1932) is a German-American computational radiation biologist and astronomer. In particular, he and Arthur Michael Wolfe were the authors of the Sachs-Wolfe effect, which concerns a property of the Cosmic microwave background radiation.
  He was born in Frankfurt am Main in 1932, a son of the German Jewish metallurgist George Sachs. In 1937 the family left Germany to flee from Nazi persecution, and settled in the United States, so Rainer Sachs is generally considered an American scientist. He received his bachelor's degree in mathematics from MIT and his PhD in theoretical physics from Syracuse University.
  From 1969 to 1993, he was Professor of Math and Physics at the University of California, Berkeley (UCB), and from 1993 he has been Professor Emeritus at UCB. In 1994, he was appointed Research Professor of Mathematics UCB, and since 2005 he has been an Adjunct Professor at the Tufts medical school.
  Until 1985, he worked on general relativistic cosmology and astrophysics. He also co-wrote the books "General Relativity for Mathematicians" and "General Relativity and Cosmology". His contributions include joint work on the Sachs-Wolfe effect and the Ehlers-Geren-Sachs theorem, both of which deal with the Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation. From 1985, he has worked in mathematical and computational biology, especially radiation biology. His work in radiobiology has included research on radiation and cancer.
  
  wn.com/Rainer_Kurt_Sachs
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  Stephen Hawking
  Stephen William Hawking, CH, CBE, FRS, FRSA (born 8 January 1942) is a British theoretical physicist, cosmologist, and author. His key scientific works to date have included providing, with Roger Penrose, theorems regarding gravitational singularities in the framework of general relativity, and the theoretical prediction that black holes should emit radiation, which is today known as Hawking radiation (or sometimes as Bekenstein–Hawking radiation).
  He is an Honorary Fellow of the Royal Society of Arts, a lifetime member of the Pontifical Academy of Sciences, and in 2009 was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom, the highest civilian award in the United States. Hawking was the Lucasian Professor of Mathematics at the University of Cambridge between 1979 and 2009. Subsequently, he became research director at the university's Centre for Theoretical Cosmology.
  Hawking has a motor neurone disease related to amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, a condition that has progressed over the years. He is now almost completely paralysed and communicates through a speech generating device. He has been married twice and has three children. Hawking has achieved success with works of popular science in which he discusses his own theories and cosmology in general; these include A Brief History of Time, which stayed on the British Sunday Times best-sellers list for a record-breaking 237 weeks.
  
  wn.com/Stephen_Hawking
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  Steven Weinberg
  Steven Weinberg (born May 3, 1933) is an American theoretical physicist and Nobel laureate in Physics for his contributions with Abdus Salam and Sheldon Glashow to the unification of the weak force and electromagnetic interaction between elementary particles.
  Steven Weinberg was born in 1933 in New York City to Jewish immigrants Frederick and Eva Weinberg. He graduated from Bronx High School of Science in 1950 in the same graduating class as Sheldon Glashow, whose own research, independent of Weinberg's, would result in them (and Abdus Salam) sharing the same 1979 Nobel in Physics (see below).
  Weinberg received his bachelor's degree from Cornell University in 1954, living at the Cornell branch of the Telluride Association. He left Cornell and went to the Niels Bohr Institute in Copenhagen where he started his graduate studies and research. After one year, Weinberg returned to Princeton University where he earned his Ph.D. degree in Physics in 1957, studying under Sam Treiman. Weinberg is an atheist.
  
  wn.com/Steven_Weinberg
• Vera Rubin
  Vera (Cooper) Rubin (born (1928-07-23) July 23, 1928 (age 83)) is an American astronomer. She pioneered work on galaxy rotation rates. She is famous for uncovering the discrepancy between the predicted angular motion of galaxies and the observed motion, by studying galactic rotation curves. This phenomenon became known as the galaxy rotation problem.
  Vera Rubin can be seen on the BBC documentary Most of Our Universe is Missing.
  Currently, the theory of dark matter is the most popular candidate for explaining the galaxy rotation problem. The alternative theory of MOND (Modified Newtonian Dynamics) has little support in the community. Rubin, however, supports the MOND approach, stating "If I could have my pick, I would like to learn that Newton's laws must be modified in order to correctly describe gravitational interactions at large distances. That's more appealing than a universe filled with a new kind of sub-nuclear particle."
  After she had earned an A.B. from Vassar College (1948), she tried to enroll at Princeton but never received their graduate catalog as women there were not allowed in the graduate astronomy program until 1975. She applied to Cornell University, where she studied physics under Philip Morrison, Richard Feynman, and Hans Bethe. There she earned an M.A. in 1951. Then in 1954 at Georgetown University she earned a Ph.D.
  
  wn.com/Vera_Rubin
• Vesto Slipher
  Vesto Melvin Slipher (November 11, 1875 – November 8, 1969) was an American astronomer. His brother Earl C. Slipher was also an astronomer and a director at the Lowell Observatory.
  Slipher was born in Mulberry, Indiana, and completed his doctorate at Indiana University in 1909. He spent his entire career at Lowell Observatory in Flagstaff, Arizona, where he was promoted to assistant director in 1915, acting director from 1916, and finally director from 1926 until his retirement in 1952. He used spectroscopy to investigate the rotation periods of planets and the composition of planetary atmospheres. In 1912, he was the first to observe the shift of spectral lines of galaxies, making him the discoverer of galactic redshifts. He discovered the sodium layer in 1929. He was responsible for hiring Clyde Tombaugh and supervised the work that led to the discovery of Pluto in 1930.
  Edwin Hubble was generally incorrectly credited with discovering the redshift of galaxies; these measurements and their significance were understood before 1917 by James Edward Keeler (Lick & Allegheny), Vesto Melvin Slipher (Lowell), and William Wallace Campbell (Lick) at other observatories.
  
  wn.com/Vesto_Slipher
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  Willem de Sitter
  Willem de Sitter (6 May 1872 – 20 November 1934) was a Dutch mathematician, physicist and astronomer.
  Born in Sneek, De Sitter studied mathematics at the University of Groningen and then joined the Groningen astronomical laboratory. He worked at the Cape Observatory in South Africa (1897–1899). Then, in 1908, de Sitter was appointed to the chair of astronomy at Leiden University. He was director of the Leiden Observatory from 1919 until his death.
  De Sitter made major contributions to the field of physical cosmology. He co-authored a paper with Albert Einstein in 1932 in which they argued that there might be large amounts of matter which do not emit light, now commonly referred to as dark matter. He also came up with the concept of the de Sitter space and de Sitter universe, a solution for Einstein's general relativity in which there is no matter and a positive cosmological constant. This results in an exponentially expanding, empty universe. De Sitter was also famous for his research on the planet Jupiter.
  
  wn.com/Willem_de_Sitter
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  William Huggins
  Sir William Huggins, OM, KCB, FRS (7 February 1824 – 12 May 1910) was an English astronomer best known for his pioneering work in astronomical spectroscopy.
  William Huggins was born at Cornhill, Middlesex in 1824. He married Margaret Lindsay, daughter of John Murray of Dublin, who also had an interest in astronomy and scientific research. She encouraged her husband's photography and helped to systemise their research.
  Huggins built a private observatory at 90 Upper Tulse Hill, South London from where he and his wife carried out extensive observations of the spectral emission lines and absorption lines of various celestial objects. On August 29, 1864, Huggins was the first to take the spectrum of a planetary nebula when he analyzed NGC 6543. He was also the first to distinguish between nebulae and galaxies by showing that some (like the Orion Nebula) had pure emission spectra characteristic of gas, while others like the Andromeda Galaxy had spectra characteristic of stars. Huggins was assisted in the analysis of spectra by his neighbour, the chemist William Allen Miller. Huggins was also the first to adopt dry plate photography in imaging astronomical objects.
  
  wn.com/William_Huggins
• 
  Øyvind Grøn
  Øyvind Grøn (born 11 March 1944) is a Norwegian physicist.
  He was born in Oslo,^{[citation needed]} and is a twin. He took the cand.real. degree at the University of Oslo in 1973, majoring in meteorology. He followed up with the dr.philos. degree in 1990 with a thesis on repulsive gravitation. He started his academic career as a research assistant at the University of Oslo, and has also been a lecturer there. He was appointed as a professor at Oslo University College in 1994, having been an associate professor since 1985. He has also been professor II at the University of Oslo since 1994.
  He has been a member of the editorial board of the European Journal of Physics. He is also known for his popular contributions, through the Norwegian Broadcasting Corporation, in popular articles and lectures, in books as well as the encyclopedias Store norske leksikon and Norsk biografisk leksikon.
  
  wn.com/Øyvind_Grøn

• Redshift 08
• Shift to Blue
• Schlachthof-fünf
• Broken World

• The Love of Nature
• The Last Thing We See
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• Tormentor
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• Greenish
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• Fuel (rehearsal)
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• Redshift
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• Blueshift
• Blueshift, Part 2

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• A Midnight Clear
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