This article contains Unicode Braille characters. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Braille characters.

Braille code where the word ⠏⠗⠑⠍⠊⠑⠗ (premier, French for "first") can be read.

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The Braille system is a method that is widely used by people who are visually impaired to read and write, and was the first digital form of writing.^[1]

Braille was devised in 1825 by Louis Braille, a blind Frenchman.^[2] Each Braille character, or cell, is made up of six dot positions, arranged in a rectangle containing two columns of three dots each. A dot may be raised at any of the six positions to form sixty-four (2⁶) possible subsets, including the arrangement in which no dots are raised. For reference purposes, a particular permutation may be described by naming the positions where dots are raised, the positions being universally numbered 1 to 3, from top to bottom, on the left, and 4 to 6, from top to bottom, on the right. For example, dots 1-3-4 (⠍) would describe a cell with three dots raised, at the top and bottom in the left column and on top of the right column, i.e., the letter m. The lines of horizontal Braille text are separated by a space, much like visible printed text, so that the dots of one line can be differentiated from the Braille text above and below. Punctuation is represented by its own unique set of characters.

History[link]

The Braille system was based on a method of communication originally developed by Charles Barbier in response to Napoleon's demand for a code that soldiers could use to communicate silently and without light at night called night writing. Barbier's system of sets of 12 embossed dots encoding 36 different sounds was too difficult for soldiers to perceive by touch, and was rejected by the military. In 1821 he visited the National Institute for the Blind in Paris, where he met Louis Braille. Braille identified the two major defects of the code: first, by representing only sounds, the code was unable to give the orthography of the words; second, the human finger could not encompass the whole symbol without moving, and so could not move rapidly from one symbol to another. His modification was to use a 6 dot cell – the Braille system – representing all the letters of the alphabet.

At first the system was a one-to-one transliteration of French, but soon various abbreviations and contractions were developed, creating a system much more like shorthand.

Derivation[link]

Braille is derived from the Latin alphabet, albeit indirectly. In Braille's original system, the points were assigned according to the position of the letter within the alphabetic order of the French alphabet, with diacritic letters sorted at the end.^[3]

The first ten letters of the alphabet, A–J, use the upper four dot positions, 1, 2, 4, 5: ⠁⠃⠉⠙⠑⠋⠛⠓⠊⠚. These also stand for the numerals 1–0 in a system parallel to Hebrew gematria and Greek isopsephy. (Though the dots are assigned in no obvious order, the first three letters and lowest numerals, ABC ~ 123 ⠁⠃⠉, and the vowels, AEI ⠁⠑⠊, have the fewest dots, whereas the even numerals 4680 are corners, ⠙⠋⠓⠚.)

The next ten letters, K–T, are identical to A–J, respectively, apart from the addition of a dot at position 3: ⠅⠇⠍⠝⠕⠏⠟⠗⠎⠞. The next ten letters are the same again, but with dots at both 3 and 6. Here W was left out as not being part of the basic alphabet; the order is U V X Y Z Ç É À È Ù ⠥⠧⠭⠽⠵⠯⠿⠷⠮⠾. The next ten, ending in W, are the same again, except that for this series position 6 is used without position 3. These are Â Ê Î Ô Û Ë Ï Ü Ö W ⠡⠣⠩⠹⠱⠫⠻⠳⠪⠺. The A–J series lowered in dot space become punctuation: comma, semicolon, colon, period, (not used), exclamation point, parentheses, question mark, (not used), quotation marks: ⠂⠆⠒⠲⠢⠖⠶⠦⠔⠴. A and C, which only use the top row, were lowered two spaces for the apostrophe and hyphen: ⠄⠤. In addition, a few letters used upper-space patterns which are not letters by themselves: 4 (by itself the acute accent for letters other than É) with 3, 3-6, and 6 makes Ì, Ò, decimal point, ⠌⠬⠨; 4-5 with the same makes Ä, numeral sign, ellipsis: ⠜⠼⠸

Form[link]

Braille can be seen as the world's first binary encoding scheme for representing the characters of a writing system. The system as originally invented by Braille consists of two parts:

1. A character encoding for mapping characters of the French language to tuples of six bits or dots.
2. A way of representing six-bit characters as raised dots in a Braille cell.

Today different Braille codes (or code pages) are used to map character sets of different languages to the six bit cells. Different Braille codes are also used for different uses like mathematics and music. However, because the six-dot Braille cell only offers 63 possible combinations (2⁶ − 1 = 63), of which some are omitted because they feel the same (having the same dots pattern in a different position, e.g. ⠊ and ⠔), many Braille characters have different meanings based on their context. Therefore, character mapping is not one-to-one.

In addition to simple encoding, modern Braille transcription uses contractions to increase reading speed. (See: Contracted Braille)

Writing Braille[link]

Braille may be produced by hand using a slate and stylus in which each dot is created from the back of the page, writing in mirror image, or it may be produced on a Braille typewriter or Perkins Brailler. Braille may also be produced using a computer with Braille translation software and a Braille embosser or a refreshable Braille display.

Braille has been extended to an 8-dot code, particularly for use with Braille embossers and refreshable Braille displays. In 8-dot Braille the additional dots are added at the bottom of the cell, giving a matrix 4 dots high by 2 dots wide. The additional dots are given the numbers 7 (for the lower-left dot) and 8 (for the lower-right dot). Eight-dot Braille has the advantages that the case of an individual letter is directly coded in the cell containing the letter and that all the printable ASCII characters can be represented in a single cell. All 256 (2⁸) possible combinations of 8 dots are encoded by the Unicode standard. Braille with six dots is frequently stored as Braille ASCII.

The first ten letters of the alphabet are formed using only the top four dots (1, 2, 4, and 5). Reminiscent of Greek numerals, these symbols also represent the digits 1 through 9 and 0^[4] (preceded by the symbol [number follows]; [number follows]j also stands for 10, within context).^[5] Adding dot 3 forms the next ten letters, and adding dot 6 forms the last six letters (except w) and the words and, for, of, the, and with. Omitting dot 3 from the letters U-Z and the five word symbols form nine digraphs (ch, gh, sh, th, wh, ed, er, ou, and ow) and the letter w.

Letters and numbers[link]

• 

  a or 1 (dot 1)

• 

  b or 2 (dots 1-2)

• 

  c or 3 (dots 1-4)

• 

  d or 4 (dots 1-4-5)

• 

  e or 5 (dots 1-5)

• 

  f or 6 (dots 1-2-4)

• 

  g or 7 (dots 1-2-4-5)

• 

  h or 8 (dots 1-2-5)

• 

  i or 9 (dots 2-4)

• 

  j or 0 (dots 2-4-5)

• 

  k (dots 1-3)

• 

  l (dots 1-2-3)

• 

  m (dots 1-3-4)

• 

  n (dots 1-3-4-5)

• 

  o (dots 1-3-5)

• 

  p (dots 1-2-3-4)

• 

  q (dots 1-2-3-4-5)

• 

  r (dots 1-2-3-5)

• 

  s (dots 2-3-4)

• 

  t (dots 2-3-4-5)

• 

  u (dots 1-3-6)

• 

  v (dots 1-2-3-6)

• 

  w (dots 2-4-5-6)

• 

  x (dots 1-3-4-6)

• 

  y (dots 1-3-4-5-6)

• 

  z (dots 1-3-5-6)

Other symbols[link]

• 

  Capital letter follows (dot 6)

• 

  Number follows (dots 3-4-5-6)

• 

  Apostrophe (dot 3)

• 

  Full stop (Period) (dots 2-5-6)

• 

  Comma (dot 2)

• 

  Semicolon (dots 2-3)

• 

  Exclamation point (dots 2-3-5)

• 

  Opening quotation mark, question mark * (dots 2-3-6)

• 

  Closing quotation mark (dots 3-5-6)

• 

  Bracket (Parentheses) ** (dots 2-3-5-6)

• 

  Hyphen (dots 3-6)

• 

  Colon (dots 2-5)

Note:

* The question mark is represented by dots 2-3-6 – the same as the opening quotation mark. Therefore the placement of the dots – before a word or after a word – will determine which symbol it is.

** Opening and closing parentheses are shown with the same symbol. Therefore, the placement context (whether it is at the beginning or end of a group of symbols) will determine whether the parenthesis is opening or closing.

Contracted Braille[link]

• 

  The word AND (dots 1-2-3-4-6)

• 

  The letters CH (dots 1-6)

• 

  The letters SH (dots 1-4-6)

• 

  The letters ST (dots 3-4)

• 

  The letters TH (dots 1-4-5-6)

This is just a small sample of some of the contractions that are used in Contracted Braille. More information about Contracted Braille is below in the section on Braille transcription.

Braille also includes a number of whole word contractions, for example the word Braille becomes a three cell word brl.

Unicode rendering table[link]

The Unicode standard encodes 8-dot Braille glyphs according to their binary appearance, rather than following the alphabetic order of any particular convention. Unicode defines the "Braille Patterns" character block in the hex codepoint range from 2800 to 28FF. Dot 1 corresponds to the least significant bit of the low byte of the Unicode scalar value, and dot 8 to the high bit of that byte.

Most Braille embossers and refreshable Braille displays do not yet support the Unicode rendering table; instead they use Braille ASCII for 6-dot Braille. Some embossers have proprietary control codes for 8-dot Braille and/or for full graphics mode (where dots may be placed anywhere on the page without leaving any space between Braille cells, hence continuous lines can be drawn in diagrams) but these are rarely used and are not standard.

Page dimensions[link]

Most Braille embossers support between 34 and 37 cells per line, and between 25 and 28 lines per page.

A manually operated Perkins Braille typewriter supports a maximum of 42 cells per line (its margins are adjustable), and typical paper allows 25 lines per page.

A large interlining Stainsby has 36 cells per line and 18 lines per page.

An A4-sized Marburg Braille frame, which allows interpoint Braille (dots on both sides of the page, positioned out of phase so they do not interfere with each other) has 30 cells per line and 27 lines per page.

A refreshable Braille display typically has one line of between 18 and 40 cells, although 80 is possible.

Literacy[link]

A sighted child who is reading at a basic level should be able to understand common words and answer simple questions about the information presented.^[6] He should also have enough fluency to get through the material in a timely manner. Over the course of a child's education, these foundations are built upon in order to teach higher levels of math, science, and comprehension skills.^[6] Children who are blind not only have the educational disadvantage of not being able to see, but they also miss out on the very fundamental parts of early and advanced education if not provided with the necessary tools.

U.S. Braille literacy statistics[link]

In 1960, 50% of legally blind, school-age children were able to read Braille in the U.S.^[7][8] According to the 2007 Annual Report from the American Printing House for the Blind, there are approximately 57,696 legally blind children in the U.S. Out of those school-age children, only 10% use Braille as their primary reading medium.^[9]

There are numerous causes for the decline in Braille usage, including school budget constraints, technology advancement, and different philosophical views over how blind children should be educated.^[10]

A key turning point for Braille literacy was the passage of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973, an act of Congress that moved thousands of children from specialized schools for the blind into mainstream public schools.^[8] Because only a small percentage of public schools could afford to train and hire Braille-qualified teachers, Braille literacy has declined since the law took effect.^{[clarification needed][8]} Braille literacy rates have improved slightly since the bill was passed,^{[clarification needed]} in part because of pressure from consumers and advocacy groups that has led 27 states to pass legislation mandating that children who are legally blind be given the opportunity to learn Braille.^[10]

In 1998–99, there were approximately 55,200 legally blind children, but only 5,500 of them used Braille as their primary reading medium.^[11][12] Early Braille education is crucial to literacy for a visually impaired child. A study conducted in the state of Washington found that people who learned Braille at an early age did just as well, if not better, than their sighted peers in several areas, including vocabulary and comprehension. In the preliminary adult study, while evaluating the correlation between adult literacy skills and employment, it was found that 44% of the participants who had learned to read in Braille were unemployed, compared to the 77% unemployment rate of those who had learned to read using print.^[13] Currently, among the estimated 85,000 blind adults in the United States, 90% of those who are Braille literate are employed. Among adults who do not know Braille, only 33% are employed.^[8] Statistically, history has proven that Braille reading proficiency provides an essential skill set that allows visually impaired children not only to compete with their sighted peers in a school environment, but also later in life as they enter the workforce.^[10]

Though Braille is thought to be the main way blind people read and write, in Britain (for example) out of the reported 2 million visually impaired population, it is estimated that only around 15–20 thousand people use Braille. Younger people are turning to electronic text on computers with screen reader software instead, a more portable communication method that they can also use with their friends. A debate has started on how to make Braille more attractive and for more teachers to be available to teach it.

Braille transcription[link]

Braille Writer

Braille on a box of tablets

Braille book and the same book in standard inkprint

Although it is possible to transcribe Braille by simply substituting the equivalent Braille character for its printed equivalent, such a character-by-character transcription (known as Uncontracted Braille) is used by beginners.

Braille characters are much larger than their printed equivalents, and the standard 11" by 11.5" (28 cm × 30 cm) page has room for only 25 lines of 43 characters. To reduce space and increase reading speed, virtually all Braille books are transcribed in what is known as Contracted Braille, which uses a system of braille abbreviations to reduce space and to speed the process of reading. As with most human linguistic activities, Contracted Braille embodies a complex system of customs, styles, and practices. The Library of Congress's Instruction Manual for Braille Transcribing runs to nearly 200 pages. Braille transcription is skilled work, and Braille transcribers need to pass certification tests.

In English, the system of Contracted Braille contractions begins with a set of 23 words which are contracted to single characters. Thus the word but is contracted to the single letter b, can to c, do to d, and so on. Even this simple rule creates issues requiring special cases; for example, d is, specifically, an abbreviation of the verb do; the noun do representing the note of the musical scale is a different word, and must be spelled out.

Portions of words may be contracted, and many rules govern this process. For example, the character with dots 2-3-5 (the letter "f" lowered in the Braille cell) stands for "ff" when used in the middle of a word. At the beginning of a word, this same character stands for the word "to" although the character is written in Braille with no space following it; this contraction was removed in the Unified English Braille Code. At the end of a word, the same character represents an exclamation point.

One problem that can occur when reading Contracted Braille is that some contractions are closely similar, even when the words are not. One example compares the contractions "ll", meaning little, and "lr", meaning letter from Barry Hampshire's "Working with Braille".^[14] The Braille notation for the letter "r" differs only by adding one dot to the letter "l". This causes greater confusion between words that are not as similar in normal print and can hinder the learning process of Contracted Braille.

The contraction rules take into account the linguistic structure of the word; thus, contractions are not to be used when their use would alter the usual Braille form of a base word to which a prefix or suffix has been added. And some portions of the transcription rules are not fully codified and rely on the judgment of the transcriber. Thus, when the contraction rules permit the same word in more than one way, preference is given to "the contraction that more nearly approximates correct pronunciation."

Grade 3 Braille is a system that includes many additional contractions, almost a shorthand; it is not used for publication, but is used mostly for individuals for their personal convenience.

Braille reading techniques[link]

Since Braille is one of the few writing systems where tactile perception is used, as opposed to visual perception, a Braille reader must develop new skills. One skill important for Braille readers is the ability to create smooth and even pressures when running one's fingers along the words. There are many different styles and techniques used for the understanding and development of Braille, even though a study by B. F. Holland^[15] suggests that there is no specific technique that is superior to any other.

Another study by Lowenfield & Abel^[16] shows that Braille could be read "the fastest and best... by students who read using the index fingers of both hands." Another important reading skill emphasized in this study is to finish reading the end of a line with the right hand and to find the beginning of the next line with the left hand simultaneously. One final conclusion drawn by both Lowenfield and Abel is that children have difficulty using both hands independently where the right hand is the dominant hand. But this hand preference does not correlate to other activities.

Unified international braille[link]

Braille plate in Duftrosengarten in Rapperswil, Switzerland

When Braille was first adapted to languages other than French, many schemes were adopted, including mapping the native alphabet to the alphabetical order of French – eg. in English W, which was not in the French alphabet at the time, is mapped to braille X, X to Y, Y to Z, and Z to the first French accented letter – or completely rearranging the alphabet such that common letters are represented by the simplest braille patterns. Needless to say, mutual intelligibility was greatly hindered by this state of affairs. In 1878, the International Congress on Work for the Blind, held in Paris, proposed an international braille standard, where braille codes for different languages and scripts would be based, not on the order of a particular alphabet, but on phonetic correspondence and transliteration to Latin.^[17]

This unified braille has been applied to the languages of India and Africa, Arabic, Vietnamese, Hebrew, Russian, and Armenian, as well as nearly all Latin-script languages. Greek, for example, gamma is written as Latin g, despite the fact that it has the alphabetic position of c; Hebrew bet, the second letter of the alphabet and cognate with the Latin letter b, is sometimes pronounced /b/ and sometimes /v/, and is written b or v accordingly; Russian ts is written as c, which is the usual letter for /ts/ in those Slavic languages that use the Latin alphabet; and Arabic f is written as f, despite being historically p, and occurring in that part of the Arabic alphabet (between historic o and q).

Other braille adaptations[link]

Other systems for assigning value to braille patterns are also followed, including the simple mapping of the alphabetical order onto the original French braille order. Some systems of braille start with the unified braille, and then diverge significantly based on the phonology and structure of the target languages, while still other braille systems are completely novel, adopting positional forms, or even syllabic braille cells composed of separate vowel and consonant patterns.

In the case of Mandarin Braille, which is based on Zhuyin rather than the Latin Pinyin alphabet, traditional braille values are used for initial consonants and the simple vowels. In both Mandarin and Cantonese braille, however, each pattern has different values depending on whether they are placed in syllable-initial or syllable-final position. For instance, the block for Latin k, , represents Cantonese k (g in Yale and other modern romanizations) when initial, but aak when final, while Latin j, , represents Cantonese initial j but final oei.

Novel systems of braille mapping include Korean, which adopts separate syllable-initial and syllable-final forms for its consonants, explicitly grouping braille cells into syllabic groups in the same way as Hangul. Japanese, meanwhile, combines independent vowel dot patterns and modifier consonant dot patterns into a single braille cell – an abugida representation of each Japanese mora.

Uses[link]

The current series of Canadian banknotes has a tactile feature consisting of raised dots that indicate the denomination, allowing bills to be easily identified by visually impaired people. It does not use standard Braille; rather, the feature uses a system developed in consultation with blind and visually impaired Canadians after research indicated that not all potential users read Braille.

Mexican bank notes, Indian Rupee notes, and Israeli New Shekel notes^[18] also have special raised symbols to make them identifiable by the visually impaired.

In India there are instances where the parliament acts have been published in Braille, such as 'The Right to Information Act'.

In the United States, the Americans with Disabilities Act requires various building signage to be in Braille.

Unicode[link]

Braille was added to the Unicode Standard in September, 1999 with the release of version 3.0.

The Unicode block for Braille is U+2800 ... U+28FF:

References[link]

1. ^ Peter Daniels, 1996, "Analog and Digital Writing", in The World's Writing Systems, p 886
2. ^ Roy, Noëlle, "Louis Braille 1809–1852, a French genius", Valentin Haüy Association website, http://www.avh.asso.fr/download.php?chemin=rubriques/association/dwnld/&filename=Bio_Br_Paris_GB_060109.pdf, retrieved 2011-02-05 
3. ^ Madeleine Loomis, 1942, The Braille Reference Book [for Grades I, I½, and II].
4. ^ Shampa Boser (contact) (1999–2010), "About Braille: A Brief History", Canadian Braille Authority website, http://www.canadianbrailleauthority.ca/en/about_braille.php, retrieved 2010-08-12 
5. ^ Linda Perry, Martha Pamperin, Vileen Shah and Susan Fisher (2009), "Braille Numbers", Hadley School for the Blind website, http://www.hadley.edu/resources_list_detail.asp?resourceid=12, retrieved 2010-08-12 
6. ^ ^{a b} Dr. Grover (Russ) Whitehurst, Research: Evidence Based Education Science and the Challenge of Learning to Read, http://www.childrenofthecode.org/, retrieved 2009-04-20 
7. ^ American Foundation for the Blind: Programs and Policy Research, "Estimated Number of Adult Braille Readers in the United States", International Braille Research Center (IBRC), http://www.braille.org/papers/jvib0696/vb960329.htm, retrieved 2009-04-15 
8. ^ ^{a b c d} Ranalli, Ralph (2008-01-05), "A Boost for Braille", The Boston Globe, http://www.boston.com/news/local/articles/2008/01/05/a_boost_for_braille/, retrieved 2009-04-17 
9. ^ American Printing House for the Blind (2008), "Facts and Figures on Americans with Vision Loss", American Foundation for the Blind, http://www.afb.org/Section.asp?SectionID=15&DocumentID=4398, retrieved 2009-04-16 
10. ^ ^{a b c} Riles, Ruby, "The Impact of Braille Reading Skills on Employment, Income, Education, and Reading Habits", Braille Research Center, http://www.braille.org/papers/jvib0696/vb960311.htm, retrieved 2009-04-15 
11. ^ American Printing House for the Blind (A.P.H.) (1999), APH maintains an annual register of legally blind persons in educational settings below the college level, http://www.aph.org, retrieved 2009-04-15 
12. ^ Ebnet, Matthew (2001-06-30), "Braille Challenge Gives Young Blind Students a Chance to Shine", Los Angeles Times, http://articles.latimes.com/2001/jun/30/local/me-16960, retrieved 2009-04-15 
13. ^ Riles Ph.D., Ruby (2004), "Research Study: Early Braille Education Vital", Future Reflections, http://www.nfb.org/Images/nfb/Publications/fr/fr14/fr04se22.htm, retrieved 2009-04-15 
14. ^ Hampshire, Barry. Working with Braille. Paris: Unesco P, 1981.
15. ^ B.F. Holland, 'Speed and Pressure Factors in Braille Reading', Teachers Forum, Vol. 7, September 1934 pp. 13–17
16. ^ B. Lowenfield and G. L. Abel, Methods of Teaching Braille Reading Efficiency of Children in Lower Senior Classes. Birmingham, Research Centre for the Education of the Visually Handicapped, 1977
17. ^ "International Meeting on Braille Uniformity". UNESCO. http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0007/000711/071103eb.pdf. Retrieved 2012-04-24. 
18. ^ http://www.bankisrael.gov.il/catal/eng/cat_all_eng.htm?series_num=10

External links[link]

This article's use of external links may not follow Wikipedia's policies or guidelines. Please improve this article by removing excessive or inappropriate external links, and converting useful links where appropriate into footnote references. (February 2011)

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Braille

Organizations[link]

• Association Valentin Haüy
• Braille Authority of North America
• Braille – American Foundation for the Blind
• National Braille Week
• Scottish Braille Press
• Royal National Institute of Blind People
• Perkins School for the Blind
• National Braille Press – offers a free Braille alphabet card
• Alternate Text Production Center
• Accessible Media Center
• National Braille Association, Inc.
• Royal Blind School.
• Braille Institute of America
• Comité Internacional ProCiegos, IAP – México
• Esha – People for the Blind

Libraries[link]

• Libraries Australia – catalog of Braille in 800+ Australian libraries
• Washington Talking Book & Braille Library – serving residents of the State of Washington, USA
• Braille Institute: Online Public Access Catalog [1]

Learning[link]

• Free Online Interactive Braille Tutorial
• Learning Braille – RNIB (Royal National Institute of Blind People)
• Learn Braille on the Internet For Free
• Braille Bug – an educational site for kids, from the American Foundation for the Blind
• BRL: Braille Through Remote Learning
• On-line Braille Course of University of São Paulo
• Online Braille Generator
• A Braille alphabet card
• Learn Braille online, change own text to Braille, Braille Writer Simulator and more
• Braille Challenge competition for blind students in North America
• English Braille, American Edition 1994, 2002 revision. (The official standard from the Braille Authority of North America)
• Instruction manual for Braille Transcribing (New 2009 Edition) from the Library of Congress Braille Transcription and Certification Program
• BrailleSC.org – Tips, tricks, and resources for learning braille for individuals with visual impairments

History[link]

• Proceedings of “Braille 1809–2009: Writing with six dots and its future”, international conference held at the Headquarters of UNESCO (Paris) from 5 to 8 January 2009
• Celebrating 200 Years of Braille
• Happy Birthday Louis! RNIB celebrates the bicentenary of the birth of Louis Braille
• Louis Braille Online Museum – An all-new illustrated exhibit traces the history of braille and the life of this remarkable inventor.
• How Braille Began – a detailed history of Braille's origins and the people who supported and opposed the system.
• Robert B. Irwin's As I Saw It, 1955, gives a history of the "War of the Dots" that ultimately led to the adoption of the English form of the Braille literary code in the United States and the demise of American Braille and New York Point, its main competitors.
• Making a Newspaper For Sightless Readers: By means of raised dots and lines embossed on manila paper, news of the world is conveyed to the fingertips of the blind Popular Science (monthly, January 1919, pages 24–25, Scanned by Google Books)
• Historically Famous People who were Blind or Visually Impaired
• A precursor of the Braille system in the 13th century.

Documents[link]

• English Braille: American Edition
• Library of Congress Instructional Manual for Braille Transcribing
• Details on Braille cell representation
• Unified (English) Braille Code (including information specific to British Braille)
• Braille code for Russian and transliteration of Cyrillic

Legal[link]

• India-Right to Information Act in Braille
• US copyright exemption for Braille

Language specific resources[link]

• Bharati Braille for Indian Languages
• Braille Without Borders – Braille for Tibetans
• Greek Braille System

other computer resources[link]

• Duxbury DBT software supports Braille production for over 130 languages (offers free downloadable Braille Charts)
• Braille for scripts
• Unicode Braille TTF font (supports all Braille scripts)
• Free fonts which include Braille
• Free Converter from Russian and English to Braille

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