A 13-digit ISBN, 978-3-16-148410-0, as represented by an EAN-13 bar code.

The International Standard Book Number (ISBN) is a unique^[1][2] numeric commercial book identifier based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering (SBN) code created by Gordon Foster, Emeritus Professor of Statistics at Trinity College, Dublin,^[3] for the booksellers and stationers W. H. Smith and others in 1966.^[4]

The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO 2108.^[4] (However, the 9-digit SBN code was used in the United Kingdom until 1974.) An SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prepending the digit '0'. Currently, the ISO's TC 46/SC 9 is responsible for the ISBN. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978.^[5]

Since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland EAN-13s.^[6]

Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure; however, this can be rectified later.^[7]

A similar numeric identifier, the International Standard Serial Number (ISSN), identifies periodical publications such as magazines.

Overview[link]

An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation (except reprintings) of a book.^[8] The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned after January 1, 2007, and 10 digits long if assigned before 2007. An International Standard Book Number consists of 4 or 5 parts:

The parts of a 10-digit ISBN and the corresponding EAN‑13 and barcode. Note the different check digits in each. The part of the EAN‑13 labeled "EAN" is the Bookland country code.

1. for a 13-digit ISBN, a GS1 prefix: 978 or 979 (indicating the industry; in this case, 978 denotes book publishing)^[9]
2. the group identifier, (language-sharing country group)^[10]
3. the publisher code,^[11]
4. the item number (title of the book),^[11] and
5. a checksum character or check digit.^[11]

The ISBN separates its parts (group, publisher, title and check digit) with either a hyphen or a space. Other than the check digit, no part of the ISBN will have a fixed number of digits.^[12]

ISBN issuance[link]

International Standard Book Numbers issuance is country specific, and is tailored for each country's national goals. In Canada the stated purpose of issuing International Standard Book Numbers for no cost was to encourage Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom and United States apparently the issuing of International Standard Book Numbers has become a profit center for the companies involved. Whether or not any of the profits accrue to the taxpayers is not known.

Australia: In Australia ISBNs are issued by the commercial library services agency Thorpe-Bowker, and prices range from $A40 for a single ISBN (plus a $A55 registration fee for new publishers) through to $2,750 for a block of 1,000 ISBNs.^[13]

Canada: In Canada Library and Archives Canada, a government agency, is the responsible entity, and there is no cost.

United Kingdom and Ireland: In the United Kingdom and Ireland the privately held company, Nielsen Book Services, part of Nielsen Holdings N.V., is the responsible entity, and there is a charge. ISBNs are sold in lots of ten or more.

United States: In the United States the privately held company R. R. Bowker is the responsible entity, and there is a charge, which varies depending upon the number of ISBNs purchased, with prices ranging from $125.00 for a single number.^[14]

Publishers and authors in other countries need to obtain ISBNs from their local ISBN Agency. A directory of ISBN Agencies is available on the International ISBN Agency website.

Group identifier[link]

The group identifier is a 1 to 5 digit number. The single digit group identifiers are: 0 or 1 for English-speaking countries; 2 for French-speaking countries; 3 for German-speaking countries; 4 for Japan; 5 for Russian-speaking countries, 7 for People's Republic of China. An example 5 digit group identifier is 99936, for Bhutan. The allocated group IDs are: 0–5, 600–617, 7, 80–94, 950–989, 9927–9989, and 99901–99967.^[15] Some catalogs include books that were published with no ISBN but add a non-standard number with an as-yet unallocated 5-digit group such as 99985; this practice is not part of the standard. Books published in rare languages typically have longer group identifiers.^[9]

The original standard book number (SBN) had no group identifier, but affixing a zero (0) as prefix to a 9-digit SBN creates a valid 10-digit ISBN. Group identifiers form a prefix code; compare with country calling codes.

Publisher code[link]

The national ISBN agency assigns the publisher number (cf. the category:ISBN agencies); the publisher selects the item number. Generally, a book publisher is not required to assign an ISBN, nor is it necessary for a book to display its number (except in China; see below). However, most book stores only handle ISBN-bearing merchandise.

A listing of all the 628,000 assigned publisher codes is published, and can be ordered in book form (€558, US$915.46). The web site of the ISBN agency does not offer any free method of looking up publisher codes.^[16] Partial lists have been compiled (from library catalogs) for the English-language groups: identifier 0 and identifier 1.

Publishers receive blocks of ISBNs, with larger blocks allotted to publishers expecting to need them; a small publisher may receive ISBNs of one or more digits for the group identifier code, several digits for the publisher, and a single digit for the individual items. Once that block of ISBNs is used, the publisher may receive another block of ISBNs, with a different publisher number. Consequently, a publisher may have different allotted publisher numbers. There also may be more than one group identifier used in a country. This might occur if a popular identifier has used up all of its numbers. The cited list of identifiers shows this has happened in China and in more than a dozen other countries.

By using variable block lengths, a large publisher will have few digits allocated for the publisher number and many digits allocated for titles; likewise countries publishing much will have few allocated digits for the group identifier, and many for the publishers and titles.^[17] Here are some sample ISBN-10 codes, illustrating block length variations.

ISBN	Country or area	Publisher
99921-58-10-7	Qatar	NCCAH, Doha
9971-5-0210-0	Singapore	World Scientific
960-425-059-0	Greece	Sigma Publications
80-902734-1-6	Czech Republic; Slovakia	Taita Publishers
85-359-0277-5	Brazil	Companhia das Letras
1-84356-028-3	English-speaking area	Simon Wallenberg Press
0-684-84328-5	English-speaking area	Scribner
0-8044-2957-X	English-speaking area	Frederick Ungar
0-85131-041-9	English-speaking area	J. A. Allen & Co.
0-943396-04-2	English-speaking area	Willmann–Bell
0-9752298-0-X	English-speaking area	KT Publishing

Pattern[link]

English-language publisher codes follow a systematic pattern, which allows their length to be easily determined, as follows:^[18]

Check digits[link]

A check digit is a form of redundancy check used for error detection, the decimal equivalent of a binary checksum. It consists of a single digit computed from the other digits in the message.

ISBN-10[link]

The 2001 edition of the official manual of the International ISBN Agency says that the ISBN-10 check digit^[19] – which is the last digit of the ten-digit ISBN – must range from 0 to 10 (the symbol X is used instead of 10) and must be such that the sum of all the ten digits, each multiplied by the integer weight, descending from 10 to 1, is a multiple of the number 11. Modular arithmetic is convenient for calculating the check digit using modulus 11. Each of the first nine digits of the ten-digit ISBN – excluding the check digit, itself – is multiplied by a number in a sequence from 10 to 2, and the remainder of the sum, with respect to 11, is computed. The resulting remainder, plus the check digit, must equal 11; therefore, the check digit is 11 minus the remainder of the sum of the products.

For example, the check digit for an ISBN-10 of 0-306-40615-? is calculated as follows:

Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \begin{align} s &= (0\times 10) + (3\times 9) + (0\times 8) + (6\times 7) + (4\times 6) + (0\times 5) + (6\times 4) + (1\times 3) + (5\times 2) \\ &= 0 + 27 + 0 + 42 + 24 + 0 + 24 + 3 + 10 \\ &= 130 = 11\times 11 + 9 \end{align}

Thus the remainder is 9, the check digit is 2, and the complete sequence is ISBN 0-306-40615-2.

Formally, the check digit calculation is:

Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): (10x_1 + 9x_2 + 8x_3 + 7x_4 + 6x_5 + 5x_6 + 4x_7 + 3x_8 + 2x_9 + x_{10})\mod{11} \equiv 0.

The value Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): x_{10}

required to satisfy this condition might be 10; if so, an 'X' should be used.

The two most common errors in handling an ISBN (e.g., typing or writing it) are an altered digit or the transposition of adjacent digits. The ISBN check digit method ensures that these two errors will always be detected. However, if the error occurs in the publishing house and goes undetected, the book will be issued with an invalid ISBN.^[20]

Alternative calculation[link]

The simplest way to verify an ISBN is to compute a sum of the digits of the ISBN: <source lang="cpp"> // C++ bool is_isbn_valid(char digits[10]) {

   int i, a = 0, b = 0;
   for (i = 0; i < 10; i++) {
       a += digits[i];  // Assumed already converted from ASCII to 0..9
       b += a;
   }
   return b % 11 == 0;

} </source>

The ISBN-10 check-digit can also be calculated in a slightly easier way:

Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): x_{10} = ( 1x_1 + 2x_2 + 3x_3 + 4x_4 + 5x_5 + 6x_6 + 7x_7 +8x_8 + 9x_9 )\, \bmod\;11.

This is simply replacing 11 with 0, and each subtraction with its complement: Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): -10 \equiv 1 \mod 11,

etc.

For example, the check digit for an ISBN-10 of 0-306-40615-? is calculated as follows:

Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): (1 \times 0 + 2 \times 3 + 3 \times 0 + 4 \times 6 + 5 \times 4 + 6 \times 0 + 7 \times 6 + 8 \times 1 + 9 \times 5) \, \bmod\; 11 = 145 \, \bmod\; 11 = 2

ISBN-13[link]

The 2005 edition of the International ISBN Agency's official manual^[21] covering some ISBNs issued from January 2007, describes how the 13-digit ISBN check digit is calculated.

The calculation of an ISBN-13 check digit begins with the first 12 digits of the thirteen-digit ISBN (thus excluding the check digit itself). Each digit, from left to right, is alternately multiplied by 1 or 3, then those products are summed modulo 10 to give a value ranging from 0 to 9. Subtracted from 10, that leaves a result from 1 to 10. A zero (0) replaces a ten (10), so, in all cases, a single check digit results.

For example, the ISBN-13 check digit of 978-0-306-40615-? is calculated as follows:

s = 9×1 + 7×3 + 8×1 + 0×3 + 3×1 + 0×3 + 6×1 + 4×3 + 0×1 + 6×3 + 1×1 + 5×3
  =   9 +  21 +   8 +   0 +   3 +   0 +   6 +  12 +   0 +  18 +   1 +  15
  = 93
93 / 10 = 9 remainder 3
10 –  3 = 7

Thus, the check digit is 7, and the complete sequence is ISBN 978-0-306-40615-7.

Formally, the ISBN-13 check digit calculation is:

Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): x_{13} = \big(10 - \big(x_1 + 3x_2 + x_3 + 3x_4 + \cdots + x_{11} + 3x_{12}\big) \,\bmod\, 10\big) \,\bmod\, 10.

This check system – similar to the UPC check digit formula – does not catch all errors of adjacent digit transposition. Specifically, if the difference between two adjacent digits is 5, the check digit will not catch their transposition. For instance, the above example allows this situation with the 6 followed by a 1. The correct order contributes 3×6+1×1 = 19 to the sum; while, if the digits are transposed (1 followed by a 6), the contribution of those two digits will be 3×1+1×6 = 9. However, 19 and 9 are congruent modulo 10, and so produce the same, final result: both ISBNs will have a check digit of 7. The ISBN-10 formula uses the prime modulus 11 which avoids this blind spot, but requires more than the digits 0-9 to express the check digit.

Additionally, If you triple the sum of the 2nd, 4th, 6th, 8th, 10th, and 12th digits and then add them to the remaining digits (1st, 3rd, 5th, 7th, 9th, 11th, and 13th), the total will always be divisible by 10 (i.e., end in 0).

<source lang="java"> // Java public static boolean isISBN13Valid(String isbn) {

   int check = 0;
   for (int i = 0; i < 12; i += 2) {
       check += Integer.valueOf(isbn.substring(i, i + 1));
   }
   for (int i = 1; i < 12; i += 2) {
       check += Integer.valueOf(isbn.substring(i, i + 1)) * 3;
   }
   check += Integer.valueOf(isbn.substring(12));
   return check % 10 == 0;

} </source>

<source lang="php"> //PHP function is_isbn_13_valid($n){

   $check = 0;
   for ($i = 0; $i < 13; $i+=2) $check += substr($n, $i, 1);
   for ($i = 1; $i < 12; $i+=2) $check += 3 * substr($n, $i, 1);
   return $check % 10 == 0;

}</source> <source lang="ruby">

1. Ruby

def is_valid_isbn13?(isbn13)

 sum = 0
 13.times { |i| sum += i.modulo(2)==0 ? isbn13[i].to_i : isbn13[i].to_i*3 }
 0 == sum.modulo(10)

end

def isbn13_checksum(isbn12)

 sum = 0
 12.times { |i| sum += i.modulo(2)==0 ? isbn12[i].to_i : isbn12[i].to_i*3 }
 10 - sum.modulo(10)

end</source>

<source lang="python">

1. Python

def is_valid_isbn13(isbn13):

   total = sum([int(num)*weight for num, weight in zip(isbn13, (1,3)*6)])
   ck = 10-(total%10)
   return ck == int(isbn13[-1])

</source>

<source lang="cpp">

1. C/C++

bool is_valid_isbn13(char digits[13]) { int i, check=0; for (i=0; i<13; i+=2) check += digits[i]; for (i=1; i<12; i+=2) check += 3*digits[i]; return check%10==0; } </source>

Errors in usage[link]

Publishers and libraries have varied policies about the use of the ISBN check digit. Publishers sometimes fail to check the correspondence of a book title and its ISBN before publishing it; that failure causes book identification problems for libraries, booksellers, and readers.^[22]

Most libraries and booksellers display the book record for an invalid ISBN issued by the publisher. The Library of Congress catalogue contains books published with invalid ISBNs, which it usually tags with the phrase "Cancelled ISBN".^[23] However, book-ordering systems such as Amazon.com will not search for a book if an invalid ISBN is entered to its search engine.^{[citation needed]}

EAN format used in barcodes, and upgrading[link]

Currently the barcodes on a book's back cover (or inside a mass-market paperback book's front cover) are EAN-13; they may have a separate barcode encoding five digits for the currency and the recommended retail price.^[24] The number "978", the Bookland "country code", is prefixed to the ISBN in the barcode data, and the check digit is recalculated according to the EAN13 formula (modulo 10, 1x and 3x weighting on alternate digits).

Partly because of an expected shortage in certain ISBN categories, the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) decided to migrate to a thirteen-digit ISBN (ISBN-13). The process began January 1, 2005 and was planned to conclude January 1, 2007.^[25] As of 2011, all the 13-digit ISBNs begin with 978. As the 978 ISBN supply is exhausted, the 979 prefix will be introduced. This is expected to occur more rapidly outside the United States. Originally, 979 was the Musicland code for musical scores with an ISMN. However, ISMN codes will differ visually as they begin with an "M" letter; the bar code represents the "M" as a zero (0), and for checksum purposes it will count as a 3.

Publisher identification code numbers are unlikely to be the same in the 978 and 979 ISBNs, likewise, there is no guarantee that language area code numbers will be the same. Moreover, the ten-digit ISBN check digit generally is not the same as the thirteen-digit ISBN check digit. Because the EAN/UCC-13 is part of the Global Trade Item Number (GTIN) system (that includes the EAN/UCC-14, the UPC-12, and the EAN-8), it is expected that ISBN-generating software should accommodate fourteen-digit ISBNs.^[26]

Barcode format compatibility is maintained, because (aside from the group breaks) the ISBN-13 barcode format is identical to the EAN barcode format of existing ISBN-10s. So, migration to an EAN-based system allows booksellers the use of a single numbering system for both books and non-book products that is compatible with existing ISBN-based data, with only minimal changes to information technology systems. Hence, many booksellers (e.g., Barnes & Noble) migrated to EAN barcodes as early as March 2005. Although many American and Canadian booksellers were able to read EAN-13 barcodes before 2005, most general retailers could not read them. The upgrading of the UPC barcode system to full EAN-13, in 2005, eased migration to the ISBN-13 in North America. Moreover, by January 2007, most large book publishers added ISBN-13 barcodes alongside the ten-digit ISBN barcodes of books published before January 2007.^[27]

See also[link]

• ASIN (Amazon Standard Identification Number)
• CODEN (serial publication identifier currently used by libraries; replaced by the ISSN for new works)
• DOI (Digital Object Identifier)
• ESTC (English Short Title Catalogue)
• ETTN (Electronic Textbook Track Number)
• ISAN (International Standard Audiovisual Number)
• ISMN (International Standard Music Number)
• ISWC (International Standard Musical Work Code)
• ISRC (International Standard Recording Code)
• ISSN (International Standard Serial Number)
• ISWN (International Standard Wine Number)
• LCCN (Library of Congress Control Number)
• List of group-0 ISBN publisher codes
• List of group-1 ISBN publisher codes
• OCLC number (Online Computer Library Center number [1])
• Registration authority
• SICI (Serial Item and Contribution Identifier)
• Special:Booksources, Wikipedia's ISBN search page
• VD 16 (Verzeichnis der im deutschen Sprachbereich erschienenen Drucke des 16. Jahrhunderts)(in English: Bibliography of Books Printed in the German Speaking Countries of the Sixteenth Century)
• VD 17 (Verzeichnis der im deutschen Sprachraum erschienenen Drucke des 17. Jahrhunderts)(in English: Bibliography of Books Printed in the German Speaking Countries of the Seventeenth Century)

Notes[link]

External links[link]

• ISO 2108:2005 at www.iso.org
• ISBN to EAN EAS^{[disambiguation needed ]} EBS^{[disambiguation needed ]} transition at isbn.org
• Description of the ISBN to EAN upgrade process at bookweb.org
• International ISBN Agency—coordinates and supervises the worldwide use of the ISBN system.
• Numerical List of Group Identifiers List of language/region prefixes
• Free conversion tool: ISBN-10 to ISBN-13 & ISBN-13 to ISBN-10 from the ISBN agency. Also shows correct hyphenation & verifies if ISBNs are valid or not.
• RFC 3187 Using International Standard Book Numbers as Uniform Resource Names (URN)
• Implementation guidelinesPDF (51.0 KB) for the 13-digit ISBN code.

This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (July 2008)

International standards are standards developed by international standards organizations. International standards are available for consideration and use, worldwide. A prominent organisation is the International Organization for Standardization.

International standards may be used either by direct application or by a process of modifying an international standard to suit local conditions. The adoption of international standards results in the creation of equivalent, national standards that are substantially the same as international standards in technical content, but may have (i) editorial differences as to appearance, use of symbols and measurement units, substitution of a point for a comma as the decimal marker, and (ii) differences resulting from conflicts in governmental regulations or industry-specific requirements caused by fundamental climatic, geographical, technological, or infrastructural factors, or the stringency of safety requirements that a given standard authority considers appropriate.

International standards are one way of overcoming technical barriers in international commerce caused by differences among technical regulations and standards developed independently and separately by each nation, national standards organisation, or company. Technical barriers arise when different groups come together, each with a large user base, doing some well established thing that between them is mutually incompatible. Establishing international standards is one way of preventing or overcoming this problem.

See also[link]

• List of technical standard organisations

References[link]

Bede Griffiths OSB Cam (17 December 1906 – 13 May 1993), born Alan Richard Griffiths and also known, by the end of his life, as Swami Dayananda ("bliss of compassion"), was a British-born Indian Benedictine monk who lived in ashrams in South India and became a noted yogi. He has become a leading thinker in the development of the dialogue between Christianity and Hinduism. Griffiths was a part of the Christian Ashram Movement.

Biography[link]

Early years[link]

Griffiths was born at Walton-on-Thames, Surrey, England at the end of 1906, the youngest of three children of a middle class family. Shortly after that, his father was betrayed by his business partner and left penniless. His mother took the children and established residence in a smaller home, which she maintained, though she had to find work to support herself and the children. At age 12, Griffiths was sent to Christ's Hospital, a school for poor boys. The students of this school were nicknamed "bluecoats". He excelled in his studies and earned a scholarship to the University of Oxford where, in 1925, he began his studies in English literature and philosophy at Magdalen College. In his third year at university he came under the tutelage of the professor and Christian apologist C. S. Lewis who became a lifelong friend. Griffiths graduated from Oxford in 1929 with a degree in journalism.

Shortly after graduation, Griffiths and two friends settled in a cottage in the Cotswold region and began what he called an "experiment in common living".^{[citation needed]} They followed a lifestyle attuned to nature milking cows and selling the milk to support themselves. They would read the Bible together as a form of literature. Griffiths noted a strong connection with the teachings of Scripture with the rhythm of the nature around them. The experiment lasted less than a year, as one of the friends found the life too demanding. Nevertheless the experience had a strong effect on Griffiths.

As a result of this experience, Griffiths decided to seek Holy Orders in the Church of England. He was advised, however, to gain some experience in the slums of London. This advice was so contrary to what Griffiths felt to be his vocation that it drove him to a crisis of faith, which nearly drove him to a emotional breakdown.^{[citation needed]} Guided by the writings of Cardinal Newman, he reached a point in this struggle where he had a spiritual breakthrough. He recounts the story of his conversion in his autobiography The Golden String.

In November 1931, Griffiths went to stay at the Benedictine monastery of Prinknash Abbey where he was impressed by the life. Despite the strong anti-Roman Catholic sentiments of his mother, he was received into the Roman Catholic Church and made his First Communion at Christmas Eve Mass at the abbey.

Benedictine monastic life[link]

Griffiths was received by the abbey as a postulant a month after his reception into the Catholic Church. On 29 December 1932, he entered the novitiate and was given the monastic name of "Bede". He made his solemn profession in 1937 (a year before the death of his mother in a car accident) and was ordained to the Catholic priesthood in 1940.

In 1947 the abbey sent a group of 25 monks to give support to two monasteries in the United Kingdom which had been founded by monks from France. Griffiths was chosen to be the obedientiary prior for the monastery at Farnborough in Hampshire. He led that house for four years, but was unable to generate sufficient financial support to keep the community going. The abbot then sent him to the other monastery, Pluscarden Abbey in Scotland. It was there that he wrote his autobiography.

During Griffiths' time at Farnborough, he had come to know Father Benedict Alapatt, a European-born monk of Indian descent who was greatly interested in establishing a monastery in his homeland. Griffiths had already been introduced to Eastern thought, yoga and the Vedas and took interest in this proposed project. The abbot at first refused permission. Later, however, he changed his mind and authorised Griffiths to go to India with the Indian member of the community. There was one condition, though, Griffiths was not to be there as a member of the abbey, but as a priest subject to a local bishop, which meant that he would be giving up his vows.

Christian yogi[link]

After some painful inner debate, Griffith agreed to this and, in 1955, he embarked for India with Alapatt. At the time, he wrote to a friend: "I am going to discover the other half of my soul."^{[citation needed]} After arriving and visiting some spiritual centres in the country, they settled in Kengeri in Bangalore, considered^[who?] the garden spot of India, with the goal of building a monastery there. That project was eventually unsuccessful as Griffiths left the location in 1958, saying that he found it "too Western".^[1]

Griffiths then joined with a Belgian monk, Father Francis Acharya OCSO, to establish Kristiya Sanyasa Samaj, Kurisumala Ashram (Mountain of the Cross), a Syriac Rite monastery of the Syro-Malankara Catholic Church in Kerala. They sought to develop a form of monastic life based in the Indian tradition, adopting the saffron garments of an Indian sannyasi (an ascetic or monk). At that point, Griffiths took the Sanskrit name "Dayananda" ("bliss of compassion"). During that time he continued his studies in the religions and cultures of India, writing Christ in India while there. He also visited the United States during the period, giving a number of talks about East-West dialogue and was also interviewed by CBS television.

Later, in 1968, he moved to Shantivanam ("Forest of Peace") ashram in Tamil Nadu, which had been founded in 1950 by the French Benedictine monk Abhishiktananda (Dom Henri Le Saux OSB), from the Abbey of Kergonan, along with another Frenchman, the Abbé Jules Monchanin. The two had developed a religious lifestyle which was completely expressed in authentic Indian fashion, using English, Sanskrit and Tamil in their religious services. They had built the ashram buildings by hand, in the style of the poor of the country. Monchanin had died in 1957, though, and Le Saux wanted to devote himself to a hermit's life. Griffiths came with two other monks to assume life there and to allow Le Saux his wish.

Griffiths resumed his studies of Indian thought, trying to relate it to Christian theology. At this point, he became known as "Swami Dayananda" ("bliss of compassion"). He wrote 12 books on Hindu-Christian dialogue. During this period, Griffiths desired to reconnect himself with the Benedictine Order and sought a monastic congregation which would accept him in the way of life he had developed over the decades. He was welcomed by the Camaldolese monks and he and the ashram became a part of their congregation.

'Going native' created tensions with the Catholic hierarchy as did Bede Griffiths' remarkably progressive views. These included believing that homosexual love was "as normal and natural as love between people of the opposite sex". He advocated inter-faith communities and wanted a Church that was more concerned with love than sin. He realised that God was feminine as well as masculine and was one of the first advocates of married clergy and ministries for women. Like that other great Catholic mystic Thomas Merton who also travelled to the East, Griffiths believed that meditation should take a central place in worship.^[2]

Griffiths was a proponent of integral thought, which attempts to harmonise scientific and spiritual world views. In a 1983 interview he stated,

"We're now being challenged to create a theology which would use the findings of modern science and eastern mysticism which, as you know, coincide so much, and to evolve from that a new theology which would be much more adequate."^[3]

Final years[link]

In January 1990, Griffiths suffered a stroke in his room at the ashram. A month later, to the day, he was declared healed. The following year, he began a period of extensive travel, making annual visits to the United States, then later to Europe, where he met the Dalai Lama. He noted to a friend, "I do believe that he liked me."^[4] He continued his journey, giving lectures in Germany and England. He arrived back at the ashram in October 1992, where an Australian film crew were awaiting him to make a documentary about his life, which was released as A Human Search.

Three days after the completion of filming, on his 86th birthday, Griffiths had a major stroke. The following month, he had a further series of strokes. He died at Shantivanam on 13 May 1993, aged 86.

Legacy[link]

The archives of the Bede Griffiths Trust are located at the Graduate Theological Union in Berkeley, California. His contributions are promoted and developed by the Bede Griffiths Trust and by the Camaldolese Institute for East-West Dialogue based at the American Camaldolese hermitage of New Camaldoli, located in Big Sur, California.^[5]

Bibliography[link]

Primary[link]

• The Golden String: An Autobiography, (1954), Templegate Publishers, 1980 edition: ISBN 0-87243-163-0, Medio Media, 2003: ISBN 0-9725627-3-7
• Christ in India: Essays Towards a Hindu-Christian Dialogue (1967), Templegate Publishers, 1984, ISBN 0-87243-134-7
• Return to the Center, (1976), Templegate Publishers, 1982, ISBN 0-87243-112-6
• Marriage of East and West: A Sequel to The Golden String, Templegate Publishers, 1982, ISBN 0-87243-105-3
• Cosmic Revelation: The Hindu Way to God, Templegate Publishers, 1983, ISBN 0-87243-119-3
• A New Vision of Reality: Western Science, Eastern Mysticism and Christian Faith, Templegate Publishers, 1990, ISBN 0-87243-180-0
• River of Compassion: A Christian Commentary on the Bhagavad Gita, (1987), Element Books, 1995 reprint: ISBN 0-8264-0769-2
• Bede Griffiths, Templegate Publishers, 1993, ISBN 0-87243-199-1
• The New Creation in Christ: Christian Meditation and Community, Templegate Publishers, 1994, ISBN 0-87243-209-2
• (co-editor with Roland R. Ropers), Psalms for Christian Prayer, Harpercollins, 1996, ISBN 0-00-627956-2
• John Swindells (editor), A Human Search: Bede Griffiths Reflects on His Life: An Oral History, Triumph Books, 1997, ISBN 0-89243-935-1 (from 1992 Australian television documentary)
• Bruno Barnhart, O.S.B. Cam. (editor), The One Light: Bede Griffiths' Principle Writings, Templegate Publishers, 2001, ISBN 0-87243-254-8
• Thomas Matus, O.S.B. Cam. (editor), Bede Griffiths: Essential Writings, Orbis Books, 2004, ISBN 1-57075-200-1
• "The Relation of Ultimate Truth to the Life of the World." Arunodayam (Sep. 1962) 7-9; (Nov. 1962) 5-8.
• "God and the Life of the World: A Christian View." Religion and Society 9/3 (Sep. 1962) 50-58.
• India and the Sacrament. Ernakulam: Lumen Institute, 1964.
• Christian Ashram: Essays towards a Hindu-Christian Dialogue. London: DLT, 1966. 249 pp.

Secondary[link]

• Kathryn Spink, A Sense of the Sacred: A Biography of Bede Griffiths, Orbis Books, 1989. ISBN 0-88344-442-9
• Beatrice Bruteau (ed.), The Other Half of My Soul: Bede Griffiths and the Hindu-Christian Dialogue, Quest Books, 1996. ISBN 0-8356-0717-8 (Essays in honor of Griffiths by Matthew Fox, Thomas Keating, Rupert Sheldrake, Thomas Berry, Judson Trapnell, Wayne Teasdale, and others).
• Jesu Rajan, Bede's Journey to the Beyond, Bangalore, India: Asian Trading Corporation, 1997. ISBN 81-7086-211-6
• Judson B. Trapnell, Bede Griffiths. A Life of Dialogue, Albany: State University of New York Press (=SUNY Press), 2001. (Collection: SUNY Series in Religious Studies). ISBN 0-7914-4871-1
• Wayne Teasdale, Bede Griffiths: An Introduction to His Interspiritual Thought, Skylight Paths Publishing, 2003. ISBN 1-893361-77-2
• Shirley du Boulay, Beyond the Darkness: A Biography of Bede Griffiths, Alresford, UK: O Books, 2003. ISBN 1-903816-16-5.
• Albano Fernandes, The Hindu Mystical Experience: A Comparative Study of the Approaches of R. C. Zaehner and Bede Griffiths. New Delhi, India: Intercultural Publications, 2004.
• Dion Forster, Christ at the centre: Discovering the Cosmic Christ in the spirituality of Bede Griffiths. Kempton Park: AcadSA Publishers, 2008. ISBN 978-1-920212-24-7.
• Pandikattu, Kuruvilla, Religious dialogue as hermeneutics: Bede Griffith's advaitic approach to religions, Cultural heritage and contemporary change. (Series IIIB, South Asia). Washington, D.C.: Council for Research in Values and Philosophy, 2001. ISBN 1-56518-139-5. Available online.
• Ivo Coelho and Banzelao Julio Teixeira, Review of Albano Fernandes, The Hindu Mystical Experience: A Comparative Study of the Approaches of R. C. Zaehner and Bede Griffiths. Divyadaan: Journal of Philosophy and Education 17/1 (2006) 109-112.

References[link]

External links[link]

• "Christian yogi Bede Griffiths" by Arthur Jones, National Catholic Reporter, April 5, 2008
• Hindu-Christian Dialogue between [Ram Swarup and Griffiths]
• "The M-word", Griffiths about authority in the Church and the Magisterium
• "The Swami from Oxford" by Robert Fastiggi and Jose Pereira, (a negative critique of Griffiths from a traditionalist Catholic website)
• "Bede Griffiths, Henri Le Saux and Jules Monchanin Sangha" Russian site (Russian)

Robby Robinson (born May 24, 1946) is an American former bodybuilder who won the IFBB Mr. America, Mr. World and Mr. Universe titles. He was the Masters Olympia overall champion the first year that the event was held in 1994 and then went on to win the 50+ division at that same contest in both 1997 and 2000. His nickname is The Black Prince.^[1]

Biography[link]

Early years[link]

Robinson was born in Damascus, Georgia, and raised in Tallahassee, Florida. He attended Florida A&M University, where he competed in both football and track & field.

While training for those sports he noticed his body's great responsiveness to weight training, which motivated him to enter his first bodybuilding competition. After competing in more than 300 amateur competitions, Robinson turned professional in 1975.

Professional Years[link]

Although it was to be his only exposure to the movie screen, Robby's first professional year in 1975 was chronicled in the cult classic Pumping Iron. Overall, he won numerous IFBB contests, including the first annual Night of the Champions in 1979 as well as the first Masters Olympia in 1994.

As one of the famed Golden Age of Bodybuilding' bodybuilders who routinely worked out at Gold's Gym in Venice, California during the 70s, Robby was known as one who was never in off-season condition. Superbly built head-to-toe, his massive and extremely peaked arms became his trademark. It was noted in Arnold Schwarzenegger's book "The Encyclopedia of Modern Bodybuilding", that Robinson has one biceps bigger than the other.

Robinson sat for an exclusive "Legends of Bodybuilding" interview conducted by Rod Labbe in mid-2010. The interview, which included current photographs of Robinson, ran in the January 2011 edition of Iron Man magazine. "A masterful piece of work," Robinson said. "I don't think I've ever done a better interview."

See also[link]

• List of male professional bodybuilders
• List of female professional bodybuilders

References[link]

External links[link]

• Official website
• Robby Robinson "Where are they now" at Bodybuilding.com
• Robinson's claims regarding Schwarzenegger at Drudgereport.com
• Robby Robinson at the Internet Movie Database

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