Wrigley Field, before the 2005-2006 remodeling, with juniper-filled Batter's Eye section visible.

The old Yankee Stadium with Batter's Eye visible on upper right above the center field fence

The batter's eye or batter's eye screen is a solid-colored, usually dark area beyond the center field wall of a baseball stadium, that is the visual backdrop directly in the line of sight of a baseball batter, while facing the pitcher and awaiting a pitch. This dark surface allows the batter to see the pitched ball against a sharply contrasted and uncluttered background. Its primary purpose is the safety of the batter. The use of a batter's background has been standard in baseball (as well as cricket) since at least the late 19th century.^{[citation needed]} The Batter's Eye performs the same role at a baseball venue as the sightscreen does at a cricket venue, except that a cricket sightscreen is usually white in order to contrast with the dark red cricket ball. Alternatively a black screen is used to contrast the white Kookaburra Limited Overs cricket ball.

Design and seating[link]

The batter's eye area is usually painted or otherwise decorated in black, dark green, or other color dark enough to allow batters to track the flight of the white ball. If there are seats behind center field, they are painted a dark color and are not occupied during baseball games, as the "black bleachers" section is directly in front of them. If fans were allowed to sit in this section, it would create an unfair pitcher's advantage, in addition to raising the batter's exposure to danger, as it would make it more difficult for the batter to track the ball if a substantial number of fans were wearing white shirts.

One example of a batter's background is the black area in the center-field bleachers section of the original Yankee Stadium, known as the Black Seats. At one time, there were seats where the black area was, but because of distractions the seats were removed and the area painted black. (Before the stadium's mid-1970s renovation, a batter's eye screen was often put up in front of the section.)

At Fenway Park in Boston, the batter's eye is made by laying a large black tarp over a section of the center field bleachers. During day games, the seats will not be sold so the tarp can be laid down; however, during night games, when the batter is more likely to be able to see the ball regardless of the backdrop, the seats are sold. This has often created unusual seating arrangements during night games that are made up during part of a day-night doubleheader as the sections remain uncovered for the people who have purchased the seats. The Red Sox have solved this problem by handing out T-shirts of the same color to these fans to wear during the game. At Wrigley Field, the center field bleachers used to be closed off and covered by a tarpaulin, and later by juniper plants. There is now a shaded luxury suite there referred to by the Cubs as the "Bud Light Batter's Eye".^[1]

The batter's eye at Comerica Park is covered in shrubbery and has a fountain on top of it

Some stadiums have rotating billboards in this area. In this case, advertisements are displayed in between innings, while a dark surface is rotated in while the game is in play. This method was used at Shea Stadium in New York,^[2] AT&T Park in San Francisco, and at PETCO Park in San Diego.^[3] Tropicana Field in St. Petersburg, Florida has a restaurant called the Batter's Eye Restaurant.^[4] The current Yankee Stadium has a restaurant with dark tinted glass that serves as the batter's eye.

References[link]

Eye
Schematic diagram of the vertebrate eye.
Compound eye of Antarctic krill

Eyes are organs that detect light and convert it into electro-chemical impulses in neurons. The simplest photoreceptors in conscious vision connect light to movement. In higher organisms the eye is a complex optical system which collects light from the surrounding environment, regulates its intensity through a diaphragm, focuses it through an adjustable assembly of lenses to form an image, converts this image into a set of electrical signals, and transmits these signals to the brain through complex neural pathways that connect the eye via the optic nerve to the visual cortex and other areas of the brain. Eyes with resolving power have come in ten fundamentally different forms, and 96% of animal species possess a complex optical system.^[1] Image-resolving eyes are present in molluscs, chordates and arthropods.^[2]

The simplest "eyes", such as those in microorganisms, do nothing but detect whether the surroundings are light or dark, which is sufficient for the entrainment of circadian rhythms.^{[citation needed]} From more complex eyes, retinal photosensitive ganglion cells send signals along the retinohypothalamic tract to the suprachiasmatic nuclei to effect circadian adjustment.

Overview[link]

Eye of the wisent,
the European bison

Complex eyes can distinguish shapes and colours. The visual fields of many organisms, especially predators, involve large areas of binocular vision to improve depth perception. In other organisms, eyes are located so as to maximise the field of view, such as in rabbits and horses, which have monocular vision.

The first proto-eyes evolved among animals 600 million years ago about the time of the Cambrian explosion.^[3] The last common ancestor of animals possessed the biochemical toolkit necessary for vision, and more advanced eyes have evolved in 96% of animal species in six of the thirty-plus^[4] main phyla.^[1] In most vertebrates and some molluscs, the eye works by allowing light to enter and project onto a light-sensitive panel of cells, known as the retina, at the rear of the eye. The cone cells (for colour) and the rod cells (for low-light contrasts) in the retina detect and convert light into neural signals for vision. The visual signals are then transmitted to the brain via the optic nerve. Such eyes are typically roughly spherical, filled with a transparent gel-like substance called the vitreous humour, with a focusing lens and often an iris; the relaxing or tightening of the muscles around the iris change the size of the pupil, thereby regulating the amount of light that enters the eye,^[5] and reducing aberrations when there is enough light.^[6]

The eyes of most cephalopods, fish, amphibians and snakes have fixed lens shapes, and focusing vision is achieved by telescoping the lens—similar to how a camera focuses.^[7]

Compound eyes are found among the arthropods and are composed of many simple facets which, depending on the details of anatomy, may give either a single pixelated image or multiple images, per eye. Each sensor has its own lens and photosensitive cell(s). Some eyes have up to 28,000 such sensors, which are arranged hexagonally, and which can give a full 360° field of vision. Compound eyes are very sensitive to motion. Some arthropods, including many Strepsiptera, have compound eyes of only a few facets, each with a retina capable of creating an image, creating vision. With each eye viewing a different thing, a fused image from all the eyes is produced in the brain, providing very different, high-resolution images.

Possessing detailed hyperspectral colour vision, the Mantis shrimp has been reported to have the world's most complex colour vision system.^[8] Trilobites, which are now extinct, had unique compound eyes. They used clear calcite crystals to form the lenses of their eyes. In this, they differ from most other arthropods, which have soft eyes. The number of lenses in such an eye varied, however: some trilobites had only one, and some had thousands of lenses in one eye.

In contrast to compound eyes, simple eyes are those that have a single lens. For example, jumping spiders have a large pair of simple eyes with a narrow field of view, supported by an array of other, smaller eyes for peripheral vision. Some insect larvae, like caterpillars, have a different type of simple eye (stemmata) which gives a rough image. Some of the simplest eyes, called ocelli, can be found in animals like some of the snails, which cannot actually "see" in the normal sense. They do have photosensitive cells, but no lens and no other means of projecting an image onto these cells. They can distinguish between light and dark, but no more. This enables snails to keep out of direct sunlight. In organisms dwelling near deep-sea vents, compound eyes have been secondarily simplified and adapted to spot the infra-red light produced by the hot vents–in this way the bearers can spot hot springs and avoid being boiled alive.^[9]

Evolution[link]

Evolution of the eye

Photoreception is phylogenetically very old, with various theories of phylogenesis.^[10] The common origin (monophyly) of all animal eyes is now widely accepted as fact. This is based upon the shared anatomical and genetic features of all eyes; that is, all modern eyes, varied as they are, have their origins in a proto-eye believed to have evolved some 540 million years ago,^[11][12][13] and the PAX6 gene is considered a key factor in this. The majority of the advancements in early eyes are believed to have taken only a few million years to develop, since the first predator to gain true imaging would have touched off an "arms race".^[14] Prey animals and competing predators alike would be at a distinct disadvantage without such capabilities and would be less likely to survive and reproduce. Hence multiple eye types and subtypes developed in parallel.

Eyes in various animals show adaptation to their requirements. For example, birds of prey have much greater visual acuity than humans, and some can see ultraviolet light. The different forms of eye in, for example, vertebrates and molluscs are often cited as examples of parallel evolution, despite their distant common ancestry.

The very earliest "eyes", called eyespots, were simple patches of photoreceptor protein in unicellular animals. In multicellular beings, multicellular eyespots evolved, physically similar to the receptor patches for taste and smell. These eyespots could only sense ambient brightness: they could distinguish light and dark, but not the direction of the light source.^[1]

Through gradual change, as the eyespot depressed into a shallow "cup" shape, the ability to slightly discriminate directional brightness was achieved by using the angle at which the light hit certain cells to identify the source. The pit deepened over time, the opening diminished in size, and the number of photoreceptor cells increased, forming an effective pinhole camera that was capable of dimly distinguishing shapes.^[15]

The thin overgrowth of transparent cells over the eye's aperture, originally formed to prevent damage to the eyespot, allowed the segregated contents of the eye chamber to specialise into a transparent humour that optimised colour filtering, blocked harmful radiation, improved the eye's refractive index, and allowed functionality outside of water. The transparent protective cells eventually split into two layers, with circulatory fluid in between that allowed wider viewing angles and greater imaging resolution, and the thickness of the transparent layer gradually increased, in most species with the transparent crystallin protein.^[16]

The gap between tissue layers naturally formed a bioconvex shape, an optimally ideal structure for a normal refractive index. Independently, a transparent layer and a nontransparent layer split forward from the lens: the cornea and iris. Separation of the forward layer again formed a humour, the aqueous humour. This increased refractive power and again eased circulatory problems. Formation of a nontransparent ring allowed more blood vessels, more circulation, and larger eye sizes.^[16]

Types of eye[link]

There are ten different eye layouts—indeed every way of capturing an optical image commonly used by human beings, with the exceptions of zoom and Fresnel lenses. Eye types can be categorised into "simple eyes", with one concave photoreceptive surface, and "compound eyes", which comprise a number of individual lenses laid out on a convex surface.^[1] Note that "simple" does not imply a reduced level of complexity or acuity. Indeed, any eye type can be adapted for almost any behaviour or environment. The only limitations specific to eye types are that of resolution—the physics of compound eyes prevents them from achieving a resolution better than 1°. Also, superposition eyes can achieve greater sensitivity than apposition eyes, so are better suited to dark-dwelling creatures.^[1] Eyes also fall into two groups on the basis of their photoreceptor's cellular construction, with the photoreceptor cells either being cilliated (as in the vertebrates) or rhabdomeric. These two groups are not monophyletic; the cnidaria also possess cilliated cells, ^[17] and some annelids possess both.^[18]

Non-compound eyes[link]

Simple eyes are rather ubiquitous, and lens-bearing eyes have evolved at least seven times in vertebrates, cephalopods, annelids, crustaceans and cubozoa.^[19]

Pit eyes[link]

Pit eyes, also known as stemma, are eye-spots which may be set into a pit to reduce the angles of light that enters and affects the eyespot, to allow the organism to deduce the angle of incoming light.^[1] Found in about 85% of phyla, these basic forms were probably the precursors to more advanced types of "simple eye". They are small, comprising up to about 100 cells covering about 100 µm.^[1] The directionality can be improved by reducing the size of the aperture, by incorporating a reflective layer behind the receptor cells, or by filling the pit with a refractile material.^[1]

Pit vipers have developed pits that function as eyes by sensing thermal infra-red radiation, in addition to their optical wavelength eyes like those of other vertebrates.

Spherical lensed eye[link]

The resolution of pit eyes can be greatly improved by incorporating a material with a higher refractive index to form a lens, which may greatly reduce the blur radius encountered—hence increasing the resolution obtainable.^[1] The most basic form, seen in some gastropods and annelids, consists of a lens of one refractive index. A far sharper image can be obtained using materials with a high refractive index, decreasing to the edges; this decreases the focal length and thus allows a sharp image to form on the retina.^[1] This also allows a larger aperture for a given sharpness of image, allowing more light to enter the lens; and a flatter lens, reducing spherical aberration.^[1] Such an inhomogeneous lens is necessary in order for the focal length to drop from about 4 times the lens radius, to 2.5 radii.^[1]

Heterogeneous eyes have evolved at least eight times: four or more times in gastropods, once in the copepods, once in the annelids and once in the cephalopods.^[1] No aquatic organisms possess homogeneous lenses; presumably the evolutionary pressure for a heterogeneous lens is great enough for this stage to be quickly "outgrown".^[1]

This eye creates an image that is sharp enough that motion of the eye can cause significant blurring. To minimise the effect of eye motion while the animal moves, most such eyes have stabilising eye muscles.^[1]

The ocelli of insects bear a simple lens, but their focal point always lies behind the retina; consequently they can never form a sharp image. This capitulates the function of the eye. Ocelli (pit-type eyes of arthropods) blur the image across the whole retina, and are consequently excellent at responding to rapid changes in light intensity across the whole visual field; this fast response is further accelerated by the large nerve bundles which rush the information to the brain.^[20] Focusing the image would also cause the sun's image to be focused on a few receptors, with the possibility of damage under the intense light; shielding the receptors would block out some light and thus reduce their sensitivity.^[20] This fast response has led to suggestions that the ocelli of insects are used mainly in flight, because they can be used to detect sudden changes in which way is up (because light, especially UV light which is absorbed by vegetation, usually comes from above).^[20]

Multiple lenses[link]

Some marine organisms bear more than one lens; for instance the copepod Pontella has three. The outer has a parabolic surface, countering the effects of spherical aberration while allowing a sharp image to be formed. Another copepod, Copilia, has two lenses in each eye, arranged like those in a telescope.^[1] Such arrangements are rare and poorly understood, but represent an interesting alternative construction. An interesting use of multiple lenses is seen in some hunters such as eagles and jumping spiders, which have a refractive cornea (discussed next): these have a negative lens, enlarging the observed image by up to 50% over the receptor cells, thus increasing their optical resolution.^[1]

Refractive cornea[link]

In the eyes of most mammals, birds, reptiles, and most other terrestrial vertebrates (along with spiders and some insect larvae) the vitreous fluid has a higher refractive index than the air.^[1] In general, the lens is not spherical. Spherical lenses produce spherical aberration. In refractive corneas, the lens tissue is corrected with inhomogeneous lens material (see Luneburg lens), or with an aspheric shape.^[1] Flattening the lens has a disadvantage; the quality of vision is diminished away from the main line of focus. Thus, animals that have evolved with a wide field-of-view often have eyes that make use of an inhomogeneous lens.^[1]

As mentioned above, a refractive cornea is only useful out of water; in water, there is little difference in refractive index between the vitreous fluid and the surrounding water. Hence creatures that have returned to the water–penguins and seals, for example–lose their highly curved cornea and return to lens-based vision. An alternative solution, borne by some divers, is to have a very strongly focusing cornea.^[1]

Reflector eyes[link]

An alternative to a lens is to line the inside of the eye with " mirrors", and reflect the image to focus at a central point.^[1] The nature of these eyes means that if one were to peer into the pupil of an eye, one would see the same image that the organism would see, reflected back out.^[1]

Many small organisms such as rotifers, copepods and platyhelminths use such organs, but these are too small to produce usable images.^[1] Some larger organisms, such as scallops, also use reflector eyes. The scallop Pecten has up to 100 millimetre-scale reflector eyes fringing the edge of its shell. It detects moving objects as they pass successive lenses.^[1]

There is at least one vertebrate, the spookfish, whose eyes include reflective optics for focusing of light. Each of the two eyes of a spookfish collects light from both above and below; the light coming from above is focused by a lens, while that coming from below, by a curved mirror composed of many layers of small reflective plates made of guanine crystals.^[21]

[edit] Compound eyes

An image of a house fly compound eye surface by using scanning electron microscope

Anatomy of the compound eye of an insect

Arthropods such as this Calliphora vomitoria fly have compound eyes

A compound eye may consist of thousands of individual photoreceptor units or ommatidia (ommatidium, singular). The image perceived is a combination of inputs from the numerous ommatidia (individual "eye units"), which are located on a convex surface, thus pointing in slightly different directions. Compared with simple eyes, compound eyes possess a very large view angle, and can detect fast movement and, in some cases, the polarisation of light.^[22] Because the individual lenses are so small, the effects of diffraction impose a limit on the possible resolution that can be obtained (assuming that they do not function as phased arrays). This can only be countered by increasing lens size and number. To see with a resolution comparable to our simple eyes, humans would require compound eyes which would each reach the size of their heads.^{[citation needed]}

Compound eyes fall into two groups: apposition eyes, which form multiple inverted images, and superposition eyes, which form a single erect image.^[23] Compound eyes are common in arthropods, and are also present in annelids and some bivalved molluscs.^[24]

Compound eyes, in arthropods at least, grow at their margins by the addition of new ommatidia.^[25]

Apposition eyes[link]

Apposition eyes are the most common form of eye, and are presumably the ancestral form of compound eye. They are found in all arthropod groups, although they may have evolved more than once within this phylum.^[1] Some annelids and bivalves also have apposition eyes. They are also possessed by Limulus, the horseshoe crab, and there are suggestions that other chelicerates developed their simple eyes by reduction from a compound starting point.^[1] (Some caterpillars appear to have evolved compound eyes from simple eyes in the opposite fashion.)

Apposition eyes work by gathering a number of images, one from each eye, and combining them in the brain, with each eye typically contributing a single point of information.

The typical apposition eye has a lens focusing light from one direction on the rhabdom, while light from other directions is absorbed by the dark wall of the ommatidium. In the other kind of apposition eye, found in the Strepsiptera, lenses are not fused to one another, and each forms an entire image; these images are combined in the brain. This is called the schizochroal compound eye or the neural superposition eye. Because images are combined additively, this arrangement allows vision under lower light levels.^[1]

Superposition eyes[link]

The second type is named the superposition eye. The superposition eye is divided into three types; the refracting, the reflecting and the parabolic superposition eye. The refracting superposition eye has a gap between the lens and the rhabdom, and no side wall. Each lens takes light at an angle to its axis and reflects it to the same angle on the other side. The result is an image at half the radius of the eye, which is where the tips of the rhabdoms are. This kind is used mostly by nocturnal insects. In the parabolic superposition compound eye type, seen in arthropods such as mayflies, the parabolic surfaces of the inside of each facet focus light from a reflector to a sensor array. Long-bodied decapod crustaceans such as shrimp, prawns, crayfish and lobsters are alone in having reflecting superposition eyes, which also have a transparent gap but use corner mirrors instead of lenses.

Parabolic superposition[link]

This eye type functions by refracting light, then using a parabolic mirror to focus the image; it combines features of superposition and apposition eyes.^[9]

Other[link]

Good fliers like flies or honey bees, or prey-catching insects like praying mantis or dragonflies, have specialised zones of ommatidia organised into a fovea area which gives acute vision. In the acute zone the eyes are flattened and the facets larger. The flattening allows more ommatidia to receive light from a spot and therefore higher resolution.

There are some exceptions from the types mentioned above. Some insects have a so-called single lens compound eye, a transitional type which is something between a superposition type of the multi-lens compound eye and the single lens eye found in animals with simple eyes. Then there is the mysid shrimp Dioptromysis paucispinosa. The shrimp has an eye of the refracting superposition type, in the rear behind this in each eye there is a single large facet that is three times in diameter the others in the eye and behind this is an enlarged crystalline cone. This projects an upright image on a specialised retina. The resulting eye is a mixture of a simple eye within a compound eye.

Another version is the pseudofaceted eye, as seen in Scutigera. This type of eye consists of a cluster of numerous ocelli on each side of the head, organised in a way that resembles a true compound eye.

The body of Ophiocoma wendtii, a type of brittle star, is covered with ommatidia, turning its whole skin into a compound eye. The same is true of many chitons. The tube feet of sea urchins contain photoreceptor proteins, which together act as a compound eye; they lack screening pigments, but can detect the directionality of light by the shadow cast by its opaque body.^[26]

Nutrients[link]

The ciliary body is triangular in horizontal section and is coated by a double layer, the ciliary epithelium. The inner layer is transparent and covers the vitreous body, and is continuous from the neural tissue of the retina. The outer layer is highly pigmented, continuous with the retinal pigment epithelium, and constitutes the cells of the dilator muscle.

The vitreous is the transparent, colourless, gelatinous mass that fills the space between the lens of the eye and the retina lining the back of the eye.^[27] It is produced by certain retinal cells. It is of rather similar composition to the cornea, but contains very few cells (mostly phagocytes which remove unwanted cellular debris in the visual field, as well as the hyalocytes of Balazs of the surface of the vitreous, which reprocess the hyaluronic acid), no blood vessels, and 98-99% of its volume is water (as opposed to 75% in the cornea) with salts, sugars, vitrosin (a type of collagen), a network of collagen type II fibres with the mucopolysaccharide hyaluronic acid, and also a wide array of proteins in micro amounts. Amazingly, with so little solid matter, it tautly holds the eye.

Relationship to life requirements[link]

Eyes are generally adapted to the environment and life requirements of the organism which bears them. For instance, the distribution of photoreceptors tends to match the area in which the highest acuity is required, with horizon-scanning organisms, such as those that live on the African plains, having a horizontal line of high-density ganglia, while tree-dwelling creatures which require good all-round vision tend to have a symmetrical distribution of ganglia, with acuity decreasing outwards from the centre.

Of course, for most eye types, it is impossible to diverge from a spherical form, so only the density of optical receptors can be altered. In organisms with compound eyes, it is the number of ommatidia rather than ganglia that reflects the region of highest data acquisition.^[1]:23-4 Optical superposition eyes are constrained to a spherical shape, but other forms of compound eyes may deform to a shape where more ommatidia are aligned to, say, the horizon, without altering the size or density of individual ommatidia.^[28] Eyes of horizon-scanning organisms have stalks so they can be easily aligned to the horizon when this is inclined, for example if the animal is on a slope.^[29] An extension of this concept is that the eyes of predators typically have a zone of very acute vision at their centre, to assist in the identification of prey.^[28] In deep water organisms, it may not be the centre of the eye that is enlarged. The hyperiid amphipods are deep water animals that feed on organisms above them. Their eyes are almost divided into two, with the upper region thought to be involved in detecting the silhouettes of potential prey—or predators—against the faint light of the sky above. Accordingly, deeper water hyperiids, where the light against which the silhouettes must be compared is dimmer, have larger "upper-eyes", and may lose the lower portion of their eyes altogether.^[28] Depth perception can be enhanced by having eyes which are enlarged in one direction; distorting the eye slightly allows the distance to the object to be estimated with a high degree of accuracy.^[9]

Acuity is higher among male organisms that mate in mid-air, as they need to be able to spot and assess potential mates against a very large backdrop.^[28] On the other hand, the eyes of organisms which operate in low light levels, such as around dawn and dusk or in deep water, tend to be larger to increase the amount of light that can be captured.^[28]

It is not only the shape of the eye that may be affected by lifestyle. Eyes can be the most visible parts of organisms, and this can act as a pressure on organisms to have more transparent eyes at the cost of function.^[28]

Eyes may be mounted on stalks to provide better all-round vision, by lifting them above an organism's carapace; this also allows them to track predators or prey without moving the head.^[9]

Visual acuity[link]

The eye of a red-tailed hawk

Visual acuity, or resolving power, is "the ability to distinguish fine detail" and is the property of cone cells.^[30] It is often measured in cycles per degree (CPD), which measures an angular resolution, or how much an eye can differentiate one object from another in terms of visual angles. Resolution in CPD can be measured by bar charts of different numbers of white/black stripe cycles. For example, if each pattern is 1.75 cm wide and is placed at 1 m distance from the eye, it will subtend an angle of 1 degree, so the number of white/black bar pairs on the pattern will be a measure of the cycles per degree of that pattern. The highest such number that the eye can resolve as stripes, or distinguish from a grey block, is then the measurement of visual acuity of the eye.

For a human eye with excellent acuity, the maximum theoretical resolution is 50 CPD^[31] (1.2 arcminute per line pair, or a 0.35 mm line pair, at 1 m). A rat can resolve only about 1 to 2 CPD.^[32] A horse has higher acuity through most of the visual field of its eyes than a human has, but does not match the high acuity of the human eye's central fovea region.^{[citation needed]}

Spherical aberration limits the resolution of a 7 mm pupil to about 3 arcminutes per line pair. At a pupil diameter of 3 mm, the spherical aberration is greatly reduced, resulting in an improved resolution of approximately 1.7 arcminutes per line pair.^[33] A resolution of 2 arcminutes per line pair, equivalent to a 1 arcminute gap in an optotype, corresponds to 20/20 (normal vision) in humans.

However, in the compound eye, the resolution is related to the size of individual ommatidia and the distance between neighbouring ommatidia. Physically these cannot be reduced in size to achieve the acuity seen with single lensed eyes as in mammals. Compound eyes have a much lower acuity than mammalian eyes.^[34]

Perception of colors[link]

"Color vision is the faculty of the organism to distinguish lights of different spectral qualities."^[35] All organisms are restricted to a small range of electromagnetic spectrum; this varies from creature to creature, but is mainly between wavelengths of 400 and 700 nm.^[36] This is a rather small section of the electromagnetic spectrum, probably reflecting the submarine evolution of the organ: water blocks out all but two small windows of the EM spectrum, and there has been no evolutionary pressure among land animals to broaden this range.^[37]

The most sensitive pigment, rhodopsin, has a peak response at 500 nm.^[38] Small changes to the genes coding for this protein can tweak the peak response by a few nm;^[2] pigments in the lens can also filter incoming light, changing the peak response.^[2] Many organisms are unable to discriminate between colours, seeing instead in shades of grey; colour vision necessitates a range of pigment cells which are primarily sensitive to smaller ranges of the spectrum. In primates, geckos, and other organisms, these take the form of cone cells, from which the more sensitive rod cells evolved.^[38] Even if organisms are physically capable of discriminating different colours, this does not necessarily mean that they can perceive the different colours; only with behavioural tests can this be deduced.^[2]

Most organisms with color vision are able to detect ultraviolet light. This high energy light can be damaging to receptor cells. With a few exceptions (snakes, placental mammals), most organisms avoid these effects by having absorbent oil droplets around their cone cells. The alternative, developed by organisms that had lost these oil droplets in the course of evolution, is to make the lens impervious to UV light — this precludes the possibility of any UV light being detected, as it does not even reach the retina.^[38]

Rods and cones[link]

The retina contains two major types of light-sensitive photoreceptor cells used for vision: the rods and the cones.

Rods cannot distinguish colours, but are responsible for low-light (scotopic) monochrome (black-and-white) vision; they work well in dim light as they contain a pigment, rhodopsin (visual purple), which is sensitive at low light intensity, but saturates at higher (photopic) intensities. Rods are distributed throughout the retina but there are none at the fovea and none at the blind spot. Rod density is greater in the peripheral retina than in the central retina.

Cones are responsible for colour vision. They require brighter light to function than rods require. In humans, there are three types of cones, maximally sensitive to long-wavelength, medium-wavelength, and short-wavelength light (often referred to as red, green, and blue, respectively, though the sensitivity peaks are not actually at these colours). The colour seen is the combined effect of stimuli to, and responses from, these three types of cone cells. Cones are mostly concentrated in and near the fovea. Only a few are present at the sides of the retina. Objects are seen most sharply in focus when their images fall on the fovea, as when one looks at an object directly. Cone cells and rods are connected through intermediate cells in the retina to nerve fibres of the optic nerve. When rods and cones are stimulated by light, the nerves send off impulses through these fibres to the brain.^[38]

Pigmentation[link]

The pigment molecules used in the eye are various, but can be used to define the evolutionary distance between different groups, and can also be an aid in determining which are closely related – although problems of convergence do exist.^[38]

Opsins are the pigments involved in photoreception. Other pigments, such as melanin, are used to shield the photoreceptor cells from light leaking in from the sides. The opsin protein group evolved long before the last common ancestor of animals, and has continued to diversify since.^[2]

There are two types of opsin involved in vision; c-opsins, which are associated with ciliary-type photoreceptor cells, and r-opsins, associated with rhabdomeric photoreceptor cells.^[39] The eyes of vertebrates usually contain cilliary cells with c-opsins, and (bilaterian) invertebrates have rhabdomeric cells in the eye with r-opsins. However, some ganglion cells of vertebrates express r-opsins, suggesting that their ancestors used this pigment in vision, and that remnants survive in the eyes.^[39] Likewise, c-opsins have been found to be expressed in the brain of some invertebrates. They may have been expressed in ciliary cells of larval eyes, which were subsequently resorbed into the brain on metamorphosis to the adult form.^[39] C-opsins are also found in some derived bilaterian-invertebrate eyes, such as the pallial eyes of the bivalve molluscs; however, the lateral eyes (which were presumably the ancestral type for this group, if eyes evolved once there) always use r-opsins.^[39] Cnidaria, which are an outgroup to the taxa mentioned above, express c-opsins - but r-opsins are yet to be found in this group.^[39] Incidentally, the melanin produced in the raticate is produced in the same fashion as that in vertebrates, suggesting the common descent of this pigment.^[39]

See also[link]

	Book: Eye
Wikipedia books are collections of articles that can be downloaded or ordered in print.

• Arthropod eye
• Cephalopod eye
• Emission theory (vision)
• Eye colour
• Eyelid
• Eye movement (sensory)
• Human eye
• Mammalian eye
• Mollusc eye
• Nictitating membrane
• Simple eye in invertebrates
• Tapetum lucidum
• Tears

References[link]

Notes[link]

Bibliography[link]

• Ali, Mohamed Ather; Klyne, M. A. (1985). Vision in Vertebrates. New York: Plenum Press. ISBN 0-306-42065-1. 

External links[link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Eyes

• Evolution of the eye
• Diagram of the eye
• Webvision. The organisation of the retina and visual system. An in-depth treatment of retinal function, open to all but geared most toward graduate students.
• Eye strips images of all but bare essentials before sending visual information to brain, UC Berkeley research shows
• A collection of resources for eye anatomy.
• Anatomy of the eye - flash animated interactive.
• Eyes - Eyes are organs that detect light, and send signals along the optic nerve to the visual and other areas of the brain.
• Detection of weak optical signals by the human visual system : Perspectives in Neuroscience and in Quantum Physics
• Are Your Eyes Right February 1944 Popular Science

v t e Sensory system – visual system – globe of eye (TA A15.2.1–6, TH 3.11.08.0-5, GA 10.1005) Fibrous tunic (outer) Sclera Episcleral layer • Schlemm's canal • Trabecular meshwork Cornea Limbus • layers (Epithelium, Bowman's, Stroma, Descemet's, Endothelium) Uvea/vascular tunic (middle) Choroid Capillary lamina of choroid • Bruch's membrane • Sattler's layer Ciliary body Ciliary processes • Ciliary muscle Iris Stroma • Pupil • Iris dilator muscle • Iris sphincter muscle Retina (inner) Layers Inner limiting membrane • Nerve fiber layer • Ganglion cell layer • Inner plexiform layer • Inner nuclear layer Outer plexiform layer • Outer nuclear layer External limiting membrane • Layer of rods and cones • Retinal pigment epithelium Cells Photoreceptor cells (Cone cell, Rod cell) → (Horizontal cell) → Bipolar cell → (Amacrine cell) → Retina ganglion cell (Midget cell, Parasol cell, Bistratified cell, Giant retina ganglion cells, Photosensitive ganglion cell) → Diencephalon: P cell, M cell, K cell Muller glia Other Macula (Foveola, Fovea centralis) • Optic disc (Optic cup) Anterior segment Anterior chamber • Aqueous humour • Posterior chamber • Lens (Capsule of lens, Zonule of Zinn) Posterior segment Vitreous humour Other Ocular immune system • Tapetum lucidum • Keratocytes M: EYE anat(g/a/p)/phys/devp/prot noco/cong/tumr, epon proc, drug(S1A/1E/1F/1L)

Alex Rodriguez
Rodriguez with the Yankees
New York Yankees – No. 13
Third baseman / Shortstop
Born: (1975-07-27) July 27, 1975 (age 36) New York, New York
Bats: Right	Throws: Right
MLB debut
July 8, 1994 for the Seattle Mariners
Career statistics (through May 22, 2012)
Batting average	.301
Home runs	636
Runs batted in	1,908
Hits	2,818
Stolen Bases	310
Runs	1,846
Teams
Seattle Mariners (1994–2000) Texas Rangers (2001–2003) New York Yankees (2004–present)
Career highlights and awards
14× All-Star (1996–1998, 2000–2008, 2010, 2011) 10× Silver Slugger Award winner (1996, 1998–2003, 2005, 2007, 2008) 4× AL Hank Aaron Award winner (2001–2003, 2007) 3× AL MVP (2003, 2005, 2007) 2× Gold Glove Award winner (2002, 2003) World Series champion (2009)

Alexander Emmanuel "Alex" Rodriguez (born July 27, 1975) is an American professional baseball third baseman with the New York Yankees of Major League Baseball. Known popularly by his nickname A-Rod, he previously played shortstop for the Seattle Mariners and the Texas Rangers.

Rodriguez is considered one of the best all-around baseball players of all time.^[1][2][3] He is the youngest player ever to hit 500 home runs, breaking the record Jimmie Foxx set in 1939, and the youngest to hit 600, besting Babe Ruth's record by over a year. Rodriguez has fourteen 100-RBI seasons in his career, more than any other player in history. On September 24, 2010, Rodriguez hit two home runs, surpassing Sammy Sosa's mark of 609 HRs, and became the all-time leader in home runs by a player of Hispanic descent.^[4]

In December 2007, Rodriguez and the Yankees agreed to a 10-year, $275 million contract. This contract was the richest contract in baseball history (breaking his previous record of $252 million).^[5]

In February 2009, after previously denying use of performance-enhancing drugs, including during a 2007 interview with Katie Couric on 60 Minutes, Rodriguez admitted to using steroids, saying he used them from 2001 to 2003 when playing for the Texas Rangers due to what he called "an enormous amount of pressure" to perform.^[6][7]

Early life[link]

Background[link]

Rodriguez was born in the Washington Heights section of New York City to a Dominican family. When he was four, Rodriguez and his parents moved to the Dominican Republic, then to Miami, Florida. Rodriguez's favorite baseball players growing up were Keith Hernandez, Dale Murphy, and Cal Ripken, and his favorite team was the New York Mets.^[8]

High school[link]

Rodriguez was a star shortstop at Miami's Westminster Christian High School. In 100 games he batted .419 with 90 steals. Westminster went on to win the high school national championship in his junior year. He was first team prep All-American as a senior, hitting .505 with 9 home runs, 36 RBIs, and 35 steals in 35 tries in 33 games, and was selected as the USA Baseball Junior Player of the Year and as Gatorade's national baseball student athlete of the year. Rodriguez was the first high school player to ever try out for Team USA in 1993, and was regarded as the top prospect in the country.

College[link]

Rodriguez signed a letter of intent to play baseball for the University of Miami and was also recruited by the university to play quarterback for its football team. Rodriguez turned down Miami's baseball scholarship and never played college baseball, opting instead to sign with the Seattle Mariners after being selected in the first round of the amateur draft at the age of 17.

Professional career[link]

Seattle Mariners[link]

Rodriguez batting as a member of the AAA Calgary Cannons in 1994.

Rodriguez was drafted first overall by the Seattle Mariners in 1993. He was signed by Roger Jongewaard right out of high school. In 1994, Rodriguez played for Seattle's AAA affiliate, the Calgary Cannons. In 32 games, he had 37 hits in 119 at bats for a .311 batting average. He also compiled 6 home runs and 21 runs batted in. Rodriguez rose rapidly through the Mariners organization, and made his major league debut as the starting shortstop on July 8, 1994, in Boston at 18 years, 11 months, and 11 days of age. He was just the third 18-year-old Major League shortstop since 1900. He was also the first 18-year-old Major League player in 10 years, and the youngest position player in Seattle history. His first Major League hit was a single off Sergio Valdez on July 9 at Fenway Park. Rodriguez's first Major League campaign lasted just one month; the season was cut short by the 1994 Major League Baseball strike.

Rodriguez then split most of 1995 between the Mariners and their AAA club, the Tacoma Rainiers.^[9] He connected for his first Major League home run off Kansas City's Tom Gordon on June 12. Rodriguez joined the Major League roster permanently in August, and got his first taste of postseason play, albeit in just two at-bats. Again, he was the youngest player in Major League Baseball.

1996: First full season and breakout year[link]

The following year, Rodriguez took over as the Mariners' regular shortstop (SS) and hit 36 HR, drove in 123 runs, and led the American League (AL) with a .358 batting average, the highest for an AL right-handed batter since Joe DiMaggio hit .381 in 1939 and the 3rd highest ever for a SS. At 21 years and one month, he was the 3rd youngest AL batting leader ever behind Al Kaline (20) in 1955 and Ty Cobb (20) in 1907, and the 3rd youngest player in history with 35+ homers. He was also the 1st major league SS to win a batting title since 1960, and the 1st in the AL since 1944, and at 20 years, 11 months, was the youngest SS in All-Star Game history. He also led the AL in runs (141), total bases (379), and doubles (54) and ranked among the league leaders in hits (2nd, 215), extra base hits (2nd, 91), multi-hit games (3rd, 65), slugging (4th, .631), RBI (8th, 123), and on-base percentage (8th, .414). Rodriguez posted the highest totals ever for a shortstop in runs, hits, doubles, extra base hits, and slugging, and tied most total bases, and established Seattle club records for average, runs, hits, doubles, and total bases, in a season that statistical analysts consider the best ever by an SS.^[10]

He was selected by both Sporting News and Associated Press as the Major League Player of the Year, and came close to becoming the youngest MVP (Most Valuable Player) in baseball history, finishing second to Juan González in one of the most controversial MVP elections in recent times.^[11] He finished three points behind González (290–287), matching the 2nd closest A.L. MVP voting in history.

1997–99 seasons[link]

In 1997, Rodriguez's numbers fell somewhat, as he hit 23 HRs with 84 RBI and a .300 batting average that year. He hit for the cycle on June 5 at Detroit, becoming the second Mariner to ever accomplish the feat, and at 21 years, 10 months, was 5th youngest player in history to do it. He was the fan's choice to start the All-Star Game at shortstop for the AL team, becoming the first player other than Cal Ripken, Jr. to start at shortstop in 13 years. It was the first All-Star start of his career and his second All-Star Game in two years.

Rodriguez rebounded in 1998, setting the AL record for homers by a shortstop and becoming just the third member of the 40–40 club, (with 42 HR and 46 SB) and one of just 3 shortstops in history to hit 40 home runs in a season. His 43.9 Power-speed number was, through at least 2008, the highest single season Power/Speed Number ever.^[12]

He was selected as Players Choice AL Player of the Year, won his 2nd Silver Slugger Award and finished in the top 10 in the MVP voting.

In 1999, he again hit 42 HR, despite missing over 30 games with an injury and playing the second half of the season at Safeco Field, a considerably less hitter-friendly ballpark than the Kingdome.

2000: Final season in Seattle[link]

Rodriguez entered 2000 as the cornerstone player of the Mariners franchise, which had recently dealt superstars Randy Johnson and Ken Griffey, Jr. Rodriguez put up great numbers as the team's remaining superstar; he hit 41 HR with 132 RBI and had a .316 batting average. He set a career high for walks (100) and became the only shortstop to have 100 runs, RBI, and walks in the same season. He hit well in the playoffs as well (.409 batting average and .773 slugging percentage), but Seattle lost to the New York Yankees in the 2000 American League Championship Series.

He was selected as the Major League Player of the Year by Baseball America and finished 3rd in the BBWAA AL MVP voting.

Texas Rangers[link]

Rodriguez became a free agent after the 2000 season. He eventually signed with the Texas Rangers, who had fallen to last in their division in 2000. The contract he signed was at the time the most lucrative contract in sports history: a 10-year deal worth $252 million. The deal was worth $63 million more than the second-richest baseball deal.^[13]

After Rodriguez signed with Texas, when the Rangers came to Seattle, Mariner fans expressed their disappointment toward Rodriguez with jeers and flashing and waving Monopoly money whenever he came up to bat. To this day, fans still show disapproval.

In an article written years later in the Daily News, Rodriguez said how he regretted signing with the Texas Rangers and wished he had signed with the New York Mets rather than Texas. Rodriguez stated how he listened to his agent Scott Boras about taking more money instead and did not want to make the same mistake of not being on a team he liked playing for by leaving the Yankees. (see Opt out controversy)^[14]

2001–02: Record-breaking seasons[link]

Rodriguez's power hitting numbers improved with his move to Texas. In his first season with the Rangers, Rodriguez produced one of the top offensive seasons ever for a shortstop, leading the American League with 52 HR, 133 runs scored, and 393 total bases. He became the first player since 1932 with 50 homers and 200 hits in a season, just the third shortstop to ever lead his league in homers, and was just the second AL player in the last 34 seasons (beginning 1968) to lead the league in runs, homers, and total bases; his total base figure is the most ever for a major league shortstop. His 52 homers made him the sixth youngest to ever reach 50 homers and were the highest total ever by a shortstop, surpassing Ernie Banks' record of 47 in 1958, and also the most ever for an infielder other than a 1st baseman, breaking Phillies 3B Mike Schmidt's mark of 48 in 1980.^[15] It was his 5th 30-homer campaign, tying Banks for most ever by a shortstop. He also tied for the league lead in extra base hits (87) and ranked 3rd in RBI (135) and slugging (.622). He was also among the AL leaders in hits (4th, 201), average (7th, .318), and on-base percentage (8th, .399). He established Rangers club records for homers, runs, total bases, and hit by pitches, had the 2nd most extra base hits, and the 4th highest RBI total. He led the club in runs, hits, doubles (34), homers, RBI, slugging, and on-base percentage and was 2nd in walks (75), stolen bases (18), and game-winning RBI (14) while posting career highs for homers, RBI, and total bases. Rodriguez started 161 games at shortstop and one as the DH, the only major league player to start all of his team's games in 2001.

He followed that with a major league-best 57 HR, 142 RBIs and 389 total bases in 2002, becoming the first player to lead the majors in all three categories since 1984. His nine home runs in April matched a team record that was shared (through 2008) with Iván Rodríguez (2000), Carl Everett (2003), and Ian Kinsler (2007). He had the 6th-most home runs in AL history, the most since Roger Maris' league record 61 in 1961, and the most ever for a shortstop for the 2nd straight year. He won the Babe Ruth Home Run Award for leading MLB in homers that season.^[16] He also won his first Gold Glove Award, awarded for outstanding defense.

His 109 home runs in 2001–02 are the most ever by an American League right-handed batter in consecutive seasons. However, the Rangers finished last in the AL Western division in both years, a showing that likely cost Rodriguez the MVP award in 2002 when he finished second to fellow shortstop Miguel Tejada, whose 103-win Oakland A's won the same division.

2003: American League Most Valuable Player[link]

In 2003, his last season with Texas, Rodriguez led the American League in home runs, runs scored, and slugging percentage, and won his second consecutive Gold Glove Award. He also led the league in fewest at bats per home run (12.9) and became the youngest player to hit 300 homers. He was tied with Jim Thome for the MLB lead in homers, and he won his second Babe Ruth Home Run Award.^[17][18]

Following five top-10 finishes in the AL Most Valuable Player voting between 1996 and 2002, Rodriguez won his first MVP trophy. A-Rod, a two-time runner up in the balloting by the Baseball Writers Association of America, joined outfielder Andre Dawson from the 1987 Chicago Cubs as the only players to play on last-place teams and win the award.

Following the 2003 season, Texas set out to move Rodriguez and his expensive contract. The Rangers initially agreed to a trade with the Boston Red Sox, but the MLBPA (Major League Baseball Players Association) vetoed the deal because it called for a voluntary reduction in salary by Rodriguez. Despite the failed deal with the Red Sox, the Rangers named him team captain during that off-season. This designation did not last long, however, as the New York Yankees had taken notice of the sudden trade availability of Rodriguez.

On February 7, 2009, Sports Illustrated reported that Rodriguez tested positive for anabolic steroids, testosterone and Primobolan, in 2003 (see Criticism: Steroid use, below).^[19] Rodriguez's name appears on a government-sealed list of 104 major-league players (out of 1200 tested^[20]) who came up positive for performance-enhancing drugs. The report was compiled as part of Major League Baseball's 2003 survey to see whether mandatory random drug testing program might be necessary. At the time, there was no penalty or punishment for a positive steroid test. Rodriguez did not immediately confirm the allegations, deferring at first to the players' union.^[19][21] Two days after the allegations, Rodriguez admitted to steroid use from 2001 until 2003, claiming that he ceased using such substances after spring training that year.^[6][7]

New York Yankees[link]

Rodriguez moved to third base after he was traded to the Yankees in 2004.

Yankees third baseman Aaron Boone suffered a knee injury while playing a game of pickup basketball that sidelined him for the entire 2004 season, creating a hole at third base.

On February 15, 2004, the Rangers traded Rodriguez to the New York Yankees for second baseman Alfonso Soriano and a player to be named later (Joaquín Árias was sent to the Rangers on March 24). The Rangers also agreed to pay $67 million of the $179 million left on Rodriguez's contract. Rodriguez agreed to switch positions from shortstop to third base, paving the way for the trade, because the popular Derek Jeter was already entrenched at shortstop. Rodriguez also had to switch uniform numbers, from 3 to 13; he had worn 3 his entire career, but that number is retired by the Yankees in honor of Babe Ruth.

2004: First season with Yankees[link]

In his first season with the Yankees, Rodriguez hit .286 with 36 home runs, 106 runs batted in, 112 runs scored and 28 stolen bases. He became one of only three players in Major League history to compile at least 35 home runs, 100 runs and 100 RBI in seven consecutive seasons, joining Hall of Famers Babe Ruth and Jimmie Foxx. The 112 runs marked the ninth straight season in which he scored at least 100 runs, the longest such streak in the Major Leagues since Hank Aaron did it in 13 straight seasons from 1955 to 1967, and the longest in the American League since Mickey Mantle did it also in nine straight seasons from 1953 to 1961. During the 2004 season, he also became the youngest player ever to reach the 350 HR mark and the third youngest to reach the 1,000 RBI plateau. He was elected to the 2004 American League All-Star Team, the eighth All-Star selection of his career and the first as a third baseman. On July 24, 2004, after being hit by a pitch, Rodriguez and Boston Red Sox catcher Jason Varitek scuffled, leading to a brawl between both teams. On defense, he had the lowest range factor among non-platoon AL third basemen (2.39) in his first year at the position.^[22] He finished 14th in balloting for the AL MVP Award.

In the 2004 ALDS, Rodriguez was a dominant hitter against the Minnesota Twins, batting .421 and slugging .737 while delivering two key extra-inning hits. Following the series win, Rodriguez's first season with the Yankees culminated in a dramatic playoff series against the team he had almost ended up playing for: the Yankees' bitter rival, the Boston Red Sox. In that series (ALCS) he equaled the single-game post-season record with five runs scored in Game 3 at Boston.

One of the most controversial plays of Rodriguez's career occurred late in Game 6 of the 2004 American League Championship Series. With one out and Derek Jeter on first base in the bottom of the eighth inning, Rodriguez hit a slow roller between the pitcher's mound and the first base line. Red Sox pitcher Bronson Arroyo fielded the ball and ran towards Rodriguez to apply a tag. As Arroyo reached towards him, Rodriguez swatted at his glove, knocking the ball loose. As the ball rolled away, Jeter scored all the way from first as Rodriguez took second on the play, which was initially ruled an error on Arroyo. However, the umpires quickly huddled, then ruled that Rodriguez was out for interference. Jeter was sent back to first base, his run nullified.^[23]

2005: American League Most Valuable Player[link]

In 2005, Rodriguez hit .321, leading the American League with 124 runs and 48 HR while driving in 130 runs. He became the first Yankee to win the American League home run title since Reggie Jackson (41) in 1980. He also became one of only two players in Major League history to compile at least 35 home runs, 100 runs and 100 RBIs in eight consecutive seasons (Jimmie Foxx accomplished the feat in nine straight seasons from 1932 to 1940). Rodriguez established the franchise record for most home runs in a single season by a right-handed batter (broke Joe DiMaggio's mark of 46 in 1937). His 47 HR from the third base position are a single-season American League record. Rodriguez hit 26 home runs at Yankee Stadium in 2005, establishing the single-season club record for right-handed batters (previously held by DiMaggio in 1937 and Gary Sheffield in 2004). On June 8, at 29 years, 316 days old, he became the youngest player in MLB history to reach the 400 HR mark. 2005 also marked the tenth straight season that Rodriguez scored at least 100 runs. On defense, however, he had the lowest range factor in the league at third for the second straight season (2.62).^[24]

An offensive highlight of his season came on April 26, when Rodriguez hit 3 HR off Angels' pitcher Bartolo Colón and drove in 10 runs. The 10 RBIs were the most by a Yankee since Tony Lazzeri established the franchise and American League record with 11 on 5/24/36. Rodriguez won his second AL MVP Award in three seasons.

He became the fifth player to win an MVP award (or its precursor 'League Award') with two different teams, joining Mickey Cochrane, Jimmie Foxx, Frank Robinson and Barry Bonds. Rodriguez was also named the shortstop on the Major League Baseball Latino Legends Team in 2005.

2006 season[link]

Rodriguez reacting to a called strike in a game against Tampa Bay

Rodriguez was again an All-Star in 2006, and was 4th in the league in RBIs (121), 5th in runs (113), 8th in home runs (35) and walks (90), and 9th in OBP (.392). He also led all AL third basemen in errors, with 24, and had the lowest fielding percentage (.937) and – for the third straight season – range factor (2.50) among them. Rodriguez's 2,000th hit, on July 21, 2006, was also his 450th home run. Six days shy of his 31st birthday, Rodriguez became the youngest player in baseball history to reach 450 home runs (surpassing Ken Griffey, Jr. by 267 days). He also became the 8th player to reach 2,000 hits before turning 31. Ty Cobb reached the mark while still 29, while Rogers Hornsby, Mel Ott, Hank Aaron, Joe Medwick, Jimmie Foxx, and Robin Yount all got their 2,000th hits at age 30. All 7 of the players are members of baseball's Hall of Fame. Rodriguez also became the 2nd player in Major League history to have at least 35 home runs, 100 runs, and 100 RBIs in 9 consecutive seasons joining Jimmie Foxx. 2006 was Rodriguez's 11th consecutive season with more than 100 runs scored, the longest such streak in American League history since Lou Gehrig did it in 13 straight seasons (1926–38). Despite this success, it was one of his lesser seasons and was harshly criticized throughout the 2006 season. He has said that 2006 was his most difficult season as a professional. Prior to the season Rodriguez opted to play for team USA in the World Baseball Classic.^[25]

2007: American League Most Valuable Player[link]

With the 2007 season came a new attitude. Rodriguez reported to camp lighter, having reduced his body fat from 16% the year before to 9%. He made light of this fact during a Late Night with David Letterman sketch filmed during Spring Training, which featured him shirtless being rubbed down with suntan lotion. He revealed to the press that he and Derek Jeter were no longer close friends.^[26] Rodriguez also reduced his high leg kick at the plate, increasing his bat speed, making him less-apt to strike out and a more dangerous hitter.^[27]

In the Yankees' fourth game of the season, Rodriguez hit two home runs against the Baltimore Orioles at Yankee Stadium, including his 14th-career grand slam to end the game. The walk-off grand slam was the third of his career, tying the major league mark for game-ending grand slams shared by Vern Stephens and Cy Williams.^[28][29] Rodriguez also began the season by becoming the ninth major leaguer—and first Yankee—to hit six home runs in the first seven games of the season. Rodriguez also became the first Yankee to hit seven home runs in the first ten games of the season.^[30]

On April 19, the Yankees came from behind to defeat the Cleveland Indians 8–6—with Rodriguez hitting a walk-off home run. WCBS Yankees radio broadcaster noted that Rodriguez had a better frame of mind, and the fans were beginning to accept him more after his two walk-off home runs. On April 23, Rodriguez became the first player in major league history to hit 14 home runs in a span of 18 games, and also tied the MLB record for most home runs in April. His total of 34 RBIs in April was 1 short of Juan González' AL and MLB record. On April 24, Rodriguez's 23-game hitting streak came to an end. In a game against the Toronto Blue Jays on May 30, Rodriguez sparked controversy when he shouted during a routine play and an infielder let a pop fly drop, costing the Blue Jays three runs. The Yankees went on to win the game, 10–5.^[31]

On July 12, Rodriguez hit his 150th career home run in a Yankees uniform. This made him the first player in major league history to ever hit 150 home runs for three different teams.^{[citation needed]} He is also just the third player to hit at least 100 home runs for three teams; Reggie Jackson and Darrell Evans are the other two.^{[citation needed]}

On August 4, Rodriguez hit his 500th career home run against pitcher Kyle Davies of the Kansas City Royals. This made Rodriguez the youngest player ever to reach 500 homers (32 years, 8 days). He is only the second Yankee to hit number 500 at home; Mickey Mantle on May 14, 1967 against Stu Miller was the other.

On September 23, New York reported that Rodriguez was involved in a deal for a new contract with the Chicago Cubs that would include part ownership of the team. His agent, however, reported to ESPN that this was untrue.^[32]

On September 25, Rodriguez became the fifth player ever in major league history to record a 50-home run, 150-RBI season when he hit a grand slam. Derek Jeter was one of the first of his teammates to congratulate him.^[33]

Rodriguez batting in 2007

In 2007, Rodriguez became the first player in major league history to have at least 35 home runs, 100 runs, and 100 RBIs in 10 consecutive seasons, surpassing Jimmie Foxx (9 consecutive seasons). He led the AL in home runs (54), RBIs (156), slugging percentage (.645), OPS (1.067), total bases (376), and times on base (299), and was 2nd in hit by pitch (21), extra base hits (85), and at bats per home run (10.8), 4th in on base percentage (.422) and sacrifice flies (9), 7th in walks (95) and plate appearances (708), 8th in intentional walks (11), and 9th in games (158). He led MLB in home runs and won his third Babe Ruth Home Run Award.^[34]

On October 24, Rodriguez won the Players Choice Award for Outstanding AL Player. On October 27, he won the Players Choice Award for Player of the Year. He also won the 2007 silver slugger award for his position.^[35]

On November 19, 2007, Rodriguez was named the AL MVP for the third time in his career, receiving 26 first-place votes out of a possible 28.^[36]

Opt-out controversy[link]

The 2007 season marked the last year of Rodriguez's 10-year, $252 million contract before he opted out, effectively making him a free agent again. Rodriguez had repeatedly stated during the 2007 season that he would like to remain a Yankee for the rest of his career.^[37] On October 28, 2007, Rodriguez's agent, Scott Boras, announced that he would not renew his contract with the Yankees citing that he "was unsure of the future composition" of the team. He received a slew of criticism from fans and writers alike not only for opting out, but also for not meeting with Yankee management before he did. He was further criticized for the timing of his announcement, during the eighth inning of Game Four of the World Series, as the Boston Red Sox were wrapping up their victory over the Colorado Rockies. After realizing that the situation was not handled very well, Rodriguez contacted the New York Yankees ownership directly, bypassing Boras. Subsequently, Rodriguez issued a statement on his website, saying that he wished to stay with the Yankees.^[38] On November 15, 2007, the New York Yankees and Rodriguez agreed on the "basic framework" of a 10-year, $275 million contract that would have him playing until he is 42.^[39] The contract, finalized December 13, includes various multimillion dollar incentives for breaking career home run milestones.^[40]

2008–2009[link]

Rodriguez at bat in 2008

On September 3, in a game against the Tampa Bay Rays, Rodriguez hit his 549th home run. The opposing manager objected that the ball was foul, and for the first time in MLB history, instant replay (a process officially introduced a few days earlier) was used to review the play and uphold the umpires' ruling.^[41] He was one of only 4 batters in the AL to have at least 18 home runs and 18 stolen bases in both 2007 and 2008, along with Torii Hunter, Ian Kinsler, and Grady Sizemore. Rodriguez hit a home run every 14.6 at-bats in 2008, the second best ratio on the team behind Jason Giambi.^[42]

Rodriguez was to represent the Dominican Republic prior to the 2009 season in the 2009 World Baseball Classic, but was forced to withdraw when an MRI revealed a cyst in his right hip. When he went to have the cyst drained, it was discovered that he was also suffering from a torn labrum in the same hip. Rodriguez opted to undergo an arthroscopic procedure with a recovery period of six to nine weeks, instead of the usual three to four months.^[43] Although the procedure should allow him to make it through the season without any complications, he will require a second, more extensive surgery in the off-season.^[43]

After missing spring training and the first month of the season, Rodriguez returned to the Yankees on May 8 against the Baltimore Orioles and promptly belted a three-run home run on the first pitch of his first at bat. The club had stumbled to a 13–15 record in Rodriguez's absence, but his return fortified the lineup and provided much needed protection for three-hole hitter Mark Teixeira, who had always been a slow starter. Rodriguez also supplied some late-game heroics. On May 16, his two-run walk-off home run in the bottom of the eleventh inning gave the Yankees a 6–4 win over the Minnesota Twins. One week later, he hit a game-tying solo home run in the bottom of the ninth off Philadelphia Phillies closer Brad Lidge in a game the Yankees would go on to win, 5–4.

By early June, the Yankees surged to first place in the AL East. Fortunes changed later in the month, as Rodriguez fell into a slump that saw his batting average plummet and the Yankees fell to second place. On June 23, Rodriguez became the eighth active player to reach 8,000 career at-bats in the seventh inning of the Yankees and Braves game.^[44] On June 25, Rodriguez belted homer 563 of his career, tying Reggie Jackson for 11th on the all-time home run list, off Atlanta Brave starter Derek Lowe.^[45] On June 26, Rodriguez surpassed Jackson for 11th on the all-time home run list, against the New York Mets at the Subway Series,^[46] and against the Angels on July 11, Rodriguez passed Rafael Palmeiro for 10th place;^[47] it was his 65th home run against Anaheim, the most by any active player against an opponent.

On October 4, 2009, during the final game of the season, Rodriguez hit two home runs in the sixth inning that drove in seven runs, setting an American League record for most RBIs by a batter in a single inning, and giving him his 12th consecutive season, 13 overall,of reaching 30 home runs and 100 RBIs, breaking a tie with Manny Ramirez, Babe Ruth and Jimmie Foxx for the most in MLB history.^[48]

Dating back to Game 4 of the 2004 AL Championship Series, Rodriguez had come to bat with 38 runners on base over a span of 61 postseason at-bats. He stranded every one of them, going 0-for-29 with runners on base.^[49] But in the first game of the 2009 ALDS against the Minnesota Twins, A-Rod had 2 RBI singles, both coming with two outs, and in Game 2, hit an RBI single in the 6th, and hit a game-tying homer off closer Joe Nathan in the bottom of the ninth inning. Game 3 saw him hit a game-tying home run. In the ALCS, Rodriguez hit his third game-tying HR of the post season in Game 2 in the bottom of the 11th against Angel closer Brian Fuentes.^[50] For the series, he batted 9–21 (.429) with three home runs and six runs batted in. In Game 3 of the World Series, Rodriguez hit what appeared to be a double off a camera perched atop the outfield wall, but after protest by Yankee manager Joe Girardi, was reviewed and ruled a home run. Rodriguez's postseason success continued in Game 4 of the World Series, as he drove in the go-ahead run with two outs in the 9th inning off of closer Brad Lidge. The Yankees would go on to win the game 7–4 to take a 3 games to 1 lead in the series. Despite a 2–4 performance with 3 RBIs in Game 5, the Yankees lost 8–6 to force the Series to return to the Bronx for Game 6. Rodriguez was 1–2 with 2 walks and two runs scored in Game 6, as the Yankees went on to beat the Phillies 7–3 for their 27th World Series Championship, the first of Rodriguez's career. He was awarded the Babe Ruth Award as the postseason MVP.^[51]

2010–present[link]

On August 4, 2010, on the 3-year anniversary of his 500th home run, Rodriguez became the 7th player in major league history to hit 600 home runs, hitting number 600 off of Shaun Marcum of the Toronto Blue Jays, becoming the youngest player to do so at 35 years and 8 days old. On August 14, A-Rod hit three home runs in a game against the Kansas City Royals. In the top of the 6th, he hit his first, a solo dinger to left center. In the top of the 7th, he hit his second, a two-run shot to dead center. In the top of the 9th, he hit his third, a towering two-run blast into the waterfall in Kauffman Stadium. ^[52] On September 6, he recorded his 100th RBI; it was the 14th year he had reached the mark, the most times of any player in baseball history. On Sept 29th, he hit his 30th home run of the season, recording his major league record 13th straight year of at least 30 home runs and 100 RBIs, breaking a tie with Jimmie Foxx, who had 12 seasons.

In 2011, Rodriguez batted .295 with 13 HRs and 52 RBI prior to the All-Star break. Despite good production, Rodriguez suffered his longest single season home run drought of his career by not hitting one in 85 at bats. Although elected to start the game, Rodriguez opted for arthroscopic surgery on his knee to repair a torn meniscus that impacted his power, and was placed on the disabled list.^[53] On top of recovery, Rodriguez is facing serious allegations that he participated in illegal, underground poker games. One of those games reportedly turned violent and cocaine was openly used. However, Rodriguez denied through a representative that he ever participated in illegal poker games. An MLB Executive has said that if Rodriguez is indeed proven guilty, he could face a suspension, MLB had warned Rodriguez in 2005 not to participate in such games. "You get the feeling that Alex says what he thinks he needs to say to get by, and then goes out and does what he wants," the MLB executive said.^[54]

Rodriguez returned to the Yankees on August 21, playing third base against the Minnesota Twins, going 0-for-4. He sustained another injury with a jammed thumb while trying to make a play in that game. He returned to the Yankees on August 25, going 2-for-4 with 2 singles in a win for the Yankees over the Oakland Athletics. On August 26, A-Rod hit his first home run since coming off the disabled list, a solo shot off Baltimore Orioles pitcher Tommy Hunter. He concluded the season with 16 home runs and 62 RBIs in 99 games, ending his major league-record streak of 13 straight seasons of 30 homers and 100 RBIs.^[55]

Criticism[link]

Reggie Jackson talking with Rodriguez during batting practice. Early comparisons between Jackson's postseason career and Rodriguez's were unflattering, but recent comparisons have been very positive.

Prior to 2009, Rodriguez had received the nickname "The Cooler" among some players because of the perceived tendency for teams to turn cold when he joins them and hot when he leaves.^{[56][57][58][59]}

Due to the unsuccessful nature of the Yankees 2004, 2005, 2006, and 2007 postseasons, along with Rodriguez's sub .200 batting average in the postseasons of 2005 and 2006,^[60] Rodriguez drew criticism in the New York area, both from writers, such as the New York Post's Joel Sherman, and players, such as then-teammate, Jason Giambi.^[61][62]

According to Yankee manager Joe Torre's 2009 book, The Yankee Years, Rodriguez earned the nickname "A-Fraud" from teammates and particularly from clubhouse attendants who were said to resent his demands.^[63] "It was [said] in front of him," Torre later said of the nickname. “A lot of that stuff that went on in the clubhouse was more tongue-in-cheek, fun type stuff,” he explained.^[64]

Much of the criticism regarding Rodriguez focuses on his alleged inability to produce hits in clutch situations.^[65][66] However, during the 2003–05 regular seasons, Rodriguez posted a .371 batting average with the bases loaded and maintained an on base percentage of .422. In 2006, his numbers improved to .474 and .500 respectively. In 2007, through July 14 he hit .444 and .455, respectively. Additionally, Rodriguez's other batting lines during this period included a .432 average with a runner on third (.333 in 2006), .381 with a runner in scoring position (.302 in 2006), and .392 with a runner in scoring position and 2 outs (.313 in 2006; .333 in 2007 through July 14).^[67] In 2008, Rodriguez hit only .264 with runners in scoring position and two outs. In 95 plate appearances, he walked 20 times and was hit by three pitches, and he had only 19 hits. Of the 41 times A-Rod struck out with two outs, 20 came with runners in scoring position.^[42]

Because of the Yankees' successful history, he was compared unfavorably to other Yankees greats who have performed exceptionally well in the postseason, such as Reggie Jackson.^{[68][69][70][71][72][73]} However, after his performance in the 2009 postseason, A-Rod started receiving many positive comparisons to Reggie Jackson, even being selected as "Mr. October" by Jackson and USA Today.^[74]

Rodriguez answered many of the criticisms of his postseason performance by performing exceptionally well in the 2009 postseason, where he posted a .365 BA and hit 6 home-runs in 52 at-bats during the Yankees' 15 post-season games.^[75]

Rodriguez faced more criticism after his struggles in the 2010 and 2011 playoffs. He batted only .219 and .111 in the aforementioned playoffs and made the final out for the Yankees in both postseasons by striking out. According to the Elias Sports Bureau, Alex Rodriguez was the first player in MLB history to strikeout for his team's final out in consecutive postseasons.^[76]

Steroid use[link]

In July 2007, former outfielder and steroid-user Jose Canseco said that he was planning to publish another book about Major League Baseball, to follow his 2005 bestseller Juiced: Wild Times, Rampant 'Roids, Smash Hits & How Baseball Got Big. Canseco said his new book would have "other stuff" on Rodriguez, and called him a hypocrite, gay and loser.^[77] At the time, Rodriguez denied accusations of steroid use.^[78] In a 2007 interview with Katie Couric, Rodriguez flatly denied ever having used performance-enhancing drugs.^[79]

In February 2009, Selena Roberts and David Epstein of Sports Illustrated reported that Rodriguez had tested positive for two anabolic steroids, testosterone and Primobolan, during his 2003 season playing for the Texas Rangers, the same season in which he captured his first American League Most Valuable Player award, broke 300 career home runs (hitting 47 that year),^[80] and earned one of his ten Silver Slugger Awards. The information had been part of a government-sealed report detailing 104 major league players (out of 1200 players tested)^[20] who tested positive for performance enhancers during a 2003 drug survey. Approved by the players themselves with the promise of anonymity,^[20] the survey was conducted by Major League Baseball to see whether a mandatory drug testing program might be necessary. At the time, as the result of a collectively bargained union agreement,^[20] there was no penalty or punishment for a positive test.^[19][81] Because more than 5% of the samples taken from players in 2003 came back positive, mandatory testing of major league baseball players began in 2004, with penalties for violations.^[21]

Alex Rodriguez during the 2009 World Series parade.

The 2003 test results were supposed to remain anonymous and the samples destroyed. However, a coded master list of 104 players was seized during the BALCO investigation, turning up in a 2004 federal raid on Comprehensive Drug Testing's facility in Long Beach, California. A month later, the physical samples were seized by federal agents raiding Quest Diagnostics in Las Vegas, Nevada.^[21] The list of the 104 positive-testing players was released to the Major League Baseball Players Association (MLBPA) in 2004.^[6][82] The players' union later said that the 104 positive samples were in the process of being destroyed when they were subpoenaed by federal authorities in November 2003, making continued destruction "improper."^[82]

Although testosterone is available by prescription for some uses, Primobolan has no approved prescription use.^[19] Also known as methenolone or metenolone enanthate, it is the same steroid that Barry Bonds is alleged to have tested positive for in 2000 and 2001.^[21] A fairly weak steroid on its own, it is generally used in conjunction with other steroids.^[83] The drug is generally preferred in injected rather than oral form due to its cost.^[83] An official statement by Major League Baseball made shortly after Rodriguez's test results became public expressed "grave concern" without naming Rodriguez, noting that "because the survey testing that took place in 2003 was intended to be non-disciplinary and anonymous, we can not make any comment on the accuracy of this report as it pertains to the player named."^[84]

In an interview with ESPN after the report came out, citing "an enormous amount of pressure to perform," Rodriguez admitted to using banned substances from 2001 to 2003.^[6] "All my years in New York have been clean,” he added, saying he has not used banned substances since last taking them following a spring training injury in 2003 while playing for the Rangers.^[6][7] "Back then, [baseball] was a different culture," Rodriguez said. "It was very loose. I was young, I was stupid, I was naïve. And I wanted to prove to everyone that I was worth being one of the greatest players of all time. I did take a banned substance. And for that, I am very sorry and deeply regretful."^[6][7] Rodriguez said he could not be sure of the name(s) of the substance(s) he had used.^[6][7]

Rodriguez said he was never told that he was among the 104 players who tested positive, only that a tip came in August 2004 from Gene Orza of the MLBPA that he "may or may not have" failed his 2003 test.^[6][82] Orza is accused by three (unnamed) MLB players of tipping Rodriguez to an upcoming drug test in September 2004.^[82] Orza and the MLBPA have denied the allegations.^[85]

Rodriguez absolved the players' union of any blame for leaking his positive test results, saying he alone was responsible for his mistakes.^[6] Friend and former teammate Doug Glanville, while noting the outrage over Rodriguez's years of steroid use, berated Rodriguez's critics for their "lack of outrage about how a confidential and anonymous test could be made public."^[20] No Major League player, Glanville wrote, would have participated in the 2003 survey if he had thought the results had even a chance of becoming public. "It has everything to do with privacy. Being A-Rod should not change that fact."^[20]

MLB Commissioner Bud Selig briefly considered whether or not to punish Rodriguez for his admitted steroid use, citing the illegality of the situation, among other things. However, at the time of the testing there were no punishments for this sort of activity.^[86] Additionally, his admission to three years of steroid use could be damaging to his image and legacy.^[7]

Later in the month, Rodriguez called a press conference in Tampa, Florida, and in the presence of many supportive Yankee teammates, answered reporters' questions about his 2001–2003 steroid use.^[79][87] Rodriguez said he and a cousin (whom he refused to name) bought an unidentified drug over-the-counter in the Dominican Republic, where it is “known on the streets as boli or bollee.”^[79][88] At Rodriguez's instruction, the cousin transported the drug into the United States.^[89] For six months of the year, Rodriguez injected himself twice monthly with "boli" (a drug name unfamiliar to experts and perhaps a slang term for Primobolan or Dianabol, although the latter steroid is taken orally).^[79] Rodriguez said he did not know whether he was using the drug properly or whether it was safe.^[79] Although he "certainly felt more energy," Rodriguez said it would be "hard to say" whether it gave him a competitive edge.^[87]

Rodriguez said he would become a spokesperson for the Taylor Hooton foundation, which educates young people about the dangers of steroid use.^[79][87] He has since spoken at schools about the dangers of steroids.^[90]

A few days later, the cousin who provided Rodriguez with the steroids was identified as Yuri Sucart, a resident of Miami, Florida. Sucart drove Rodriguez home from the first preseason game after Rodriguez's steroid use admission on February 24, 2009; Yankees officials have since informed Rodriguez that Sucart is not permitted at any team gathering.^[91]

On February 28, 2010 the New York Times reported that Rodriguez received treatment from Canadian sports doctor Anthony Galea in March 2009.^[92] Galea is under joint investigation by the Royal Canadian Mounted Police and the Federal Bureau of Investigation's Buffalo Field Office for distributing human growth hormone to athletes. Galea confirmed to the Associated Press that he treated Rodriguez, but said he only prescribed anti-inflammatories.^[93]

Personal life[link]

Rodriguez grew up with two half-siblings, Joe and Suzy, who were born in the Dominican Republic and are children from his mother's first marriage.^[94] Rodriguez also has a half-brother, Victor M. Rodriguez, who was born to Alex's father Victor Sr. and his then-wife Pouppe Martinez in 1960.^[94] The couple divorced a year later, and Victor Jr. was raised by his mother.^[94] Victor Jr., who is an officer in the United States Air Force, fell out of touch with Alex for a period of 23 years, until they met at a Texas Rangers game in 2003.^[94]

In 2002,^[95] he married Cynthia Scurtis,^[95] a psychology graduate^[96] he had met at a gym in Miami, Florida.^[97] The couple's first child, Natasha Alexander, was born on November 18, 2004. On April 21, 2008, Cynthia gave birth to their second child, Ella Alexander,^[98] in Miami, Florida.

On May 27, 2007, the New York Post reported that Rodriguez spent an evening in Toronto with a blonde woman, later identified as Joslyn Noel Morse, a longtime exotic dancer.^[99] The New York Post ran a picture on May 30, 2007. Rodriguez and the woman identified as Morse had dinner together at a steakhouse and then went to a strip club before returning to Rodriguez's hotel. They were last seen alone together that night boarding the hotel elevator. Morse refused to say whether they had sex.^[100]

On July 2, 2008, the New York Daily News reported that Rodriguez and his wife had separated, after having "problems" for the past three months, since the birth of their second daughter.^[101] This came together with rumors published in Us Weekly magazine, about a possible affair between Rodriguez and pop singer Madonna,^[102] claims Madonna denied by saying they were "just friends."^[103]

Cynthia Rodriguez filed for divorce on July 7, 2008, citing "emotional abandonment" of her and their children, as well as "extra marital affairs and other marital misconduct" by her husband.^[104] She sought alimony, distribution of assets, child support including private school tuition, life and health insurance, her car, reimbursement of legal fees, and retention of the couple's $12-million marital home in Coral Gables, Florida.^{[104][105][106]} Alex Rodriguez countered that his wife was only entitled to what they had agreed to in their prenuptial agreement from 2002. Additionally, while conceding their marriage was "irretrievably broken," Rodriguez requested that all allegations of his "extramarital affairs" be stricken from court records. The couple finally settled their divorce in September 2008.^[107]

More evidence of Rodriguez's infidelity continued to appear in the media after his wife filed for divorce. On July 9, 2008, the Daily News^[108] reported that Candice Houlihan, a Boston-area hairdresser who previously worked as a stripper, told the paper that she and Rodriguez had sex on two occasions in 2004 when Rodriguez was in town playing against the Boston Red Sox. The Daily News also reported that Houlihan had also told the Globe of her liaisons with Rodriguez, and the supermarket tabloid said she had passed a lie detector test. The day after Cynthia Rodriguez filed for divorce from Alex Rodriguez in 2008, Houlihan said Rodriguez' wife "did the right thing," adding, "a leopard doesn't change his stripes. Good for her. I think she's doing the smart thing. And she'll probably get tons of cash."

On March 22, 2009, the Daily News reported^[100] that, during 2006 and 2007, Rodriguez had patronized prostitutes of madam Kristin Davis and dated Davis as well, according to employees of Davis' call-girl agency. (Davis' agency also is famous for supplying prostitutes to former New York Governor Eliot Spitzer.) Davis would not confirm or deny any sexual relationship with Rodriguez, saying, "Throughout the years, there were a number of clients that I befriended and it was not uncommon for them to want the women they can't have whether it be the phone bookers or the madam. In regard to Alex, all I can say is our paths have definitely crossed personally and professionally." Employees of the call-girl agency provided the Daily News intimate emails between Rodriguez and Davis, including one in which Rodriguez confesses to Davis his preference for her over one of her call-girls. When confronted with the emails, Davis told the newspaper, "Other people have had access to my client records as well as my personal information and I can't control what has been released," and, "With the exception of [former Gov.] Eliot Spitzer, I have not named names...I do not wish to ruin any lives."

Rodriguez dated actress Kate Hudson in 2009.^{[109][110][111][112]} As of July 2010, Rodriguez was carrying on a romantic relationship with actress Cameron Diaz.^[113] A candid TV shot of Diaz feeding popcorn to Rodriguez was shown during the 2011 Super Bowl.^[114] As of September 2011, they are no longer together. As of December 2011, he is currently romantically linked with former WWE Diva Torrie Wilson.

Rodriguez owns a Mercedes-Benz dealership in League City, Texas.^[115]

As previously mentioned, Rodriguez and Jeter's friendship had cooled in recent years. However as of 2011, they have grown close again.^[116]

In his free time, Rodriguez buys and collects art.^[117]

Charity[link]

In 2003, Rodriguez gave $3.9 million to the University of Miami to renovate its baseball stadium. The new facility will be named "Alex Rodriguez Park at Mark Light Field". Rodriguez remains an ardent University of Miami fan, and can frequently be found at Hurricane sporting events, as well as working out at the school's athletic facilities in the off-season. He received the University of Miami's Edward T. Foote II Alumnus of Distinction Award in 2007. Rodriguez had previously been named an "honorary alumnus" of the university in 2004. He is a member of the University of Miami's Board of Trustees.

Marketing[link]

Rodriguez was featured in a Pepsi Cola commercial as a truck driver in a fleet of delivery trucks simulating players in a baseball game. At the end of the commercial when he drives his vehicle to make a catch, he is told by his approving partner in the truck that he has a future in the beverage delivery business.^[118]

Rodriguez is featured in a commercial for Guitar Hero World Tour, where he plays the guitar along with athletes Tony Hawk on drums, Kobe Bryant on vocals, and Michael Phelps on guitar. The commercial is a spoof of the scene from Risky Business where Tom Cruise is dancing to "Old Time Rock and Roll".^[119]

Awards and honors[link]

Rodriguez takes batting practice in 2009

• 12-time AL All-Star
  • 7× (SS) (1996–98, 2000–03)
  • 5× (3B) (2004–08)
• 3-time AL MVP (2003, 2005, 2007)
• 10-time AL Silver Slugger Award
  • 7× (SS) (1996, 1998–2003)
  • 3× (3B) (2005, 2007, 2008)
• 4-time AL Hank Aaron Award (2001–03, 2007)
• 2-time Seattle Mariners Player of the Year (1998, 2000)
• 2-time Baseball America MLB Player of the Year (2000, 2002)
• 4-time Baseball America 1st-Team Major League All-Star (SS) (1998, 2000–03)
• 3-time Texas Rangers Player of the Year (2001–03)
• 2-time AL Gold Glove Award (SS) (2002, 2003)
• 2-time The Sporting News Player of the Year (2002, 2007)
• 3× Babe Ruth Home Run Award (2002–2003. 2007)
• 1993 1st Team High School All-American (IF)
• 1994 Seattle Mariners Minor League Player of the Year
• 1994 Midwest League All-Star (SS)
• 1995 Baseball America 1st Team Minor League All-Star (SS)
• 1995 Triple-A All-Star (SS)
• 1996 The Sporting News Player of the Year
• 2002 Player of the Year Award – This Year in Baseball Awards
• 2005 Baseball America 1st-Team Major League All-Star (3B)
• 2005 Individual Performance of the Year Award – This Year in Baseball Awards
• 2007 Hitter of the Year – This Year in Baseball Awards
• 2007 Pepsi Clutch Performer of the Year
• 2009 Babe Ruth Award

Achievements[link]

• 5-time AL Runs Leader (1996, 2001, 2003, 2005, 2007)
• 4-time AL Total Bases Leader (1996, 2001, 2002, 2007)
• 5-time AL Home Run Title (2001–2003, 2005, 2007)
• 2-time AL RBI Title (2002, 2007)
• 2-time AL OPS Leader (2005, 2007)
• 4-time AL Slugging Percentage Leader (2003, 2005, 2007, 2008)
• 1996 AL Batting Title
• 1996 AL Doubles Leader
• 1998 AL Hits Leader
• 2001 AL Extra-Base Hits Leader

Records[link]

^†: Rodriguez hit 2 home runs as a DH in the 2007 season.

^*: Tied with Willie Mays

^†: Tied with Bernie Williams.

See also[link]

	Biography portal
	Baseball portal

References[link]

External links[link]

Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Alex Rodriguez

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Alex Rodriguez

• Career statistics and player information from MLB, or ESPN, or Baseball-Reference, or Fangraphs, or The Baseball Cube, or Baseball-Reference (Minors)
• Alex Rodriguez at the Internet Movie Database
• ESPN E-Ticket article – Alex Rodriguez 2007, King of Gotham?
• Men's Vogue April 2008 feature article on A-Rod
• Alex Rodriguez Video on FoxSports Video Archive
• Summary of Rodriguez's early professional career