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Achaean League
The Achaean League (Greek: ) was a Hellenistic era confederation of Greek city states on the northern and central Peloponnese, named after the region of Achaea.
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Acropolis of Athens
The Acropolis of Athens or Citadel of Athens is the best known acropolis (Gr. akros, akron, edge, extremity + polis, city, pl. acropoleis) in the world. Although there are many other acropoleis in Greece, the significance of the Acropolis of Athens is such that it is commonly known as The Acropolis without qualification. The Acropolis was formally proclaimed as the pre-eminent monument on the European Cultural Heritage list of monuments on 26 March 2007. The Acropolis is a flat-topped rock that rises above sea level in the city of Athens, with a surface area of about 3 hectares. It was also known as Cecropia, after the legendary serpent-man, Cecrops, the first Athenian king.
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Aegean Sea
The Aegean Sea (, Egeo Pelagos ; ) is an elongated embayment of the Mediterranean Sea located between the southern Balkan and Anatolian peninsulas, i.e., between the mainlands of Greece and Turkey respectively. In the north, it is connected to the Marmara Sea and Black Sea by the Dardanelles and Bosporus. The Aegean Islands are within the sea and some bound it on its southern periphery, including Crete and Rhodes. The Aegean Region consists of nine provinces in southwestern Turkey, in part bordering on the Aegean sea.
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Alexandria
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Anatolia
Anatolia (, from Greek '; also Asia Minor, from , ') is a geographic and historical term denoting the westernmost protrusion of Asia, comprising the majority of the Republic of Turkey. The region is bounded by the Black Sea to the north, Georgia to the northeast, the Armenian Highland to the east, Mesopotamia to the southeast, the Mediterranean Sea to the south and the Aegean Sea to the west. Anatolia has been home to many civilizations throughout history, such as the Hittites, Phrygians, Lydians, Persians, Greeks, Assyrians, Armenians, Romans, Byzantines, Anatolian Seljuks and Ottomans. As a result, Anatolia is one of the archeologically richest areas in the world.
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Ancient Athens
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Antioch
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Arcadia
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Areopagus
:This article concerns the place where a classical judicial body met. It is also the term for the judicial body which met there. For the 16th century literary movement, see Areopagus (poetry). For the regional government during the Greek War of Independence, see Areopagus of Eastern Continental Greece. For the modern Greek Supreme Court, see Court of Cassation (Greece).
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Attalid dynasty
The Attalid dynasty was a Hellenistic dynasty that ruled the city of Pergamon after the death of Lysimachus, a general of Alexander the Great. The Attalid kingdom was the rump state left after the collapse of the Lysimachian Empire. One of Lysimachus' officers, Philetaerus, took control of the city in 282 BC. The later Attalids were descended from his father, and they expanded the city into a kingdom. Attalus I proclaimed himself King in the 230s BC, following his victories over the Galatians. The Attalids ruled Pergamon until Attalus III bequeathed the kingdom to the Roman Republic in 133 BC to avoid a likely succession crisis.
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Battle of Adrianople
The Battle of Adrianople (August 9, 378), sometimes known as the Battle of Hadrianopolis, was fought between a Roman army led by the Roman Emperor Valens and Gothic rebels (largely Thervings as well as Greutungs, non-Gothic Alans, and various local rebels) led by Fritigern. The battle took place about 8 miles or 13 kilometers north of Adrianople (modern Edirne in European Turkey, near the border with Greece and Bulgaria) in the Roman province of Thracia and ended with an overwhelming victory for the Goths.
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Classical Athens
The city of Athens during the classical period of Ancient Greece (508-322 BC) was a notable polis (city-state) of Attica, Greece, leading the Delian League in the Peloponnesian War against Sparta and the Peloponnesian League. Athenian democracy was established in 508 BC under Cleisthenes following the tyranny of Hippias. This system remained remarkably stable, and with a few brief interruptions remained in place for 180 years, until 322 BC (aftermath of Lamian War) . The peak of Athenian hegemony was achieved in the 440s to 430s BC, known as the Age of Pericles.
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Cleomenean War
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Crete
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Cyprus
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Dardanelles
The Dardanelles (, ), formerly known as the Hellespont
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El Salvador
El Salvador (; , literally meaning "Republic of The Savior") is the smallest and also the most densely populated country in Central America. It borders the Pacific Ocean between Guatemala and Honduras. It lies on the Gulf of Fonseca, as do Honduras and Nicaragua further south.
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Ephesus
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Ionian Sea
The Ionian Sea is an arm of the Mediterranean Sea, south of the Adriatic Sea. It is bounded by southern Italy including Calabria, Sicily and the Salento peninsula to the west, and by southwestern Albania, including Saranda and Himara, and a large number of Greek islands, including Corfu, Zante, Kephalonia, Ithaka, and Lefkas to the east. The islands are collectively referred to as the Ionian Islands, and other islands include the Strophades, Sphagia, Schiza, Sapientza and Kythira. The sea is one of the most seismic areas in the world.
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Laconia
:For the ancient region, see Laconia (ancient region) and Sparta
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Messenia
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Miletus
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Parnon
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Parthenon
The Parthenon (Ancient Greek: ) is a temple in the Athenian Acropolis, Greece, dedicated to the Greek goddess Athena, whom the people of Athens considered their protector. Its construction began in 447 BCE and was completed in 438 BCE, although decorations of the Parthenon continued until 431 BCE. It is the most important surviving building of Classical Greece, generally considered to be the culmination of the development of the Doric order. Its decorative sculptures are considered some of the high points of Greek art. The Parthenon is regarded as an enduring symbol of Ancient Greece and of Athenian democracy and one of the world's greatest cultural monuments. The Greek Ministry of Culture is currently carrying out a programme of selective restoration and reconstruction to ensure the stability of the partially ruined structure.
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Peloponnese
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Pergamon
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Persia
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Sparta
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Temple of Hephaestus
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Temple of Zeus
The Temple of Zeus at Olympia, was an ancient Greek temple in Olympia, Greece, dedicated to the chief of the gods, Zeus. It was the very model of the fully-developed classical Greek temple of the Doric order. The temple, built between 472 and 456 BC, stood in the most famous sanctuary of Greece, which had been dedicated to local and Pan-Hellenic deities and had probably been established towards the end of the Mycenaean period. The Altis, the enclosure with its sacred grove, open-air altars and the tumulus of Pelops, was first formed during the tenth and ninth centuries BCE, when the cult of Zeus was joined the already establish cult here of Hera.
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Thermopylae
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Troy
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Tsakonia
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Zeus
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Adolf Hitler
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Aeschylus
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Aesop
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Agesilaus II
Agesilaus II, or Agesilaos II (Greek ) (444 BC – 360 BC) was a king of Sparta, of the Eurypontid dynasty, ruling from approximately 400 BC to 360 BC, during most of which time he was, in Plutarch's words, "as good as thought commander and king of all Greece," and was for the whole of it greatly identified with his country's deeds and fortunes.
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Agis III
Agis III (Gr. ), son of Archidamus III, was the 20th Eurypontid king of Sparta.
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Agis IV
:For other uses of this name, see Agis.
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Alamanni
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Alcaeus of Mytilene
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Alcibiades
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Alexander the Great
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Anaxagoras
Anaxagoras (, "lord of the assembly"; c. 500 BC – 428 BC) was a Pre-Socratic Greek philosopher. Born in Clazomenae in Asia Minor, Anaxagoras was the first philosopher to bring philosophy from Ionia to Athens. He attempted to give a scientific account of eclipses, meteors, rainbows, and the sun, which he described as a fiery mass larger than the Peloponnese. He was accused of contravening the established religion and was forced to flee to Lampsacus.
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Anaximander
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Antipater
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Antisthenes
Antisthenes (; c. 445-c. 365 BCE) was a Greek philosopher and a pupil of Socrates. Antisthenes first learned rhetoric under Gorgias before becoming an ardent disciple of Socrates. He adopted and developed the ethical side of Socrates' teachings, advocating an ascetic life lived in accordance with virtue. Later writers regarded him as the founder of Cynic philosophy.
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Archilochus
:For the hummingbird genus, see ''Archilochus.
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Archimedes
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Aristophanes
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Aristotle
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Aspasia
Aspasia (ca. 470 BC–ca. 400 BC, Greek: ) was a Milesian woman who was famous for her involvement with the Athenian statesman Pericles. Very little is known about the details of her life. She spent most of her adult life in Athens, and she may have influenced Pericles and Athenian politics. She is mentioned in the writings of Plato, Aristophanes, Xenophon, and other authors of the day.
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Augustus
:For other uses of Octavius, see Octavius (disambiguation). For other uses of Octavian, see Octavian (disambiguation). For other uses of Augustus, see Augustus (disambiguation).
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Bacchylides
Bacchylides () (5th century BC) was an Ancient Greek lyric poet. Later Greeks included him in the canonical list of nine lyric poets which included his uncle Simonides. The elegance and polished style of his lyrics have been a commonplace of Bacchylidean scholarship since at least Longinus (De Sublimitate 33,5). Some scholars however have associated these qualities with superficial charm. He has often been compared unfavourably with his contemporary, Pindar, as "a kind of Boccherini to Pindar's Haydn", yet the differences in their styles doesn't allow for easy comparison and "to blame Bacchylides for not being Pindar is as childish a judgement as to condemn...Marvel for missing the grandeur of Milton." His career coincided with the ascendency of dramatic styles of poetry, as embodied in the works of Aeschylus or Sophocles, and he is in fact one of the last poets of major significance within the more ancient tradition of purely lyric poetry. The most notable features of his lyrics are their clarity in expression and simplicity of thought, making them an ideal introduction to the study of Greek lyric poetry in general and to Pindar's verse in particular.
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Boudica
Boudica (; also spelled Boudicca), formerly known as Boadicea and known in Welsh as "Buddug" (d. AD 60 or 61) was queen of a Celtic tribe who led an uprising against the occupying forces of the Roman Empire.
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Chilon of Sparta
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Chionis of Sparta
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Cleomenes I
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Cleomenes III
Cleomenes III () was the King of Sparta from 235-222 BC. He succeeded to the Agiad throne of Sparta after his father, Leonidas II in 235 BC.
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Conon
Conon () (bef. 444 BC - aft. 394 BC) was an Athenian general at the end of the Peloponnesian War, in charge during the decisive loss of the navy at the Battle of Aegospotami. He had been sent out following the recall of Alcibiades in 406 BC, and pursued the Peloponnesian fleet under Lysander to the Hellespont. There it took a strong defensive position at Lampsacus and the Athenians, as they could not lure them out, retreated to Aegospotami. Alcibiades came to warn them of the danger of their position, as they were at an open beach without harbors, and advised them to move to Sestos about two miles distant where they were retrieving supplies from, but was ignored and perhaps ridiculed.
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Democritus
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Demosthenes
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Diodorus Siculus
Diodorus Siculus (Greek: ), was a Greek historian who lived in the 1st century BC. According to Diodorus' own work, he was born at Agyrium in Sicily (now called Agira). With one exception, antiquity affords no further information about Diodorus' life and doings beyond what is to be found in his own work, Bibliotheca historica. Only Jerome, in his Chronicon under the year of Abraham 1968 (49 BC), writes, "Diodorus of Sicily, a writer of Greek history, became illustrious". His English translator, Charles Henry Oldfather, remarks on the "striking coincidence" that one of only two known Greek inscriptions from Agyrium (I.G. XIV, 588) is the tombstone of one "Diodorus, the son of Apollonius".
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Diogenes of Sinope
Diogenes of Sinope ( Diogenes ho Sinopeus), was a Greek philosopher and one of the founders of Cynic philosophy. Also known as Diogenes the Cynic, he was born in Sinope (modern-day Sinop, Turkey) in 412 or 404 BCE
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Dorian Greeks
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Dorians
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Edgar Degas
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Empedocles
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Epaminondas
Epaminondas (Greek: ) (ca. 410 BC – 362 BC) or Epameinondas was a Theban general and statesman of the 4th century BC who transformed the Ancient Greek city-state of Thebes, leading it out of Spartan subjugation into a preeminent position in Greek politics. In the process he broke Spartan military power with his victory at Leuctra and liberated the Messenian helots, a group of Peloponnesian Greeks who had been enslaved under Spartan rule for some 230 years, having been defeated in the Messenian War ending in 600 BC. Epaminondas reshaped the political map of Greece, fragmented old alliances, created new ones, and supervised the construction of entire cities. He was militarily influential as well, inventing and implementing several major battlefield tactics.
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Epicurus
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Ernle Bradford
Ernle D. S. Bradford (born January 11, 1922, at Cole Green, Norfolk, England - died May 8, 1986) was a noted 20th century British historian specializing in the Mediterranean world and naval topics. A keen yachtsman himself, Bradford spent almost 30 years sailing the Mediterranean, and many of his books are set there. His book, The Journeying Moon describes some of these voyages. It ends with the sale of his Bristol Channel Pilot Cutter, Mischief, to HW Tilman, who made a number of significant voyages in it to high latitudes. Bradford lived in Kalkara, Malta for a number of years. Sometime BBC broadcaster and magazine editor, Bradford was a prolific author.
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Euclid
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Euripides
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Eusebius of Caesarea
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Germanic Wars
The Germanic Wars is a name given to a series of wars between the Romans and various Germanic tribes between 113 BC and 439 A.D. The nature of these wars varied through time between Roman conquest, Germanic uprisings and later Germanic invasions in the Roman Empire that started in the late 2nd century. The series of conflicts which began in the 5th century, under the Western Roman Emperor Honorius, led (along with internal strife) to the ultimate downfall of the Western Roman Empire.
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Gorgias
Gorgias (, ca. 485-c.380 BCE) "the Nihilist", Greek sophist, pre-socratic philosopher and rhetorician, was a native of Leontini in Sicily. Along with Protagoras, he forms the first generation of Sophists. Several doxographers report that he was a pupil of Empedocles, although he would only have been a few years younger. "Like other Sophists he was an itinerant, practicing in various cities and giving public exhibitions of his skill at the great pan-Hellenic centers of Olympia and Delphi, and charged fees for his instruction and performances. A special feature of his displays was to invite miscellaneous questions from the audience and give impromptu replies."
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Helen of Troy
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Heraclitus
Heraclitus of Ephesus (Ancient Greek: — ; c. 535–c. 475 BCE) was a pre-Socratic Greek philosopher, a native of the Greek city Ephesus, Ionia, on the coast of Asia Minor. He was of distinguished parentage. Little is known about his early life and education, but he regarded himself as self-taught and a pioneer of wisdom. From the lonely life he led, and still more from the riddling nature of his philosophy and his contempt for humankind in general, he was called "The Obscure," and the "Weeping Philosopher."
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Herodotus
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Hesiod
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Hipparchus
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Hippocrates
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Hipponax
Hipponax of Ephesus was an Ancient Greek iambic poet.
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Homer
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Hypatia
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Ibycus
Ibycus (Ancient Greek: ) (6th century BC), was an Ancient Greek lyric poet. He was included in the canonical list of nine lyric poets by the scholars of Hellenistic Alexandria. The extant fragments of his work contain the earliest-known example of the triadic choral lyric and epinician poetry.
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Isidore of Seville
Saint Isidore of Seville (Spanish: or , Latin: ) (c. 560 – 4 April 636) was Archbishop of Seville for more than three decades and is considered, as the historian Montalembert put it in an oft-quoted phrase, "le dernier savant du monde ancien" ("the last scholar of the ancient world"). Indeed, all the later medieval history-writing of Hispania (the Iberian Peninsula, comprising modern Spain and Portugal) was based on his histories.
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Karl Otfried Müller
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Leonidas
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Leonidas I
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Leucippus
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Lycurgus of Sparta
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Lysander
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Machiavelli
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Maniots
http://wn.com/Maniots -
Marcomannic Wars
The Marcomannic Wars (called by the Romans bellum Germanicum or expeditio Germanica) were a series of wars lasting over a dozen years from about AD 166 until 180. These wars pitted the Roman Empire against the Marcomanni, Quadi and other Germanic peoples, along both sides of the upper and middle Danube. The struggle against the Germanic invasions occupied the major part of the reign of Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius, and it was during his campaigns against them that he started writing his philosophical work Meditations, whose first book bears the note "Among the Quadi at the Granua".
http://wn.com/Marcomannic_Wars -
Menelaus
In Greek mythology, Menelaus (Ancient Greek: ) was a legendary king of Mycenaean (pre-Dorian) Sparta, the husband of Helen, and a central figure in the Trojan War. He was the son of Atreus and Aerope, and brother of Agamemnon king of Mycenae and leader of the Greek army during the War. Prominent in both the Iliad and Odyssey, Menelaus was also popular in Greek vase painting and Greek tragedy; the latter more as a hero of the Trojan War than as a member of the doomed House of Atreus.
http://wn.com/Menelaus -
Milo of Croton
http://wn.com/Milo_of_Croton -
Orosius
Paulus Orosius (b. circa 375, d. not before 418), less often Paul Orosius in English, was a Christian historian, theologian and student of Augustine of Hippo from Gallaecia. He is best known for his Historiarum Adversum Paganos Libri VII ("Seven Books of History Against the Pagans"), which he wrote in response to the belief that the decline of the Roman Empire was the result of its adoption of Christianity.
http://wn.com/Orosius -
Otto of Greece
http://wn.com/Otto_of_Greece -
Parmenides
Parmenides of Elea (Greek: ; fl. early 5th century BCE) was an ancient Greek philosopher born in Elea, a Greek city on the southern coast of Italy. He was the founder of the Eleatic school of philosophy. The single known work of Parmenides is a poem which has survived only in fragmentary form. In this poem, Parmenides describes two views of reality. In The Way of Truth (a part of the poem), he explains how reality is one, change is impossible, and existence is timeless, uniform, and unchanging. In The Way of Opinion, he explains the world of appearances, which is false and deceitful. These thoughts strongly influenced Plato, and through him, the whole of Western philosophy.
http://wn.com/Parmenides -
Paul Cartledge
Paul Anthony Cartledge (born 24 March 1947) is the first A. G. Leventis Professor of Greek Culture at Cambridge University, having previously held a personal chair in Greek History at Cambridge.
http://wn.com/Paul_Cartledge -
Pausanias (general)
http://wn.com/Pausanias_(general) -
Pericles
http://wn.com/Pericles -
Philip II of Macedon
http://wn.com/Philip_II_of_Macedon -
Pindar
http://wn.com/Pindar -
Plato
:For other uses, see Plato (disambiguation) and Platon (disambiguation).
http://wn.com/Plato -
Plutarch
http://wn.com/Plutarch -
Polybius
http://wn.com/Polybius -
Protagoras
Protagoras (Greek: ) (ca. 490– 420 BC) was a pre-Socratic Greek philosopher and is numbered as one of the sophists by Plato. In his dialogue Protagoras, Plato credits him with having invented the role of the professional sophist or teacher of virtue. He is also believed to have created a major controversy during ancient times through his statement that man is the measure of all things. This idea was very revolutionary for the time and contrasting to other philosophical doctrines that claimed the universe was based on something objective, outside the human influence.
http://wn.com/Protagoras -
Ptolemy
http://wn.com/Ptolemy -
Pyrrhus of Epirus
Pyrrhus or Pyrrhos (, Pyrros; 319-272 BC) was a Greek general of the Hellenistic era. He was king of the Greek tribe of Molossians, of the royal Aeacid house (from ca. 297 BC), and later he became King of Epirus (306-302, 297-272 BC) and Macedon (288-284, 273-272 BC). He was one of the strongest opponents of early Rome. Some of his battles, though successful, cost him heavy losses, from which the term "Pyrrhic victory" was coined. He is the subject of one of Plutarch's Parallel Lives.
http://wn.com/Pyrrhus_of_Epirus -
Pythagoras
Pythagoras of Samos (, O Pythagoras o Samios, "Pythagoras the Samian", or simply ; c. 570-c. 495 BC) was an Ionian Greek philosopher and founder of the religious movement called Pythagoreanism. Most of our information about Pythagoras was written down centuries after he lived, thus very little reliable information is known about him. He was born on the island of Samos, and may have travelled widely in his youth, visiting Egypt and other places seeking knowledge. Around 530 BC, he moved to Croton, a Greek colony in southern Italy, and there set up a religious sect. His followers pursued the religious rites and practices developed by Pythagoras, and studied his philosophical theories. The society took an active role in the politics of Croton, but this eventually led to their downfall. The Pythagorean meeting-places were burned, and Pythagoras was forced to flee the city. He is said to have ended his days in Metapontum.
http://wn.com/Pythagoras -
Sappho
Sappho ( in English; Attic Greek ' , Aeolic Greek ' ) was an Ancient Greek poet, born on the island of Lesbos. Later Greeks included her in the list of nine lyric poets. Her birth was sometime between 630 and 612 BC, and it is said that she died around 570 BC, but little is known for certain about her life. The bulk of her poetry, which was well-known and greatly admired throughout antiquity, has been lost, but her immense reputation has endured through surviving fragments.
http://wn.com/Sappho -
Sicilian revolt
The Sicilian revolt was a revolution against the Second Triumvirate of the Roman Republic which occurred between 44 BC and 36 BC. The revolt was led by Sextus Pompeius, and ended in a Triumvirate victory.
http://wn.com/Sicilian_revolt -
Simonides of Ceos
http://wn.com/Simonides_of_Ceos -
Socrates
http://wn.com/Socrates -
Solon
Solon (ancient Greek: , c. 638 BC–558 BC) was an Athenian statesman, lawmaker, and poet. He is remembered particularly for his efforts to legislate against political, economic and moral decline in archaic Athens. His reforms failed in the short term yet he is often credited with having laid the foundations for Athenian democracy.
http://wn.com/Solon -
Sophocles
http://wn.com/Sophocles -
Stesichorus
Stesichorus (Ancient Greek: , circa 640 - 555 BC) was the first great poet of the Greek West. He is best known for telling epic stories in lyric metres but he is also famous for some ancient traditions about his life, such as his opposition to the tyrant Phalaris, and the blindness he is said to have incurred and cured by composing verses first insulting and then flattering to Helen of Troy. He was ranked among the nine lyric poets esteemed by the scholars of Hellenistic Alexandria and yet his work attracted relatively little interest among ancient commentators, which in turn left a disproportionate number of gaps in the modern record as one scholar observed in 1967: "Time has dealt more harshly with Stesichorus than with any other major lyric poet." Recent discoveries, recorded on Egyptian papyrus (notably and controversially, the Lille papyrus, in 1974), have enhanced modern understanding of his work, confirming his role as a link between Homer's epic narrative and the lyric narrative of poets like Pindar.
http://wn.com/Stesichorus -
Thales of Miletus
http://wn.com/Thales_of_Miletus -
Themistocles
Themistocles (Greek: ; "Glory of the Law"); c. 524–459 BC, was an Athenian politician and general. He was one of a new breed of politicians who rose to prominence in the early years of the Athenian democracy, along with his great rival Aristides. As a politician, Themistocles was a populist, having the support of lower class Athenians, and generally being at odds with the Athenian nobility. Elected archon in 493 BC, he took steps to increase the naval power of Athens, which would be a recurring theme in his political career. During the first Persian invasion of Greece, he fought at the Battle of Marathon, and was possibly one of the 10 Athenian strategoi (generals) in that battle.
http://wn.com/Themistocles -
Thucydides
http://wn.com/Thucydides -
Timocreon
Timocreon, of Ialysus in Rhodes, was a Greek lyric poet who flourished about 480 BC.
http://wn.com/Timocreon -
Trojan War
In Greek mythology, the Trojan War was waged against the city of Troy by the Achaeans (Greeks) after Paris of Troy took Helen from her husband Menelaus, the king of Sparta. The war is among the most important events in Greek mythology and was narrated in many works of Greek literature, including the Iliad and the Odyssey by Homer. "The Iliad" relates a part of the last year of the siege of Troy, while the Odyssey describes the journey home of Odysseus, one of the Achaean leaders. Other parts of the war were told in a cycle of epic poems, which has only survived in fragments. Episodes from the war provided material for Greek tragedy and other works of Greek literature, and for Roman poets like Virgil and Ovid.
http://wn.com/Trojan_War -
Visigoths
The Visigoths () were one of two main branches of the Goths, an East Germanic tribe; the Ostrogoths being the other. Together these tribes were among the barbarians who disturbed the late Roman Empire during the Migration Period. The romanized Visigoths first emerged as a distinct people during the 4th century, initially in the Balkans, where they participated in several wars with Rome. A Visigothic army under Alaric I eventually moved into Italy and famously sacked Rome in 410.
http://wn.com/Visigoths -
William Martin Leake
http://wn.com/William_Martin_Leake -
Xenophon
http://wn.com/Xenophon -
Zeno of Citium
http://wn.com/Zeno_of_Citium
karaoke
I’m gonna make it up to you
So help me carry through
Moving back and forth
I’m taking back my youth
If you mind I don’t mind
If you mind I don’t mind
I will break these diamonds
Swallow your spine and
Fight them all
If you mind I don’t mind
If you mind I don’t mind
I will break this silence
Follow your words and
Fight them all
Come and face my crimes
I’ll let my mines appear
Disillusion is near
So now I lie to make it disappear
Standing on my feet
I will break these diamonds
Swallow your spine and
Fight them all
I will prove them wrong
And make it disappear
I’m gonna hate them like you would
Deceiving silent rules
Waited for so long
I want my time to fool
Cause I can make it on my own
And save my shaking throne
Moving back and forth
I’m taking back my youth
If you mind I don’t mind
If you mind I don’t mind
I will break these diamonds
Swallow your spine and
Fight them all
If you mind I don’t mind
If you mind I don’t mind
I will break these diamonds
Swallow your words and
Fight them all
Come and face my crimes
I’ll let my mines appear
Disillusion is near
So now I lie to make it disappear
Standing on my feet
I will break these diamonds
Swallow your spine and
Fight them all
I will prove them wrong
And make it disappear
Come and face my crimes
I’ll let my mines appear
Disillusion is near
So now I lie to make it disappear
Standing on my feet
I will break these diamonds
Swallow your words and
Fight them all
I will prove them wrong
And make it disappear
RELEASE
ALBUMS
- Untreatable Disease
- Crawl
- Unstitch Your Mouth
- Taking Back Control
- Erase It Again
- Atlas
- The Most Vicious Crime
- False Start
- Weather the Storm
- Red. Right. Return. (Straight in Our Hands)
- Without a Sound
- Translations
- Born and Buried
- Guns of Memorial Park
- Hiss the Villain
- While Oceana Sleeps
- La Cerca
- Breaking the Broken
- Lines in Sand
- End Moraine
- Death in the Family
- Syncope
- Tensioning
- Travel by Bloodline
- P.O.M.E.
- From Now to Never
- Splinters
- Cut Your Ribbon
- Air
- Mye
- Collapse
- Sans Cosm
- Light Burns Clear
- Cataract
- Red Alibi
- Rx Coup
- Glasshouse Tarot
- Echodyne Harmonic
- Assemble the Empire
Send this Playlist by SMS
Email this Page
The Mean Kitty Song
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:30
- Published: 05 Sep 2007
- Updated: 14 Oct 2012
NOW AVAILABLE on iTunes: itunes.apple.com LYRICS: I got this little kitty about 2 months back he was the nicest little kitty, now a pain in my crack This little kitty is a ninja, always stalking my feet This little kitty is a warrior you know what I mean he's an evil little kitty look what he did to my hand tries to get in trouble in any way that he can I could give this cat a toy, but he'd rather have the wrapper and I will always give him water, but he still drinks from the crapper You could lock him in a closet and he just won't care kitty chews on my shoes and he licks my hair always scratching on my favorite chair and jumping on the couch playing in the window sills and tearing through the house He's so full of energy and easily amused kitty will attack anything that moves Causing trouble, starting battles just so he could be a little part of he's a meanest little kitty so we named him sparta Hey little sparta what is with all the fight little bitty kitty wanna bite bite bite Hey little sparta what is with all the fight little bitty kitty wanna bite bite bite Hey little sparta what is with all the fight little bitty kitty wanna bite bite bite Hey little sparta what is with all the fight little bitty kitty wanna bite Where'd you go are you stalking me? are you under the couch, quite possibly ears laid back so you don't get caught ready to pounce my leg with everything that you got I know you're probably watching me from across the room concentrating contemplating on <b>...</b>
http://wn.com/The_Mean_Kitty_Song
This is Sparta. Full scene.
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:21
- Published: 28 Mar 2007
- Updated: 13 Oct 2012
The full scene from 300.
http://wn.com/This_is_Sparta_Full_scene
300 This Is Sparta
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:49
- Published: 26 Mar 2007
- Updated: 13 Oct 2012
Madness? This is Sparta!
http://wn.com/300_This_Is_Sparta
This Is Sparta! Techno Music Mix!!
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:42
- Published: 03 Oct 2007
- Updated: 13 Oct 2012
signup.leagueoflegends.com Play League of Legends, a great, fun, addicting, rts pc game. And best of all it's FREE!~ Click the link above to get started :) READ!! Video description and song details below Just a public announcement! Thanks to all who have viewed, rated, subscribed, and commented this video and making it to 1000000 VIEWS :D. I really appreciate all the love for my video i don't know if any other of my videos will surpass the popularity of this one but i will continue to make videos, more varieties then just music videos, so check them out whenever you get the chance. Thank you again all :) THIS IS SPARTA!!! AFRO-G (formerly WTF Productions) presents... This Is Sparta! Techno Music Mix!! Created By Anthony Hoffmann Music by Keaton (Funtastic Power) 300_This_is_Sparta_EXTENDED_mix Keatons Website : www.keaton-world.com Keatons Youtube: www.youtube.com I am the original maker of the video. Not the song. If you enjoyed the video please add me and subscribe to my videos :) Oh and dont forget to rate it and tell me what you think. I put alot of hard work into it and it deserves more recognition and i think alot of people should see it and laugh :D Extra Tags Below This is sparta techno music keaton new gif gifs 300 spartans persians King Leonidas spoof parody This is Sparta sparta! Techno remix 300 This is SPARTA!!! EXTENDED Version Remix~ Part rave dance
http://wn.com/This_Is_Sparta!_Techno_Music_Mix!!
Ancient warriors-Spartans
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 25:14
- Published: 10 Feb 2011
- Updated: 13 Oct 2012
This is Sparta! Last techno remix
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:13
- Published: 14 Dec 2007
- Updated: 13 Oct 2012
THIS IS SPARTAAAA...!
http://wn.com/This_is_Sparta!_Last_techno_remix
300 - This is madness. This is Sparta.
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 0:56
- Published: 09 Apr 2007
- Updated: 13 Oct 2012
From the epic movie '300' - based on the famous graphic novel of Frank Miller - the very end of the negotiation between the Persian messenger and the Spartan King Leonidas. "THIS IS SPARTA!"
http://wn.com/300_This_is_madness_This_is_Sparta
300 SPARTANS
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 8:06
- Published: 02 Apr 2007
- Updated: 13 Oct 2012
I made this video from the best scenes of the movie "300" which is based on Frank Miller's graphic novel. Songs i used are: 1. Requiem for a dream - Clint Mansell 2. The Bridge of Khazad Dum - LOTR soundtrack 3. Strength and Honor - Gladiator soundtrack Enjoy... In 480 BC, the Persian king Xerxes sent his massive army to conquer Greece. The Greek city of Sparta had the finest warriors of the world and 300 of these soldiers were chosen to meet the Persians in the mountain pass of Thermopylae. Vastly outnumbered, the Spartans held back the enemy in one of the most famous last stands of history.
http://wn.com/300_SPARTANS
8. Sparta
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 75:09
- Published: 20 Nov 2008
- Updated: 02 Oct 2012
Introduction to Ancient Greek History (CLCV 205) In this lecture, Professor Donald Kagan explores the rise, fall, and significance of tyrannies in the Greek polis. He argues that the various tyrannies in the Greek world had both negative and positive aspects, which need to be appreciated. For instance, on the one hand, tyrannies promoted economic, commercial and artistic advances. On the other hand, tyrannies ruled absolutely and curbed the freedom of the polis. Finally, Professor Kagan intimates that tyrannies in many ways were a necessary step in the development of the classical polis. In short, through tyrannies, the power and influence of the aristocracy was broken and the hoplite farmer grew greater in significance. 00:00 - Chapter 1. Theorizing Why the Hoplite Phalanx Was Not Adopted by Others 10:34 - Chapter 2. How Greeks Understood Tyranny 21:15 - Chapter 3. The Rise of Greek Tyranny 40:18 - Chapter 4. Herodotus's Story of Orthagoras at Sicyon 50:25 - Chapter 5. The Story of Gyges and Unconventional Power 54:35 - Chapter 6. Features of Tyrannies 01:08:23 - Chapter 7. Consequences of Tyranny to Greek Life Complete course materials are available at the Open Yale Courses website: open.yale.edu This course was recorded in Fall 2007.
http://wn.com/8_Sparta
10 hours videos: This is sparta!! remix
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 600:01
- Published: 27 Aug 2011
- Updated: 14 Oct 2012
This is spartaaa!!!!!!!
http://wn.com/10_hours_videos_This_is_sparta!!_remix
300 - Movie Trailer
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:55
- Published: 05 Oct 2006
- Updated: 13 Oct 2012
300 - Movie Trailer
http://wn.com/300_Movie_Trailer
Sparta giving birth to 6 kittens
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 9:36
- Published: 27 Apr 2011
- Updated: 14 Oct 2012
This Video about our cat Sparta giving birth to 6 kittens. Includes her pregnancy, birthing, and weaning. She really ask us to join her during the birth. It's like: - hey come-on upstairs, it's time. FAQ : We got a little kitten on Christmas 2009 and we named her Sparta because we just loved The Mean Kitty Song about Sparta. Sparta is from the Bengal clan. We understand warnings about cats population .We keep her in the house to avoid her from pregnancy . We planning to spade her in future . All these wonderful new little kittens all got adopted into wonderful homes. Sparta lives in London (UK) and the people that were talking in the background was in Lithuanian. Camcorder Sony HDR XR 550VE were used to make this video. Thank you for welcoming and supportive comments : I couldn't stop crying because they were so adorable I've never seen a cat giving birth to kittens. It was a wonderful experience, I hope to see it for real, one day. laughed so hard at 3:34 lol I thought the cat was a dog for a second My heart is in pieces, it has never exploded this many times in a row before. 6:07 BEST. CAT SMILING. EVER. I've never seen or heard a cat pant before This is probably the most precious video I have ever seen.. Thank you for posting! :) nice pattern they have there. At 8:37, the kitten is like "What the? Who's licking at my butt?" Ha-ha! He didn't see that coming! 7:31 the little kitten's thinking 'is it safe to go on grass on not' I have to say I don't like watching <b>...</b>
http://wn.com/Sparta_giving_birth_to_6_kittens
9. Sparta (cont.)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 73:06
- Published: 20 Nov 2008
- Updated: 02 Oct 2012
Introduction to Ancient Greek History (CLCV 205) In this lecture, Professor Donald Kagan explores the development and character of Sparta. He points out that in Sparta, the ethos of the polis was present to an extraordinary degree. Then he describes how this came about. In short, Professor Kagan argues that the Spartans were able to create a distinct military culture on account of their subjugation of the inhabitants of Messenia, who were forced to carry on the work of farming while the Spartans trained for war. Finally, Professor Kagan examines the education and training of the Spartan citizen as well as the constitution of Sparta. 00:00 - Chapter 1. An Introduction to Sparta and Its Roots 20:34 - Chapter 2. Understanding Spartan Slavery and Its Implications 25:25 - Chapter 3. The Training and Education of a Spartan Boy 43:13 - Chapter 4. Sameness, Contradiction and Inequality 49:44 - Chapter 5. Women's Roles in Spartan Society 57:48 - Chapter 6. The Importance of the Polis and Its Needs 01:07:01 - Chapter 7. The Formal Spartan Constitution Complete course materials are available at the Open Yale Courses website: open.yale.edu This course was recorded in Fall 2007.
http://wn.com/9_Sparta_cont
Sparta- Daivd Letterman
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:35
- Published: 17 Dec 2006
- Updated: 02 Oct 2012
Sparta playing "Breaking The Broken" On the David Letterman Show
http://wn.com/Sparta_Daivd_Letterman
300 This is Sparta Remix!!!
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:23
- Published: 09 May 2007
- Updated: 13 Oct 2012
Here's a video I made using the trailers of 300 and a song made by Keaton from Keatons World. The song is called This is Sparta remix by keaton. theres a website that you can download it off of. www.keaton-world.com Enjoy!!!
http://wn.com/300_This_is_Sparta_Remix!!!
Spartans, What is your Profession?
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:11
- Published: 12 Jan 2008
- Updated: 13 Oct 2012
In 300, King Leonidas Meets Daxos and the other Arcadians
http://wn.com/Spartans,_What_is_your_Profession?
Sparta - Cut Your Ribbon
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:07
- Published: 16 Jun 2009
- Updated: 10 Oct 2012
Music video by Sparta performing Cut Your Ribbon. (C) 2002 SKG Music LLC
http://wn.com/Sparta_Cut_Your_Ribbon
300 - this is sparta
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 0:16
- Published: 19 Feb 2007
- Updated: 13 Oct 2012
- madness? this is sparta!
http://wn.com/300_this_is_sparta
Meet the Spartans 300 TRAILER
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:31
- Published: 18 Aug 2008
- Updated: 14 Oct 2012
The meet the spartans, 300 style
http://wn.com/Meet_the_Spartans_300_TRAILER
Sparta "Taking Back Control" Music Video for THE INVISIBLE!
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:53
- Published: 05 Feb 2007
- Updated: 13 Oct 2012
Check out Sparta's new music video for "Taking Back Control," as featured in the upcoming supernatural thriller THE INVISIBLE -- in theaters April 27th! To hear more, visit www.myspace.com
http://wn.com/Sparta_Taking_Back_Control_Music_Video_for_THE_INVISIBLE!
Sparta - "Air" (music video)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:59
- Published: 12 Apr 2010
- Updated: 10 Oct 2012
Sparta music video for "Air" from their album Wiretap Scars
http://wn.com/Sparta_Air_music_video
This is Sparta!...WHAT?
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:36
- Published: 09 Oct 2007
- Updated: 13 Oct 2012
Created by Donsun. Because he doesn't have an internet name that I know of.
http://wn.com/This_is_Sparta!WHAT?
This is Sparta! Pivot Animations
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:28
- Published: 04 Sep 2007
- Updated: 13 Oct 2012
This is Sparta! Pivot Animations : - By Leo - Techno Song by Keaton - Both Songs and sound effects aren't mine, nor did I make them or take credit for them - I only take credit for the animations and for putting the video together everyone download my pack. it includes al the sound...
http://wn.com/This_is_Sparta!_Pivot_Animations
AP / Petr David Josek
AP / Tom Hevezi
Creative Commons
AP / Tim Hales
AP / Tim Hales
AP / Keystone/Dominic Favre
US Coastguard / PAC David Oney
US Coastguard / PAC David Oney
Creative Commons / Jonathunder
US Coastguard / U.S. Coast Guard photo/Petty Officer 2nd Class Etta Smith
US Coastguard / Petty Officer 2nd Class Etta Smith)
US Coastguard / PAC David Oney
Creative Commons
Creative Commons
Creative Commons
AP / Ed Reinke
US Navy / Mass Communication Specialist 3rd Class Jonnie Hobby
Creative Commons / BotMultichill
Creative Commons / Bms4880
Creative Commons / Ctchrinthry
Creative Commons / Daniel Case
AP / Ed Reinke
GFDL
AP Photo / Ed Reinke
AP Photo/Kirsty Wigglesworth
AP /CTK, Stan Peska
AP Photo/Lefteris Pitarakis
AP /Petr David Josek
AP Photo/Patrick Gardin
WN
Photo: AP / NASA
11 Oct 2012
Forget the diamond as big as the Ritz. This one's bigger than planet Earth. Orbiting a star that is visible to the naked eye, astronomers have discovered a planet twice the size of our own made...
Photo: AP / K.M. Chaudary
12 Oct 2012
THE attack, last Tuesday, on Malala Yousafzai, the 14-year old Pakistani girl, who is in intensive care after she was shot in the head, in an assassination attempt by Taliban militants in broad...
Photo: AP / Mahmoud Tawil
12 Oct 2012
BEIRUT, Lebanon — Hassan Nasrallah, the leader of the Lebanese militant group and political party Hezbollah, declared Thursday that his fighters had assembled and piloted a drone that flew 35...
Photo: AP / George Osodi
11 Oct 2012
AFP - Four Nigerian farmers take on Shell in a Dutch court, accusing the oil giant of destroying their livelihoods in a case that could set a precedent for global environmental responsibility. The...
Photo: Creative Commons / Mertborak
14 Oct 2012
Syria's government has imposed a ban on all Turkish civilian planes flying through its airspace. The move...
Photo: Creative Commons / Flickr upload bot
10 Oct 2012
Big Blue is getting sick of Larry Ellison taking up all of the oxygen in the data center when it comes to appliance servers tuned for specific workloads, and so it is expanding its line of PureSystems...
Photo: AP / Gerry Broome
06 Oct 2012
Article by WN.com Correspondent Dallas Darling The day after learning about Classical Greek Civilization, it was no surprise that most students only recalled nude males competing in the Olympics, the...
MSNBC
NEW YORK, Oct. 11, 2012 /PRNewswire via COMTEX/ -- Sparta Commercial Services, Inc. (OTCBB: SRCO) announced today that Pilot Mountain, NC has become the eleventh jurisdiction in the state of North Carolina to choose Sparta's Municipal Lease Program as the financing source to update their police...(size: 18.5Kb)
IBM’s Project Sparta Is Now Named PureData
09 Oct 2012
All Things Digital
So remember last month how I told you about Project Sparta? That would be the IBM project aimed at simplifying how companies attack their big data problems. So anyway, it has a name now, and like I suspected, it’s part of the growing Pure line. It’s been dubbed the PureData System, and...(size: 4.3Kb)
PR Newswire
...(size: 8.3Kb)
The Register
The details are a bit sketchy, but in a week or so IBM hopes to unveil an update for its PureSystems family of modular boxes focussed on big data and cloud computing. Big Blue is hosting for "the new...(size: 1.4Kb)
The 300 men of Sparta
01 Oct 2012
The Examiner
Related topics 300Frank MillerDark Horse Comicsgraphic novelLeonidas Rating for 300 by Frank Miller and Lynn Varley 5 Advertisement The graphic novel 300 by Frank Miller is a story based on the history of the Battle of Thermopylae, also known as the "Hot Gates" when translated. The graphic novel was...(size: 9.8Kb)
All Things Digital
Computing giant IBM is close to announcing a new product aimed at simplifying how companies handle so-called Big Data problems that stem from managing and analyzing massive amounts of data generated by their daily operations. People familiar with the company’s plans tell AllThingsD that the...(size: 2.8Kb)
PR Newswire
...(size: 6.1Kb)
PR Newswire
...(size: 5.8Kb)
North Jersey
Mary Grace Romanelli-Van Overberghe (nee Caiola), 100 years old, died after a brief illness at Andover Subacute and Rehab Center on Thursday, September 13, 2012. Born to Michael and Theresa Caiola in , NJ, she had spent most of her life in Paterson, NJ before moving to the Knoll Heights section of...(size: 4.2Kb)
Mary Romanelli-Van Overberghe of Sparta, age 100
13 Sep 2012
North Jersey
– Services were held for Mary Grace Caiola Romanelli-Van Overberghe, 100, of Sparta, who died on Thursday, September 13, 2012. She was the mother of Lucien Van Overberghe of this community....(size: 4.6Kb)
This article is about the ancient Greek city-state. For modern-day Sparta, see Sparti (municipality). For other uses, see Sparta (disambiguation).
Coordinates: 37°4′55″N 22°25′25″E / 37.08194°N 22.42361°E / 37.08194; 22.42361
| Sparta Σπάρτα |
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| Capital | Sparta | |||
| Language(s) | Doric Greek | |||
| Religion | Polytheism | |||
| Government | Oligarchy | |||
| Historical era | Classical Antiquity | |||
| - Established | 10th century BC | |||
| - Peloponnesian League | 546-371 BC | |||
| - Disestablished | 146 BC | |||
Sparta (Doric Σπάρτα; Attic Σπάρτη Spartē), or Lacedaemon, was a prominent city-state in ancient Greece, situated on the banks of the River Eurotas in Laconia, in south-eastern Peloponnese.[1] It emerged as a political entity around the 10th century BC, when the invading Dorians subjugated the local, non-Dorian population. From c. 650 BC it rose to become the dominant military land-power in ancient Greece.
Given its military pre-eminence, Sparta was recognized as the overall leader of the combined Greek forces during the Greco-Persian Wars.[2] Between 431 and 404 BC, Sparta was the principal enemy of Athens during the Peloponnesian War,[3] from which it emerged victorious, though at great cost. Sparta's defeat by Thebes in the Battle of Leuctra in 371 BC ended Sparta's prominent role in Greece. However, it maintained its political independence until the Roman conquest of Greece in 146 BC.
Sparta was unique in ancient Greece for its social system and constitution, which completely focused on military training and excellence. Its inhabitants were classified as Spartiates (Spartan citizens, who enjoyed full rights), Mothakes (non-Spartan free men raised as Spartans), Perioikoi (freedmen), and Helots (state-owned serfs, enslaved non-Spartan local population). Spartiates underwent the rigorous agoge training and education regimen, and Spartan phalanges were widely considered to be among the best in battle. Spartan women enjoyed considerably more rights and equality to men than elsewhere in the classical world.
Sparta was the subject of fascination in its own day, as well as in the West following the revival of classical learning. Sparta continues to fascinate Western Culture; an admiration of Sparta is called laconophilia.
Contents |
Names[link]
The earliest attested term referring to Lacedaemon is the Mycenaean Greek ra-ke-da-mi-ni-jo, "Lacedaimonian", written in Linear B syllabic script and transliterated as Λακεδαιμόνιος (Lakedaimonios) in the Greek alphabet.[4]
The ancient Greeks used one of three words to refer to the home location of the Spartans. The first refers primarily to the main cluster of settlements in the valley of the Eurotas River: Sparta.[5] The second word was Lacedaemon (Λακεδαίμων);[6] this is the name commonly used in the works of Homer and the Athenian historians Herodotus and Thucydides. Herodotus seems to denote by it the Mycenaean Greek citadel at Therapne, in contrast to the lower town of Sparta. It could be used synonymously with Sparta, but typically it was not. It denoted the terrain on which Sparta was situated.[7] In Homer it is typically combined with epithets of the countryside: wide, lovely, shining and most often hollow and broken (full of ravines).[8] The hollow suggests the Eurotas Valley. Sparta on the other hand is the country of lovely women, a people epithet.
The name of the population was often used for the state of Lacedaemon: the Lacedaemonians. This epithet utilized the plural of the adjective, Lacedaemonius (Greek Λακεδαιμὀνιοι, Latin Lacedaemonii). If the ancients wished to refer to the country more directly, instead of Lacedaemon, they could use a back-formation from the adjective: Lacedaemonian country. As most words for "country" were feminine, the adjective was in the feminine: Lacedaemonia. Eventually, the adjective came to be used alone.
Lacedaemonia was not in general use during the classical period and before. It does occur in Greek as an equivalent of Laconia and Messenia during the Roman and early Byzantine periods, mostly in ethnographers and lexica glossing place names. For example, Hesychius of Alexandria's Lexicon (5th century AD) defines Agiadae as a "place in Lacedaemonia" named after Agis.[9] The actual transition may be captured by Isidore of Seville's Etymologiae (7th century AD), an etymological dictionary. He relied heavily on Orosius' Historiarum Adversum Paganos (5th century AD) and Eusebius of Caesarea's Chronicon (early 5th century AD) as did Orosius. The latter defines Sparta to be Lacedaemonia Civitas but Isidore defines Lacedaemonia as founded by Lacedaemon, son of Semele, relying on Eusebius.[10] There is a rare use, perhaps the earliest of Lacedaemonia, in Diodorus Siculus,[11] but probably with Χὠρα ("country") suppressed.
The immediate area around the town of Sparta, the plateau east of the Taygetos mountains, was generally referred as Laconice (Λακωνική).[12] This term was sometimes used to refer to all the regions under direct Spartan control, including Messenia.
Lacedaemon is now the name of a province in the modern Greek prefecture of Laconia.
Geography[link]
Sparta is located in the region of Laconia, in the south-eastern Peloponnese. Ancient Sparta was built on the banks of the Evrotas River, the main river of Laconia, which provided it with a source of fresh water. The valley of the Evrotas is a natural fortress, bounded to the west by Mt. Taygetus (2407 m) and to the east by Mt. Parnon (1935 m). To the north, Laconia is separated from Arcadia by hilly uplands reaching 1000 m in altitude. These natural defenses worked to Sparta's advantage and contributed to Sparta never having been sacked. Though landlocked, Sparta had a harbor, Gytheio, on the Laconian Gulf.
Mythology[link]
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In Greek mythology, Lacedaemon was a son of Zeus by the nymph Taygete. He married Sparta, the daughter of Eurotas, by whom he became the father of Amyclas, Eurydice, and Asine. He was king of the country which he named after himself, naming the capital after his wife. He was believed to have built the sanctuary of the Charites, which stood between Sparta and Amyclae, and to have given to those divinities the names of Cleta and Phaenna. A shrine was erected to him in the neighborhood of Therapne.
Archaeology of the classical period[link]
Thucydides wrote:
Suppose the city of Sparta to be deserted, and nothing left but the temples and the ground-plan, distant ages would be very unwilling to believe that the power of the Lacedaemonians was at all equal to their fame. Their city is not built continuously, and has no splendid temples or other edifices; it rather resembles a group of villages, like the ancient towns of Hellas, and would therefore make a poor show.[13]
Until the early 20th century, the chief ancient buildings at Sparta were the theatre, of which, however, little showed above ground except portions of the retaining walls; the so-called Tomb of Leonidas, a quadrangular building, perhaps a temple, constructed of immense blocks of stone and containing two chambers; the foundation of an ancient bridge over the Eurotas; the ruins of a circular structure; some remains of late Roman fortifications; several brick buildings and mosaic pavements.
The remaining archaeological wealth consisted of inscriptions, sculptures, and other objects collected in the local museum, founded by Stamatakis in 1872 and enlarged in 1907. Partial excavation of the round building was undertaken in 1892 and 1893 by the American School at Athens. The structure has been since found to be semicircular, retaining wall of Hellenic origin that was partly restored during the Roman period.
In 1904, the British School at Athens began a thorough exploration of Laconia, and in the following year excavations were made at Thalamae, Geronthrae, and Angelona near Monemvasia. In 1906, excavations began in Sparta.
A small circus described by Leake proved to be a theatre-like building constructed soon after AD 200 around the altar and in front of the temple of Artemis Orthia. Here musical and gymnastic contests took place as well as the famous flogging ordeal (diamastigosis). The temple, which can be dated to the 2nd century BC, rests on the foundation of an older temple of the 6th century, and close beside it were found the remains of a yet earlier temple, dating from the 9th or even the 10th century. The votive offerings in clay, amber, bronze, ivory and lead found in great profusion within the precinct range, dating from the 9th to the 4th centuries BC, supply invaluable evidence for early Spartan art.
In 1907, the sanctuary of Athena "of the Brazen House" (Chalkioikos) was located on the acropolis immediately above the theatre, and though the actual temple is almost completely destroyed, the site has produced the longest extant archaic inscription of Laconia, numerous bronze nails and plates, and a considerable number of votive offerings. The Greek city-wall, built in successive stages from the 4th to the 2nd century, was traced for a great part of its circuit, which measured 48 stades or nearly 10 km (Polyb. 1X. 21). The late Roman wall enclosing the acropolis, part of which probably dates from the years following the Gothic raid of AD 262, was also investigated. Besides the actual buildings discovered, a number of points were situated and mapped in a general study of Spartan topography, based upon the description of Pausanias. Excavations showed that the town of the Mycenaean Period was situated on the left bank of the Eurotas, a little to the south-east of Sparta. The settlement was roughly triangular in shape, with its apex pointed towards the north. Its area was approximately equal to that of the "newer" Sparta, but denudation has wreaked havoc with its buildings and nothing is left save ruined foundations and broken potsherds.
History[link]
Main article: History of Sparta
Prehistory[link]
The prehistory of Sparta is difficult to reconstruct because the literary evidence is far removed in time from the events it describes and is also distorted by oral tradition.[14] However, the earliest certain evidence of human settlement in the region of Sparta consists of pottery dating from the Middle Neolithic period, found in the vicinity of Kouphovouno some two kilometres south-southwest of Sparta.[15] These are the earliest traces of the original Mycenaean Spartan civilisation, as represented in Homer's Iliad.[citation needed]
This civilization seems to have fallen into decline by the late Bronze Age, when, according to Herodotus, Macedonian tribes from the north marched into Peloponnese, where they were called Dorians and subjugating the local tribes, settled there.[14] The Dorians seem to have set about expanding the frontiers of Spartan territory almost before they had established their own state.[16] They fought against the Argive Dorians to the east and southeast, and also the Arcadian Achaeans to the northwest. The evidence suggests that Sparta, relatively inaccessible because of the topography of the Taygetan plain, was secure from early on: it was never fortified.[16]
Nothing distinctive in the archaeology of the Eurotas River Valley identifies the Dorians or the Dorian Spartan state. The prehistory of the Neolithic, the Bronze Age and the Dark Age (the Early Iron Age) at this moment must be treated apart from the stream of Dorian Spartan history.
The legendary period of Spartan history is believed to fall into the Dark Age. It treats the mythic heroes such as the Heraclids and the Perseids, offering a view of the occupation of the Peloponnesus that contains both fantastic and possibly historical elements. The subsequent proto-historic period, combining both legend and historical fragments, offers the first credible history.
Between the 8th and 7th centuries BC the Spartans experienced a period of lawlessness and civil strife, later testified by both Herodotus and Thucydides.[17] As a result they carried out a series of political and social reforms of their own society which they later attributed to a semi-mythical lawgiver, Lycurgus.[18] These reforms mark the beginning of the history of Classical Sparta.
Classical Sparta[link]
In the Second Messenian War, Sparta established itself as a local power in Peloponnesus and the rest of Greece. During the following centuries, Sparta's reputation as a land-fighting force was unequaled.[19] In 480 BC a small force of Spartans, Thespians, and Thebans led by King Leonidas (approximately 300 were full Spartiates, 700 were Thespians, and 400 were Thebans although these numbers do not reflect casualties incurred prior to the final battle), made a legendary last stand at the Battle of Thermopylae against the massive Persian army, inflicting very high casualties on the Persian forces before finally being encircled.[20] The superior weaponry, strategy, and bronze armour of the Greek hoplites and their phalanx again proved their worth one year later when Sparta assembled at full strength and led a Greek alliance against the Persians at the battle of Plataea.
The decisive Greek victory at Plataea put an end to the Greco-Persian War along with Persian ambition of expanding into Europe. Even though this war was won by a pan-Greek army, credit was given to Sparta, who besides being the protagonist at Thermopylae and Plataea, had been the de facto leader of the entire Greek expedition.[21]
In later Classical times, Sparta along with Athens, Thebes, and Persia had been the main powers fighting for supremacy against each other. As a result of the Peloponnesian War, Sparta, a traditionally continental culture, became a naval power. At the peak of its power Sparta subdued many of the key Greek states and even managed to overpower the elite Athenian navy. By the end of the 5th century BC it stood out as a state which had defeated the Athenian Empire and had invaded the Persian provinces in Anatolia, a period which marks the Spartan Hegemony.
During the Corinthian War Sparta faced a coalition of the leading Greek states: Thebes, Athens, Corinth, and Argos. The alliance was initially backed by Persia, whose lands in Anatolia had been invaded by Sparta and which feared further Spartan expansion into Asia.[22] Sparta achieved a series of land victories, but many of her ships were destroyed at the battle of Cnidus by a Greek-Phoenician mercenary fleet that Persia had provided to Athens. The event severely damaged Sparta's naval power but did not end its aspirations of invading further into Persia, until Conon the Athenian ravaged the Spartan coastline and provoked the old Spartan fear of a helot revolt.[23]
After a few more years of fighting, in 387 BC the Peace of Antalcidas was established, according to which all Greek cities of Ionia would return to Persian control, and Persia's Asian border would be free of the Spartan threat.[23] The effects of the war were to reaffirm Persia's ability to interfere successfully in Greek politics and to affirm Sparta's weakened hegemonic position in the Greek political system.[24] Sparta entered its long-term decline after a severe military defeat to Epaminondas of Thebes at the Battle of Leuctra. This was the first time that a Spartan army lost a land battle at full strength.
As Spartan citizenship was inherited by blood, Sparta now increasingly faced a helot population that vastly outnumbered its citizens. The alarming decline of Spartan citizens was commented on by Aristotle.
Hellenistic and Roman Sparta[link]
Sparta never fully recovered from the losses that the Spartans suffered at Leuctra in 371 BC and the subsequent helot revolts. Nonetheless, it was able to continue as a regional power for over two centuries. Neither Philip II nor his son Alexander the Great attempted to conquer Sparta itself.
During Alexander's campaigns in the east, the Spartan king, Agis III sent a force to Crete in 333 BC with the aim of securing the island for Sparta.[25] Agis next took command of allied Greek forces against Macedon, gaining early successes, before laying siege to Megalopolis in 331 BC. A large Macedonian army under general Antipater marched to its relief and defeated the Spartan-led force in a pitched battle.[26] More than 5,300 of the Spartans and their allies were killed in battle, and 3,500 of Antipater's troops.[27] Agis, now wounded and unable to stand, ordered his men to leave him behind to face the advancing Macedonian army so that he could buy them time to retreat. On his knees, the Spartan king slew several enemy soldiers before being finally killed by a javelin.[28] Alexander was merciful, and he only forced the Spartans to join the League of Corinth, which they had previously refused to join.[29]
Even during its decline, Sparta never forgot its claims on being the "defender of Hellenism" and its Laconic wit. An anecdote has it that when Philip II sent a message to Sparta saying "If I enter Laconia, I will raze Sparta", the Spartans responded with the single, terse reply: "If."[30]
When Philip created the league of the Greeks on the pretext of unifying Greece against Persia, the Spartans chose not to join—they had no interest in joining a pan-Greek expedition if it was not under Spartan leadership. Thus, upon the conquest of Persia, Alexander the Great sent to Athens 300 suits of Persian armour with the following inscription "Alexander, son of Philip, and all the Greeks except the Spartans, give these offerings taken from the foreigners who live in Asia [emphasis added]".
During the Punic Wars Sparta was an ally of the Roman Republic. Spartan political independence was put to an end when it was eventually forced into the Achaean League. In 146 BC Greece was conquered by the Roman general Lucius Mummius. During the Roman conquest, Spartans continued their way of life, and the city became a tourist attraction for the Roman elite who came to observe exotic Spartan customs. Supposedly, following the disaster that befell the Roman imperial army at the Battle of Adrianople (AD 378), a Spartan militia phalanx met and defeated a force of raiding Visigoths in battle.[31]
Medieval and modern Sparta[link]
According to Byzantine sources, some parts of the Laconian region remained pagan until well into the 10th century AD, and Doric-speaking populations survive today in Tsakonia. In the Middle Ages, the political and cultural center of Laconia shifted to the nearby settlement of Mystras. Modern Sparti was re-founded in 1834, by a decree of King Otto of Greece.
Structure of Classical Spartan society[link]
Constitution[link]
Main article: Spartan Constitution
The Doric state of Sparta, copying the Doric Cretans, developed a mixed governmental state. The state was ruled by two hereditary kings of the Agiad and Eurypontid families,[32] both supposedly descendants of Heracles and equal in authority, so that one could not act against the veto of his colleague.
The duties of the kings were primarily religious, judicial, and military. They were the chief priests of the state and also maintained communication with the Delphian sanctuary, which always exercised great authority in Spartan politics. In the time of Herodotus, about 450 BC, their judicial functions had been restricted to cases dealing with heiresses, adoptions and the public roads. Aristotle describes the kingship at Sparta as "a kind of unlimited and perpetual generalship" (Pol. iii. I285a),[33] while Isocrates refers to the Spartans as "subject to an oligarchy at home, to a kingship on campaign" (iii. 24).[34]
Civil and criminal cases were decided by a group of officials known as the ephors, as well as a council of elders known as the Gerousia. The Gerousia consisted of 28 elders over the age of 60, elected for life and usually part of the royal households, and the two kings.[35] High state policy decisions were discussed by this council who could then propose action alternatives to the Damos, the collective body of Spartan citizenry, who would select one of the alternatives by voting.[36][37]
The royal prerogatives were curtailed over time. Dating from the period of the Persian wars, the king lost the right to declare war and was accompanied in the field by two ephors. He was supplanted also by the ephors in the control of foreign policy. Over time, the kings became mere figureheads except in their capacity as generals. Real power was transferred to the ephors and to the Gerousia.
The origins of the powers exercised by the assembly of the citizens are virtually unknown because of the lack of historical documentation and Spartan state secrecy.
Citizenship[link]
Not all inhabitants of the Spartan state were considered to be citizens. Only those who had undertaken the Spartan education process known as the agoge were eligible. However, usually the only people eligible to receive the agoge were Spartiates, or people who could trace their ancestry to the original inhabitants of the city.
There were two exceptions. Trophimoi or "foster sons" were foreign students invited to study. The Athenian general Xenophon, for example, sent his two sons to Sparta as trophimoi. The other exception was that the sons of a helot could be enrolled as a syntrophos if a Spartiate formally adopted him and paid his way. If a syntrophos did exceptionally well in training, he might be sponsored to become a Spartiate.[38]
Others in the state were the perioikoi, who were free inhabitants of Spartan territory but were non-citizens, and the helots,[39] the state-owned serfs. Descendants of non-Spartan citizens were not able to follow the agoge and Spartans who could not afford to pay the expenses of the agoge could lose their citizenship. These laws meant that Sparta could not readily replace citizens lost in battle or otherwise and eventually proved near fatal to the continuance of the state as the number of citizens became greatly outnumbered by the non-citizens and, even more dangerously, the helots.
Helots and Perioikoi[link]
Helots[link]
Main article: Helots
The Spartans were a minority of the Lakonian population. The largest class of inhabitants were the helots (in Classical Greek Εἵλωτες / Heílôtes).[40][41]
The helots were originally free Greeks from the areas of Messenia and Lakonia whom the Spartans had defeated in battle and subsequently enslaved. In contrast to populations conquered by other Greek cities (e.g. the Athenian treatment of Melos), the male population was not exterminated and the women and children turned into chattel slaves. Instead, the helots were given a subordinate position in society more comparable to serfs in medieval Europe than chattel slaves in the rest of Greece.
Helots did not have voting rights, although compared to non-Greek chattel slaves in other parts of Greece they were relatively privileged. The Spartan poet Tyrtaios refers to Helots being allowed to marry and retaining 50% of the fruits of their labor.[42] They also seem to have been allowed to practice religious rites and, according to Thucydides, own a limited amount of personal property.[43] Some 6,000 helots accumulated enough wealth to buy their freedom, for example, in 227 BC.
In other Greek city-states, free citizens were part-time soldiers who, when not at war, carried on other trades. Since Spartan men were full-time soldiers, they were not available to carry out manual labour.[44] The helots were used as unskilled serfs, tilling Spartan land. Helot women were often used as wet nurses. Helots also travelled with the Spartan army as non-combatant serfs. At the last stand of the Battle of Thermopylae, the Greek dead included not just the legendary three hundred Spartan soldiers but also several hundred Thespian and Theban troops and a number of helots.[45]
Relations between the helots and their Spartan masters were sometimes strained. There was at least one helot revolt (ca. 465–460 BC), and Thucydides remarked that "Spartan policy is always mainly governed by the necessity of taking precautions against the helots."[46][47] On the other hand, the Spartans trusted their helots enough in 479 BC to take a force 35,000 with them to Plataea, something they could not have risked if they feared the helots would attack them or run away. Slave revolts occurred elsewhere in the Greek world, and in 413 BC 20,000 Athenian slaves ran away to join the Spartan forces occupying Attica.[48] What made Sparta's relations with her slave population unique was that the helots, precisely because they enjoyed privileges such as family and property, retained their identity as a conquered people (the Messenians) and also had effective kinship groups that could be used to organize rebellion.
As the Spartiate population declined and the helot population continued to grow, the imbalance of power caused increasing tension. According to Myron of Priene[49] of the middle 3rd century BC:
"They assign to the Helots every shameful task leading to disgrace. For they ordained that each one of them must wear a dogskin cap (κυνῆ / kunễ) and wrap himself in skins (διφθέρα / diphthéra) and receive a stipulated number of beatings every year regardless of any wrongdoing, so that they would never forget they were slaves. Moreover, if any exceeded the vigour proper to a slave's condition, they made death the penalty; and they allotted a punishment to those controlling them if they failed to rebuke those who were growing fat".[50]
Plutarch also states that Spartans treated the Helots "harshly and cruelly": they compelled them to drink pure wine (which was considered dangerous – wine usually being cut with water) "...and to lead them in that condition into their public halls, that the children might see what a sight a drunken man is; they made them to dance low dances, and sing ridiculous songs..." during syssitia (obligatory banquets).[51]
Each year when the Ephors took office they ritually declared war on the helots, thereby allowing Spartans to kill them without the risk of ritual pollution.[52] This seems to have been done by kryptes (sing. κρύπτης), graduates of the Agoge who took part in the mysterious institution known as the Krypteia.[53] Thucydides states:
"The helots were invited by a proclamation to pick out those of their number who claimed to have most distinguished themselves against the enemy, in order that they might receive their freedom; the object being to test them, as it was thought that the first to claim their freedom would be the most high spirited and the most apt to rebel. As many as two thousand were selected accordingly, who crowned themselves and went round the temples, rejoicing in their new freedom. The Spartans, however, soon afterwards did away with them, and no one ever knew how each of them perished."[54][55]
Perioikoi[link]
Main article: Perioeci
The Perioikoi came from similar origins as the helots but occupied a significantly different position in Spartan society. Although they did not enjoy full citizen-rights, they were free and not subjected to the same restrictions as the helots. The exact nature of their subjection to the Spartans is not clear, but they seem to have served partly as a kind of military reserve, partly as skilled craftsmen and partly as agents of foreign trade.[56] Perioikoic hoplites served increasingly with the Spartan army, explicitly at the Battle of Plataea, and although they may also have fulled functions such as the manufacture and repair of armour and weapons,[57] they were increasingly integrated into the combat units of the Spartan army as the Spartiate population declined.[58]
Economy[link]
Spartan citizens were debarred by law from trade or manufacture, which consequently rested in the hands of the Perioikoi. The Periokoi monopoly on trade and manufacturing in one of the richest territories of Greece explains in large part the loyalty of the perioikoi to the Spartan state. Lacedaemon was rich in natural resources, fertile and blessed with a number of good natural harbors. The periokoi could exploit these resources for their own enrichment, and did.[59]
Spartiates, on the other hand, were forbidden (in theory) from engaging in menial labor or trade, although there is evidence of Spartan sculptors,[60] and Spartans were certainly poets, magistrates, ambassadors, and governors as well as soldiers. Allegedly, Spartans were prohibited from possessing gold and silver coins, and according to legend Spartan currency consisted of iron bars to discourage hoarding.[61][62] In fact, archeology has not produced evidence of this currency, and it is more likely that Sparta simply used currencies minted elsewhere.
The conspicuous display of wealth appears to have been discouraged, although this did not preclude the production of very fine, highly decorated bronze, ivory and wooden works of art and the production of jewellery. Archeology has produced many examples of all these objects, some of which are exquisite.[63]
Allegedly in connection with the Lycurgan Reforms (e.g. in the mid-8th Century BC), property had been divided into 9,000 equal portions as part of a massive land reform. Each citizen received one estate, a kleros, and thereafter was expected to derive his wealth from it.[64] The land itself was worked by helots, who retained half the yield. From the other half, the Spartiate was expected to pay his mess (syssitia) fees, and the agoge fees for his children. However, we know nothing about whether land could be bought and sold, whether it could be inherited, if so by what system (primogenture or equally divided among heirs), whether daughters received doweries and much more.[65] What is clear is that from early on there were marked differences of wealth within the state, and these became even more serious after the law of Epitadeus, passed at some time after the Peloponnesian War, removed the legal prohibition of the gift or bequest of land.[66] By the mid-fifth century, land had become concentrated in the hands of a tiny elite, and the notion of all Spartan citizens being "equals" had become a farce. By Aristotle's day (384–322 BC) citizenship had been reduced from 9,000 to less than 1,000, and then further decreased to 700 at the accession of Agis IV in 244 BC. Attempts were made to remedy this situation by creating new laws. Certain penalties were imposed upon those who remained unmarried or who married too late in life. These laws, however, came too late and were ineffective in reversing the trend.
Life in Classical Sparta[link]
Birth and death[link]
Sparta was above all a militarist state, and emphasis on military fitness began virtually at birth. Shortly after birth, a mother would bathe her child in wine to see whether the child was strong. If the child survived it was brought before the Gerousia by the child's father. The Gerousia then decided whether it was to be reared or not. If they considered it "puny and deformed", the baby was thrown into a chasm on Mount Taygetos known euphemistically as the Apothetae (Gr., ἀποθέται, "Deposits").[67][68] This was, in effect, a primitive form of eugenics.[67] Sparta is often portrayed as being unique in this matter, however there is considerable evidence that the killing of unwanted children was practiced in other Greek regions, including Athens.[69]
When Spartans died, marked headstones would only be granted to soldiers who died in combat during a victorious campaign or women who died either in service of a divine office or in childbirth.
Education[link]
Main article: Agoge
When male Spartans began military training at age seven, they would enter the Agoge system. The Agoge was designed to encourage discipline and physical toughness and to emphasise the importance of the Spartan state. Boys lived in communal messes and, according to Xenophon, whose sons attended the agoge, the boys were fed "just the right amount for them never to become sluggish through being too full, while also giving them a taste of what it is not to have enough[70]. Besides physical and weapons training, boys studied reading, writing, music and dancing. Special punishments were imposed if boys failed to answer questions sufficiently 'laconically' (i.e. briefly and wittily).[71]
There is some evidence that in late-Classical and Hellenistic Sparta boys were expected to take an older male mentor, usually an unmarried young man. However, there is no evidence of this in archaic Sparta. According to some sources, the older man was expected to function as a kind of substitute father and role model to his junior partner; however, others believe it was reasonably certain that they had sexual relations (the exact nature of Spartan pederasty is not entirely clear).[72] It is notable, however, that the only contemporary source with direct experience of the agoge, Xenophon, explicitly denies the sexual nature of the relationship[73]
Post 465 BC, some Spartan youth apparently became members of an irregular unit know as the Krypteia. The immediate objective of this unit was to seek out and kill any helots as part of the larger program of terrorising and intimidating the helot population.[74]
Less information is available about the education of Spartan girls, but they seem to have gone through a fairly extensive formal educational cycle, broadly similar to that of the boys but with less emphasis on military training. In this respect, classical Sparta was unique in ancient Greece. In no other city-state did women receive any kind of formal education.[75]
Military life[link]
Main articles: Spartan army and Spartiate
At age twenty, the Spartan citizen began his membership in one of the syssitia (dining messes or clubs), composed of about fifteen members each, of which every citizen was required to be a member. Here each group learned how to bond and rely on one another. The Spartans were not eligible for election for public office until the age of thirty. Only native Spartans were considered full citizens and were obliged to undergo the training as prescribed by law, as well as participate in and contribute financially to one of the syssitia.[76]
Sparta, is thought to be the first city to practice athletic nudity, and some scholars claim that it was also the first to formalize pederasty.[77] According to these sources, the Spartans believed that the love of an older, accomplished aristocrat for an adolescent was essential to his formation as a free citizen. The agoge, the education of the ruling class, was, they claim, founded on pederastic relationships required of each citizen,[78] with the lover responsible for the boy's training.
However, other scholars question this interpretation. Xenophon explicitly denies it[79], as does Plutarch.[80] Aristotle in his critique of the Spartan constitution claims that the lack of homosexuality among Spartan men explained the, in his opinion deplorable, power of Spartan women. Aristotle's assessment is intriguingly conform with the argument of modern pyschologists that pederasty produces misogyny. Since there was no society in the ancient world in which women enjoyed higher status, greater freedom or more economic power than in Sparta, the role of Spartan women would appear to refute the allegations of widespread, institutionalized pederasty.
The Spartans, claims Athenaeus[81] sacrificed to Eros before every battle, but Eros had many roles and meanings in Ancient Greece, not least of which was as the God of procreation -- not something appropriate for homosexual love. Thus the practice neither proves nor disproves the role of pederasty in Spartan society.
Spartan men remained in the active reserve until age sixty. Men were encouraged to marry at age twenty but could not live with their families until they left their active military service at age thirty. They called themselves "homoioi" (equals), pointing to their common lifestyle and the discipline of the phalanx, which demanded that no soldier be superior to his comrades.[82] Insofar as hoplite warfare could be perfected, the Spartans did so.[83]
Thucydides reports that when a Spartan man went to war, his wife (or another woman of some significance) would customarily present him with his shield and say: "With this, or upon this" (Ἢ τὰν ἢ ἐπὶ τᾶς, Èi tàn èi èpì tàs), meaning that true Spartans could only return to Sparta either victorious (with their shield in hand) or dead (carried upon it).[84] Unfortunately, poignant as this image may be, it is almost certainly propaganda. Spartans buried their battle dead on or near the battle field; corpses were not brought back on their hoplons.[85] Nevertheless, it is fair to say that it was less of a disgrace for a soldier to lose his helmet, breastplate or greaves than his hoplon, since the former were designed to protect one man, whereas the hoplon also protected the man on his left. Thus the shield was symbolic of the individual soldier's subordination to his unit, his integral part in its success, and his solemn responsibility to his comrades in arms — messmates and friends, often close blood relations.
According to Aristotle, the Spartan military culture was actually short-sighted and ineffective. He observed:
It is the standards of civilized men not of beasts that must be kept in mind, for it is good men not beasts who are capable of real courage. Those like the Spartans who concentrate on the one and ignore the other in their education turn men into machines and in devoting themselves to one single aspect of city's life, end up making them inferior even in that.[86]
Aristotle, of course, was an Athenian and a harsh critic of the Spartan constitution and way of life. There is considerable evidence that the Spartans, certainly in the archaic period, were not educated as one-sidely as Aristotle asserts. In fact, the Spartans were also rigorously trained in logic and philosophy.[87]
One of the most persistant myths about Sparta that has no basis in fact is the notion that Spartan mothers were without feelings toward their off-spring and helped enforce a militaristic lifestyle on their sons and husbands.[88][89] The myth can be traced back to Plutarch, who includes no less than seventeen "sayings" of "Spartan women," all of which paraphrase or elaborate on the theme that Spartan mothers rejected their own offspring if they showed any kind of cowardice. In some of these sayings, mothers revile their sons in insulting language merely for surviving a battle. These sayings purporting to be from Spartan women were far more likely to be of Athenian origin and designed to portray Spartan women as unnatural and so undeserving of pity.[90]
Marriage[link]
Spartan men were required to marry at age 30,[39] after completing the Krypteia.[91] Plutarch reports the peculiar customs associated with the Spartan wedding night:
The custom was to capture women for marriage(...) The so-called 'bridesmaid' took charge of the captured girl. She first shaved her head to the scalp, then dressed her in a man's cloak and sandals, and laid her down alone on a mattress in the dark. The bridegroom—who was not drunk and thus not impotent, but was sober as always—first had dinner in the messes, then would slip in, undo her belt, lift her and carry her to the bed.[92]
The husband continued to visit his wife in secret for some time after the marriage. These customs, unique to the Spartans, have been interpreted in various ways. The "abduction" may have served to ward off the evil eye, and the cutting of the wife's hair was perhaps part of a rite of passage that signalled her entrance into a new life.[93]
Role of women[link]
Main article: Women in ancient Sparta
Political, social, and economic equality[link]
Spartan women, of the citizenry class, enjoyed a status, power, and respect that was unknown in the rest of the classical world. The higher status of females in Spartan society started at birth; unlike Athens, Spartan girls were fed the same food as their brothers.[94] Nor were they confined to their father's house and prevented from exercising or getting fresh air as in Athens, but exercised and even competed in sports. [95] Most important, rather than being married off at the age of 12 or 13, Spartan law forbade the marriage of a girl until she was in her late teens or early twenties. The reasons for delaying marriage were to ensure the birth of healthy children, but the effect was to spare Spartan women the hazards and lasting health damage associated with pregnancy among adolescents. Spartan women, better fed from childhood and fit from exercise, stood a far better chance of reaching old age than their sisters in other Greek cities, where the median age for death was 34.6 years or roughly ten years below that of men.[96]
Unlike Athenian women who wore heavy, concealing clothes and were rarely seen outside the house, Spartan women wore dresses (peplos) slit up the side to allow freer movement and moved freely about the city, either walking or driving chariots. Girls as well as boys exercised, possibly in the nude, and young women as well as young men may have participated in the Gymnopaedia ("Festival of Nude Youths").[97][98]
Spartan women were also literate and numerate, a rarity in the ancient world. Furthermore, as a result of their education and the fact that they moved freely in society engaging with their fellow (male) citizens, they were notorious for speaking their minds even in public.[99]
Most important, Spartan women had economic power because controlled their own properties, and those of their husbands. It is estimated that in later Classical Sparta, when the male population was in serious decline, women were the sole owners of at least 35% of all land and property in Sparta.[100] The laws regarding a divorce were the same for both men and women. Unlike women in Athens, if a Spartan woman became the heiress of her father because she had no living brothers to inherit (an epikleros), the woman was not required to divorce her current spouse in order to marry her nearest paternal relative.[101]
Historic women[link]
Many women played a significant role in the history of Sparta.[102] Queen Gorgo, heiress to the throne and the wife of Leonidas I, was an influential and well-documented figure. Herodotus records that as a small girl she advised her father Cleomenes to resist a bribe. She was later said to be responsible for decoding a warning that the Persian forces were about to invade Greece; after Spartan generals could not decode a wooden tablet covered in wax, she ordered them to clear the wax, revealing the warning.[103] Plutarch's Moralia contains a collection of "Sayings of Spartan Women", including a laconic quip attributed to Gorgo: when asked by a woman from Attica why Spartan women were the only women in the world who could rule men, she replied "Because we are the only women who are mothers of men".[104]
Laconophilia[link]
Main article: Laconophilia
Laconophilia is love or admiration of Sparta and of the Spartan culture or constitution. Sparta was subject of considerable admiration in its day, even in its rival, Athens. In ancient times "Many of the noblest and best of the Athenians always considered the Spartan state nearly as an ideal theory realised in practice."[105] Many Greek philosophers, especially Platonists, would often describe Sparta as an ideal state, strong, brave, and free from the corruptions of commerce and money.
With the revival of classical learning in Renaissance Europe, Laconophilia re-appears, for examples in the writings of Machiavelli. The Elizabethan English constitutionalist John Aylmer compared the mixed government of Tudor England to the Spartan republic, stating that "Lacedemonia [meaning Sparta], [was] the noblest and best city governed that ever was". He commended it as a model for England. The Swiss-French philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau contrasted Sparta favourably with Athens in his Discourse on the Arts and Sciences, arguing that its austere constitution was preferable to the more cultured nature of Athenian life. Sparta was also used as a model of social purity by Revolutionary and Napoleonic France.[106]
Certain early Zionists, and particularly the founders of Kibbutz movement in Israel, had been influenced by Spartan ideals, particularly as a model for education. Tabenkin, for example, a founding father of the Kibbutz and the Palmach, was influenced by Spartan education. He prescribed that education for warfare "should begin from the nursery", that children should from kindergarden age be taken to "spend nights in the mountains and valleys".[107][108]
A new element of Laconophilia by Karl Otfried Müller, who linked Spartan ideals to the supposed racial superiority of the Dorians, the ethnic sub-group of the Greeks to which the Spartans belonged. Adolf Hitler praised the Spartans, recommending in 1928 that Germany should imitate them by limiting "the number allowed to live". He added that "The Spartans were once capable of such a wise measure... The subjugation of 350,000 Helots by 6,000 Spartans was only possible because of the racial superiority of the Spartans." The Spartans had created "the first racialist state".[109]
In the modern times, the adjective "spartan" is used to imply simplicity, frugality, or avoidance of luxury and comfort.[110] The term laconic phrase describes a very terse and concise way of speaking that was characteristic of the Spartans.
Sparta also features prominently in modern popular culture (see Sparta in popular culture), particularly the Battle of Thermopylae (see Battle of Thermopylae in popular culture).
Notable ancient Spartans[link]
- Agis I – king
- Agis II – king
- Agesilaus II – king
- Cleomenes I – king
- Leonidas I (c. 520-480 BC) – king, famous for his actions at the Battle of Thermopylae
- Cleomenes III – king and reformer
- Lysander (5th–4th century BC) – general
- Lycurgus (10th century BC) – lawgiver
- Chionis (7th century BC) – athlete
- Cynisca (4th century BC) – princess and athlete
- Chilon – philosopher
- Gorgo – queen and politician
- Helen – of the Trojan War, Queen of Sparta
- Menelaus – King of Sparta during the Trojan War
See also[link]
Notes[link]
- ^ Cartledge 2002, p. 91
- ^ Cartledge 2002, p. 174
- ^ Cartledge 2002, p. 192
- ^ Palaeolexicon, Word study tool of ancient languages
- ^ LIddell & Scott 1940, Σπάρτη
- ^ Liddell & Scott 1940, Λακεδαίμων
- ^ MacBean, Alexander; Johnson, Samuel (1773). "Lacedaemon". A Dictionary of Ancient Geography [etc.]. London: G. Robinson [etc.]. http://books.google.com/books?id=EqwBAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=A+dictionary+of+ancient+geography&hl=en&ei=RpRDTpD_MI6SgQf2vYi_CQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CC4Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=Lacedaemon&f=false. .
- ^ Autenrieth 1891, Λακεδαίμων
- ^ Schmidt, Maurice, ed. (1863). "Άγιαδαι". Hesychii Alexandrini Lexicon. Jena: Frederick Mauk. .
- ^ Wiener, Leo (1920). Contributions toward a History of Arabic-Gothic Culture. V. III: Tacitus' Germania & Other Forgeries. Philadelphia: Innes & Sones. p. 20. .
- ^ Library, 19.70.2.
- ^ Cartledge 2002, p. 4
- ^ Thucydides, i. 10
- ^ a b Herodot, Book I, 56.3
- ^ Cartledge 2002, p. 28
- ^ a b Ehrenberg 2004, p. 31
- ^ Ehrenberg 2004, p. 36
- ^ Ehrenberg 2004, p. 33
- ^ "A Historical Commentary on Thucydides"—David Cartwright, p. 176
- ^ Green 1998, p. 10
- ^ Britannica ed. 2006, "Sparta"
- ^ "Dictionary of Ancient&Medieval Warfare"—Matthew Bennett, p. 86
- ^ a b "The Oxford Illustrated History of Greece and the Hellenistic World" p. 141, John Boardman, Jasper Griffin, Oswyn Murray
- ^ Fine, The Ancient Greeks, 556-9
- ^ Agis III
- ^ Agis III, by E. Badian © 1967 - Jstor
- ^ Diodorus, World History
- ^ Diodorus, World History, 17.62.1-63.4;tr. C.B. Welles
- ^ Alexander the Great and his time By Agnes Savill Page 44 ISBN 0-88029-591-0
- ^ Europe: a History—Norman Davies
- ^ The Military Engineer, By Society of American Military Engineers
- ^ Cartledge 2002, p. 89
- ^ The Encyclopædia Britannica: A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, Literature and ... - Page 611. primary and secondary source
- ^ The Encyclopædia Britannica: A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, Literature and ... - Page 611. primary secondary source
- ^ The Greeks at War By Philip De Souza, Waldemar Heckel, Lloyd Llewellyn-Jones, Victor Davis Hanson
- ^ The Politics By Aristotle, Thomas Alan Sinclair, Trevor J. Saunders
- ^ A companion to Greek studies By Leonard Whibley
- ^ The Greek World By Anton Powell
- ^ a b Ancient Greece By Sarah B. Pomeroy, Stanley M. Burstein, Walter Donlan, Jennifer Tolbert Roberts
- ^ Herodotus (IX, 28–29)
- ^ Xenophon, Hellenica, III, 3, 5
- ^ West 1999, p. 24
- ^ Cartledge 2002, p. 141
- ^ Cartledge 2002, p. 140
- ^ Ehrenberg 2004, p. 159
- ^ Thucydides (IV, 80); the Greek is ambiguous
- ^ Cartledge 2002, p. 211
- ^ Thucydides (VII, 27)
- ^ Talbert, p.26.
- ^ Apud Athenaeus, 14, 647d = FGH 106 F 2. Trans. by Cartledge, p.305.
- ^ Life of Lycurgus 28, 8-10. See also, Life of Demetrios, 1, 5; Constitution of the Lacedemonians 30; De Cohibenda Ira 6; De Commmunibus Notitiis 19.
- ^ (Plutarch, Life of Lycurgus 28, 7)
- ^ Powell 2001, p. 254
- ^ Thucydides (Book IV 80.4).
- ^ Classical historian Anton Powell has recorded a similar story from 1980s El Salvador. Cf. Powell, 2001, p. 256
- ^ Cartledge 2002, pp. 153–155
- ^ Cartledge 2002, p. 158,178
- ^ "Population Patterns in Late Archaic and Classical Sparta" by Thomas Figueira, Transactions of the American Philological Association 116 (1986), p.165-213
- ^ Paul Cartledge, "Sparta and Lakonia," Routledge, London, 1979, pp.154-159
- ^ Conrad Stibbe, "Das Andere Sparta," Verlag Philipp von Zabern, Mainz, 1996, pp. 111-127
- ^ Excel HSC Ancient History By Peter Roberts, ISBN 1-74125-178-8, ISBN 978-1-74125-178-4
- ^ Greene, Robert (2000), The 48 Laws of Power, Penguin Books, p. 420, ISBN 0-14-028019-7
- ^ Conrad Stibbe, Das Andere Sparta, Verlag Philipp von Zabern, Mainz, 1996
- ^ A.H.M. Jones, "Sparta," Basel Blackwell and Mott Ltd.,1967,pp.40-43
- ^ Stephen Hodkinson, Property and Wealth in Classical Sparta, The Classical Press of Wales, Swansea, 2000. See also Paul Cartledge's discussion of property in Sparta in "Sparta and Lakonia," pp. 142-144.
- ^ Social Conflict in Ancient Greece By Alexander Fuks, ISBN 965-223-466-4, ISBN 978-965-223-466-7
- ^ a b Cartledge 2001, p. 84
- ^ Plutarch 2005, p. 20
- ^ Buxton 2001, p. 201
- ^ Xenophon, Spartan Society, 2
- ^ Cartledge 2001, p. 85
- ^ Cartledge 2001, pp. 91–105
- ^ Xenophon, Spartan Society, 2
- ^ Cartledge 2001, p. 88
- ^ Cartledge 2001, pp. 83–84
- ^ Aristophanes and Athenian Society of the Early Fourth Century B.C. By E. David
- ^ Thomas F. Scanlon, "The Dispersion of Pederasty and the Athletic Revolution in Sixth-Century BC Greece," in Same-Sex Desire and Love in Greco-Roman Antiquity and in the Classical Tradition of the West, pp. 64-70.
- ^ Erich Bethe,Die Dorische Knabenliebe: ihre Ethik und ihre Ideen, 1907, 441, 444
- ^ Xenophon, Spartan Society, 2
- ^ Plutarch, The Life of Lycurgus, 18
- ^ Athenaeus of Naucratis, The Deipnosophists, XIII: Concerning Women
- ^ Readers Companion Military Hist p. 438—Cowley
- ^ Adcock 1957, pp. 8–9
- ^ Plutarch 2004, p. 465
- ^ "Sons and Mothers," by Helena P. Schrader, Sparta Journal of Ancient Spartan and Greek History, Vol. 7, Issue 4, 2011
- ^ Forrest 1968, p. 53
- ^ W. Lindsay Wheeler, "Doric Crete and Sparta, theHome of Greek Philosophy," Sparta: Journal of Ancient Spartan and Greek History, Volume 3, Issue 2, 2007.
- ^ Spartan Women By Sarah B. Pomeroy
- ^ The Greeks By H. D. F. Kitto, ISBN 0-202-30910-X, 9780202309101
- ^ Helena P. Schrader, "Sons and Mothers," Sparta: Journal of Ancient Spartan and Greek History, Vol 7, Issue 4, 2011
- ^ A Brief History of Citizenship By Derek Benjamin Heater, Derek Heater
- ^ Plutarch 2005, pp. 18–19
- ^ Pomeroy 2002, p. 42
- ^ Xenophon, Spartan Society, 1
- ^ Xenophon, Spartan Society, 1
- ^ Susan Blundell, "Women in Ancient Greece," British Museum Press, London, 1999
- ^ Guttentag and Secord, 1983; Finley, 1982; Pomeroy, 1975
- ^ Pomeroy 2002, p. 34
- ^ Maria Dettenhofer, "Die Frauen von Sparta," Reine Männer Sache, Munich, Deutscher Taschenbuch Verlag, 1994, p.25.
- ^ Pomeroy, 1975
- ^ Pomeroy, Sarah B. Goddess, Whores, Wives, and Slaves: Women in Classical Antiquity. New York: Schocken Books, 1995 p. 60-62
- ^ "Gorgo and Spartan Women". Web.archive.org. 2009-10-27. Archived from the original on 2009-10-27. http://web.archive.org/web/20091027062542/http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Aegean/7849/spwomen.html. Retrieved 2011-08-10.
- ^ Helena Schrader (2010-07-11). "Sparta Reconsidered—Spartan Women". Elysiumgates.com. http://www.elysiumgates.com/~helena/Women.html. Retrieved 2011-08-10.
- ^ Plutarch 2004, p. 457
- ^ Mueller:Dorians II, 192
- ^ Žižek, Slavoj. "The True Hollywood Left". www.lacan.com. http://www.lacan.com/zizhollywood.htm.
- ^ The Making of Israeli Militarism, By Uri Ben-Eliezer, Indiana University Press, 1998, page 63
- ^ Land and Power: The Zionist Resort to Force, 1881-1948, By Anita Shapira, Stanford University Press 1999, 300
- ^ "Professor Ben Kiernan, ''Hitler, Pol Pot, and Hutu Power: Distinguishing Themes of Genocidal Ideology'', Holocaust and the United Nations Discussion Paper". Un.org. http://www.un.org/holocaustremembrance/docs/paper3.shtml. Retrieved 2011-08-10.
- ^ Webster Dictionary http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/Spartan%5B2%5Dhttp://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/Spartan
References[link]
- Adcock, F.E. (1957), The Greek and Macedonian Art of War, Berkeley: University of California Press, ISBN 0-520-00005-6
- Autenrieth, Georg (1891). A Homeric Dictionary for Schools and Colleges. New York: Harper and Brothers.
- Bradford, Ernle (2004), Thermopylae: The Battle for the West, New York: Da Capo Press, ISBN 0-306-81360-2
- Buxton, Richard (1999), From Myth to Reason?: Studies in the Development of Greek Thought, Oxford: Clarendon Press, ISBN 0-7534-5110-7
- Cartledge, Paul (2002), Sparta and Lakonia: A Regional History 1300 to 362 BC (2 ed.), Oxford: Routledge, ISBN 0-415-26276-3
- Cartledge, Paul (2001), Spartan Reflections, London: Duckworth, ISBN 0-7156-2966-2
- Cartledge, Paul. "What have the Spartans Done for us?: Sparta's Contribution to Western Civilization", Greece & Rome, Vol. 51, Issue 2 (2004), pp. 164–179.
- Cartledge, Paul; Spawforth, Antony (2001), Hellenistic and Roman Sparta (2 ed.), Oxford: Routledge, ISBN 0-415-26277-1
- Ehrenberg, Victor (1973), From Solon to Socrates: Greek History and Civilisation between the 6th and 5th centuries BC (2 ed.), London: Routledge, ISBN 0-415-04024-8
- Forrest, W.G. (1968), A History of Sparta, 950–192 B.C., New York: W. W. Norton & Co.
- Green, Peter (1998), The Greco-Persian Wars (2 ed.), Berkeley: University of California Press, ISBN 0-520-20313-5
- Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert (1940). Jones, Henry Stuart. ed. A Greek-English Lexicon. Oxford: Clarendon Press. .
- Morris, Ian (1992), Death-Ritual and Social Structure in Classical Antiquity, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-37611-4
- Pomeroy, Sarah B. (2002), Spartan Women, Oxford: Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-513067-6
- Powell, Anton (2001), Athens and Sparta: Constructing Greek Political and Social History from 478 BC (2 ed.), London: Routledge, ISBN 0-415-26280-1
- Plutarch (2005), Richard J.A. Talbert, ed., On Sparta (2 ed.), London: Penguin Books, ISBN 0-14-044943-4
- Plutarch (2004), Frank Cole Babbitt, ed., Moralia Vol. III, Loeb Classical Library, Cambridge: Harvard University Press, ISBN 0-674-99270-9
- Thompson, F. Hugh (2002), The Archaeology of Greek and Roman Slavery, London: Duckworth, ISBN 0-7156-3195-0
- Thucydides (1974), M.I. Finley, Rex Warner, ed., History of the Peloponnesian War, London: Penguin Books, ISBN 0-14-044039-9
- West, M.L. (1999), Greek Lyric Poetry, Oxford: Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-954039-6
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
External links[link]
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Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Sparta |
- Sparta on In Our Time at the BBC. (listen now)
- GTP—Sparta
- GTP—Ancient Sparta
- Schrader, Helena P. (2001-2010). "Sparta Reconsidered: An Introduction". The Spartans: Warrior Philosophers of the Ancient World. Elysium Gates. http://elysiumgates.com/~helena.
- Halsall, Paul (January 1999). "11th Britannica: Sparta". Ancient History Sourcebook. Fordham University. http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/ancient/eb11-sparta.html.
- Papakyriakou-Anagnostou, Ellen (2000-2011). "History of Sparta". Ancient Greek Cities. http://www.sikyon.com/sparta/history_eg.html.
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