A sea kayak or touring kayak is a kayak developed for the sport of paddling on open waters of lakes, bays, and the ocean. Sea kayaks are seaworthy small boats with a covered deck and the ability to incorporate a spraydeck. They trade off the maneuverability of whitewater kayaks for higher cruising speed, cargo capacity, ease of straight-line paddling, and comfort for long journeys.

Sea kayaks are used around the world for marine (sea) journeys from a few hours to many weeks, as they can accommodate one to three paddlers together with room for camping gear, food, water, and other supplies. A sea kayak usually ranges anywhere from 10–18 feet (3–5½ meters) for solo craft, and up to 26 feet (8 meters) for tandem craft. Width may be as little as 21" (50 cm), and may be up to 36" (90 cm).

Origins[link]

Inuit seal hunter in a kayak, armed with a harpoon.

Contemporary sea kayaks trace their origin to the native boats of Alaska, northern Canada, and Southwest Greenland. Eskimo hunters developed a fast sea going craft to hunt seals and walrus.^[1] The ancient Aleut name for a sea kayak is Iqyak,^[2] and earliest models were constructed from a light wooden frame (tied together with sinew or baleen) and covered with sea mammal (sea lion or seal) hides. Archaeologists have found evidence indicating that kayaks are at least 4000 years old.^[3] Wooden kayaks and fabric kayaks on wooden frames (such as the Klepper) were dominating the market up until 1950s, when fiberglass boats were first introduced. Rotomolded plastic kayaks first appeared in 1984.

Design[link]

Kayaking in a double on Lake Union in Seattle, USA

Modern sea kayaks come in a wide array of materials, designs, and sizes to suit a variety of intended uses. In sea kayaking, where the designs continue along primarily traditional lines, the primary distinction is between rigid kayaks and folding kayaks. Folding kayaks are in some ways more traditional boats, being similar in design to skin-on-frame kayaks used by native people. Modern folding kayaks use contemporary materials such as aluminum for the frame, and replace the sealskin covering with synthetic waterproof fabrics. Unlike native kayaks, folding kayaks can be easily disassembled and packed for transport. Many folding kayaks include inflatable sponsons that improve the secondary stability of the vessel, helping to prevent capsize. More recently, a class of inflatable folding kayaks has emerged, combining a more limited rigid frame with a tightly inflated skin to produce greater rigidity than an inflatable boat alone.

In recent years, there has been an increase in production of sit on top kayaks suitable for sea use. This has resulted in a new market for paddlers looking for the versatility of a sit on top, with seaworthy performance. The Cobra Expedition and Wilderness Systems Tarpon 160 is a common choice for sea kayakers who prefer the sit on top versatility, but do not want to sacrifice performance.

Most rigid sea kayaks also derive from the external designs of native vessels, especially those from Greenland, but the strength of modern materials such as fiberglass, rotomolded plastic and carbon fiber eliminate the need for an internal frame, though significantly increasing weight. Modern skin-on-frame sea kayaks constructed with nylon skins represent an ultralight niche within the rigid sea kayak spectrum. Some recent design innovations include:

• Recreational kayaks—shorter sea kayaks with wide beams and large cockpits intended for sheltered waters
• Sit-on-top kayaks—rotomolded boats without an enclosed cockpit, but with the basic hull shape of a kayak.

A different class of vessel has also emerged, the Surf ski, a long, narrow boat with low inherent stability that is intended for use in surf and following waves.

Size[link]

Most production sea kayaks are between 12 feet (3.7 m) and 24 feet (7.3 m) in length, the larger kayaks often built for two (or in rare cases, three) paddlers. The width (beam) of typical kayaks varies from 18 inches (460 mm) to 32 inches (810 mm), though specialized boats such as surf skis may be narrower. The length of a kayak affects not only its cargo capacity (for both gear and paddlers) but may also affect its "tracking" ability—the ease with which the boat travels in a straight line. While other design features also impact tracking, very long kayaks are easier to paddle straight (and harder to turn). The width of a kayak affects the cargo capacity, the maximum size of the cockpit (and thus the size of the paddler in that cockpit), and (to a degree that depends on the design of the hull) the stability.

Material[link]

Most rigid production kayaks are now made out of fiberglass, rotomolded polyethylene, or carbon-kevlar. More exotic materials include carbon fiber and foam core. Some kayaks are hand-built from plywood or wood strips covered with fiberglass. Skin-on-frame kayaks are built on wood or aluminum frames covered in canvas, dacron, or other fabrics, and may include inflatable tubes called sponsons.

Marine Grade plywood available today provides a high strength to weight ratio for kayak construction.

Bow, stern, and deck[link]

There are many design approaches for the bow, stern, and deck of kayaks. Some kayaks have upturned bows, which are meant to provide better performance when paddling into waves, as well as better wave-shedding ability. Other kayaks achieve this through increased buoyancy in the bow. Kayaks with unobstructed stern decks may ease certain types of self-rescue. Waterproof bulkheads in modern kayaks provide flotation in the event of capsize.

Sea kayak decks typically include one or more hatches for easy access to the interior storage space inside. Kayak decks often include attachment points for deck lines of various kinds, which are aids in self-rescue and attachment points for above-deck equipment.

Equipment[link]

Sea Kayaks have a wide range of hull designs, which greatly expands their range of performance. Designs can accommodate a wide range of physical fitness, or usage. Boats come in many lengths, whereby shorter boats are generally more maneuverable, and longer boats generally travel straighter and faster. Width of beam can affect a boat's stability, speed, and ability to bring to an edge. The amount of rocker (the curve from bow to stern) can greatly affect the ability of a boat to turn.

Many have steering gear or tracking aids in the form of rudders or skegs. In most cases rudders are attached at the stern and operated by wires from foot pedals in the cockpit. Rudders are typically retractable for beach landings. Skegs are straight blades that drop from a well in the stern of the boat. Both devices assist in paddling when a strong wind is coming from a direction other than directly in front.^[4]

Paddles[link]

Sea-kayak paddles, and the associated paddling styles, fall into three basic classifications:

• European

two roughly spoon-shaped blades at either end of a cylindrical shaft. This paddle style was developed for fast acceleration and sudden maneuvering in Whitewater kayaking, and then back-ported to sea-kayaking. Euro paddles can be made of aluminum, plastic or even wood, but the best are usually formed of more expensive materials like carbon-fiber for lightness. Often the two blades are feathered, or set at an angle relative to each other (both for ergonomic efficiency, and so that as one blade moves backwards through the water, the opposite blade moving forward through the air presents its edge, rather than its face).

A European style kayak paddle, (a) top view, (b) axial view

• Greenland

Relatively narrow blades which are rounded and full near the loom and blade roots, and becoming oval near the blade tips. Some paddles feature a "shoulder", or abrupt transition between the loom and blade roots. Greenland paddle blades are most often not feathered. Short Greenland paddles (generally one arm-span in length), called storm paddles, are used with a sliding stroke, where the hands are shifted along the blades for each stroke. Storm paddles are often used as spares and in very windy locations, as there is very little outboard blade to catch the wind.

A Greenland style kayak paddle

• Wing

The blade of the paddle is shaped with a profile like a wing. When used with a special stroke, the blade actually produces lift as it moves through the water, enabling the kayaker to produce more forward motion than with any other kind of paddle. The paddling technique is different from both European style paddles and Greenland style. It is most often used in racing, but also sees some limited use in recreational paddling such as touring.

Dimensions[link]

True Sea kayaks, not to be mistaken for wider, more stable recreational kayaks, come in many designs. The length of a solo sea kayak can range anywhere from 14 to 20 feet (3.7m-5.8m) long, and tandem kayaks can range from 18 to 24 feet (4.6m-6.1m) long. Sea kayaks can range in width from 20 inches (510 mm) to 24 inches (57 cm-76 cm). Wider touring kayaks of 23 inches (580 mm) to 24 inches (66–76 cm) are better for bigger paddlers, or small/average sized paddlers looking for more initial stability and maneuverability. Narrower beams of 20 inches (510 mm) to 23 inches (56 cm-63.5 cm) are good for small-medium sized paddlers who want more speed and less maneuverability. And lastly, kayak depth (or the height from the hull to the highest area of the deck) can range from 11 inches (280 mm) to 13 inches (33 cm-40 cm) high.

This design is typical of modern sea kayaks and has a low rear deck for easy rolling, a white water cockpit, compartments that allow the kayaker to reach into them while at sea, and a sloping rear bulkhead that enables the kayak to be emptied by lifting the bow.

Safety[link]

Sea kayaking at Trunk Bay on St. John

A sea kayak's primary safety device is its paddler. Although some kayakers consider a well-practised self-righting move such as an Eskimo roll to be essential to safe open-water kayaking, it is the technique of bracing that every well-trained, experienced kayaker practises to maintain an upright position in their kayak. Practice in bracing is often neglected by inexperienced kayakers once they have learned the Eskimo roll. However, the reality is that having to roll really means having to recover from a failed brace. Being in the capsized position in some environments due to missing a brace can put the paddler in danger of colliding with obstacles under the water. Staying upright in surf zones, rock gardens, and rivers is most important and is only accomplished through well practised and successful bracing.

While there are a number of techniques for unassisted righting and re-entry of a kayak after a capsize, most paddlers consider it safest to paddle with one or more others, as assistance is useful if attempting to roll up solo fails. Even if the assistance fails to get you righted, it's a lot easier to climb back into a boat in the open sea if you've got another boat and paddler to help and your boat's been emptied of water first. Nonetheless, experienced paddlers do attempt open water crossings unaccompanied, and several major long-distance kayak expeditions have been carried out solo.

The use of a Paddle float self rescue device, generally consisting of foam, or inflatable bag, attached to the end of a paddle, allows a paddler to use the paddle as an outrigger, while climbing back into the cockpit. Be sure if you use an inflatable paddle float that you use a dual chambered model, but only train with one chamber inflated. A double chambered device will give you redundancy in case of a failure in one chamber. Training with one chamber inflated won't leave you handicapped if one chamber does fail. In many areas (Canada for instance) this is a coast guard required item. This fairly reliable rescue technique, if well practised, allows one to paddle with confidence when not equipped with a 'bombproof' roll.

There is a strong culture of self-sufficiency amongst sea kayakers and extensive safety equipment such as compass, towing lines, manual pumps, repair kits including wet application repair tape, flares, paddle leash, spare paddles, and survival gear are routinely carried; along with supplies of food and a flask of non-caffeinated beverage for non-emergency use. GPS, charts, lights, radios and cell phones, and radar reflectors are also sometimes carried.

Forms of sea kayaking[link]

Kayak Sailing[link]

Developed by kayak enthusiasts, kayak sails enhance the paddling experience. Kayak sails either augment the effort of paddling or effectively eliminate the need for paddling. They are great for touring, and have established a strong following with sensible, recreational sea kayakers, expedition paddlers and adventure racers.

Expedition Trips[link]

Weekend trips with overnight camping are popular amongst recreational kayakers, and many people combine kayaking with watching wildlife. Modern sea kayaks are designed to carry large amounts of equipment, and unsupported expeditions of two weeks or more are conducted in environments from the tropics to the Arctic. Expedition kayaks are designed to handle best when loaded, so it may be necessary to ballast them on shorter trips.

Surf Kayaking[link]

Closely related to surf boards and requiring a mix of surfing and kayaking skills, a wide range of sea kayaks are specifically designed for the sport of wave surfing.

Sea Fishing[link]

The sea kayak has long been a means of transportation and a means of accessing fishing grounds and kayak fishing has gained popularity due to the availability of purpose built stable designs. This technological development also solves some ergonomic problems that are associated with sitting for long hours without being able to change positions and special kayaks for fishing are accessorized for this sport, including specially-designed hatches, built-in rod holders, catch bags and equipment mounts.

Many of the techniques used in kayak fishing are the same as those used on other fishing boats. The difference is in the set-up, how each piece of equipment is fitted to the kayak, and how each activity is carried out on such a small craft. Contemporary kayaks can be equipped with fishing aids such as rod holders, electronic fish-finders and live-bait containers. Kayak anglers target highly-prized bottom feeders like halibut and cod and also pelagics like amberjacks, tuna, sailfish, wahoo, and even marlin.

Pioneering sea kayak expeditions[link]

Pre-1900

• There is controversial evidence to suggest early trans-atlantic kayak journeys from Labrador or Greenland to Scotland by Inuit paddlers. Indeed at the end of the 17th century there were at least three separate kayaks preserved in Scotland. One kayak, with associated equipment, is preserved in Aberdeen's Marischal Museum. It was found, with dying occupant, on a nearby shore. Some suggest the occupants were escaped Inuit from European ships, Inuit storm-driven from Greenland, or from a European source. Many suggest Inuit and their kayaks to be the origin of the Celtic Finnman, or Selkie, legends.^[5]

1920s

• Franz Romer crossed the Atlantic Ocean solo in a kayak in 1928. His crossing from the Canary Islands and Puerto Rico took 58 days at sea but he was lost in a hurricane trying to get to New York^[6][7]

Map of Oskar Speck journey (1932-1939) from Germany to Australia

1930s

• Oskar Speck paddled from Germany to Australia in 1932-1939.

1950s

• Hannes Lindemann paddled, with the help of a sail, from the Canary Islands to the Caribbean in 1956. Documented in the book "Alone at sea".^[8]

1970s

• Derek Hutchinson was the first to cross the North sea in 1976. After several near-death failures he finally managed it in 31 hours.^[9]
• Nigel Foster and Geoff Hunter were the first to circumnavigate Iceland in 1977.
• Frank Goodman was the first to circumnavigate Cape Horn in 1977.
• Paul Caffyn was the first person to circumnavigate the South Island of New Zealand in 1977. He describes it in his book Obscured by Waves.

1980s

• Paul Caffyn and Nigel Dennis were the first sea kayakers to circumnavigate Britain in 1980, a distance of 2,200 miles (3,500 km) in 85 days
• Nigel Foster solo crossing of Hudson Strait from Baffin Island to Northern Labrador 1981
• Paul Caffyn was the first person to circumnavigate Australia in 1981/2 covering a distance of 9,420 miles (17,400 km)
• David Taylor and James Moore were the first to circumnavigate The Faroe Islands (mid way between Shetland and Iceland) in 1985.
• Ed Gillet paddled from California to Hawaii in 1987.
• Howard Rice first solo around Cape Horn in 1989.

1990s

• Adventurer Chris Duff has circumnavigated both Ireland in 1996 and New Zealand's South Island in 2000.
• The crossing of Europe by various rivers in 1998.^[10]
• Trys Morris and Bob Timms have attempted to paddle from UK to Australia 1999 & 2000, abandoning the expedition in Athens, Greece due to lack of funds and visas for Arabian countries.

2000s

• Jon Turk and his team was the first to cross the Bering strait as they paddled from Japan to Alaska in 2000.^[11]
• In his book Cold Oceans (1999), Jon Turk describes his attempt to solo circumnavigate Cape Horn.^[12]
• Peter Bray crossed from Canada to Ireland in 2001.
• Trys Morris, Gemma Rawlings and Justine Curgenven successfully circumnavigated Tasmania in 2004. This journey is featured in This Is The Sea 2
• Fiona Whitehead circumnavigated Great Britain and Ireland in 2004 in 93 paddling days, 140 days in total.
• Harry Whelan, Barry Shaw and Phil Clegg are considered to have been the fastest around Britain in 2005, completing the circumnavigation in 80 days
• In November 2005 the first kayak circumnavigation of South Georgia in the Southern Atlantic was completed by The Adventure Philosophy team of Graham Charles, Marcus Waters and Mark Jones in 18 days, a distance of 600 km.^[13]
• Eric Stiller and Tony Brown attempted circumnavigation of Australia. Described in the book Keep Australia on your left (2002).
• Solo Kayak Circumnavigation of Iceland - Rotem Ron in the year (2006) Circumnavigation of Iceland.^[14]
• Andrew McAuley, an Australian solo kayaker, was lost at sea in February 2007 only 30 nautical miles (56 km) short of his destination of Milford Sound, New Zealand, during his attempt to cross from Australia to New Zealand.[1]
• Justin Jones and James Castrission made the first crossing from Australia to New Zealand, arriving on 13 January 2008, a journey that took 61 days. This is the longest two man kayak expedition ever undertaken.^[15]
• In 2009 there are 3 separate expeditions attempting to circumnavigate the Falkland Islands. two British teams^[16] Tom Parrick and Fiona Whitehead ^[17] and Marcus Demuth, a solo American.^[18]
• In Julay 2009, Patrick Winterton and Mick Berwick complete the first unsupported kayak crossing from Scotland to the Faroe Islands.^[19]
• Freya Hoffmeister made the "Race Around Australia" and successfully circumnavigate Australia at 2009.

2010s

• Fastest solo circumnavigation of Great Britain in 80 days Marcus Demuth (2010)
• On the turn 2010/2011, polish kayaker Aleksander Doba crossed from Dakar (Africa - Senegal) to Fortaleza (South America - Brasil)^[20]
• On August 30, 2011 Freya Hoffmeister began a circumnavigation of South America.

See also[link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Sea kayaks

• Kayak
• Recreational kayak
• Whitewater kayaking
• Surf Kayaking
• Folding kayak

References[link]

The sea at La Jolla, California in the Gulf of Catalina

A sea generally refers to a large body of salt water, but the term is used in other contexts as well. Most commonly, it means a large expanse of saline water connected with an ocean, and is commonly used as a synonym for ocean.^[1] It is also used sometimes to describe a large saline lake that lacks a natural outlet, such as the Caspian Sea.

Arctic (belonging to the Arctic Ocean) and Antarctic (Southern Ocean) seas, as well as some other seas freeze in winter. This occurs below the freezing point of pure water, at about -1.8 °C (28.8 °F). Frozen salt water becomes sea ice.^[2]

History[link]

Phoenician (yellow) and Greek (red) colonies in the Mediterranean in the 1st millennium BC

Humans navigated seas from antiquity. Ancient Egyptians and Phoenicians navigated the Mediterranean Sea and the Red Sea. Hannu was the first see explorer of whom there is any information. He sailed along the Red Sea and further to the Arabian Peninsula and the African Coast around 2750 BC.^[3] In the 1st millennium BC, Phoenicians and Greeks established colonies all over the Mediterranean, including its outlets like the Black Sea. The seas along the eastern and the southern Asian coast were used by Arabs and Chinese for navigation, and the North Sea and the Baltic Sea were known to Europeans in Roman times. Other seas were not used for navigation in the antiquity and were actually discovered.

The White Sea was known to Novgorodians and used for navigation since not later that the 13th century.^[4] Pomors, living at the White Sea coast, also sailed to Svalbard, but the Barents Sea got its name later, due to the 16th century Dutch expedition headed by Willem Barentsz. Other seas in Arctic Russia were explored in connection with the search of the Northern Sea Route. In the first half of the 17th century the Kara Sea was already used on a regular basis for navigation between the city of Arkhangelsk and the mouth of the Ob River and upstream to the city of Mangazeya (Mangazeya Trade Route) and to the mouth of the Yenisei River (Yenisey Trade Route).^[5] In 1648, Semyon Dezhnev led an expedition down the Kolyma River, around the cape now known as Cape Dezhnev, and to the mouth of the Anadyr River.^[6] By the end of the 17th century, the seas along what is now Arctic and Pacific coasts of Russia were already discovered, although the systematic description and reliable mapping of the coast line only started in the 18th century, and the geographical locations of all islands were only established in the first half of the 20th century, when aviation was employed.

List of seas[link]

[edit] Atlantic Ocean

[edit] Mediterranean Sea

Aegean Sea Mirtoon Sea Sea of Crete Thracian Sea Adriatic Sea

Alboran Sea Balearic Sea Catalan Sea Cilician Sea

Gulf of Sidra Ionian Sea Levantine Sea Libyan Sea

Ligurian Sea Sea of Sardinia Sea of Sicily Tyrrhenian Sea

[edit] Baltic Sea

Archipelago Sea Bay of Bothnia Bothnian Sea

Central Baltic Sea Gulf of Bothnia Gulf of Finland

Gulf of Riga Oresund Strait Sea of Åland

Archipelago Sea

Others[link]

Argentine Sea Bay of Biscay Bay of Campeche Bay of Fundy Black Sea[7] Caribbean Sea Celtic Sea

Chesapeake Bay Davis Strait Denmark Strait English Channel Gulf of Guinea Gulf of Maine

Gulf of Mexico Gulf of St. Lawrence Gulf of Venezuela Irish Sea Labrador Sea Marmara Sea[7]

North Sea Norwegian Sea Sargasso Sea Sea of Azov[7] Sea of the Hebrides Wadden Sea

[edit] Arctic Ocean

Amundsen Gulf Baffin Bay Barents Sea Beaufort Sea Chukchi Sea

East Siberian Sea Greenland Sea Hudson Bay James Bay Kara Sea Kara Strait

Laptev Sea Lincoln Sea Prince Gustav Adolf Sea Pechora Sea White Sea

Beaufort Sea

[edit] Southern Ocean

Amundsen Sea Bass Strait Bellingshausen Sea Cooperation Sea Cosmonauts Sea

Davis Sea D'Urville Sea Drake Passage Great Australian Bight Gulf St Vincent

King Haakon VII Sea Lazarev Sea Mawson Sea Riiser-Larsen Sea Ross Sea

Scotia Sea Somov Sea Spencer Gulf Weddell Sea

[edit] Indian Ocean

Andaman Sea Arabian Sea Bay of Bengal

Gulf of Aden Gulf of Oman

Laccadive Sea Mozambique Channel Persian Gulf

Red Sea Timor Sea

[edit] Pacific Ocean

Arafura Sea Banda Sea Bering Sea Bismarck Sea Bohai Sea Bohol Sea (also known as the Mindanao Sea) Camotes Sea Celebes Sea Ceram Sea

Chilean Sea Sea of Chiloé Coral Sea East China Sea Flores Sea Gulf of Alaska Gulf of California (also known as the Sea of Cortéz) Gulf of Carpentaria Gulf of Thailand

Halmahera Sea Java Sea Koro Sea Molucca Sea Philippine Sea Salish Sea Savu Sea Sea of Japan Sea of Okhotsk

Seto Inland Sea Sibuyan Sea Solomon Sea South China Sea Sulu Sea Tasman Sea Visayan Sea Yellow Sea

[edit] Landlocked seas

Some large inland lakes, usually brackish, are called "seas".

Aral Sea Caspian Sea

Dead Sea Sea of Galilee

Great Salt Lake Salton Sea

List of seas by surface area[link]

No.	Name of the Water Body	Surface area (sq.mi)	Surface area (sq.km)
1	Philippine Sea	2,000,000	5,177,762
2	Coral Sea	1,850,000	4,791,000
3	Arabian Sea	1,491,130	3,862,000
4	South China Sea	1,351,936	3,500,000
5	Weddell Sea	1,081,548	2,800,000
6	Caribbean Sea	1,063,000	2,754,000
7	Mediterranean Sea	965,000	2,500,000
8	Tasman Sea	900,000	2,330,000
9	Bering Sea	873,000	2,260,100
10	Bay of Bengal	838,970	2,172,000

Rank	Body of water	Square miles (square kilometres)
1	Pacific Ocean	64,196,000 sq mi (166,270,000 km2)
2	Atlantic Ocean	33,400,000 sq mi (87,000,000 km2)
3	Indian Ocean	28,400,000 sq mi (74,000,000 km2)
4	Southern Ocean	20,327,000 sq mi (52,650,000 km2)
5	Arctic Ocean	5,100,000 sq mi (13,000,000 km2)
6	Arabian Sea	1,491,000 sq mi (3,860,000 km2)
7	South China Sea	1,148,000 sq mi (2,970,000 km2)
8	Caribbean Sea	971,000 sq mi (2,510,000 km2)
9	Mediterranean Sea	969,000 sq mi (2,510,000 km2)
10	Bering Sea	873,000 sq mi (2,260,000 km2)
11	Bay of Bengal	838,612 sq mi (2,172,000 km2)
12	Gulf of Mexico	582,000 sq mi (1,510,000 km2)
13	Sea of Okhotsk	537,000 sq mi (1,390,000 km2)
14	Sea of Japan	391,000 sq mi (1,010,000 km2)
15	Hudson Bay	282,000 sq mi (730,000 km2)
16	East China Sea	257,000 sq mi (670,000 km2)
17	Andaman Sea	218,100 sq mi (565,000 km2)
18	Red Sea	175,000 sq mi (450,000 km2)
19	Black Sea	168,500 sq mi (436,000 km2)
20	North Sea	165,000 sq mi (430,000 km2)
21	Baltic Sea	147,000 sq mi (380,000 km2)
22	Yellow Sea	113,500 sq mi (294,000 km2)
23	Persian Gulf	88,800 sq mi (230,000 km2)
24	Adriatic Sea	60,000 sq mi (160,000 km2)
25	Gulf of California	59,000 sq mi (150,000 km2)

Bodies of water which are missing from this table, and their approximate areas, include:

• Philippine Sea (2,000,000 sq mi)
• Coral Sea (1,849,800 sq mi)
• Sargasso Sea (roughly 1,400,000 sq mi)
• Weddell Sea (1,080,000 sq mi)
• Tasman Sea (900,000 sq mi)
• Gulf of Alaska (592,000 sq mi)
• Barents Sea (542,000 sq mi)
• Greenland Sea (465,000 sq mi)
• Mozambique Channel (roughly 425,000 sq mi)
• Argentine Sea (386,000 sq mi)
• Ross Sea (370,000 sq mi)
• East Siberian Sea (361,000 sq mi)
• Scotia Sea (350,000 sq mi)
• Kara Sea (340,000 sq mi)
• Solomon Sea (280,000 sq mi)
• Laptev Sea (276,000 sq mi)
• Baffin Bay (266,000 sq mi)
• Arafura Sea (250,000 sq mi)
• Timor Sea (235,000 sq mi)
• Chukchi Sea (225,000 sq mi)
• Norwegian Sea (222,000 sq mi)
• Gulf of Aden (205,000 sq mi)
• Beaufort Sea (184,000 sq mi)
• Banda Sea (180,000 sq mi)
• Gulf of Thailand (roughly 146,000 sq mi)
• Caspian Sea (142,800 sq mi)
• Java Sea (124,000 sq mi)
• Gulf of Carpentaria (120,000 sq mi)
• Celebes Sea (110,000 sq mi)
• Sulu Sea (100,000 sq mi)
• Flores Sea (93,000 sq mi)
• Bay of Biscay (86,000 sq mi)
• Aegean Sea (83,000 sq mi)
• Molucca Sea (77,000 sq mi)
• Gulf of Saint Lawrence (60,000 sq mi)
• This list is incomplete.

Nomenclature[link]

• The Sea of Galilee is a small freshwater lake with a natural outlet, which is called Lake Tiberias or Lake Kinneret on modern Israeli maps, but its original name remains in use.
• The Sea of Cortés is more commonly known as the Gulf of California.
• The Dead Sea is actually a lake, as is the Caspian Sea and the mainly dried up Aral Sea.

See also[link]

• Oceanography
• European Atlas of the Seas
• Inlet
• International Maritime Organization
• List of places on land with elevations below sea level
• Pole of inaccessibility: the locations farthest from any coastline
• Marine debris
• Sea level
• Sea level rise
• Sea salt
• Seven Seas
• Borders of the oceans

References[link]

1. ^ "Sea - Definition and More from the Free Merriam-Webster Dictionary". Merriam-webster.com. http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/sea. Retrieved 2012-03-13. 
2. ^ "Sea ice (ice formation)". Britannica Online Encyclopedia. 2012 [last update]. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/939404/sea-ice. Retrieved 5 March 2012. 
3. ^ "The Ancient World - Egypt". marinersmuseum.org. Mariners' Museum. 2012 [last update]. http://www.marinersmuseum.org/education/ancient-world-egypt. Retrieved 5 March 2012. 
4. ^ "Зацепились за Моржовец" (in Russian). Русское географическое общество. 2012 [last update]. http://www.rgo.ru/2010/08/zacepilis-za-morzhovec/. Retrieved 5 March 2012. 
5. ^ Урванцев, Н. Н. (1969). "История открытия и освоения медно-никелевых руд Сибирского Севера" (in Russian). Moscow: Недра. http://library.ikz.ru/hronologiya-osvoeniya-sibiri/Mangazeya. Retrieved 7 March 2012. 
6. ^ Howgego, Ray (2001 [last update]). "Discoverers Web: Dezhnev". win.tue.nl. http://www.win.tue.nl/~engels/discovery/dezhnev.html. Retrieved 7 March 2012. 
7. ^ ^{a b c} often treated as part of Mediterranean Sea

External links[link]

Look up sea in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Seas

• Oceans at the Open Directory Project
• National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

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A kayak is a small, relatively narrow, human-powered boat primarily designed to be manually propelled by means of a double blade paddle. The traditional kayak has a covered deck and one or more cockpits, each seating one paddler. Their cockpit is sometimes covered by a spraydeck (or "skirt") that prevents the entry of water from waves or spray and makes it possible for highly skilled and specially trained kayakers, to roll the kayak: that is, to capsize and right it without it filling with water or ejecting the paddler. In modern kayaks, such recovery methods have been replaced by a preventive approach based on increasing the kayak's stability, and by that reducing the likelihood of its capsize. Many modern kayaks have modified the traditional design in various ways, such as: eliminating the cockpit by seating the paddler on top of the boat ("sit-on-top" kayaks); having inflated air chambers surrounding the boat; replacing the single hull by twin hulls ("W" kayak), and replacing paddles with other human powered propulsion methods, such as foot-powered rotational propellers and 'flippers'. Kayaks are also being sailed, as well as propelled by means of small electric motors, and even by outboard gas engines, when possible.

Sport kayaker at Great Falls, Virginia

Inuit seal hunter in a kayak, armed with a harpoon

Kayaks are often used to get closer to marine animals, for example sea otters

Inflatable Kayak in Rhine gorge

In some parts of the world, such as the United Kingdom, kayaks may be considered a subtype of canoes.

The kayak was first made and used by the native Ainu, Aleut and Eskimo hunters in sub-Arctic regions of northeastern Asia, North America and Greenland.

History[link]

Two people in kayak, Nunivak, Alaska, photographed by Edward S. Curtis, 1930

Kayaks (Inuktitut: qajaq, Inuktitut syllabics: ᖃᔭᖅ Aleut: Iqyax) were originally developed by the Eskimos, who used the boats to hunt on inland lakes, rivers and coastal waters of the Arctic Ocean, North Atlantic, Bering Sea and North Pacific oceans. These first kayaks were constructed from stitched seal or other animal skins stretched over a wood or whalebone-skeleton frame. (Western Inuit used wood whereas the eastern Inuit used whalebone due to the treeless landscape). Kayaks are believed to be at least 4,000 years old. The oldest existing kayaks are exhibited in the North America department of the State Museum of Ethnology in Munich.^[1]

Native people made many types of boat for different purposes. The baidarka, developed by indigenous cultures in Alaska, was also made in double or triple cockpit designs, for hunting and transporting passengers or goods. An umiak is a large open sea canoe, ranging from 17 to 30 feet (5.2 to 9.1 m), made with seal skins and wood. It is considered a kayak although it was originally paddled with single-bladed paddles, and typically had more than one paddler.

Native builders designed and built their boats based on their own experience and that of the generations before them, passed on through oral tradition. The word "kayak" means "man's boat" or "hunter's boat", and native kayaks were a personal craft, each built by the man who used it—with assistance from his wife, who sewed the skins—and closely fitting his size for maximum maneuverability. A special skin jacket, Tuilik, was then laced to the kayak, creating a waterproof seal. This enabled the eskimo roll to become the preferred method of regaining posture after capsizing, especially as few Eskimos could swim; their waters are too cold for a swimmer to survive for long.^[2]

Instead of a tuilik, most traditional kayakers today use a spraydeck made of waterproof synthetic material stretchy enough to fit tightly around the cockpit rim and body of the kayaker, and which can be released rapidly from the cockpit to permit easy exit.

Inuit kayak builders had specific measurements for their boats. The length was typically three times the span of his outstretched arms. The width at the cockpit was the width of the builder's hips plus two fists (and sometimes less). The typical depth was his fist plus the outstretched thumb (hitch hiker). Thus typical dimensions were about 17 feet (5.2 m) long by 20–22 inches (51–56 cm) wide by 7 inches (18 cm) deep. This measurement system confounded early European explorers who tried to duplicate the kayak, because each kayak was a little different.

Traditional kayaks encompass three types: Baidarkas, from the Alaskan & Aleutian seas, the oldest design, whose rounded shape and numerous chines give them an almost Blimp-like appearance; West Greenland kayaks, with fewer chines and a more angular shape, with gunwales rising to a point at the bow and stern; and East Greenland kayaks that appear similar to the West Greenland style, but often fit more snugly to the paddler and possess a steeper angle between gunwale and stem, which lends maneuvrability.

Most of the Eskimo peoples from the Aleutian Islands eastward to Greenland relied on the kayak for hunting a variety of prey — primarily seals, though whales and caribou were important in some areas. Skin-on-frame kayaks are still being used for hunting by Inuit people in Greenland, because the smooth and flexible skin glides silently through the wawes. In other parts of the world home builders are continuing the tradition of skin on frame kayaks, usually with modern skins of canvas or synthetic fabric.

Contemporary traditional-style kayaks trace their origins primarily to the native boats of Alaska, northern Canada, and Southwest Greenland. Wooden kayaks and fabric kayaks on wooden frames dominated the market up until the 1950s, when fiberglass boats were first introduced in the US, and inflatable rubberized fabric boats were first introduced in Europe. Rotomolded plastic kayaks first appeared in 1973, and most kayaks today are made from roto-molded Poletheylene resins. The development of plastic and rubberized inflatable kayaks arguably initiated the development of freestyle kayaking as we see it today, since these boats could be made smaller, stronger and more resilient than fiberglass boats.

This Greenland paddle is 7 feet (2.1 m) in length, and much narrower than European paddles.

Design principles[link]

Typically, kayak design is largely a matter of trade-offs: directional stability ("tracking") vs maneuverability; stability vs speed; and primary vs secondary stability. This is true for single hull (a.k.a. mono-hull) kayaks, but does not necessarily encompass newer types of hulls, such as twin hulls.

Length[link]

As a general rule, a longer kayak is faster. See Hull speed. Kayaks that are built to cover longer distances such as touring and sea kayaks are longer, generally 16 to 19 feet (4.9 to 5.8 m). With touring kayaks the keel is generally more defined (helping the kayaker track in a straight line.) Whitewater kayaks, which generally depend upon river current for their forward motion, are short, to maximize maneuverability. These kayaks rarely exceed 8 feet (2.4 m) in length, and playboats may be only 5–6 feet (1.5–1.8 m) long. Recreational kayak designers try to provide more stability at the price of reduced speed, and compromise between tracking and maneuverability, ranging from 9–14 feet (2.7–4.3 m).

Primary and secondary stability[link]

Primary (sometimes called initial) stability describes how much a boat tips, or rocks back and forth when displaced from level by water movement or paddler weight shifts. Being based on the paddler's movement, it is mostly a subjective notion. Secondary (final) stability describes how readily a boat capsizes. Primary stability is often a big concern to a beginner, while secondary stability matters both to beginners and experienced travelers, as it is a physical attribute of their boat. Both primary stability and secondary stability increase as the boat's volume (i.e. buoyancy) is distributed away from its center line. For example, catamarans offer both high primary stability and secondary stability, to a point where they can be erroneously viewed as being unsinkable.

Beam profile[link]

The most important attribute of a single hulled kayak's cross section is its overall width, which determines the kayak's stability. The shape of the cross section can affect both maneuverability and stability. Hull shapes are categorized by roundness/flatness, whether it has a "V" shape at various points, and by the presence and severity of a chine, where the side and bottom of a hull meet at an angle, creating an edge below the gunwales. This cross–section may vary along the length of the boat. Kayaks with only moderate primary, but excellent secondary stability are, in general, considered more seaworthy, especially in challenging conditions.

A V-shaped hull tends to ease traveling straight (track), but makes turning harder. V-shaped hulls also have the greatest secondary stability.

Conversely, flat-bottomed hulls are easy to turn, but harder to direct in a constant direction.

The chine typically increases secondary stability by effectively widening the beam of the boat when it heels (tips). Sea kayaks, designed for open water and rough conditions, are generally narrower 22–25 inches (56–63 cm) and have more secondary stability than recreational kayaks, which are wider 26–30 inches (66–76 cm), have a flatter hull shape, and more primary stability.

Hull surface profile[link]

Traditional kayak hulls are categorized according to the shape from bow to stern

Common shapes include:

• Symmetrical: the widest part of the boat is halfway between bow and stern.
• Fish form: the widest part is forward (in front) of the midpoint.
• Swede form: the widest part is aft (behind) midpoint.

Rocker[link]

Length alone does not fully predict a kayak's maneuverability: a second design element is rocker, its lengthwise curvature. A heavily rockered boat curves more, shortening its effective waterline. For example, an 18-foot (5.5 m) kayak with no rocker is in the water from end to end. In contrast, the bow and stern of a rockered boat are out of the water, shortening its lengthwise waterline to only 16 ft (4.9 m). Rocker is generally most evident at the ends, and in moderation improves handling. Similarly, although a rockered whitewater boat may only be a few feet shorter than a typical recreational kayak, its waterline is far shorter and its maneuverability far greater. When surfing a heavily rockered boat is less likely to lock into the wave as the bow and stern are still above water. A boat with less rocker cuts into the wave and makes it harder to turn while surfing.

Paddling Ease and Ergonomics[link]

Some recreational kayak makers try to maximize hull volume (weight capacity) for a given length as shorter kayaks are easier to transport and store. Many paddlers who use a sit-in kayak feel more secure in a kayak with a weight capacity substantially more than their own weight. Maximum volume in a sit-in kayak is helped by a wide hull with high walls. But paddling ease is helped by lower walls where the paddler sits and a narrower width. A narrower kayak makes a somewhat shorter paddle appropriate and a shorter paddle puts less strain on the shoulder joints. Some paddlers are comfortable with a sit-in kayak so narrow that their legs extend fairly straight out. Others want sufficient width to permit crossing their legs inside the kayak. Traditional-style and most modern types of kayaks (e.g. sit-on-top) require that paddler be seated with their legs stretched in front of them, in a right angle, in a position called the "L" kayaking position. Most modern kayaks feature a system comprising footrests and a backrest, designed to provide the paddler with means to support their paddling effort by allowing them to push the footrests with their feet, and the backrest with their lower back (lumbar spine). Such arrangements were not included in kayaks made by native peoples of the arctic regions, who were fit enough to paddle their kayaks without needing such devices. These devices are not required in new twin hull kayaks of the "W" type that offer a different sitting position called the "Riding" position, in which the paddler's legs are not stretched on front of them.

Materials and construction[link]

Today almost all kayaks are commercial products intended for sale rather than for the builder's personal use. Nearly one of every three kayaks sold today^{[when?][citation needed]} is a sit–on–top (SOT), which is basically a paddleboard equipped with a seat and footrests.

Fiberglass hulls are stiffer than Polyethylene hulls, but they are more prone to damage from impact, including cracking. Most modern kayaks have steep V sections at the bow and stern, and a shallow V amidships. Fiberglass kayaks need to be "laid-up" in a mold by hand, so are usually more expensive than Polyethylene kayaks, which are rotationally molded in a machine.

Plastic kayaks are rotationally molded ('rotomolded') from a various grades and types of Polyethylene resins ranging from soft to hard. Such kayaks are particularly resistant to impact.

Wooden hulls require significant skill and handiwork; they have a restricted niche among keen woodworkers. Kits are available. Kayaks made from thin wood sheathed in fiberglass have proven successful, especially as the price of epoxy resin has decreased in recent years. Two main types are popular, especially for the home builder: Stitch & Glue, and Strip-Built.

Stitch & Glue designs typically use modern, marine-grade plywood—quarter-inch 5 millimetres (0.20 in) thick. After cutting out the required pieces of hull and deck (kits often have these pre-cut), a series of small holes are drilled along the edges. Copper wire is then used to "stitch" the pieces together through the holes. After the pieces are temporarily stitched together, they are glued with epoxy and the seams reinforced with fiberglass. When the epoxy dries, the copper stitches are removed. The entire boat is then covered in fiberglass for additional strength and waterproofing. Construction is fairly straightforward, but because plywood does not bend to form compound curves, design choices are limited. This is a good choice for the first-time kayak builder as the labor and skills required (especially for kit versions) is considerably less than for strip-built boats.

Strip–-built designs are similar in shape to rigid fiberglass kayaks but are generally both lighter and tougher. Like their fiberglass counterparts the shape and size of the boat determines performance and optimal uses. The hull and deck are built with thin strips of lightweight wood, often cedar, pine or Redwood. The strips are edge-glued together around a form, stapled or clamped in place, and allowed to dry. Structural strength comes from a layer of fiberglass cloth and epoxy resin, layered inside and outside the hull. Strip–built kayaks are sold commercially by a few companies, priced USD 4,000 and up. An experienced woodworker can build one for about USD 400 in 200 hours, though the exact cost and time depend on the builder's skill, the materials and the size and design. As a second kayak project, or for the serious builder with some woodworking expertise, a strip–built boat can be an impressive piece of work. Kits with pre-cut and milled wood strips are commercially available.

Skin on frame boats are more traditional in design, materials, and construction. They were traditionally made of driftwood, pegged or lashed together, and stretched seal skin, as those were the most readily available materials in the Arctic regions. Today, seal skin is usually replaced with canvas or nylon cloth covered with paint, polyurethane, or a hypalon rubber coating and the wooden skeleton is occasionally replaced with aluminum. Modern skin-on-frame kayaks often possess greater impact resistance than their fiberglass counterparts, but are less durable against abrasion or sharp objects. They are often the lightest kayaks.

A special type of skin-on-frame kayak is the folding kayak. It has a collapsible frame, of wood, aluminum or plastic, or a combination thereof, and a skin of water-resistant and durable fabric. Many types have air sponsons built in to the hull, making the kayak float even if flooded.

Modern design[link]

Modern sea kayak in west Wales

Modern kayaks differ greatly from native kayaks in every aspect—from initial form through conception, design, manufacturing and usage. Modern kayaks are designed with CAD (Computer Aided Design) software, often in combination with CAD customized for naval design.

Modern kayaks serve diverse purposes, ranging from slow and easy touring on placid water, to racing and complex maneuvering in fast-moving whitewater, to fishing and long-distance ocean excursions. Modern forms, materials and construction techniques make it possible to effectively serve these needs while continuing to leverage the insights of the original Arctic inventors.

Kayaks are long—19 feet (5.8 m), short—6 feet (1.8 m), wide—42 inches (110 cm), or as narrow as the paddler's hips. They may attach one or two stabilizing hulls (outriggers), have twin hulls like catamarans, inflate or fold. They move via paddles, pedals that turn propellers or underwater flippers, under sail, or motor. They're made of wood/canvas, wood, carbon fiber, fiberglass, Kevlar, polyethylene, polyester, rubberized fabric, neoprene, Nitrylon, polyvinyl chloride, polyurethane, carbon fiber and aluminum. They may sport rudders, fins, bulkheads, seats, eyelets, foot braces and cargo hatches. They accommodate 1-3 or more paddlers/riders.

Types[link]

Modern kayaks have evolved into specialized types that may be broadly categorized according to their application as sea or touring kayaks, whitewater (or river) kayaks, surf kayaks, racing kayaks, fishing kayaks' and recreational kayaks. The broader kayak categories today are 'Sit-In', which is inspired mainly by traditional kayak forms, 'Sit-On-Top' (SOT), which evolved from paddle boards that were outfitted with footrests and a backrest, 'Hybrid', which are essentially canoes featuring a narrower beam and a reduced free board enabling the paddler to propel them from the middle of the boat, using a double blade paddle (i.e. 'kayak paddle'), and twin hull kayaks offering each of the paddler's legs a narrow hull of its own. In recent decades, kayaks design have proliferated to a point where the only broadly accepted denominator for them is their being designed mainly for paddling using a kayak paddle featuring two blades (i.e. 'kayak paddle'. However, even this inclusive definition is being challenged by other means of human powered propulsion, such as foot activated pedal drives combined with rotating or sideways moving propellers, electric motors, and even outboard motors.

Recreational[link]

Recreational kayaks are designed for the casual paddler interested in fishing, photography, or a peaceful paddle on a lake or flatwater stream. They presently make up the largest segment of kayak sales. Compared to other kayaks, recreational kayaks have a larger cockpit for easier entry and exit and a wider beam (27–36 inches (69–91 cm) for more stability. They are generally less than 12 feet (3.7 m) in length and have limited cargo capacity. Less expensive materials like polyethylene and fewer options keep these boats relatively inexpensive (USD 300–580). Most canoe/kayak clubs offer introductory instruction in recreational boats. They do not perform as well in the sea. The recreational kayak is usually a type of touring kayak.^[3]

Sea[link]

Kayaking in a double on Lake Union in Seattle, Washington, United States

Sea kayaks are typically designed for travel by one, two or even three paddlers on open water and in many cases trade maneuverability for seaworthiness, stability, and cargo capacity. Sea-kayak sub-types include "skin-on-frame" kayaks with traditionally constructed frames, open-deck "sit-on-top" kayaks, and recreational kayaks.

The sea kayak, though descended directly from traditional types, is implemented in a variety of materials. Sea kayaks typically have a longer waterline, and provisions for below-deck storage of cargo. Sea kayaks may also have rudders or skegs (fixed rudder) and upturned bow or stern profiles for wave shedding. Modern sea kayaks often have two or more internal bulkheads. Some models can accommodate two or sometimes three paddlers.

Sit-on-top[link]

A paddler in a sit on top kayak explores Kealakekua Bay in Hawaii.

Sealed-hull (unsinkable) craft were developed for leisure use, as derivatives of surfboards (e.g. paddle or wave skis), or for surf conditions. Variants include planing surf craft, touring kayaks, and sea marathon kayaks. Increasingly, manufacturers build leisure 'sit-on-top' variants of extreme sports craft, typically using polyethylene to ensure strength and affordability, often with a skeg for directional stability. Water that enters the cockpit drains out through scupper holes—tubes that run from the cockpit to the bottom of the hull.

Sit-on-top kayaks come in 1-4 paddler configurations. Sit-on-top kayaks are particularly popular for fishing and SCUBA diving, since participants need to easily enter and exit the water, change seating positions, and access hatches and storage wells. Ordinarily the seat of a sit-on-top is slightly above water level, so the center of gravity for the paddler is higher than in a traditional kayak. To compensate for the higher center of gravity, sit-on-tops are often wider and slower than a traditional kayak of the same length.

Contrarily to popular belief, the sit-on-top kayak hull is not self bailing, since water penetrating it does not drain out automatically, as it does in bigger boats equipped with self bailing systems. Furthermore, the sit-on-top hull cannot be molded in a way that would assure water tightness, and water may get in through various holes in its hull, usually around hatches and deck accessories. If the sit-on-top kayak is loaded to a point where such perforations are covered with water, or if the water paddled is rough enough that such perforations often go under water, the sit-on-top hull may fill with water without the paddler noticing it in time.

Surf[link]

Surf Kayaking competition, Tofino, British Columbia

Specialty surf boats typically have flat bottoms, and hard edges, similar to surf boards. The design of a surf kayak promotes the use of an ocean surf wave (moving wave) as opposed to a river or feature wave (moving water). They are typically made from rotomolded plastic, or fiberglass.

Surf kayaking comes in two main varieties, High Performance (HP) and International Class (IC). HP boats tend to have a lot of nose rocker, little to no tail rocker, flat hulls, sharp rails and up to four fins set up as either a three fin thruster or a quad fin. This enables them to move at high speed and maneuver dynamically. IC boats have to be at least 3 metres (9.8 ft) long and until a recent rule change had to have a convex hull; now flat and slightly concave hulls are also allowed, although fins are not. Surfing on international boats tends to be smoother and more flowing, and they are thought of as kayaking's long boarding. Surf boats come in a variety of materials ranging from tough but heavy plastics to super light, super stiff but fragile foam–cored Kevlar. Surf kayaking has become popular in traditional surfing locations, as well as new locations such as the Great Lakes.

Surf skis, are specialized narrow and long boats for racing, surfing breaking waves and surf-zone rescues.

Waveskis[link]

A variation on the closed cockpit surf kayak is called a waveski. Although the waveski offers dynamics similar to a sit–on–top, its paddling technique and surfing performance and construction can be similar to surfboard designs.

Whitewater[link]

Whitewater kayak

Whitewater kayaks are rotomolded in a semi-rigid, high impact plastic, usually polyethylene. Careful construction ensures that the boat remains structurally sound when subjected to fast-moving water. The plastic hull allows these kayaks to bounce off rocks without leaking, although they scratch and eventually wear through with enough use. Whitewater kayaks range from 4 to 10 feet (1.2 to 3.0 m) long. There are two main types of whitewater kayak:

Playboat[link]

One type, the playboat, is short, with a scooped bow and blunt stern. These trade speed and stability for high maneuverability. Their primary use is performing tricks in individual water features or short stretches of river. In playboating or freestyle competition (also known as rodeo boating), kayakers exploit the complex currents of rapids to execute a series of tricks, which are scored for skill and style.

Creekboat[link]

The other primary type is the creek boat, which gets its name from its purpose: running narrow, low-volume waterways. Creekboats are longer and have far more volume than playboats, which makes them more stable, faster and higher-floating. Many paddlers use creekboats in "short boat" downriver races, and they are often seen on large rivers where their extra stability and speed may be necessary to get through rapids.

Between the creekboat and playboat extremes is a category called river–running kayaks. These medium–sized boats are designed for rivers of moderate to high volume, and some, known as river running playboats, are capable of basic playboating moves. They are typically owned by paddlers who do not have enough whitewater involvement to warrant the purchase of more–specialized boats.

Squirt Boating involves paddling both on the surface of the river and underwater. Squirt boats must be custom-fitted to the paddler to ensure comfort while maintaining the low interior volume necessary to allow the paddler to submerge completely in the river.

Racing[link]

White water racers combine a fast, unstable lower hull portion with a flared upper hull portion to combine flat water racing speed with extra stability in open water: they are not fitted with rudders and have similar maneuverability to flat water racers. They usually require substantial skill to achieve stability, due to extremely narrow hulls.

Whitewater racing kayaks, like all racing kayaks, are made to regulation lengths, usually of fiber reinforced resin (usually epoxy or polyester reinforced with Kevlar, glass fiber, carbon fiber, or some combination). This form of construction is stiffer and has a harder skin than non-reinforced plastic construction such as rotomolded polyethylene: stiffer means faster, and harder means fewer scratches and therefore also faster.

Canoe sprint[link]

A typical racing K2 design, at the Canadian Masters Championships, 2005. Note the extremely narrow beam.

The three types of Canoe sprint kayaks (sometimes termed 'sprint boats') are K-1 (single paddler), K-2 (two paddlers) and K-4 (four paddlers). A flat water racing K1's maximum length governed by the ICF is 17 feet (5.2 m). These boats are raced at the Olympic level by men and women over courses of 200, 500 and 1000 meters. Women compete on 1000 meters since 1997. A K-3 kayak has been developed in South Africa, and is especially popular for use in the Fish River Canoe Marathon.^[4]
World Championship events:

• distances: 200, 500, 1000
• boat units: men and women K-1, K-2, K-4; men canoe C-1, C-2, C-4 (women's C-1 and C-2 was exhibition-level at the 2009 world sprint championships). All units compete at all distances. Each country can send one unit per event. This became mandatory as of the 1966 championships).

Olympic events (effective for 2012 Summer Olympics):

• distances: 200, 500, 1000
• events: men K-2 200, K-1/K-2/K-4 1000; women K-1 200, K-1/K-2/K-4 500, men canoe C-1 200, C-1/C-2 1000 Each country can send one unit per event.

Flat water racing kayaks are generally made out of extremely lightweight composites such as Kevlar, carbon fiber, or fiberglass, but older sprints are made out of wood. They are not intended for anything other than flat water. They are narrow, extremely unstable, and expensive. A competitive K1 or K2 runs in the US$2,000–4,000 range. They require expertise to paddle well, but are fast in the hands of proficient users. The beam of a flatwater boat is typically barely wider than the hips of its paddlers and require the paddler to bend their legs in the boat, allowing for a long and narrow shape to reduce drag.

Due to their length (a K-1 is 5.2 metres (17 ft) and a K-2 is 6.2 metres (20 ft) long) sprint boats come equipped with a rudder to help with turning. The rudder is controlled by the feet of the paddler (the foremost paddler in multi–person designs). In spite of this, these boats have a fairly large turning radius.

Canoe sprint kayaks are closely related to sprint canoes, with both styles of boat usually at the same club or with the same team.

Downriver white water racers use a combination hull with a fast but unstable lower section similar to a flat water racer's hull, which flares into a wider section higher up, similar to a slalom hull, providing stability in big water.

Paddles used for sprint boats are made out of carbon fiber and/or fiberglass. At the discretion of the paddler, the paddle may be angled to fit with the paddler's stroke.

Surf Ski[link]

A specialized variant of flatwater racing kayak called a Surf Ski has an open cockpit and can be up to 21 feet (6.4 m) long but only 18 inches (46 cm) wide, requiring expert balance and paddling skill. Surf Skis were originally created for surf and are still used in races in New Zealand, Australia, and South Africa. They have become popular in the United States for ocean races, lake races and even downriver races.

Slalom[link]

Slalom kayaks are flat–hulled, and—since the early 1970s—feature low profile decks. They are highly maneuverable, and stable but not fast in a straight line.

Specialty and hybrids[link]

The term "kayak" increasingly applies to craft that look little like traditional kayaks.

Inflatable[link]

Inflatables, also known as the ducky, can usually be transported by hand using a carry bag. They are made of hypalon (a kind of neoprene), Nytrylon (a rubberized fabric), pvc, or polyurethane coated cloth. They can be inflated with foot, hand or electric pumps. Multiple compartments in all but the least expensive increase safety. They generally use low pressure air, almost always below 3 psi.

While many inflatables are non-rigid, essentially pointed rafts, best suited for use on rivers and calm water, the higher end inflatables are designed to be hardy, seaworthy vessels. Recently some manufacturers have added an internal frame (folding-style) to a multi-section inflatable sit-on-top to produce a seaworthy boat.

The appeal of inflatable kayaks is their portability, their durability (they don't dent), and their easy storage. In addition, inflatable kayaks generally are stable, have a small turning radius and are easy to master, although some models take more effort to paddle and are slower than traditional kayaks.

Pedal[link]

A kayak with pedals allows the kayaker to propel the vessel with a rotating propeller or underwater "flippers" rather than with a paddle. In contrast to paddling, kayakers who pedal kayaks use their legs rather than their arms.

Twin Hull and Outrigger[link]

Traditional multi-hull vessels such as catamarans and outrigger canoes benefit from increased lateral stability without sacrificing speed, and these advantages have been successfully applied in twin hull kayaks of the W type. Outrigger kayaks attach one or two smaller hulls to the main hull to enhance stability, especially for fishing, touring, kayak sailing and motorized kayaking. Twin hull kayaks feature two long and narrow hulls, and since all their buoyancy is distributed as far as possible from their center line, they are stabler than mono hull kayaks outfitted with outriggers.

Fishing[link]

While native people of the Arctic regions hunted rather than fished from kayaks, in recent years kayak sport fishing has become popular in both fresh and salt water, especially in warmer regions. Traditional fishing kayaks are characterized by wide beams of up to 42 inches (110 cm) that increase their lateral stability. Some are equipped with outriggers that increase their stability, and others feature twin hulls enabling stand up paddling and fishing. Compared with motorboats, fishing kayaks are inexpensive and have few maintenance costs. Many kayak anglers like to customize their kayaks for fishing, a process known as 'rigging'.

Standing-up paddling[link]

While paddling in the standing position has been practiced for centuries in canoes (including Umiaks, Pirogues, and native dugout canoes) recently kayakers have attempted paddling while standing up, but so far, this has been made possible only in twin hull kayaks of the W type, mainly due to comfort and safety reasons.

Military[link]

Kayaks were adapted for military use in the Second World War. Used mainly by British Commando and Special Forces, principally the Combined Operations Pilotage Parties (COPPs), the Special Boat Service (SBS, at that time an Army unit) and the Royal Marines Boom Patrol Detachment.