Xerxes I of Persia
Khshayathiya Khshayathiyanam, King of Kings
"Xerxes, King of Persia" as portrayed by Guillaume Rouille (1553 AD)
Reign	486 to 465 BC
Coronation	October 485 BC
Born	519 BC
Birthplace	Persia
Died	465 BC (aged 54)
Place of death	Persia
Buried	Persia
Predecessor	Darius the Great
Successor	Artaxerxes I
Consort	Amestris
Royal House	Achaemenid
Father	Darius the Great
Mother	Atossa
Religious beliefs	Zoroastrianism

Xerxes I of Persia (/ˈzɜrksiːz/; Old Persian: Xšayaršā IPA: [xʃajaːrʃaː] meaning "ruling over heroes",^[1] Greek: Ξέρξης, Hebrew: אֲחַשְׁוֵרוֹשׁ, Modern Aẖashverosh Tiberian ʼĂḥašwērôš), also known as Xerxes the Great (519 BC-465 BC), was the fourth king of the Achaemenid Empire.

Life[link]

Youth and rise to power[link]

Immediately after seizing the kingship, Darius I of Persia (son of Hystaspes) married Atossa (daughter of Cyrus the Great). They were both descendants of Achaemenes from different Achaemenid lines. Marrying a daughter of Cyrus strengthened Darius's position as king.^[2] Darius was an active emperor, busy with building programs in Persepolis, Susa, Egypt, and elsewhere. Toward the end of his reign he moved to punish Athens, but a new revolt in Egypt (probably led by the Persian satrap) had to be suppressed. Under Persian law, the Achaemenian kings were required to choose a successor before setting out on such serious expeditions. Upon his great decision to leave (487-486 BC),^[3] Darius prepared his tomb at Naqsh-e Rostam and appointed Xerxes, his eldest son by Atossa, as his successor. Darius's failing health then prevented him from leading the campaigns,^[4] and he died in October 486 BC.^[4]

Xerxes was not the oldest son of Darius, and according to old Iranian traditions should not have succeeded the King. Xerxes was however the oldest son of Darius and Atossa hence descendent of Cyrus. This made Xerxes the chosen King of Persia.^[5] Some modern scholars also view the unusual decision of Darius to give the throne to Xerxes to be a result of his consideration of the unique positions that Cyrus the Great and his daughter Atossa have had.^[6] Artobazan was born to "Darius the subject", while Xerxes was the eldest son born in the purple after Darius's rise to the throne, and Artobazan's mother was a commoner while Xerxes's mother was the daughter of the founder of the empire.^[7]

Xerxes was crowned and succeeded his father in October–December 486 BC^[8] when he was about 36 years old.^[3] The transition of power to Xerxes was smooth due again in part to great authority of Atossa^[2] and his accession of royal power was not challenged by any person at court or in the Achaemenian family, or any subject nation.^[9]

Almost immediately, he suppressed the revolts in Egypt and Babylon that had broken out the year before, and appointed his brother Achaemenes as governor or satrap (Old Persian: khshathrapavan) over Egypt. In 484 BC, he outraged the Babylonians by violently confiscating and melting down^[10] the golden statue of Bel (Marduk, Merodach), the hands of which the rightful king of Babylon had to clasp each New Year's Day. This sacrilege led the Babylonians to rebel in 484 BC and 482 BC, so that in contemporary Babylonian documents, Xerxes refused his father's title of King of Babylon, being named rather as King of Persia and Media, Great King, King of Kings (Shahanshah) and King of Nations (i.e. of the world).

Even though Herodotus's report in the Histories has created certain problems concerning Xerxes's religious beliefs, modern scholars consider him a Zoroastrian.^[11]

Campaigns[link]

Invasion of the Greek mainland[link]

Xerxes attending the lashing of the Hellespont (Illustration from 1909)

Darius died while in the process of preparing a second army to invade the Greek mainland, leaving to his son the task of punishing the Athenians, Naxians, and Eretrians for their interference in the Ionian Revolt, the burning of Sardis and their victory over the Persians at Marathon. From 483 BC Xerxes prepared his expedition: A channel was dug through the isthmus of the peninsula of Mount Athos, provisions were stored in the stations on the road through Thrace, two pontoon bridges later known as Xerxes's Pontoon Bridges were built across the Hellespont. Soldiers of many nationalities served in the armies of Xerxes, including the Assyrians, Phoenicians, Babylonians, Egyptians and Jews.^[12]

According to the Greek historian Herodotus, Xerxes's first attempt to bridge the Hellespont ended in failure when a storm destroyed the flax and papyrus cables of the bridges; Xerxes ordered the Hellespont (the strait itself) whipped three hundred times and had fetters thrown into the water. Xerxes's second attempt to bridge the Hellespont was successful.^[13] Xerxes concluded an alliance with Carthage, and thus deprived Greece of the support of the powerful monarchs of Syracuse and Agrigentum. Many smaller Greek states, moreover, took the side of the Persians, especially Thessaly, Thebes and Argos. Xerxes set out in the spring of 480 BC from Sardis with a fleet and army which Herodotus estimated was roughly one million strong along with 10,000 elite warriors named the Persian Immortals. The modern estimate of the Persian invasion force is roughly 500,000, however the Persian Empire controlled forty percent of the world's population at the time, which was more than 100 million people, so it was very possible and likely probable to have raised two and a half percent of the population for war. Xerxes was victorious during the initial battles.

Thermopylae and Athens[link]

At the Battle of Thermopylae, a small force of Greek warriors led by King Leonidas of Sparta resisted the much larger Persian forces, but were ultimately defeated. According to Herodotus, the Persians broke the Spartan phalanx after a Greek man called Ephialtes betrayed his country by telling the Persians of another pass around the mountains. After Thermopylae, Athens was captured and the Athenians and Spartans were driven back to their last line of defense at the Isthmus of Corinth and in the Saronic Gulf.

What happened next is a matter of some controversy. According to Herodotus, upon encountering the deserted city, in an uncharacteristic fit of rage particularly for Persian kings, Xerxes had Athens burned. He almost immediately regretted this action and ordered it rebuilt the very next day. However, Persian scholars dispute this view as pan-Hellenic propaganda, arguing that Sparta, not Athens, was Xerxes's main foe in his Greek campaigns, and that Xerxes would have had nothing to gain by destroying a major center of trade and commerce like Athens once he had already captured it.

Inscription of Xerxes the Great near the Van Citadel

At that time, anti-Persian sentiment was high among many mainland Greeks, and the rumor that Xerxes had destroyed the city was a popular one, though it is equally likely the fire was started by accident as the Athenians were frantically fleeing the scene in pandemonium, or that it was an act of "scorched earth" warfare to deprive Xerxes's army of the spoils of the city.

At Artemisium, large storms had destroyed ships from the Greek side and so the battle stopped prematurely as the Greeks received news of the defeat at Thermopylae and retreated. Xerxes was induced by the message of Themistocles (against the advice of Artemisia of Halicarnassus) to attack the Greek fleet under unfavourable conditions, rather than sending a part of his ships to the Peloponnesus and awaiting the dissolution of the Greek armies. The Battle of Salamis (September, 480 BC) was won by the Greek fleet, after which Xerxes set up a winter camp in Thessaly.^{[citation needed]}

Due to unrest in Babylon, Xerxes was forced to send his army home to prevent a revolt, leaving behind an army in Greece under Mardonius, who was defeated the following year at Plataea.^[14] The Greeks also attacked and burned the remaining Persian fleet anchored at Mycale. This cut off the Persians from the supplies they needed to sustain their massive army, and they had no choice but to retreat. Their withdrawal roused the Greek city-states of Asia.

Construction projects[link]

The rock-cut tomb at Naqsh-e Rustam north of Persepolis, copying that of Darius, is usually assumed to be that of Xerxes

After the military blunders in Greece, Xerxes returned to Persia and completed the many construction projects left unfinished by his father at Susa and Persepolis. He built the Gate of all Nations and the Hall of a Hundred Columns at Persepolis, which are the largest and most imposing structures of the palace. He completed the Apadana, the Palace of Darius and the Treasury all started by Darius as well as building his own palace which was twice the size of his father's. His taste in architecture was similar to that of Darius, though on an even more gigantic scale.^[15] He also maintained the Royal Road built by his father and completed the Susa Gate and built a palace at Susa.^[16]

Death[link]

In 465 BC, Xerxes was murdered by Artabanus, the commander of the royal bodyguard and the most powerful official in the Persian court (Hazarapat/commander of thousand). Although Artabanus bore the same name as the famed uncle of Xerxes, a Hyrcanian, his rise to prominence was due to his popularity in religious quarters of the court and harem intrigues. He put his seven sons in key positions and had a plan to dethrone the Achamenids.^[17]

In August 465 BC, Artabanus assassinated Xerxes with the help of a eunuch, Aspamitres. Greek historians give contradicting accounts of events. According to Ctesias (in Persica 20), Artabanus then accused the Crown Prince Darius, Xerxes's eldest son, of the murder and persuaded another of Xerxes's sons, Artaxerxes, to avenge the patricide by killing Darius.

But according to Aristotle (in Politics 5.1311b), Artabanus killed Darius first and then killed Xerxes. After Artaxerxes discovered the murder he killed Artabanus and his sons.^[18] Participating in these intrigues was the general Megabyzus, whose decision to switch sides probably saved the Achamenids from losing their control of the Persian throne.^[19]

Children[link]

By queen Amestris:

• Amytis, wife of Megabyzus
• Artaxerxes I
• Darius, the first born, murdered by Artaxerxes I or Artabanus.
• Hystaspes, murdered by Artaxerxes I.
• Achaemenes, murdered by Egyptians.
• Rhodogune

By unknown wives:

• Artarius, satrap of Babylon.
• Tithraustes
• Arsames or Arsamenes or Arxanes or Sarsamas satrap of Egypt.
• Parysatis^[20]
• Ratashah^[21]

Cultural depictions[link]

Xerxes is the protagonist of the opera Serse by the German-English Baroque composer George Frederic Handel. It was first performed in the King's Theatre London on 15 April 1738. The famous aria "Ombra mai fù" opens the opera.

Later generations' fascination with ancient Sparta, and particularly the Battle of Thermopylae, has led to Xerxes's portrayal in works of popular culture. For instance, he was played by David Farrar in the 1962 fiction film The 300 Spartans, where he is portrayed as a cruel, power-crazed despot and an inept commander. He also features prominently in the graphic novel 300 by Frank Miller, as well as the movie adaptation (portrayed by Brazilian actor Rodrigo Santoro), in which he is represented as a giant god-king. This portrayal has attracted controversy, especially in Iran.^[22]

Other works dealing with the Persian Empire or the Biblical story of Esther have also referenced Xerxes, such as the video game Assassin's Creed II and the film One Night with the King, in which Ahasuerus (Xerxes) was portrayed by British actor Luke Goss. He is the leader of the Persian Empire in the video game Civilization II and III (along with Scheherazade), although Civilization IV replaces him with Cyrus the Great and Darius I.

Gore Vidal, in his historical fiction novel Creation, describes at length the rise of Achemenids, and especially Darius I and presents the life and death circumstances of Xerxes. His vision of history goes against the grain of Greek histories.

References[link]

Bibliography[link]

Ancient sources[link]

• The Sixth Book, Entitled Erato in History of Herodotus.
• The Seventh Book, Entitled Polymnia in History of Herodotus.

Modern sources[link]

• Dandamaev, M. A. (1989). A political history of the Achaemenid empire. Brill Publishers. pp. 373. ISBN 90-04-09172-6. 
• The Histories. Spark Educational Publishing. 2004. ISBN 1-59308-102-2. 
• Shabani, Reza (1386 AP) (in Persian). Khshayarsha (Xerxes). What do I know about Iran? No. 75. Cultural Research Burreau. pp. 120. ISBN 964-379-109-2. 
• Shahbazi, A. Sh.. "Darius I the Great". Encyclopaedia Iranica. vol. 7. Routledge & Kegan Paul. http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/darius-iii. 
• Schmitt, Rüdiger. "Achaemenid dynasty". Encyclopaedia Iranica. vol. 3. Routledge & Kegan Paul. http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/achaemenid-dynasty. 
• Schmitt, Rüdiger. "Atossa". Encyclopaedia Iranica. vol. 3. Routledge & Kegan Paul. http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/atossa-achaemenid-queen. 
• McCullough, W. S. "Ahasuerus". Encyclopaedia Iranica. vol. 1. Routledge & Kegan Paul. http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ahasureus. 
• Boyce, Mary. "Achaemenid Religion". Encyclopaedia Iranica. vol. 1. Routledge & Kegan Paul. http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/achaemenid-religion. 
• Dandamayev, M. A (1999). "Artabanus". Encyclopædia Iranica. Routledge & Kegan Paul. http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/artabanus-achaemenid. Retrieved 2009-02-25. 
• Frye, Richard N. (1963). The Heritage of Persia. Weidenfeld and Nicolson. pp. 301. ISBN 0-297-16727-8. 
• Schmeja, H. (1975). "Dareios, Xerxes, Artaxerxes. Drei persische Königsnamen in griechischer Deutung (Zu Herodot 6,98,3)". Die Sprache 21: 184–88. 
• Gershevitch, Ilya; Bayne Fisher, William; A. Boyle, J. (1985). The Cambridge history of Iran. 2. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-20091-1. 
• Boardman, John; al., et (1988). The Cambridge ancient history. V. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-22804-2. 

Virgilijus Kęstutis Noreika (born 22 September 1935, Šiauliai) is a Lithuanian tenor.

Career[link]

Noreika graduated with honors from the Lithuanian State Conservatory in 1958. A year earlier, while still a student, he was engaged as a performer at the National Opera and Ballet Theater of Lithuania. In 1959, Noreika sang the part of Alfredo Germont in Verdi's La traviata, one of Noreika's favorite and most frequently performed roles. Later in 1965, he continued his career at the La Scala, in Milan. There he mastered six new roles, and also sang the part of Pinkerton, from Puccini's Madame Butterfly, at the famous Opera House.

Noreika's creative biography comprises more than 40 operatic roles: Cavaradossi from Tosca by Puccini, Faust from Faust by Gounod, Rudolfo from La bohème by Puccini, Otello from Otello by Verdi, to name a few. Noreika has performed in Moscow at the Bolshoi Theatre, in Buenos Aires at the Teatro Colón, in Paris at the Opéra National de Paris, and many other famous Opera houses. Noreika has sung in more than 30 foreign theaters, participated in more than 1000 performances, given approximately 600 solo concerts, recorded some 20 phonographic records and CDs. In 1997, he celebrated his 40th anniversary as an operatic tenor, and received the Kipras Award from the Opera Fellow Society. Noreika, semi-retired, is currently a Professor at the Music Academy of Lithuania.

References[link]

• (Lithuanian) [1]. Virgilijus Kęstutis Noreika. Seimas of Lithuania.

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