| Turkish |
| Türkçe |
| Pronunciation |
[ˈtyɾct͡ʃɛ] ( listen) |
| Spoken in |
Albania, Azerbaijan,[1] Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Greece,[2] Northern Cyprus, Kosovo[a], Republic of Macedonia, Moldova, Montenegro, Romania, Russia, Serbia, Syria,[3] Turkey, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan,
and by immigrant communities in Austria, Belgium, Canada, France, Germany, The Netherlands, Sweden, Switzerland, United Kingdom, and the United States. |
| Native speakers |
83 million (2003–2006)[4][5]
Total: 91 million[4][5] |
| Language family |
|
| Standard forms |
|
| Dialects |
|
| Writing system |
Latin (Turkish alphabet) |
| Official status |
| Official language in |
 Turkey
 Northern Cyprus (not recognized internationally)
 Cyprus |
| Recognised minority language in |
 Kosovo (regional)
 Macedonia (regional)
 Romania (recognized)[6] |
| Regulated by |
Turkish Language Association |
| Language codes |
| ISO 639-1 |
tr |
| ISO 639-2 |
tur |
| ISO 639-3 |
tur |
| Linguasphere |
part of 44-AAB-a |
|
|
Turkish (Turkish: 
Türkçe (help·info)), also referred to as Istanbul Turkish,[7][8] or Anatolian Turkish is a language spoken as a native language by over 83 million people worldwide,[4][5][9] making it the most commonly spoken of the Turkic languages. Its speakers are located predominantly in Turkey and Northern Cyprus with smaller groups in Iraq, Greece, Bulgaria, the Republic of Macedonia, Kosovo[a], Albania and other parts of Eastern Europe. Turkish is also spoken by several million people of immigrant origin in Western Europe, particularly in Germany.
The roots of the language can be traced to Central Asia, with the first known written records dating back nearly 1,300 years. To the west, the influence of Ottoman Turkish—the variety of the Turkish language that was used as the administrative and literary language of the Ottoman Empire—spread as the Ottoman Empire expanded. In 1928, as one of Atatürk's Reforms in the early years of the Republic of Turkey, the Ottoman script was replaced with a Latin alphabet. Concurrently, the newly founded Turkish Language Association initiated a drive to reform and standardize the language.
The distinctive characteristics of Turkish are vowel harmony and extensive agglutination. The basic word order of Turkish is subject–object–verb. Turkish has no noun classes or grammatical gender. Turkish has a strong T-V distinction and usage of honorifics. Turkish uses second-person pronouns that distinguish varying levels of politeness, social distance, age, courtesy or familiarity toward the addressee. The plural second-person pronoun and verb forms are used referring to a single person out of respect. On occasion, double plural second-person "sizler" may be used to refer to a much-respected person.
Turkish is a member of the Oghuz group of languages, a subgroup of the Turkic languages. There is a high degree of mutual intelligibility between Turkish and the other Oghuz languages, including Azerbaijani, Turkmen, Qashqai, Gagauz, and Balkan Gagauz Turkish.[10] The Turkic family comprises some 30 living languages spoken across Eastern Europe, Central Asia, and Siberia. Some linguists believe the Turkic languages to be a part of a larger Altaic language family.[11] About 40% of all speakers of Turkic languages are native Turkish speakers.[5] The characteristic features of Turkish, such as vowel harmony, agglutination, and lack of grammatical gender, are universal within the Turkic family and the Altaic languages.[5]
The earliest known Turkic inscriptions are the two monumental Orkhon inscriptions found in modern Mongolia. Erected in honour of the prince Kul Tigin and his brother Emperor Bilge Khan, and dating back to some time between 732 and 735, they constitute another important early record. After the discovery and excavation of these monuments and associated stone slabs by Russian archaeologists in the wider area surrounding the Orkhon Valley between 1889 and 1893, it became established that the language on the inscriptions was the Old Turkic language written using the Orkhon script, which has also been referred to as "Turkic runes" or "runiform" due to a superficial similarity to the Germanic runic alphabets.[12]
With the Turkic expansion during Early Middle Ages (c. 6th–11th centuries), peoples speaking Turkic languages spread across Central Asia, covering a vast geographical region stretching from Siberia to Europe and the Mediterranean. The Seljuqs of the Oghuz Turks, in particular, brought their language, Oghuz Turkic—the direct ancestor of today's Turkish language—into Anatolia during the 11th century.[13] Also during the 11th century, an early linguist of the Turkic languages, Mahmud al-Kashgari from the Kara-Khanid Khanate, published the first comprehensive Turkic language dictionary and map of the geographical distribution of Turkic speakers in the Compendium of the Turkic Dialects (Ottoman Turkish: Divânü Lügati't-Türk).[14]
Following the adoption of Islam c. 950 by the Kara-Khanid Khanate and the Seljuq Turks, who are both regarded as the ethnic and cultural ancestors of the Ottomans, the administrative language of these states acquired a large collection of loanwords from Arabic and Persian. Turkish literature during the Ottoman period, particularly Ottoman Divan poetry, was heavily influenced by Persian, including the adoption of poetic meters and a great quantity of imported words. The literary and official language during the Ottoman Empire period (c. 1299–1922) is termed Ottoman Turkish, which was a mixture of Turkish, Persian, and Arabic that differed considerably and was largely unintelligible to the period's everyday Turkish known as kaba Türkçe or "rough Turkish", spoken by the less-educated lower and also rural members of society, which was much purer and which is the basis of the modern Turkish language.[15]
Literacy rates before the language reform in Turkey (1927). The literacy rates rose to 48.4% among males and 20.7% among females by 1950.
[16]
After the foundation of the Republic of Turkey and the script reform, the Turkish Language Association (TDK) was established in 1932 under the patronage of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, with the aim of conducting research on Turkish. One of the tasks of the newly established association was to initiate a language reform to replace loanwords of Arabic and Persian origin with Turkish equivalents.[17] By banning the usage of imported words in the press, the association succeeded in removing several hundred foreign words from the language. While most of the words introduced to the language by the TDK were newly derived from Turkic roots, it also opted for reviving Old Turkish words which had not been used for centuries.[18]
Owing to this sudden change in the language, older and younger people in Turkey started to differ in their vocabularies. While the generations born before the 1940s tend to use the older terms of Arabic or Persian origin, the younger generations favor new expressions. It is considered particularly ironic that Atatürk himself, in his lengthy speech to the new Parliament in 1927, used a style of Ottoman which sounded so alien to later listeners that it had to be "translated" three times into modern Turkish: first in 1963, again in 1986, and most recently in 1995.[19] There is also a political dimension to the language debate, with conservative groups tending to use more archaic words in the press or everyday language.
The past few decades have seen the continuing work of the TDK to coin new Turkish words to express new concepts and technologies as they enter the language, mostly from English. Many of these new words, particularly information technology terms, have received widespread acceptance. However, the TDK is occasionally criticized for coining words which sound contrived and artificial. Some earlier changes—such as bölem to replace fırka, "political party"—also failed to meet with popular approval (fırka has been replaced by the French loanword parti). Some words restored from Old Turkic have taken on specialized meanings; for example betik (originally meaning "book") is now used to mean "script" in computer science.
Many of the words derived by TDK coexist with their older counterparts. This usually happens when a loanword changes its original meaning. For instance, dert, derived from the Persian dard (درد "pain"), means "problem" or "trouble" in Turkish; whereas the native Turkish word ağrı is used for physical pain. Sometimes the loanword has a slightly different meaning from the native Turkish word, creating a situation similar to the coexistence of Germanic and Romance words in English (see List of Germanic and Latinate equivalents). Among some of the old words that were replaced are terms in geometry, cardinal directions, some months' names, and many nouns and adjectives. Some examples of modern Turkish words and the old loanwords are:
| Ottoman Turkish |
Modern Turkish |
English translation |
Comments |
| müselles |
üçgen |
triangle |
Compound of the noun üç ("three") and the Greek "gonia" ("angle") |
| tayyare |
uçak |
airplane |
Derived from the verb uçmak ("to fly"). The word was first proposed to mean "airport". |
| nispet |
oran |
ratio |
The old word is still used in the language today together with the new one. The modern word is from Old Turkic verb or- (to cut). |
| şimal |
kuzey |
north |
Derived from the Old Turkic noun kuz ("cold and dark place", "shadow"). The word is restored from Middle Turkic usage.[20] |
| teşrinievvel |
ekim |
October |
The noun ekim means "the action of planting", referring to the planting of cereal seeds in autumn, which is widespread in Turkey |
Turkish is natively spoken by the Turkish people in Turkey and by the Turkish diaspora in some 30 other countries. In particular, Turkish-speaking minorities exist in countries that formerly (in whole or part) belonged to the Ottoman Empire, such as Bulgaria, Cyprus, Greece (primarily in Western Thrace), the Republic of Macedonia, Romania, and Serbia. More than two million Turkish speakers live in Germany; and there are significant Turkish-speaking communities in the United States, France, The Netherlands, Austria, Belgium, Switzerland, and the United Kingdom.[21] Due to the cultural assimilation of Turkish immigrants in host countries, not all ethnic Turkish immigrants speak the language with native fluency.
The number of native speakers in Turkey is over 67 million, corresponding to about 93 percent of the population.[4] There are roughly another 10 million native speakers worldwide.[5][22] Turkish is spoken as a first or second language by almost all of Turkey's residents, with Kurdish making up most of the remainder (about 3,950,000 as estimated in 1980).[23] However, even most linguistic minorities in Turkey are bilingual, speaking Turkish as a second language to levels of native fluency.
Turkish is the official language of Turkey and is one of the official languages of Cyprus. It also has official (but not primary) status in the Prizren District of Kosovo and several municipalities of the Republic of Macedonia, depending on the concentration of Turkish-speaking local population.
In Turkey, the regulatory body for Turkish is the Turkish Language Association (Türk Dil Kurumu or TDK), which was founded in 1932 under the name Türk Dili Tetkik Cemiyeti ("Society for Research on the Turkish Language"). The Turkish Language Association was influenced by the ideology of linguistic purism: indeed one of its primary tasks was the replacement of loanwords and foreign grammatical constructions with equivalents of Turkish origin.[24] These changes, together with the adoption of the new Turkish alphabet in 1928, shaped the modern Turkish language spoken today. TDK became an independent body in 1951, with the lifting of the requirement that it should be presided over by the Minister of Education. This status continued until August 1983, when it was again made into a governmental body in the constitution of 1982, following the military coup d'état of 1980.[18]
Modern standard Turkish is based on the dialect of Istanbul.[25] Dialectal variation persists, in spite of the levelling influence of the standard used in mass media and the Turkish education system since the 1930s.[26] Academically, researchers from Turkey often refer to Turkish dialects as ağız or şive, leading to an ambiguity with the linguistic concept of accent, which is also covered with these words. Projects investigating Turkish dialects are being carried out by several universities, as well as a dedicated work group of the Turkish Language Association. Work is currently in progress for the compilation and publication of their research as a comprehensive dialect atlas of the Turkish language.[27][28]
Rumelice is spoken by immigrants from Rumelia, and includes the distinct dialects of Deliorman, Dinler, and Adakale, which are influenced by the theoretized Balkan linguistic union. Kıbrıs Türkçesi is the name for Cypriot Turkish and is spoken by the Turkish Cypriots. Edirne is the dialect of Edirne. Ege is spoken in the Aegean region, with its usage extending to Antalya. The nomadic Yörük tribes of the Mediterranean Region of Turkey also have their own dialect of Turkish.[29] This group is not to be confused with the Yuruk nomads of Macedonia, Greece, and European Turkey who speak Balkan Gagauz Turkish.
Güneydoğu is spoken in the southeast, to the east of Mersin. Doğu, a dialect in Eastern Anatolia, has a dialect continuum with Azeri, particularly with Karapapak dialects in some areas. The Central Anatolia region speaks Orta Anadolu. Karadeniz, spoken in the Eastern Black Sea Region and represented primarily by the Trabzon dialect, exhibits substratum influence from Greek in phonology and syntax;[30] it is also known as Laz dialect (not to be confused with the Laz language). Kastamonu is spoken in Kastamonu and its surrounding areas. The Hemşinli dialect, known as Hemşince, is spoken by the eastern group of Hamshenis around Artvin, influenced by Armenian.[31] Karamanlıca is spoken in Greece, where it is also named Kαραμανλήδικα (Karamanlidika). It is the literary standard for Karamanlides.
The classification of the Anatolian dialects of Turkish language:[32]
1. Eastern Anatolian Dialects
1.1.1. Ağrı, Malazgirt
1.1.2. Muş, Bitlis
1.1.3. Ahlat, Adilcevaz, Bulanık, Van
1.1.4. Diyarbakır
1.1.5. Palu, Karakoçan, Bingöl, Karlıova, Siirt
1.2.1. Kars (Yerli)
1.2.2. Erzurum, Aşkale, Ovacık, Narman
1.2.3. Pasinler, Horasan, Hınıs, Tekman, Karayazı, Tercan (partim)
1.2.4. Bayburt, İspir (excl. northern), Erzincan, Çayırlı, Tercan (partim)
1.2.5. Gümüşhane
1.2.6. Refahiye, Kemah
1.2.7. Kars (Azeri and Terekeme)
1.3.1. Posof, Artvin, Şavşat, Ardanuç, Yusufeli
1.3.2.1. Ardahan, Olur, Oltu, Şenkaya; Ahıska Turks (Georgia)
1.3.2.2. Tortum
1.3.2.3. İspir (northern)
1.4.1. Kemaliye, İliç, Ağın
1.4.2. Tunceli, Hozat, Mazgirt, Pertek
1.4.3. Harput
1.4.4. Elazığ, Keban, Baskil
2. Northeastern Anatolian Dialects
2.1.1. Vakfıkebir, Akçaabat, Tonya, Maçka, Of, Çaykara
2.1.2. Trabzon, Yomra, Sürmene, Araklı, Rize, Kalkandere, İkizdere
2.2.1. Çayeli
2.2.2. Çamlıhemşin, Pazar, Hemşin, Ardeşen, Fındıklı
2.3.1. Arhavi, Hopa (included Kemalpaşa belde)
2.3.2. Hopa (a little part)
2.3.3. Borçka, Muratlı, Camili, Meydancık, Ortaköy (Berta) bucak of Artvin (merkez)
3. Western Anatolian Dialects
3.1.1. Afyonkarahisar, Eskişehir, Uşak, Nallıhan
3.1.2. Çanakkale, Balıkesir, Bursa, Bilecik
3.1.3. Aydın, Burdur, Denizli, Isparta, İzmir, Kütahya, Manisa, Muğla
3.1.4. Antalya
3.2. İzmit, Sakarya
3.3.1. Zonguldak, Devrek, Ereğli
3.3.2. Bartın, Çaycuma, Amasra
3.3.3. Bolu, Ovacık, Eskipazar, Karabük, Safranbolu, Ulus, Eflani, Kurucaşile
3.3.4. Kastamonu
3.4.1. Göynük, Mudurnu, Kıbrıscık, Seben
3.4.2. Kızılcahamam, Beypazarı, Çamlıdere, Güdül, Ayaş
3.4.3. Çankırı, İskilip, Kargı, Bayat, Osmancık, Tosya, Boyabat
3.5.1. Sinop, Alaçam
3.5.2. Samsun, Kavak, Çarşamba, Terme
3.5.3. Ordu, Giresun, Şalpazarı
3.6.1. Ladik, Havza, Amasya, Tokat, Erbaa, Niksar, Turhal, Reşadiye, Almus
3.6.2. Zile, Artova, Sivas, Yıldızeli, Hafik, Zara, Mesudiye
3.6.3. Şebinkarahisar, Alucra, Suşehri
3.6.4. Kangal, Divriği, Gürün, Malatya, Hekimhan, Arapkir
3.7.1. Akçadağ, Darende, Doğanşehir
3.7.2. Afşin, Elbistan, Göksun, Andırın, Adana, Hatay, Tarsus, Ereğli
3.7.3. Kahramanmaraş, Gaziantep
3.7.4. Adıyaman, Halfeti, Birecik, Kilis
3.8. Ankara, Haymana, Balâ, Şereflikoçhisar, Çubuk, Kırıkkale, Keskin, Kalecik, Kızılırmak, Çorum, Yozgat, Kırşehir, Nevşehir, Niğde, Kayseri, Şarkışla, Gemerek
3.9. Konya, Mersin
The phoneme which is usually referred to as yumuşak g ("soft g"), and written ⟨ğ⟩ in Turkish orthography, represents a vowel sequence or a rather weak bilabial approximant between rounded vowels, a weak palatal approximant between unrounded front vowels, and a vowel sequence elsewhere. It never occurs at the beginning of a word or a syllable, but always follows a vowel. When word-final or preceding another consonant, it lengthens the preceding vowel.[33]
In native Turkic words, the sounds [c], [ɟ], and [l] are in complementary distribution with [k], [ɡ], and [ɫ]; the former set occurs adjacent to front vowels and the latter adjacent to back vowels. The distribution of these phonemes is often unpredictable, however, in foreign borrowings and proper nouns. In such words, [c], [ɟ], and [l] often occur with back vowels:[34] some examples are given below.
When a vowel is added to many nouns ending with postvocalic ⟨k⟩, the ⟨k⟩ becomes ⟨ğ⟩ by consonant alternation. A similar alternation applies to certain loan-words ending in ⟨p⟩ and ⟨t⟩, which become ⟨b⟩ and ⟨d⟩, respectively, with the addition of a vowel.[35] This is because the final /k/, /t/, and /p/ gain voicing when followed by a vowel.
The vowels of the Turkish language are, in their alphabetical order, ⟨a⟩, ⟨e⟩, ⟨ı⟩, ⟨i⟩, ⟨o⟩, ⟨ö⟩, ⟨u⟩, ⟨ü⟩.[36] The Turkish vowel system can be considered as being three-dimensional, where vowels are characterised by three features: front and back, rounded and unrounded and Vowel height.
Turkish vowels
|
Front |
Back |
|
Unrounded |
Rounded |
Unrounded |
Rounded |
| High |
i |
ü |
ı |
u |
| Low |
e |
ö |
a |
o |
There are no diphthongs in Turkish; when two vowels come together, which occurs in some Arabic loanwords, each vowel retains its individual sound. However, a slight diphthong can occur when two vowels surround a yumuşak g. For example, the word soğuk ("cold") can be pronounced [soʊk] (resembling the English soak) by some speakers.
Vowel harmony is the principle by which a native Turkish word incorporates either exclusively back vowels (a, ı, o, and u) or exclusively front vowels (e, i, ö, and ü). The pattern of vowels is shown in the table above.[37]
Grammatical affixes have "a chameleon-like quality",[38] and obey one of the following patterns of vowel harmony:
- twofold (-e/-a):[39] the locative suffix, for example, is -de after front vowels and -da after back vowels. The notation -de² is a convenient shorthand for this pattern.
- fourfold (-i/-ı/-ü/-u): the genitive suffix, for example, is -in or -ın after unrounded vowels (front or back respectively); and -ün or -un after the corresponding rounded vowels. In this case, the shorthand notation -in4 is used.
The following examples, based on the copula -dir4 ("[it] is"), illustrate the principles of vowel harmony in practice: Türkiye'dir ("it is Turkey"),[40] kapıdır ("it is the door"), bu gündür ("it is the day"), paltodur ("it is the coat").
There are some exceptions to the rules of vowel harmony. In compound words, the vowels need not harmonize between the constituent words of the compound. Forms like bu+gün ("today") or baş+kent ("capital") are permissible. In addition, vowel harmony does not apply in loanwords and some invariant affixes, such as -yor (present tense) and -bil- (potential). Some loanwords do, however, exhibit partial or even complete vowel harmony (e.g. mümkün "possible" < Arabic mumkin; and dürbün "binoculars" < Persian dūrbīn).[41] There are also a few native Turkish words that do not follow the rule, such as anne ("mother"). In such words, suffixes harmonize with the final vowel: thus annedir ("she is a mother"). Many loanwords from Arabic and French, however, take front-vowel suffixes after final back vowels: for example halsiz < hal + -siz4 "listless", meçhuldür < meçhul + -dir4 "it is unknown", harfler < harf + -ler² "(alphabetical) letters" (instead of the expected *halsız, *meçhuldur and *harflar).
The road sign in the photograph above illustrates several of these features:
- a native compound which does not obey vowel harmony: Orta+köy ("middle village"—a place name)
- a loanword also violating vowel harmony: viyadük ("viaduct" < French viaduc)
- the possessive suffix -i4 harmonizing with the final vowel (and softening the k by consonant alternation): viyadüğü
Stress is usually on the last syllable.[33] Exceptions include some suffix combinations and loanwords, particularly from Italian and Greek, as well as interjections, adverbs, and many proper names. While such loanwords are usually stressed on the penultimate syllable ([ɫoˈkanta] lokanta "restaurant" or [isˈcele] iskele "quay"), the stress of proper names is less predictable ([isˈtanbuɫ] İstanbul, [ˈaŋkaɾa] Ankara).
Turkish is an agglutinative language and frequently uses affixes, and specifically suffixes, or endings.[42] One word can have many affixes and these can also be used to create new words, such as creating a verb from a noun, or a noun from a verbal root (see the section on Word formation). Most affixes indicate the grammatical function of the word.[43] The only native prefixes are alliterative intensifying syllables used with adjectives or adverbs: for example sımsıcak ("boiling hot" < sıcak) and masmavi ("bright blue" < mavi).[44]
The extensive use of affixes can give rise to long words. It is jokingly said that the longest Turkish word is Çekoslovakyalılaştıramadıklarımızdanmışsınız, meaning "You are said to be one of those that we couldn't manage to convert to a Czechoslovak". This example is of course contrived; but long words do frequently occur in normal Turkish, as in this heading of a newspaper obituary column: Bayramlaşamadıklarımız (Bayram [festival]-Recipr-Impot-Partic-Plur-PossPl1; "Those of our number with whom we cannot exchange the season's greetings").[45] Another example can be seen in the final word of this heading of the online Turkish Spelling Guide (İmlâ Kılavuzu): Dilde birlik, ulusal birliğin vazgeçilemezlerindendir ("Unity in language is among the indispensables [dispense-Pass-Impot-Plur-PossS3-Abl-Copula] of national unity ~ Linguistic unity is a sine qua non of national unity").[46]
There is no definite article in Turkish, but definiteness of the object is implied when the accusative ending is used (see below). Turkish nouns decline by taking case-endings, as in Latin. There are six noun cases in Turkish, with all the endings following vowel harmony (shown in the table using the shorthand superscript notation. The plural marker -ler² immediately follows the noun before any case or other affixes (e.g. köylerin "of the villages").
| Case |
Ending |
Examples |
Meaning |
| köy "village" |
ağaç "tree" |
| Nominative |
Ø (none) |
köy |
ağaç |
(the) village/tree |
| Genitive |
-in4 |
köyün |
ağacın |
the village's/tree's
of the village/tree |
| Dative |
-e² |
köye |
ağaca |
to the village/tree |
| Accusative |
-i4 |
köyü |
ağacı |
the village/tree |
| Ablative |
-den² |
köyden |
ağaçtan |
from the village/tree |
| Locative |
-de² |
köyde |
ağaçta |
in the village/on the tree |
The accusative case marker is used only for definite objects; compare (bir) ağaç gördük "we saw a tree" with ağacı gördük "we saw the tree".[47] The plural marker -ler² is generally not used when a class or category is meant: ağaç gördük can equally well mean "we saw trees [as we walked through the forest]"—as opposed to ağaçları gördük "we saw the trees [in question]".
The declension of ağaç illustrates two important features of Turkish phonology: consonant assimilation in suffixes (ağaçtan, ağaçta) and voicing of final consonants before vowels (ağacın, ağaca, ağacı).
Additionally, nouns can take suffixes that assign person: for example -imiz4, "our". With the addition of the copula (for example -im4, "I am") complete sentences can be formed. The interrogative particle mi4 immediately follows the word being questioned: köye mi? "[going] to the village?", ağaç mı? "[is it a] tree?".
| Turkish |
English |
| ev |
(the) house |
| evler |
(the) houses |
| evin |
your (sing.) house |
| eviniz |
your (pl./formal) house |
| evim |
my house |
| evimde |
at my house |
| evlerinizin |
of your houses |
| evlerinizden |
from your houses |
| evlerinizdendi |
(he/she/it) was from your houses |
| evlerinizdenmiş |
(he/she/it) was (apparently/said to be) from your houses |
| Evinizdeyim. |
I am at your house. |
| Evinizdeymişim. |
I was (apparently) at your house. |
| Evinizde miyim? |
Am I at your house? |
The Turkish personal pronouns in the nominative case are ben (1s), sen (2s), o (3s), biz (1pl), siz (2pl, or formal/polite 2s), and onlar (3pl). They are declined regularly with some exceptions: benim (1s gen.); bizim (1pl gen.); bana (1s dat.); sana (2s dat.); and the oblique forms of o use the root on. All other pronouns (reflexive kendi and so on) are declined regularly.
[edit] Linking nouns (tamlama)
Two nouns, or groups of nouns, may be joined in either of two ways:
- definite (possessive) compound (belirtili tamlama). E.g. Türkiye'nin sesi "the voice of Turkey (radio station)": the voice belonging to Turkey. Here the relationship is shown by the genitive ending -in4 added to the first noun; the second noun has the third-person suffix of possession -(s)i4.
- indefinite (qualifying) compound (belirtisiz tamlama). E.g. Türkiye Cumhuriyeti "Turkey-Republic[48] = the Republic of Turkey": not the republic belonging to Turkey, but the Republic that is Turkey. Here the first noun has no ending; but the second noun has the ending -(s)i4—the same as in definite compounds.
The following table illustrates these principles.[49] In some cases the constituents of the compounds are themselves compounds; for clarity these subsidiary compounds are marked with [square brackets]. The suffixes involved in the linking are underlined. Note that if the second noun group already had a possessive suffix (because it is a compound by itself), no further suffix is added.
Linked nouns and noun groups
| Definite (possessive) |
Indefinite (qualifier) |
Complement |
Meaning |
| kimsenin |
|
yanıtı |
nobody's answer |
|
"kimse" |
yanıtı |
the answer "nobody" |
| Atatürk'ün |
|
evi |
Atatürk's house |
|
Atatürk |
Bulvarı |
Atatürk Boulevard (named after, not belonging to Atatürk) |
| Orhan'ın |
|
adı |
Orhan's name |
|
"Orhan" |
adı |
the name "Orhan" |
|
r |
sessizi |
the consonant r |
| [r sessizi]nin |
|
söylenişi |
pronunciation of the consonant r |
|
Türk |
[Dil Kurumu] |
Turkish language-association |
|
[Türk Dili] |
Dergisi |
Turkish-language magazine |
|
Ford |
[aile arabası] |
Ford family car |
| Ford'un |
|
[aile arabası] |
(Mr) Ford's family car |
| [Ford ailesi]nin |
|
arabası |
the Ford family's car[50] |
|
Ankara |
[Kız Lisesi][51] |
Ankara Girls' School |
|
[yıl sonu] |
sınavları |
year-end examinations |
| Bulgaristan'ın |
|
[İstanbul Başkonsolosluğu] |
the Istanbul Consulate-General of Bulgaria (located in Istanbul, but belonging to Bulgaria) |
|
[ [İstanbul Üniversitesi] [Edebiyat Fakültesi] ] |
[ [Türk Edebiyatı] Profesörü] |
Professor of Turkish Literature in the Faculty of Literature of the University of Istanbul |
|
ne oldum |
delisi |
"what-have-I-become!"[52] madman = parvenu who gives himself airs |
As the last example shows, the qualifying expression may be a substantival sentence rather than a noun or noun group.[53]
Turkish adjectives are not declined. However most adjectives can also be used as nouns, in which case they are declined: e.g. güzel ("beautiful") → güzeller ("(the) beautiful ones / people"). Used attributively, adjectives precede the nouns they modify. The adjectives var ("existent") and yok ("non-existent") are used in many cases where English would use "there is" or "have", e.g. süt yok ("there is no milk", lit. "(the) milk (is) non-existent"); the construction "noun 1-GEN noun 2-POSS var/yok" can be translated "noun 1 has/doesn't have noun 2"; imparatorun elbisesi yok "the emperor has no clothes" ("(the) emperor-of clothes-his non-existent"); kedimin ayakkabıları yoktu ("my cat had no shoes", lit. "cat-my-of shoe-plur.-its non-existent-past tense").
Turkish verbs indicate person. They can be made negative, potential ("can"), or impotential ("cannot"). Furthermore, Turkish verbs show tense (present, past, future, and aorist), mood (conditional, imperative, inferential, necessitative, and optative), and aspect. Negation is expressed by the infix -me²- immediately following the stem.
| Turkish |
English |
| gel- |
(to) come |
| gelebil- |
(to) be able to come |
| gelme- |
not (to) come |
| geleme- |
(to) be unable to come |
| gelememiş |
Apparently (s)he couldn't come |
| gelebilecek |
(s)he'll be able to come |
| gelmeyebilir |
(s)he may (possibly) not come |
| gelebilirsen |
if thou can come |
| gelinir |
(passive) one comes, people come |
| gelebilmeliydin |
thou shouldst have been able to come |
| gelebilseydin |
if thou could have come |
| gelmeliydin |
thou shouldst have come |
All Turkish verbs are conjugated in the same way, except for the irregular and defective verb i-, the Turkish copula (corresponding to English to be), which can be used in compound forms (the shortened form is called an enclitic): Gelememişti = Gelememiş idi = Gelememiş + i- + -di.
Turkish verbs have attributive forms, including present (with the ending -en²), future (-ecek²), indirect/inferential past (-miş4), and aorist (-er² or -ir4). These forms can function as either adjectives or nouns: oynamayan çocuklar "children who do not play", oynamayanlar "those who do not play"; okur yazar "reader-writer = literate", okur yazarlar "literates".
The most important function of attributive verbs is to form modifying phrases equivalent to the relative clauses found in most European languages. The attributive forms used in these constructions are the future (-ecek²) and an older form (-dik4), which covers both present and past meanings.[54] The use of these "personal or relative participles" is illustrated in the following table, in which the examples are presented according to the grammatical case which would be seen in the equivalent English relative clause.[55]
| English equivalent |
Example |
Translation |
| Case of relative pronoun |
Pronoun |
Literal |
Idiomatic |
| Nominative |
who, which/that |
şimdi konuşan adam |
"now speaking man" |
the man (who is) now speaking |
| Genitive |
whose (nom.) |
babası şimdi konuşan adam |
"father-his now speaking man" |
the man whose father is now speaking |
|
whose (acc.) |
babasını dün gördüğüm adam |
"father-his-ACC yesterday seen-my man" |
the man whose father I saw yesterday |
|
at whose |
resimlerine baktığımız ressam |
"pictures-his-to looked-our artist" |
the artist whose pictures we looked at |
|
of which |
muhtarı seçildiği köy |
"mayor-its been-chosen-his village" |
the village of which he was elected mayor |
|
of which |
muhtarı seçilmek istediği köy |
the village of which he wishes to be elected mayor |
| Remaining cases (incl. prepositions) |
whom, which |
yazdığım mektup |
"written-my letter" |
the letter (which) I wrote |
|
from which |
çıktığımız kapı |
"emerged-our door" |
the door from which we emerged |
|
on which |
geldikleri vapur |
"come-their ship" |
the ship they came on |
|
which + subordinate clause |
yaklaştığını anladığı hapishane günleri |
"approach-their-ACC understood-his prison days-its" |
the prison days (which) he knew were approaching[56][57] |
Word order in simple Turkish sentences is generally subject–object–verb, as in Korean and Latin, but unlike English. In more complex sentences, the basic rule is that the qualifier precedes the qualified: this principle includes, as an important special case, the participial modifiers discussed above. The definite precedes the indefinite: thus çocuğa hikâyeyi anlattı "she told the child the story", but hikâyeyi bir çocuğa anlattı "she told the story to a child".[58]
It is possible to alter the word order to stress the importance of a certain word or phrase. The main rule is that the word before the verb has the stress without exception. For example, if one wants to say "Hakan went to school" with a stress on the word "school" (okul, the indirect object) it would be "Hakan okula gitti". If the stress is to be placed on "Hakan" (the subject), it would be "Okula Hakan gitti" which means "it's Hakan who went to school".
Origin of the words in Turkish vocabulary, which contains 104,481 words, of which about 86% are Turkish and 14% are of foreign origin
Latest 2010 edition of "Büyük Türkçe Sözlük" (Great Turkish Dictionary), the official dictionary of the Turkish language published by Turkish Language Association, contains 616,767 words, expressions, terms and nouns.[59]
The 2005 edition of Güncel Türkçe Sözlük, the official dictionary of the Turkish language published by Turkish Language Association, contains 104,481 words, of which about 86% are Turkish and 14% are of foreign origin.[60] Among the most significant foreign contributors to Turkish vocabulary are Arabic, French, Persian, Italian, English, and Greek.[61]
Turkish extensively uses agglutination to form new words from nouns and verbal stems. The majority of Turkish words originate from the application of derivative suffixes to a relatively small set of core vocabulary.
An example set of words derived from a substantive root:
| Turkish |
Components |
English |
Word class |
| göz |
göz |
eye |
Noun |
| gözlük |
göz + -lük |
eyeglasses |
Noun |
| gözlükçü |
göz + -lük + -çü |
optician |
Noun |
| gözlükçülük |
göz + -lük + -çü + -lük |
optician's trade |
Noun |
| gözlem |
göz + -lem |
observation |
Noun |
| gözlemci |
göz + -lem + -ci |
observer |
Noun |
| gözle- |
göz + -le |
observe |
Verb (order) |
| gözlemek |
göz + -le + -mek |
to observe |
Verb (infinitive) |
Another example, starting from a verbal root:
| Turkish |
Components |
English |
Word class |
| yat- |
yat- |
lie down |
Verb (order) |
| yatmak |
yat-mak |
to lie down |
Verb (infinitive) |
| yatık |
yat- + -(ı)k |
leaning |
Adjective |
| yatak |
yat- + -ak |
bed, place to sleep |
Noun |
| yatay |
yat- + -ay |
horizontal |
Adjective |
| yatkın |
yat- + -gın |
inclined to; stale (from lying too long) |
Adjective |
| yatır- |
yat- + -(ı)r- |
lay down |
Verb (order) |
| yatırmak |
yat- + -(ı)r-mak |
to lay down |
Verb (infinitive) |
| yatırım |
yat- + -(ı)r- + -(ı)m |
laying down; deposit, investment |
Noun |
| yatırımcı |
yat- + -(ı)r- + -(ı)m + -cı |
depositor, investor |
Noun |
New words are also frequently formed by compounding two existing words into a new one, as in German. A few examples of compound words are given below:
| Turkish |
English |
Constituent words |
Literal meaning |
| pazartesi |
Monday |
pazar ("Sunday") and ertesi ("after") |
after Sunday |
| bilgisayar |
computer |
bilgi ("information") and say- ("to count") |
information counter |
| gökdelen |
skyscraper |
gök ("sky") and del- ("to pierce") |
sky piercer |
| başparmak |
thumb |
baş ("prime") and parmak ("finger") |
primary finger |
| önyargı |
prejudice |
ön ("before") and yargı ("splitting; judgement") |
fore-judging |
Atatürk introducing the new Turkish alphabet to the people of
Sinop. September 20, 1928. (Cover of the French
L'Illustration magazine)
Turkish is written using a Latin alphabet introduced in 1928 by Atatürk to replace the Arabic-based Ottoman Turkish alphabet. The Ottoman alphabet marked only three different vowels—long ā, ū and ī—and included several redundant consonants, such as variants of z (which were distinguished in Arabic but not in Turkish). The omission of short vowels in the Arabic script was claimed to make it particularly unsuitable for Turkish, which has eight vowels.
The reform of the script was an important step in the cultural reforms of the period. The task of preparing the new alphabet and selecting the necessary modifications for sounds specific to Turkish was entrusted to a Language Commission composed of prominent linguists, academics, and writers. The introduction of the new Turkish alphabet was supported by public education centers opened throughout the country, cooperation with publishing companies, and encouragement by Atatürk himself, who toured the country teaching the new letters to the public.[62] As a result, there was a dramatic increase in literacy from its original Third World levels.[63]
The Latin alphabet was applied to the Turkish language for educational purposes even before the 20th-century reform. Instances include a 1635 Latin-Albanian dictionary by Frang Bardhi, who also incorporated several sayings in the Turkish language, as an appendix to his work (e.g. alma agatsdan irak duschamas[64] – 'An apple does not fall far from its tree').
Turkish now has an alphabet suited to the sounds of the language: the spelling is largely phonetic, with one letter corresponding to each phoneme. Most of the letters are used approximately as in English, the main exceptions being ⟨c⟩, which denotes [dʒ] (⟨j⟩ being used for the [ʒ] found in Persian and European loans); and the undotted ⟨ı⟩, representing [ɯ]. As in German, ⟨ö⟩ and ⟨ü⟩ represent [ø] and [y]. The letter ⟨ğ⟩, in principle, denotes [ɣ] but has the property of lengthening the preceding vowel and assimilating any subsequent vowel. The letters ⟨ş⟩ and ⟨ç⟩ represent [ʃ] and [tʃ], respectively. A circumflex is written over back vowels following ⟨k⟩, ⟨g⟩, or ⟨l⟩ when these consonants represent [c], [ɟ], and [l]—almost exclusively in Arabic and Persian loans,[65] An apostrophe is used to separate proper nouns from any suffixes: e.g. İstanbul'da 'in Istanbul'.
The specifically Turkish letters and spellings described above are illustrated in this table:
| Turkish spelling |
Pronunciation |
Meaning |
| Cağaloğlu |
ˈdʒaːɫoːɫu |
[İstanbul district] |
| çalıştığı |
tʃaɫɯʃtɯˈɣɯ |
where/that s/he works/worked |
| müjde |
myʒˈde |
good news |
| lazım |
laˈzɯm |
necessary |
| mahkûm |
mahˈcum |
condemned |
Dostlar Beni Hatırlasın by Aşık Veysel Şatıroğlu (1894–1973), a minstrel and highly regarded poet in the Turkish folk literature tradition.
| Orthography |
IPA |
Translation |
| Ben giderim adım kalır |
bæn ɟid̪e̞ɾim äd̪ɯm käɫɯɾ |
I depart, my name remains |
| Dostlar beni hatırlasın |
d̪o̞st̪ɫäɾ be̞ni hätɯɾɫäsɯn |
May friends remember me |
| Düğün olur bayram gelir |
d̪yjyn o̞ɫuɾ bäjɾäm ɟe̞liɾ |
There are weddings, there are feasts |
| Dostlar beni hatırlasın |
d̪o̞st̪ɫäɾ be̞ni hätɯɾɫäsɯn |
May friends remember me |
|
| Can kafeste durmaz uçar |
d͡ʒäŋ käfe̞st̪e̞ d̪uɾmäz ut͡ʃäɾ |
The soul won't stay caged, it flies away |
| Dünya bir han konan göçer |
d̪ynjä biɾ häŋ ko̞nän ɟø̞t͡ʃæɾ |
The world is an inn, residents depart |
| Ay dolanır yıllar geçer |
äj d̪o̞ɫänɯɾ jɯɫːäɾ ɟe̞t͡ʃæɾ |
The moon wanders, years pass by |
| Dostlar beni hatırlasın |
d̪o̞st̪ɫäɾ be̞ni hätɯɾɫäsɯn |
May friends remember me |
|
| Can bedenden ayrılacak |
d͡ʒän be̞d̪ænd̪æn äjɾɯɫäd͡ʒäk |
The soul will leave the body |
| Tütmez baca yanmaz ocak |
t̪yt̪mæz bäd͡ʒä jänmäz o̞d͡ʒäk |
The chimney won't smoke, furnace won't burn |
| Selam olsun kucak kucak |
se̞läːm o̞ɫsuŋ kud͡ʒäk kud͡ʒäk |
Goodbye goodbye to you all |
| Dostlar beni hatırlasın |
d̪o̞st̪ɫäɾ be̞ni hätɯɾɫäsɯn |
May friends remember me |
|
| Açar solar türlü çiçek |
ät͡ʃäɾ so̞läɾ t̪yɾly t͡ʃit͡ʃe̞c |
Various flowers bloom and fade |
| Kimler gülmüş kim gülecek |
cimlæɾ ɟylmyʃ cim ɟyle̞d͡ʒe̞c |
Someone laughed, someone will laugh |
| Murat yalan ölüm gerçek |
muɾät jäɫän ø̞lym ɟæɾt͡ʃe̞c |
Wishes are lies, death is real |
| Dostlar beni hatırlasın |
d̪o̞st̪ɫäɾ be̞ni hätɯɾɫäsɯn |
May friends remember me |
|
| Gün ikindi akşam olur |
ɟyn icindi äkʃäm o̞ɫuɾ |
Morning and afternoon turn to night |
| Gör ki başa neler gelir |
ɟø̞ɾ ci bäʃä ne̞læɾ ɟe̞liɾ |
And many things happen to a person anyway |
| Veysel gider adı kalır |
ʋe̞jsæl ɟidæɾ äd̪ɯ käɫɯɾ |
Veysel departs, his name remains |
| Dostlar beni hatırlasın |
d̪o̞st̪ɫäɾ be̞ni hätɯɾɫäsɯn |
May friends remember me |
Details of the sources cited only by the author's name are given in full in the References section.
- ^ Taylor & Francis Group (2003). Eastern Europe, Russia and Central Asia 2004. Routledge. p. 114. ISBN 978-1-85743-187-2. http://books.google.com/?id=NI1G_9j1AhcC&pg=PT134&dq=1999+census+azerbaijan+turkish. Retrieved 2008-03-26.
- ^ "The Muslim Minority of Greek Thrace". http://www.hri.org/MFA/foreign/musminen.htm.
- ^ "Syrian Turks". http://www.aksiyon.com.tr/detay.php?id=22997.
- ^ a b c d European Commission (2006). "Special Eurobarometer 243: Europeans and their Languages (Survey)" (PDF). Europa. http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_243_en.pdf. Retrieved 2010-02-14.
- ^ a b c d e f Katzner
- ^ "Recognized Minority Languages of Romania". Conventions.coe.int. http://conventions.coe.int/treaty/Commun/ListeDeclarations.asp?NT=148&CM=&DF=&CL=ENG&VL=1. Retrieved 2011-11-03.
- ^ Geoffrey Lewis, The Turkish Language Reform: A Catastrophic Success, Oxford University Press, 2002., p. 26
- ^ Corpus analysis and variation in ... – Yuji Kawaguchi, Makoto Minegishi, Jacques Durand – Google Books. Books.google.com. http://books.google.com/books?id=sOKccXw8zgEC&pg=PA282&dq=%22Istanbul+Turkish%22&hl=en&ei=ePOhTr-GDoLQiALslf1P&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=6&ved=0CFEQ6AEwBQ#v=onepage&q=%22Istanbul%20Turkish%22&f=false. Retrieved 2011-11-03.
- ^ "Turkish Language Program", Syracuse University
- ^ "Language Materials Project: Turkish". UCLA International Institute, Center for World Languages. February 2007. http://www.lmp.ucla.edu/Profile.aspx?LangID=67&menu=004. Retrieved 2007-04-26.
- ^ Gordon, Raymond G., Jr. (ed.) (2005). "Ethnologue: Languages of the World, Fifteenth edition. Language Family Trees – Altaic". http://www.ethnologue.com/show_family.asp?subid=90009. Retrieved 2007-03-18.
- ^ Ishjatms
- ^ Findley
- ^ Soucek
- ^ Glenny, Misha. The Balkans – Nationalism, War, and the Great Powers, 1804–1999, Penguin, New York 2001. p. 99.
- ^ Taeuber, Irene B. (April 1958). "Population and Modernization in Turkey". Population Index (Office of Population Research) 24 (2): 110. DOI:10.2307/2731516. JSTOR 2731516. OCLC 41483131. Lay summary – JSTOR.
- ^ See Lewis (2002) for a thorough treatment of the Turkish language reform.
- ^ a b Turkish Language Association. "Türk Dil Kurumu – Tarihçe (History of the Turkish Language Association)". Archived from the original on March 16, 2007. http://web.archive.org/web/20070316024438/http://www.tdk.gov.tr/TR/BelgeGoster.aspx?F6E10F8892433CFFAAF6AA849816B2EF2858DA18F4388CDD. Retrieved 2007-03-18. (Turkish)
- ^ See Lewis (2002): 2–3 for the first two translations. For the third see Bedi Yazıcı. "Nutuk: Özgün metin ve çeviri (Atatürk's Speech: original text and translation)". http://www.nutuk.org/. Retrieved 2007-09-28. (Turkish)
- ^ Mütercim Asım (1799). Burhân-ı Katı Tercemesi. İstanbul. (Turkish)
- ^ Gordon, Raymond G., Jr. (ed.) (2005). "Ethnologue: Languages of the World, Fifteenth edition. Report for language code:tur (Turkish)". http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=tur. Retrieved 2011-09-04.
- ^ TNS Opinion & Social (February 2006) (PDF). Special Eurobarometer 243 / Wave 64.3: Europeans and their Languages. European Commission Directorate of General Press and Communication. http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_243_en.pdf. Retrieved 2007-03-28.
- ^ Gordon, Raymond G., Jr. (ed.) (2005). "Ethnologue: Languages of the World, Fifteenth edition. Report for language code:kmr (Kurdish)". http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=kmr. Retrieved 2007-03-18.
- ^ The name TDK itself exemplifies this process. The words tetkik and cemiyet in the original name are both Arabic loanwords (the final -i of cemiyeti being a Turkish possessive suffix); kurum is a native Turkish word based on the verb kurmak, "set up, found".
- ^ Campbell, George (1995). "Turkish". Concise compendium of the world's languages. London: Routledge. p. 547.
- ^ Johanson, Lars (2001) (PDF). Discoveries on the Turkic linguistic map. Swedish Research Institute in Istanbul. Archived from the original on February 5, 2007. http://web.archive.org/web/20070205070509/http://www.srii.org/Map.pdf. Retrieved 2007-03-18.
- ^ Özsoy
- ^ Akalın, Şükrü Halûk (January 2003). "Türk Dil Kurumu'nun 2002 yılı çalışmaları (Turkish Language Association progress report for 2002)" (PDF). Türk Dili 85 (613). ISSN 1301-465X. Archived from the original on June 27, 2007. http://web.archive.org/web/20070627231538/http://www.tdk.gov.tr/TR/dosyagoster.aspx?DIL=1&BELGEANAH=2693&DOSYAISIM=calismalar2002.pdf. Retrieved 2007-03-18. (Turkish)
- ^ Shashi, Shyam Singh (1992). Encyclopaedia of Humanities and Social Sciences. Anmol Publications. p. 47. http://books.google.com/?id=4T0oAAAAMAAJ&q=yoruk+turkish+taurus&dq=yoruk+turkish+taurus. Retrieved 2008-03-26.
- ^ Brendemoen, B. (1996). "Phonological Aspects of Greek-Turkish Language Contact in Trabzon". Conference on Turkish in Contact, Netherlands Institute for Advanced Study (NIAS) in the Humanities and Social Sciences, Wassenaar, 5–6 February 1996.
- ^ Vaux, Bert (2001) (PDF). Hemshinli: The Forgotten Black Sea Armenians. Harvard University. Archived from the original on March 15, 2007. http://web.archive.org/web/20070315154048/http://www.uwm.edu/~vaux/hamshen.pdf. Retrieved 2007-04-24.
- ^ Karahan, Leylâ (1996). Anadolu Ağızlarının Sınıflandırılması. Türk Dil Kurumu.
- ^ a b Handbook of the IPA, p. 155
- ^ Lewis (2001):3–4,6.
- ^ The ⟨k⟩/⟨ğ⟩ alternation does not usually apply to monosyllabic nouns. Lewis (2001):10.
- ^ The vowel represented by ⟨ı⟩ is also commonly transcribed as ⟨ɨ⟩ in linguistic literature.
- ^ Note that this table is essentially the same as the IPA vowel chart shown above: both table and chart indicate the physical location and quality of each vowel.
- ^ Lewis (1953):21
- ^ For the terms twofold and fourfold, as well as the superscript notation, see Lewis (1953):21–22. In his more recent works Lewis prefers to omit the superscripts, on the grounds that "there is no need for this once the principle has been grasped" (Lewis [2001]:18).
- ^ In modern Turkish orthography, an apostrophe is used to separate proper names from any suffixes.
- ^ In Lewis's marvellously precise formulation, "The effect of vowel harmony extends to non-Turkish words too, bringing as many vowels as possible of a foreign borrowing into one class, or pressing a foreign borrowing whose vowels happen to be all of one class still further into Turkish form." Lewis (2001): 17.
- ^ This section draws heavily on Lewis (2001) and, to a lesser extent, Lewis (1953). Only the most important references are specifically flagged with footnotes.
- ^ see Lewis (2001) Ch XIV.
- ^ "The prefix, which is accented, is modelled on the first syllable of the simple adjective or adverb but with the substitution of m, p, r, or s for the last consonant of that syllable." Lewis (2001):55. The prefix retains the first vowel of the base form and thus exhibits a form of reverse vowel harmony.
- ^ This "splendid word" appeared at the time of Bayram, the festival marking the end of the month of fasting. Lewis (2001):287.
- ^ "İmlâ Kilavuzu". Dilimiz.com. http://www.dilimiz.com/dil/imlakilavuzu/TDK/imlaanasayfa.htm. Retrieved 2011-11-03.
- ^ Because it is also used for the indefinite accusative, Lewis uses the term "absolute case" in preference to "nominative". Lewis (2001):28.
- ^ Lewis points out that "an indefinite izafet group can be turned into intelligible (though not necessarily normal) English by the use of a hyphen". Lewis (2001): 42.
- ^ The examples are taken from Lewis (2001): 41–47.
- ^ For other possible permutations of this vehicle, see Lewis (2001):46.
- ^ "It is most important to note that the third-person suffix is not repeated though theoretically one might have expected Ankara [Kız Lisesi]si." Lewis (2001): 45 footnote.
- ^ Note the similarity with the French phrase un m'as-tu-vu "a have-you-seen-me?", i.e., a vain and pretentious person.
- ^ The term substantival sentence is Lewis's. Lewis(2001:257).
- ^ See Lewis (2001):163–165, 260–262 for an exhaustive treatment.
- ^ For the terms personal and relative participle see Lewis (1958):98 and Lewis (2001):163 respectively. Most of the examples are taken from Lewis (2001).
- ^ This more complex example from Orhan Pamuk's Kar (Snow) contains a nested structure: [which he knew [were approaching]]. Maureen Freely's more succinct and idiomatic translation is the days in prison he knew lay ahead. Note that Pamuk uses the spelling hapisane.
- ^ From the perspective of Turkish grammar yaklaştığını anladığı is exactly parallel to babasını gördüğüm ("whose father I saw"), and could therefore be paraphrased as "whose approaching he understood".
- ^ Lewis (2001): 239–240.
- ^ Büyük Türkçe Sözlük Turkish Language Association (Turkish)
- ^ "Güncel Türkçe Sözlük". Turkish Language Association. 2005. Archived from the original on March 21, 2007. http://web.archive.org/web/20070321023726/http://www.tdk.gov.tr/TR/BelgeGoster.aspx?F6E10F8892433CFFAAF6AA849816B2EFB40CE59E171C629F. Retrieved 2007-03-21. (Turkish)
- ^ "Türkçe Sözlük (2005)’teki Sözlerin Kökenlerine Ait Sayısal Döküm (Numerical list on the origin of words in Türkçe Sözlük (2005))". Turkish Language Association. 2005. Archived from the original on March 1, 2007. http://web.archive.org/web/20070301064559/http://www.tdk.gov.tr/TR/BelgeGoster.aspx?F6E10F8892433CFFAAF6AA849816B2EF1A46C5FBFA979D0C. Retrieved 2007-03-21. (Turkish)
- ^ Dilaçar, Agop (1977). "Atatürk ve Yazım". Türk Dili 35 (307). ISSN 1301-465X. http://www.dildernegi.org.tr/TR/BelgeGoster.aspx?F6E10F8892433CFFAAF6AA849816B2EFC3C6D81741DBEB05. Retrieved 2007-03-19. (Turkish)[dead link]
- ^ Coulmas, pp. 243–244
- ^ In modern Turkish spelling: elma ağaçtan ırak düşmez.
- ^ Lewis (2001):3–7. Note that in these cases the circumflex conveys information about the preceding consonant rather than the vowel over which it is written.
Printed sources
- Akalın, Şükrü Haluk (January 2003). "Türk Dil Kurumu'nun 2002 yılı çalışmaları (Turkish Language Association progress report for 2002)" (PDF). Türk_Dili 85 (613). ISSN 1301-465X. Archived from the original on June 27, 2007. http://web.archive.org/web/20070627231538/http://www.tdk.gov.tr/TR/dosyagoster.aspx?DIL=1&BELGEANAH=2693&DOSYAISIM=calismalar2002.pdf. Retrieved 2007-03-18. (Turkish)
- Bazin, Louis (1975). "Turcs et Sogdiens: Les Enseignements de L'Inscription de Bugut (Mongolie), Mélanges Linguistiques Offerts à Émile Benveniste". Collection Linguistique, publiée par la Société de Linguistique de Paris (LXX): 37–45. (French)
- Brendemoen, B. (1996). "Phonological Aspects of Greek-Turkish Language Contact in Trabzon". Conference on Turkish in Contact, Netherlands Institute for Advanced Study (NIAS) in the Humanities and Social Sciences, Wassenaar, 5–6 February 1996.
- Coulmas, Florian (1989). Writing Systems of the World. Blackwell Publishers Ltd, Oxford. ISBN 0-631-18028-1.
- Dilaçar, Agop (1977). "Atatürk ve Yazım". Türk Dili 35 (307). ISSN 1301-465X. http://www.dildernegi.org.tr/TR/BelgeGoster.aspx?F6E10F8892433CFFAAF6AA849816B2EFC3C6D81741DBEB05. Retrieved 2007-03-19. (Turkish)
- Findley, Carter V. (October 2004). The Turks in World History. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-517726-6.
- Johanson, Lars (2001) (PDF). Discoveries on the Turkic linguistic map. Swedish Research Institute in Istanbul. Archived from the original on February 5, 2007. http://web.archive.org/web/20070205070509/http://www.srii.org/Map.pdf. Retrieved 2007-03-18.
- Ishjatms, N. (October 1996). "Nomads In Eastern Central Asia". History of civilizations of Central Asia. 2. UNESCO Publishing. ISBN 92-3-102846-4.
- Katzner, Kenneth (March 2002). Languages of the World, Third Edition. Routledge, an imprint of Taylor & Francis Books Ltd.. ISBN 978-0-415-25004-7.
- Lewis, Geoffrey (1953). Teach Yourself Turkish. English Universities Press. ISBN 978-0-340-49231-4. (2nd edition 1989)
- Lewis, Geoffrey (2001). Turkish Grammar. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-870036-9.
- Lewis, Geoffrey (2002). The Turkish Language Reform: A Catastrophic Success. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-925669-1.
- Nişanyan, Sevan (2007). Sözlerin Soyağacı: Çağdaş Türkçenin Etimoloji Sözlüğü (Etymological Dictionary of Contemporary Turkish). Adam Yayınları, Revised and Enlarged 3rd Edition. ISBN [[Special:BookSources/975-418-868-4|975-418-868-4]]. (Turkish)
- Özsoy, A. Sumru; Taylan, Eser E. (eds.) (2000). Türkçe’nin ağızları çalıştayı bildirileri (Workshop on the dialects of Turkish). Boğaziçi Üniversitesi Yayınevi. ISBN 975-518-140-7. (Turkish)
- Soucek, Svat (March 2000). A History of Inner Asia. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-65169-1.
- Vaux, Bert (2001) (PDF). Hemshinli: The Forgotten Black Sea Armenians. Harvard University. http://www.uwm.edu/~vaux/hamshen.pdf. Retrieved 2007-04-24.
- Zimmer, Karl; Orgun, Orhan (1999). "Turkish". Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: A guide to the use of the International Phonetic Alphabet. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 154–158. ISBN 0-521-65236-7.
On-line sources
- Center for Studies on Turkey[dead link], University of Essen (2003). "The European Turks: Gross Domestic Product, Working Population, Entrepreneurs and Household Data" (PDF). Turkish Industrialists' and Businessmen's Association. Archived from the original on December 4, 2005. http://web.archive.org/web/20051204091302/http://www.tusiad.org/haberler/basin/ab/9.pdf. Retrieved 2007-01-06.
- Gordon, Raymond G., Jr. (ed.) (2005). "Ethnologue: Languages of the World, Fifteenth edition. Language Family Trees – Altaic". http://www.ethnologue.com/show_family.asp?subid=90009. Retrieved 2007-03-18.
- Gordon, Raymond G., Jr. (ed.) (2005). "Ethnologue: Languages of the World, Fifteenth edition. Report for language code:kmr (Kurdish)". http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=kmr. Retrieved 2007-03-18.
- Gordon, Raymond G., Jr. (ed.) (2005). "Ethnologue: Languages of the World, Fifteenth edition. Report for language code:tur (Turkish)". http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=tur. Retrieved 2007-03-18.
- "Güncel Türkçe Sözlük". Turkish Language Association. 2005. Archived from the original on 2007-03-12. http://web.archive.org/web/20070312162345/http://www.tdk.gov.tr/TR/BelgeGoster.aspx?F6E10F8892433CFFAAF6AA849816B2EFB40CE59E171C629F. Retrieved 2007-03-21. (Turkish)
- "Turkish Etymological Dictionary online". Sevan Nişanyan. 2006. http://www.nisanyansozluk.com. Retrieved 2007-09-11. (Turkish)
- "Language Materials Project: Turkish". UCLA International Institute, Center for World Languages. February 2007. http://www.lmp.ucla.edu/Profile.aspx?LangID=67&menu=004. Retrieved 2007-04-26.
- TNS Opinion & Social (February 2006) (PDF). Special Eurobarometer 243 / Wave 64.3: Europeans and their Languages. European Commission Directorate of General Press and Communication. http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_243_en.pdf. Retrieved 2007-03-28.
- Turkish Language Association. "Türk Dil Kurumu – Tarihçe (History of the Turkish Language Association)". Archived from the original on 2007-03-16. http://web.archive.org/web/20070316024438/http://www.tdk.gov.tr/TR/BelgeGoster.aspx?F6E10F8892433CFFAAF6AA849816B2EF2858DA18F4388CDD. Retrieved 2007-03-18. (Turkish)
- "Türkçe Sözlük (2005)’teki Sözlerin Kökenlerine Ait Sayısal Döküm (Numerical list on the origin of words in Türkçe Sözlük (2005))". Turkish Language Association. 2005. http://www.tdk.gov.tr/TR/BelgeGoster.aspx?F6E10F8892433CFFAAF6AA849816B2EF1A46C5FBFA979D0C. Retrieved 2007-03-21. [dead link](Turkish)
- Eyüboğlu, İsmet Zeki (1991). Türk Dilinin Etimoloji Sözlüğü (Etymological Dictionary of the Turkish Language). Sosyal Yayınları, İstanbul. ISBN [[Special:BookSources/975-7384-72-2|975-7384-72-2]]. (Turkish)
- Özel, Sevgi; Haldun Özen and Ali Püsküllüoğlu (eds.) (1986). Atatürk'ün Türk Dil Kurumu ve Sonrası (Atatürk's Turkish Language Association and its Legacy). Bilgi Yayınevi, Ankara. OCLC 18836678. (Turkish)
- Püsküllüoğlu, Ali (2004). Arkadaş Türkçe Sözlük (Arkadaş Turkish Dictionary). Arkadaş Yayınevi, Ankara. ISBN 975-509-053-3. (Turkish)
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