The Phrygian cap is a soft conical cap with the top pulled forward, associated in antiquity with the inhabitants of Phrygia, a region of central Anatolia. In the western provinces of the Roman Empire it came to signify freedom and the pursuit of liberty, perhaps through a confusion with the ''pileus'', the manumitted slave's felt cap of ancient Rome. Accordingly, the Phrygian cap is sometimes called a liberty cap; in artistic representations it signifies freedom and the pursuit of liberty.

History

Antiquity

In Antiquity, the Phrygian cap had two connotations: for the Greeks as showing a distinctive Eastern influence of non-Greek "barbarism" (in the classical sense) and among the Romans as a badge of liberty. The Phrygian cap identifies Trojans such as Paris in vase-paintings and sculpture, and it is worn by the syncretic Persian saviour god Mithras and by the Anatolian god Attis who were later adopted by Romans and Hellenic cultures. The twins Castor and Pollux wear a superficially similar round cap called the ''pileus.''

The Phrygian cap that was also worn by King Midas to hide the donkey ears given to him as a curse by Apollo, was first referred to in Aristophanes' ''Ploutos'' (388BC) but illustrated in vase-paintings a generation earlier. Greeks were already picturing the people of Midas wearing the tall peaked caps before the earliest surviving literary sources: a mid-sixth century Laconian cup depicts the capture of Silenus at a fountain house, by armed men in Eastern costume and pointed caps.

In vase-paintings and other Greek art, the Phrygian cap serves to identify the Trojan hero Paris as non-Greek; Roman poets habitually use the epithet "Phrygian" to mean Trojan. The Phrygian cap can also be seen on the Trajan's Column carvings, worn by the Dacians, and on the Arch of Septimius Severus worn by the Parthians.

The Macedonian, Thracian, Dacian and 12th-century Norman military helmets had a forward peaked top resembling the Phrygian cap called Phrygian type helmets.

In late Republican Rome, the cap of freedmen served as a symbol of freedom from tyranny. A coin issued by Brutus in Asia Minor 44–42 BC, showed one posed between two daggers (illustrated). During the Roman Empire, the Phrygian cap (Latin: ''pileus'') was worn on festive occasions such as the Saturnalia, and by emancipated slaves, whose descendants were consequently considered citizens of the Empire. This usage is often considered the root of its meaning as a symbol of liberty.

Revolutionary icon

In revolutionary France, the cap or ''bonnet rouge'' was first seen publicly in May 1790, at a festival in Troyes adorning a statue representing the nation, and at Lyon, on a lance carried by the goddess Libertas. To this day the national emblem of France, Marianne, is shown wearing a Phrygian cap.

In 1792, when Louis XVI was induced to sign a constitution, popular prints of the king were doctored to show him wearing the ''bonnet rouge''. The bust of Voltaire was crowned with the red bonnet of liberty after a performance of his ''Brutus'' at the Comédie-Française in March 1792. The spire of the cathedral in Strasbourg was crowned with a ''bonnet rouge'' in order to prevent it from being torn down in 1794.

By wearing the red Phrygian cap the Paris ''sans-culottes'' made their Revolutionary ardour and plebeian solidarity immediately recognizable. During the period of the Great Terror, the cap was adopted defensively even by those who might be denounced as moderates or aristocrats and were especially keen to advertise their adherence to the new regime.

The cap was also incorporated into the symbol of the late 18th century Irish revolutionary organisation the Society of the United Irishmen. The English Radicals of 1819 and 1820 often wore a white "cap of liberty" on public occasions.

Use in American iconography

United States

The Phrygian cap has been used to symbolize liberty in numerous countries of the Americas. For example, starting in 1793 United States of America coinage frequently showed liberty wearing the cap or, on many 19th Century pieces, holding it on a Liberty Pole. The cap's last appearance on circulating coinage was the Walking Liberty Half Dollar, which was minted through 1947 (and reused on the current bullion American Silver Eagle). The U.S. Army has, since 1778, utilized a "War Office Seal" in which the motto "This We'll Defend" is displayed directly over a Phrygian cap on an upturned sword. It also appears on the state flags of West Virginia (as part of its official seal), New Jersey, and New York, as well as the official seal of the United States Senate, the state of Iowa, the state of North Carolina (as well as the arms of its Senate,) and on the reverse side of the Seal of Virginia.

In 1854, when sculptor Thomas Crawford was preparing models for sculpture for the United States Capitol, Secretary of War Jefferson Davis (later to be the President of the Confederate States of America) insisted that a Phrygian cap not be included on a statue of ''Freedom'' on the grounds that, "''American liberty is original and not the liberty of the freed slave''". The cap was not included in the final bronze version that is now in the building.

Latin America

Many of the anti-colonial revolutions in Mexico and South America were heavily inspired by the imagery and slogans of the revolution of the United States of America, wrongly called American revolution, and French Revolutions. As a result, the cap has appeared on the coats of arms of many Latin American nations.

The cap had also been displayed on certain Mexican coins (most notably the old 8-reales coin) through the late 19th century into the mid-20th century. Today, it is featured on the coats of arms or national flags of Nicaragua, El Salvador, Argentina, Colombia, Haiti, Cuba, Bolivia and Paraguay.

The Phrygian cap in Latin American coats of arms

Coat of arms of Argentina

Coat of arms of Bolivia

Coat of arms of Colombia

Coat of arms of Cuba

Coat of arms of El Salvador

Coat of arms of Haiti

Coat of arms of Nicaragua

Reverse side of the Flag of Paraguay on the Seal of the Supreme Court

Literary and popular culture references

Washington Irving propounded the surprise of his famous protagonist, Rip Van Winkle, by noting among the unexpected details of the re-awakened Rip's newly post-revolutionary village a "tall naked pole, with something on it that looked like a red night cap..."

The revolutionist protagonists of Robert A. Heinlein's ''The Moon Is a Harsh Mistress'' often wear a liberty cap. It is referred to exclusively as such. It becomes a fashion article at one point, and is once placed on a telephone terminal open to the A.I. character "Mike."

The popular comic / cartoon characters The Smurfs, are famous for their white Phrygian caps. Their leader, papa Smurf, wears a red one, with other Smurf characters that wear "differently" styled hats, usually still having the phrygian cap as the crown of their unique headgear.

Cornish piskies wear Phrygian caps symbolising proto-Celtic origins and magical powers in ''Mystic Rose – Celtic Fire'' by Toney Brooks.

Christine, the mistreated heroine of Howard Pyle's Cinderella-inspired fairy tale "The Apple of Contentment," wears a Phrygian cap in Pyle's illustrations.

The song ''Then She Appeared'' by rock group XTC contains the line "Dressed in tricolour and Phrygian cap".

French marine explorer and aqua-lung inventor Jacques Cousteau wore a red Phrygian cap.

Much in reference to Jacques Cousteau, the main character and his team in the film The Life Aquatic with Steve Zissou all don red Phyrgian caps.

Jaq and Gus, the two main mice characters in the Disney animated feature ''Cinderella'', wear small Phyrgian caps; Jaq wears a red one while Gus wears an aquamarine color.

Popular video game series Assassin's Creed mentions the Phrygian cap along with the Masonic Eye in the latest installment Assassin's Creed: Brotherhood.

In the popular Nintendo video game series The Legend of Zelda, the main protagonist Link wears a green Phrygian hat.

The term Phrygian cap has been adopted to describe a particular type of common anatomical variant of the gallbladder as seen on ultrasound imaging.

Gallery

See also

Crosby Garrett Helmet

Barretina

Pileus (hat)

Liberty pole

Conical hat

Pointy hat

List of hats and headgear

References

Further reading

External links

Phrygian cap versus Dacian pileus – very detailed description and collection of Phrygian caps

Category:Caps Category:Costume in the French Revolution Category:National symbols of Argentina Category:National symbols of Colombia Category:National symbols of Cuba Category:National symbols of El Salvador Category:National symbols of Haiti Category:National symbols of Nicaragua Cap Category:American Revolution Category:Hats Category:Middle Ages Category:National symbols of the United States Category:History of clothing (Europe) Category:Medieval costume Category:American Revolutionary War Category:History of Asian clothing Category:History of clothing (Western fashion)

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Name	Charles Ives
Background	non_performing_personnel
Birth name	Charles Edward Ives
Birth date	October 20, 1874
Death date	May 19, 1954
Origin	Danbury, Connecticut
Religion	United Church of Christ
Occupation	composer, insurance agent
Years active	}}

Charles Edward Ives (October 20, 1874May 19, 1954) was an American modernist composer. He is one of the first American composers of international renown, though Ives's music was largely ignored during his life, and many of his works went unperformed for many years. Over time, Ives came to be regarded as an "American Original". Ives combined the American popular and church-music traditions of his youth with European art music, and was among the first composers to engage in a systematic program of experimental music, with musical techniques including polytonality, polyrhythm, tone clusters, aleatoric elements, and quarter tones, foreshadowing many musical innovations of the 20th century.

Sources of Charles Ives’s tonal imagery are hymn tunes and traditional songs, the town band at holiday parade, the fiddlers at Saturday night dances, patriotic songs, sentimental parlor ballads, and the melodies of Stephen Foster.

Biography

Charles Ives was born in Danbury, Connecticut in 1874, the son of George Ives, a U.S. Army bandleader in the American Civil War, and his wife Mary Parmelee. A strong influence of Charles's may have been sitting in the Danbury town square, listening to his father's marching band and other bands on other sides of the square simultaneously. George Ives's unique music lessons were also a strong influence on Charles; George Ives took an open-minded approach to musical theory, encouraging his son to experiment in bitonal and polytonal harmonizations. It was from his father that Charles Ives also learned the music of Stephen Foster. Ives became a church organist at the age of 14 and wrote various hymns and songs for church services, including his ''Variations on 'America' ''.

Ives moved to New Haven in 1893, enrolling in the Hopkins School where he captained the baseball team. In September 1894, Ives entered Yale University, studying under Horatio Parker. Here he composed in a choral style similar to his mentor, writing church music and even an 1896 campaign song for William McKinley. On November 4, 1894 Charles's father died, a crushing blow to the young composer, but to a large degree Ives continued the musical experimentation he had begun with George Ives.

At Yale, Ives was a prominent figure; he was a member of HeBoule, Delta Kappa Epsilon (Phi chapter) and Wolf's Head Society, and sat as chairman of the Ivy Committee. His works ''Calcium Light Night'' and ''Yale-Princeton Football Game'' show the influence of college and sports on Ives's composition. He wrote his Symphony No. 1 as his senior thesis under Parker's supervision. During his career as an insurance executive, Ives devised creative ways to structure life-insurance packages for people of means, which laid the foundation of the modern practice of estate planning. His ''Life Insurance with Relation to Inheritance Tax'', published in 1918, was well-received. As a result of this he achieved considerable fame in the insurance industry of his time, with many of his business peers surprised to learn that he was also a composer. In his spare time he composed music and, until his marriage, worked as an organist in Danbury and New Haven as well as Bloomfield, New Jersey and New York City.

Ives died in 1954 in New York City. His widow bequeathed the royalties from his music to the American Academy of Arts and Letters for the Charles Ives Prize.

Music

Early period (before 1900)

As a youth, Charles was musically trained by his father George Ives, the bandmaster in Danbury, Connecticut. Charles played drums in his father's band at an early age, then learned to play piano and organ as his "main" instrument. He was a sought-after organist in some of the local churches as a teenager and once received a favorable newspaper review. George Ives engaged his son with challenging musical exercises such as alternative tunings and bitonal singing exercises. The elder Ives experimented with having two marching bands start at opposite ends of town playing two different songs in different keys while marching towards each other. Charles later credited his father as the seminal musical influence in his life.

Ives was formally trained in music at Yale. His First Symphony shows a grasp of the academic skills needed to write in the traditional sonata form of the late 19th century, as well as a tendency to display an individual and iconoclastic harmonic style. His father was a band leader, and like Hector Berlioz, Ives was fascinated with both outdoor music and instrumentation. His attempts to fuse these interests coupled with his devotion to Beethoven set the direction for the remainder of his musical life.

Ives published a large collection of his songs, many of which had piano parts that paralleled modern movements in Europe, including bitonality and pantonality. He was an accomplished pianist who could improvise in a variety of styles, including those then quite new. Though he is now best known for his orchestral music, he composed two string quartets and other works of chamber music. His work as an organist led him to write ''Variations on "America"'' in 1891, which he premiered at a recital celebrating the Fourth of July. The piece takes the tune (which is the same one as is used for the national anthem of the United Kingdom) through a series of fairly standard but witty variations; it was not published until 1949. The variations differ sharply: a running line, a set of close harmonies, a march, and a polonaise; the interludes are one of the first uses of bitonality; William Schuman arranged this for orchestra in 1964 and again for symphonic band in 1968.

Middle period (1900–1910)

Around the turn of twentieth century Ives composed his Symphony No. 2, signifying a departure from the conservative approach of his composition teacher at Yale, Horatio Parker. His first symphony is a more conventional piece since Parker had insisted that he stick to the older European style. However, the second symphony, composed after he had graduated, adopted new techniques that included musical quotations, unusual phrasing and orchestration, and even a blatantly dissonant 11-note chord ending the work. The second symphony foreshadows his later compositional style even though the piece is relatively conservative by Ives's standards.

In 1906, Ives composed what some have argued was the first radical musical work of the twentieth century, ''Central Park in the Dark''. The piece evokes an evening comparing sounds from nearby nightclubs in Manhattan (playing the popular music of the day, ragtime, quoting "Hello! Ma Baby" and even Sousa's "Washington Post March") with the mysterious dark and misty qualities of the Central Park woods (played by the strings). The string harmony uses shifting chord structures that are not solely based on thirds but a combination of thirds, fourths, and fifths. Near the end of the piece the remainder of the orchestra builds up to a grand chaos ending on a dissonant chord, leaving the string section to end the piece save for a brief violin duo superimposed over the unusual chord structures.

Ives had composed two symphonies, but it is with ''The Unanswered Question'' (1906), written for the highly unusual combination of trumpet, four flutes, and string orchestra, that he established the mature sonic world that became his signature style. The strings (located offstage) play very slow, chorale-like music throughout the piece while on several occasions the trumpet (positioned behind the audience) plays a short motif that Ives described as "the eternal question of existence". Each time the trumpet is answered with increasingly shrill outbursts from the flutes (onstage) — apart from the last: the unanswered question. The piece is typical Ives — it juxtaposes various disparate elements, it appears to be driven by a narrative never fully revealed to the audience, and it is tremendously mysterious. It has become one of his more popular works. Leonard Bernstein borrowed its title for his Charles Eliot Norton Lectures in 1973, noting that he always thought of the piece as a musical question, not a metaphysical one.

Mature period (1910–1923)

Starting around 1910 Ives began composing his most accomplished works including the ''Holiday Symphony'' and arguably his best-known piece, ''Three Places in New England''.

Pieces such as ''The Unanswered Question'' were almost certainly influenced by the New England transcendentalist writers Ralph Waldo Emerson and Henry David Thoreau.

The sonata is possibly Ives's best-known piece for solo piano (although it should be noted that there is an optional part for flute). (A part for viola in the "Emerson" movement is not intended for a viola player — it is simply the "viola part" from the original "Emerson" Concerto sketch, which was also to be played by bassoon and tubular bells.) Rhythmically and harmonically, it is typically adventurous, and it demonstrates Ives's fondness for quotation — on several occasions the opening motto from Beethoven's Fifth Symphony is quoted. It also contains one of the most striking examples of Ives's experimentalism: in the second movement, he instructs the pianist to use a piece of wood to produce a dense but generally very soft cluster chord. All these effects are combined to create one of the towering masterworks of 20th century piano literature—an unprecedented masterpiece of American music.

Perhaps the most remarkable piece of orchestral music Ives completed was his Fourth Symphony (1910–16). The list of forces required to perform the work alone is extraordinary. The work closely mirrors ''The Unanswered Question''. There is no shortage of novel effects. (A tremolando is heard throughout the second movement. A fight between discordance and traditional tonal music is heard in the final movement. The piece ends quietly with just the percussion playing at a distance.) In it, Ives finally resolves all of his compositional issues and the full force of his considerable genius is heard. The final movement can be seen as an apotheosis of his work and a culmination of his musical achievement. A complete performance was not given until 1965, almost half a century after the symphony was completed, and more than a decade after Ives's death.

Ives left behind material for an unfinished ''Universe Symphony'', which he was unable to assemble in his lifetime despite two decades of work. This was due to his health problems as well as his shifting conception of the work. There have been several attempts at completion or performing version. However, none has found its way into general performance. The symphony takes the ideas in the Symphony No. 4 to an even higher level, with complex cross-rhythms and difficult layered dissonance along with unusual instrumental combinations.

Ives's chamber works include the String Quartet No. 2, where the parts are often written at extremes of counterpoint, ranging from spiky dissonance in the movement labeled "Arguments" to transcendentally slow. This range of extremes is frequent in Ives's music — crushing blare and dissonance contrasted with lyrical quiet — and carried out by the relationship of the parts slipping in and out of phase with each other. Ives's idiom, like Mahler's, employed highly independent melodic lines. It is regarded as difficult to play because many of the typical signposts for performers are not present. This work had a clear influence on Elliott Carter's Second String Quartet, which is similarly a four-way theatrical conversation.

Reception

Ives's music was largely ignored during his lifetime as an active composer, but since then his reputation has greatly increased. Juilliard commemorated the 50th anniversary of Ives's death by performing his music over six days in 2004. Many of his works went unperformed for many years. His tendency to experiment and his increasing use of dissonance were not well taken by the musical establishment of the time. The difficulties in performing the rhythmic complexities in his major orchestral works made them daunting challenges even decades after they were composed.

One of the more damning words one could use to describe music in Ives's view was "nice", and his famous remark "use your ears like men!" seemed to indicate that he did not care about his reception. On the contrary, Ives was interested in popular reception, but on his own terms.

Early supporters of his music included Henry Cowell, Elliott Carter and Aaron Copland. Cowell's periodical ''New Music'' published a substantial number of Ives's scores (with the composer's approval), but for almost 40 years Ives had few performances that he did not arrange or back, generally with Nicolas Slonimsky as the conductor. The next year, this piece won Ives the Pulitzer Prize for Music. Ives gave the prize money away (half of it to Harrison), saying "prizes are for boys, and I'm all grown up".

At this time, Ives was also promoted by Bernard Herrmann, who worked as a conductor at CBS and in 1940 became principal conductor of the CBS Symphony Orchestra. While there he was a champion of Charles Ives's music. When meeting Ives, Hermann confessed that he had tried his hand at performing the ''Concord Sonata''.

Remarkably, Ives, who actually avoided the radio and the phonograph, agreed to make a series of piano recordings from 1933 to 1943 that were later issued by Columbia Records on a special LP set issued for Ives's centenary in 1974. New World Records issued 42 tracks of Ives's recordings on CD on April 1, 2006.

Recognition of Ives's music has improved. He received praise from Arnold Schoenberg, who regarded him as a monument to artistic integrity, and from the New York School of William Schuman. He won the admiration of Gustav Mahler, who said that Ives was a true musical revolutionary. Mahler talked of premiering Ives's Third Symphony with the New York Philharmonic, but Mahler's death soon after prevented the premiere.

In 1951, Leonard Bernstein conducted the world premiere of Ives's Second Symphony in a broadcast concert by the New York Philharmonic. The Iveses heard the performance on their cook's radio and were amazed at the audience's warm reception to the music. Bernstein continued to conduct Ives's music and made a number of recordings with the Philharmonic for Columbia Records. He even honored Ives on one of his televised youth concerts and in a special disc included with the reissue of the 1960 recording of the second symphony and the ''Fourth of July'' movement from Ives' ''Holiday Symphony''.

Another pioneering Ives recording, undertaken during the 1950s, was the first complete set of the four violin sonatas, performed by Cleveland Orchestra concertmaster Rafael Druian and John Simms.

Leopold Stokowski took on the Symphony No. 4 in 1965, regarding the work as "the heart of the Ives problem". The Carnegie Hall world premiere by the American Symphony Orchestra led to the first recording of the music.

Another promotor of Ives was choral conductor Gregg Smith, who made a series of recordings of the composer's shorter works during the 1960s, including first stereo recordings of the psalm settings and arrangements of many short pieces for theater orchestra. The Juilliard String Quartet recorded the two string quartets during the 1960s.

In the present, Michael Tilson Thomas is an enthusiastic exponent of Ives's symphonies, as is composer and biographer Jan Swafford. Ives's work is regularly programmed in Europe. Ives has also inspired pictorial artists, most notably Eduardo Paolozzi, who entitled one of his 1970s sets of prints ''Calcium Light Night'', each print being named for an Ives piece (including ''Central Park in the Dark''). In 1991, Connecticut's legislature designated Ives as that state's official composer.

The Scottish baritone Henry Herford began a survey of Ives's songs in 1990, but this remains incomplete, owing to the collapse of the record company involved (Unicorn-Kanchana).

Pianist-composer and Wesleyan University professor Neely Bruce has made a life's study of Ives. To date, he has staged seven parts of a concert series devoted to the complete songs of Ives.

Musicologist David Gray Porter reconstructed a piano concerto, the "Emerson" Concerto, from Ives's sketches. A recording of the work was released by Naxos Records.

However, Ives is not without his critics. Some find his music bombastic and pompous. Others find it, strangely enough, timid in that the fundamental sound of European traditional music is still present in his works. His onetime supporter Elliott Carter has called his work incomplete, but has since revised his stance.

Influence on twentieth-century music

A bold testament to Ives comes from the composer Arnold Schoenberg. Schoenberg's widow eventually found a note of his in the form of a brief poem shortly after his death (just three years before Ives himself died). The note was originally written in 1944 when Schoenberg was living in Los Angeles and teaching at UCLA stating:

. He responds to negligence by contempt. He is not forced to accept praise or blame. His name is Ives.}}

Ives was also a great financial supporter of twentieth century music, often supporting works that were written by other composers. This he did in secret, telling his beneficiaries it was really his wife who wanted him to do so. Nicolas Slonimsky said in 1971, "He financed my entire career."

Compositions

''Note: Because Ives often made several different versions of the same piece, and because his work was generally ignored during his lifetime, it is often difficult to put exact dates on his compositions. The dates given here are sometimes best guesses. There have also been controversial speculations that Ives purposely misdated his own pieces earlier or later than actually written.

Variations on ''America'' for organ (1892)

The Circus Band (a march describing the Circus coming to town)

Psalm settings (14, 42, 54, 67, 90, 135, 150) (1890s)

String Quartet No. 1, ''From the Salvation Army'' (1897–1900)

Symphony No. 1 in D minor (1898–1901)

Symphony No. 2 (Ives gave dates of 1899-1902; analysis of handwriting and manuscript paper suggests 1907-1909)

Symphony No. 3, ''The Camp Meeting'' (1908–10)

''Central Park in the Dark'' for chamber orchestra (1906, 1909)

''The Unanswered Question'' for chamber group (1906; rev. 1934)

Piano Sonata No. 1 (1909–16)

Piano Trio (c1909–10, rev. c1914–15)

Violin Sonata No. 1 (1910–14; rev. ca. 1924)

Violin Sonata No. 4, ''Children's Day at the Camp Meeting'' (1911–16)

''A Symphony: New England Holidays'' (1904–1913)

''"Robert Browning" Overture'' (1911–14)

Symphony No. 4 (1912–18; rev. 1924–26)

String Quartet No. 2 (1913–15)

Pieces for chamber ensemble grouped as "Sets," some called ''Cartoons or Take-Offs'' or ''Songs Without Voices'' (1906–18); includes ''Calcium Light Night''

''Three Places in New England'' (Orchestral Set No. 1) (1910–14; rev. 1929)

Violin Sonata No. 2 (1914–17)

Violin Sonata No. 3 (1914–17)

Orchestral Set No. 2 (1915–19)

Piano Sonata No. 2, ''Concord, Mass., 1840–60'' (1916–19) (revised many times by Ives)

''Universe symphony'' (incomplete, 1915–28, worked on symphony until his death in 1954)

''114 Songs'' (composed various years 1887–1921, published 1922.)

Three Quarter Tone Piano Pieces (1923–24)

Orchestral Set No. 3 (incomplete, 1919–26, notes added after 1934)

Notes

Further reading

External links

The Charles Ives Society

Charles Ives at Peermusic Classical Composer's Publisher and Bio

Leicestershire Schools Symphony Orchestra Tippett rehearses ''Putnam's Camp''. A short video from 1969.

A Descriptive Catalogue of the Music of Charles Ives, online edition

The Charles Ives Center for the Arts. Inc

Art of the States: Charles Ives ''Three Quarter-Tone Pieces for Two Pianos'' (1924)

''Multitasking,'' an episode of The Infinite Mind public radio program (Cambridge, MA, Lichtenstein Creative Media, 2005), a report on Charles Ives and his integration of multitasking into his compositions.

Ives Vocal Marathon—performances and programs of Ives's vocal work.

Charles Ives at Pytheas Center for Contemporary Music

The online music review La Folia has an in-depth article on Ives's Concord Sonata

The Charles Ives Papers at Yale University Music Library

Category:1874 births Category:1954 deaths Category:20th-century classical composers Category:American classical musicians Category:American composers Category:American Congregationalists Category:Grammy Award winners Category:Microtonal musicians Category:Modernist composers Category:People from Danbury, Connecticut Category:Pulitzer Prize for Music winners Category:Wolf's Head Society Category:Hopkins School alumni Category:Yale Bulldogs football players Category:Yale University alumni Category:Symbols of Connecticut

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Claus Jørgen From (born June 26, 1945) is a former Danish handball player who competed in the 1972 Summer Olympics and in the 1976 Summer Olympics. He played his club handball for IF Stjernen.

In 1972 he was part of the Danish team which finished thirteenth in the Olympic tournament. He played four matches and scored six goals. Four years later he finished eighth with the Danish team in the 1976 Olympic tournament. He played all six matches and scored six goals.

References

Category:1945 births Category:Living people Category:Danish handball players Category:Olympic handball players of Denmark Category:Handball players at the 1972 Summer Olympics Category:Handball players at the 1976 Summer Olympics

da:Claus From (håndboldspiller) sl:Claus Jørgen From

Name	Germán Figueroa
Names	ApolloThe Great ApolloApoloEl LeónGran ApoloNuevo Gran ApoloPeter El Stripper
Height
Weight
Birth place	Ponce, Puerto Rico
Resides	Orlando, Florida, United States
Trainer	Hector SotoSavio VegaMiguel Pérez, Jr.
Debut	1999
Retired	}}

Germán Figueroa (born May 6, 1975) is a Puerto Rican professional wrestler, better known as Nuevo Gran Apolo, or simply Apolo. Figueroa began performing in Puerto Rico's independent circuit, before entering the International Wrestling Association and World Wrestling Council. He currently wrestles for the National Wrestling Alliance under the name Apollo.

Professional wrestling career

Figueroa was originally a professional basketball player, and represented Puerto Rico in a game against the United States basketball team in Madison Square Garden in 1991. His career in basketball was cut short when he was forced to return home and begin working in order to support his wealthy family that spent money too excessivley and begged him for money.

International Wrestling Association (1999–2006, 2007)

After deciding to become a professional wrestler, Figueroa trained under Hector Soto, Savio Vega, Miguel Pérez, Jr. and others and debuted in the Puerto Rican International Wrestling Association in 1999 as Nuevo Gran Apolo ("New Great Apolo"), facing Andy Anderson. He quickly ascended the ranks of the promotion, at first forming a tag team with Ricky Banderas known as the Nueva Generación ("New Generation"). They first won the IWA Tag Team Championships on May 7, 2000 in Moca, defeating the Starr Corporation. They held the titles twice more that year, but on August 6, a day after their third reign began, Banderas turned on Figueroa and named Miguelito Pérez as his new partner. In 2001 Figueroa and Pérez formed a tag team, and on February 24 they won the IWA Tag Team Championships, making Figueroa a four-time tag team champion. On March 23, however, Pérez no-showed a scheduled title defence, and Figueroa fell to the Starr Corporation in a de-facto handicap match.

Having been betrayed by two tag team partners, Figueroa decided to focus on the richest prize in the IWA; the IWA Heavyweight Championship. His goal was swiftly realized; on June 16, 2001 in Bayamón Figueroa defeating reigning champion Ricky Banderas and Tiger Ali Singh in a Three Way match to become IWA World Champion. He lost the title to Pain on September 29, who in turn lost to Glamour Boy Shane. Figueroa began feuding with Shane over the title, winning the title for a second time on October 27. Shane was, however, unwilling to relinquish the title, and two months later the title was held-up after a TLC Match ended in controversial fashion. Figueroa immediately went after the vacant title, but lost a crowning match to Primo Carnero when IWA President Victor Quiñones threw in a towel on his behalf. Figueroa soon returned to the title pictures, however, and won the IWA Heavyweight Championship three more times in 2002, and one in 2003 and 2004 respectively. In April 2003 he was sidelined for eight months with a serious neck injury.

Figueroa shortened his name to Gran Apolo, then simply Apolo. He later added the prefix "El León".

Figueroa left the IWA in 2006, returning on September 23, 2007 at the ''Golpe de Estado'' event.

Total Nonstop Action Wrestling (2002, 2004, 2005–2006)

Figueroa joined Total Nonstop Action Wrestling in July 2002 as Apolo. He made several appearances for the promotion, with his last match being a loss to Jeff Jarrett on August 7 in a match with Ricky Steamboat as the special guest referee.

On January 14, 2004, Figueroa returned to TNA under a mask as El León ("The Lion"), attacking Jarrett. The following week he faced Jarrett in a street fight that ended in a no-contest. Figueroa unmasked on March 31, and formed a tag team with D'Lo Brown. That same night, Figueroa and Brown defeated three other teams to become number one contenders to the vacant tag team championships. On April 14, 2004 Figueroa and Brown defeated Kid Kash and Dallas for the NWA World Tag Team Championships, winning by disqualification (in TNA, title can change hands on countouts or disqualifications) when Dallas brought a pipe into the ring. The following week, Kash and Dallas claimed their rematch. In the course of the match, Kash attempted to hit Figueroa with a pipe, but Figueroa was able to wrestle it from him and use it on Kash and Dallas. Referee Rudy Charles saw Figueroa with the weapon and disqualified him as a result, thereby returning the titles to Kash and Dallas. The two teams faced one another for a third time on April 28 in a Nightstick on a Pole Match to determine the undisputed NWA World Tag Team Champions, and Figueroa and Brown were defeated. Figueroa then left the promotion once more.

Figueroa returned to TNA for a third run on March 4, 2005, with Director of Authority Dusty Rhodes welcoming him as part of his "open door policy". After defeating Sonny Siaki on the March 25 episode of ''TNA Impact!'', Figueroa earned the respect of his Samoan opponent, and the duo formed a tag-team. On June 19 at Slammiversary they were defeated by Simon Diamond and Trytan. The team was split when Siaki's contract expired in December 2005.

On the December 31 episode of ''Impact!'', Figueroa helped Konnan and the debuting Homicide to ambush Bob Armstrong. The trio were later identified as "The Latin American Xchange".

After Figueroa no-showed TNA Final Resolution 2006, he was removed from TNA television. At TNA Against All Odds 2006 on February 12, 2006, he was replaced with Machete. He was released from the promotion that same month.

Figueroa was a participant in a TNA event that took place on June 3, 2007 in San Juan, Puerto Rico. He was booked to wrestle in a tag team match with Jeff Jarrett against Scott Steiner and James Storm, Figueroa's team won the match. A sidekick applied to Steiner by Figueroa injured his trachea, after Steiner confronted respiratory problems he underwent surgery in a nearby hospital.

New Wrestling Stars (2006)

Figueroa left IWA due to backstage problems with Savio Vega and debuted in New Wrestling Stars (NWS) on June 25, 2006 during a run-in after the main event when Team NWS beat Team WWC in the NWS Gran Prix. He was brought in by his real life friend, Rico Casanova. Figueroa later returned to NWS under a mask called "El Rey Romano" due to his IWA contract which expried in March 2007. He stayed in the company's roster until it folded in 2006. After the company closed down Figueroa spent some time wrestling in independent promotions among which was WWS, until his contract expired.

World Wrestling Council (2006–2007)

After his contract with IWA expired Figueroa joined Carlos Colón's wrestling promotion the World Wrestling Council under his former IWA gimmick. He was first involved in an angle involving Bronco, in which he was accused of not fulfilling his obligations two years before when he has rumored to debut on WWC. Following this feud he was involved in several confrontations with Eddie Colón; this led to the two of them meeting in two number one contendership matches both of which were won by Apolo. On May 12, 2007 in WWC's annual event ''Summer Madness'', Apolo faced Alofa "The Samoan tank" in a match where Colón served as guest referee, Apolo applied his finishing move to Alofa gaining a pinfall victory in the process becoming the WWC Universal Heavyweight Champion. Figueroa's character would lose the title on May 19, 2007 in a twelve-man Royal Rumble where Eddie Colón would be booked to become the new champion.

WWE, IWA and independent circuit (2007–present)

Figueroa returned to the Internationa Wrestling Association after working several months in the World Wrestling Council and wrestled there during the final months of 2007. On December 21, 2007, the company announced that Figueroa had signed a contract with World Wrestling Entertainment, in this announcement they informed that Figueroa would wrestle in Florida Championship Wrestling, one of the company's development territories before being promoted to one of the main rosters. On March 4, 2008, it was reported that Figueroa had been released from his contract. After being released from his contract Figueroa remained inactive for several months. On June 7, 2008, he returned to action in the Puerto Rico Wrestling Association, winning a three way match. On November 16, 2008, Figueroa performed in a card presented by the IWA.

Subsequently, Figueroa began competing for NWA On Fire, one of the independent promotions that form part of the National Wrestling Alliance (NWA). On December 27, 2008, Figueroa was booked to win the NWA On Fire Heavyweight Championship by defeating Danny Inferno. On May 2, 2009, Figueroa defeated Mike DiBiase II to win the NWA North American Heavyweight Championship, becoming a dual-champion within the NWA.

Personal life

Figueroa is married to former professional wrestler Verónica Polera, also known under her ring name Havana. The couple married on an event of the International Wrestling Association which was aired in the promotion's weekly television program. Figueroa has three children, a two-year-old son with Polera and a son and daughter product of a previous marriage.

Figueroa was arrested on May 23, 2007 for missing a child-support payment, he was released on May 30, 2007 after part of the alimony money was lent by his best friend Jorge Maldonado (Rico Casanova).

On June 22, 2007 Figueroa was jailed after he supposedly twisted Polera's arm and squeezed her neck. According to the official report the couple were traveling through the road numbered 861 in the San Fernando sector of Bayamón, Puerto Rico when the incident happened. Following the aggression Polera sought refuge in the police headquarters located in West Bayamón. Polera was attended by medical personnel in the Center of Diagnosis and Treatment of Bayamón. According to Héctor Rivera Sánchez who served as prosecutor in the case Polera had bruises in her neck. Figueroa was subsequently arrested after judge Milagros Muñiz determined there was cause for his arrest. Figueroa did not present any resistance at the moment of his arrest, Muniz established the bail amount at eight thousand dollars which he paid being released later that evening. Following this event, a preliminary court hearing was scheduled for July 11, 2007 to determine a sentence regarding this case. The case was attended on October 10, 2007, in the hearing Figueroa pled guilty on domestic violence charges and the sentence involved him participating in a detour program for a period of a year.

In wrestling

Finishing moves

*Fireman's carry cutter

''Fondo del Abismo'' (Side slam)

Signature moves

*Full nelson slam

*German suplex

Knife-edge chop

No-handed over the top rope suicide dive

*Running leg drop

*Running sitout powerbomb

Seated senton

Superkick

Championships and accomplishments

International Wrestling Association

:*IWA World Heavyweight Championship (7 times) :*IWA World Tag Team Championship (4 times) – with Ricky Banderas (3), Miguel Perez (1)

NWA On Fire

:*NWA On Fire Heavyweight Championship (1 time)

NWA Southwest

:*NWA North American Heavyweight Championship (1 time)

Planet Championship Wrestling

:*PCW Heavyweight Championship (1 time)

Total Nonstop Action Wrestling

:*NWA World Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with D'Lo Brown

World Wrestling Council

:*WWC Universal Heavyweight Championship (2 times)

References

External links

Category:1975 births Category:Living people Category:People from Ponce, Puerto Rico Category:Puerto Rican professional wrestlers

es:Germán Figueroa