- go to the top
- About WN
- Contact
- Feedback
- Privacy Policy
- © 2012 World News Inc., all Rights Reserved
1856
Loading suggestions ...
-
Adolphe Charles Adam
http://wn.com/Adolphe_Charles_Adam -
Alfred Deakin
Alfred Deakin (3 August 1856 – 7 October 1919), Australian politician, was a leader of the movement for Australian federation and later the second Prime Minister of Australia. In the last quarter of the nineteenth century, Deakin was a major contributor to the establishment of liberal reforms in the colony of Victoria, including the protection of rights at work. He also played a major part in establishing irrigation in Australia. It is likely that he could have been Premier of Victoria, but he chose to devote his energy to federation.
http://wn.com/Alfred_Deakin -
Alfred William Rich
Alfred William Rich (4 March 1856 – 7 September 1921), was an English watercolourist, teacher and author.
http://wn.com/Alfred_William_Rich -
Amedeo Avogadro
Lorenzo Romano Amedeo Carlo Bernadette Avogadro di Quaregna e Cerreto, Count of Quaregna and Cerreto (9 August 1776, Turin, Piedmont – 9 July 1856) was an Italian savant. He is most noted for his contributions to molecular theory, including what is known as Avogadro's law. In tribute to him, the number of elementary entities (atoms, molecules, ions or other particles) in 1 mole of a substance, , is known as the Avogadro constant.
http://wn.com/Amedeo_Avogadro -
Andrey Markov
Andrey (Andrei) Andreyevich Markov () (June 14, 1856 N.S. – July 20, 1922) was a Russian mathematician. He is best known for his work on theory of stochastic processes. His research later became known as Markov chains.
http://wn.com/Andrey_Markov -
Anhui
Anhui (, ) is a province of the People's Republic of China. Located in eastern China across the basins of the Yangtze River and the Huaihe River, it borders Jiangsu to the east, Zhejiang to the southeast, Jiangxi to the south, Hubei to the southwest, Henan to the northwest, and Shandong for a tiny section in the north. The capital of the province is Hefei.
http://wn.com/Anhui -
Anna Gottlieb
Maria Anna Josepha Francisca Gottlieb (April 29, 1774 – February 4, 1856) was an Austrian soprano. She was the first Pamina in Mozart's opera The Magic Flute.
http://wn.com/Anna_Gottlieb -
Bal Gangadhar Tilak
Bal Gangadhar Tilak () –, was an Indian nationalist, teacher, social reformer and independence fighter who was the first popular leader of the Indian Independence Movement. The British colonial authorities derogatorily called the great leader as "Father of the Indian unrest". He was also conferred with the honorary title of Lokmanya, which literally means "Accepted by the people (as their leader)".
http://wn.com/Bal_Gangadhar_Tilak -
Booker T. Washington
Booker Taliaferro Washington (April 5, 1856 – November 14, 1915) was an American educator, author, orator and political leader. He was the dominant figure in the African American community in the United States from 1890 to 1915. He was representative of the last generation of black leaders born in slavery and spoke on behalf of blacks living in the South. Washington was able throughout the final 25 years of his life to maintain his standing as the major black leader because of the sponsorship by powerful whites, substantial support within the black community, his ability to raise educational funds from both groups and his accommodation to the social realities of the age of Jim Crow segregation.
http://wn.com/Booker_T_Washington -
Charles Leroux
http://wn.com/Charles_Leroux -
Charles Sumner
Charles Sumner(January 6, 1811 – March 11, 1874) was an American politician and statesman from Massachusetts. An academic lawyer and a powerful orator, Sumner was the leader of the antislavery forces in Massachusetts and a leader of the Radical Republicans in the United States Senate during the American Civil War and Reconstruction, and the counterpart to Thaddeus Stevens in the United States House of Representatives. He jumped from party to party, gaining fame as a Republican. One of the most learned statesmen of the era, he specialized in foreign affairs, working closely with Abraham Lincoln. He devoted his enormous energies to the destruction of what he considered the Slave Power, that is the scheme of slave owners to take control of the federal government and block the progress of liberty. His severe beating in 1856 by South Carolina Representative Preston Brooks on the floor of the United States Senate helped escalate the tensions that led to war. After years of therapy Sumner returned to the Senate to help lead the Civil War. Sumner was a leading proponent of abolishing slavery to weaken the Confederacy. Although he kept on good terms with Abraham Lincoln, he was a leader of the hard-line Radical Republicans.
http://wn.com/Charles_Sumner -
China
China is seen variously as an ancient civilization extending over a large area in East Asia, a nation and/or a multinational entity.
http://wn.com/China -
Christian Sinding
Christian August Sinding (11 January 1856 – 3 December 1941) was a Norwegian composer.
http://wn.com/Christian_Sinding -
David Livingstone
David Livingstone (19 March 1813–1 May 1873) was a Scottish Congregationalist pioneer medical missionary with the London Missionary Society and explorer in Africa. His meeting with H. M. Stanley gave rise to the popular quotation, "".
http://wn.com/David_Livingstone -
Edward John Bevan
Edward John Bevan (December 11, 1856 – October 17, 1921) was an English chemist. He became a leader in the affairs of the Society of Public Analysts and editor of The Analyst.
http://wn.com/Edward_John_Bevan -
Francesco Bentivegna
Baron Francesco Bentivegna (March 4, 1820 – December 20, 1856) was an Italian patriot, who led various revolts in Sicily against the Bourbon rulers between 1848 and 1856.
http://wn.com/Francesco_Bentivegna -
Frank B. Kellogg
Frank Billings Kellogg (December 22, 1856 – December 21, 1937) was an American lawyer, politician and statesman who served in the U.S. Senate and as U.S. Secretary of State. He co-authored the Kellogg-Briand Pact, for which he was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1929.
http://wn.com/Frank_B_Kellogg -
Frank Harris
Frank Harris (February 14, 1856 – August 27, 1931) was a British-born, naturalized-American author, editor, journalist and publisher, who was friendly with many well-known figures of his day. Though he attracted much attention during his life for his irascible, aggressive personality, editorship of famous periodicals, and friendship with the talented and famous, he is remembered mainly for his multiple-volume memoir My Life and Loves, which was banned in countries around the world for its sexual explicitness.
http://wn.com/Frank_Harris -
Franklin Pierce
Franklin Pierce (November 23, 1804 – October 8, 1869), an American politician and lawyer, was the 14th President of the United States, serving from 1853 to 1857. He has been the only President from New Hampshire and the first to have been born in the 19th century.
http://wn.com/Franklin_Pierce -
George Bernard Shaw
George Bernard Shaw (26 July 1856 – 2 November 1950) was an Irish playwright and a co-founder of the London School of Economics. Although his first profitable writing was music and literary criticism, in which capacity he wrote many highly articulate pieces of journalism, his main talent was for drama, and he wrote more than 60 plays. Nearly all his writings deal sternly with prevailing social problems, but have a vein of comedy to make their stark themes more palatable. Shaw examined education, marriage, religion, government, health care, and class privilege.
http://wn.com/George_Bernard_Shaw -
Georgi Plekhanov
Georgi Valentinovich Plekhanov (Геoргий Валенитнович Плеханов) (1857-1918) was a Russian revolutionary and a Marxist theoretician. He was a founder of the Social-Democratic movement in Russia and was one of the first Russians to identify themselves as "Marxist." Facing political persecution, Plekhanov emigrated to Switzerland in 1880, where he continued in his political activity attempting to overthrow the Tsarist regime in Russia. During World War I Plekhanov rallied to the cause of the Entente powers against Germany and he returned home to Russia following the 1917 February Revolution. Plekhanov was hostile to the Bolshevik party headed by V.I. Lenin, however, and was an opponent of the Soviet regime which came to power in the fall of 1917. He died the following year. Despite his vigorous and outspoken opposition to Lenin's political party in 1917, Plekhanov was held in high esteem by the Russian Communist Party following his death as a founding father of Russian Marxism and a philosophical thinker.
http://wn.com/Georgi_Plekhanov -
Georgiana Drew
Georgiana Emma Drew (July 11, 1856 – July 2, 1893), aka Georgie Drew Barrymore, was an American stage actress and a member of the Barrymore acting family.
http://wn.com/Georgiana_Drew -
Gregor Mendel
Gregor Johann Mendel (July 20, 1822 – January 6, 1884) was an Augustinian monk and scientist, who gained posthumous fame as the figurehead of the new science of genetics for his study of the inheritance of certain traits in pea plants. Mendel showed that the inheritance of these traits follows particular laws, which were later named after him. The significance of Mendel's work was not recognized until the turn of the 20th century. The independent rediscovery of these laws formed the foundation of the modern science of genetics.
http://wn.com/Gregor_Mendel -
Heber J. Grant
Heber Jeddy Grant (November 22, 1856 – May 14, 1945) was the seventh president of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church). He was ordained an apostle on October 16, 1882, on the same day as George Teasdale. Grant served as church president from November 23, 1918 to his death in 1945, which makes him the longest-serving church president during the twentieth century.
http://wn.com/Heber_J_Grant -
Heinrich Heine
Christian Johann Heinrich Heine (13 December 1797 – 17 February 1856) was a journalist, essayist, literary critic, and one of the most significant German poets of the 19th century. He is best known outside Germany for his early lyric poetry, which was set to music in the form of Lieder (art songs) by composers such as Robert Schumann. Heine's later verse and prose is distinguished by its satirical wit and irony. His radical political views meant that many of his works were banned by the authorities in Germany. Heine spent the last 25 years of his life as an expatriate in Paris.
http://wn.com/Heinrich_Heine -
Isabela II
http://wn.com/Isabela_II -
Ivan Franko
Ivan Yakovych Franko (, ) ( – ) was a Ukrainian poet, writer, social and literary critic, journalist, economist, and political activist. He was a political radical, and a founder of the socialist movement in western Ukraine. In addition to his own literary work, he also translated the works of such renowned figures as William Shakespeare, Lord Byron, Pedro Calderón de la Barca, Dante, Victor Hugo, Adam Mickiewicz, Goethe and Schiller into the Ukrainian language. Along with Taras Shevchenko, he has had a tremendous impact on modern literary and political thought in Ukraine. Some of Franko's descendants emigrated to the USA and Canada. His grand-nephew, Yuri Shymko, is a Canadian politician and human rights activist living in Toronto, who was elected to Canada's Parliament as well as the Ontario Legislature during the 1980s.
http://wn.com/Ivan_Franko -
Ivan Kireevsky
http://wn.com/Ivan_Kireevsky -
J.J. Thomson
http://wn.com/JJ_Thomson -
James Buchanan
James Buchanan, Jr. (April 23, 1791 – June 1, 1868) was the 15th President of the United States from 1857–1861 and the last to be born in the 18th century. To date he is the only president from the state of Pennsylvania and the only bachelor.
http://wn.com/James_Buchanan -
Janko Drašković
Janko Drašković (October 20, 1770 – January 14, 1856) was a Croatian national reformer, politician and poet. He was a member of the Drašković family, one of the oldest Croatian noble families.
http://wn.com/Janko_Drašković -
John C. Frémont
John Charles Frémont (January 21, 1813 – July 13, 1890), was an American military officer, explorer, the first candidate of the Republican Party for the office of president of the U.S., and the first presidential candidate of a major party to run on a platform opposing slavery. During the 1840s, that era's penny press accorded Frémont the sobriquet The Pathfinder. It remains in use, and he is sometimes called The Great Pathfinder. During the American Civil War he was given command of the armies in the west but made hasty decisions (such as trying to abolish slavery without consulting Washington), and was relieved. He retired to California, where he was bogged down with lawsuits over land claims.
http://wn.com/John_C_Frémont -
John Lavery
__NOTOC__
http://wn.com/John_Lavery -
John Singer Sargent
John Singer Sargent (January 12, 1856 – April 14, 1925) was an American painter, and a leading portrait painter of his era. During his career, he created roughly 900 oil paintings and more than 2,000 watercolors, as well as countless sketches and charcoal drawings. His oeuvre documents worldwide travel, from Venice to the Tyrol, Corfu, the Middle East, Montana, Maine, and Florida.
http://wn.com/John_Singer_Sargent -
John Veatch
John Veatch, a surgeon, surveyor, and scientist, was known for his discovery of large deposits of borax in mineral water at Tuscan Springs, California, on January 8, 1856.
http://wn.com/John_Veatch -
Joseph Ward
Sir Joseph George Ward, 1st Baronet, GCMG (1856–1930) was the 17th Prime Minister of New Zealand on two occasions in the early 20th century.
http://wn.com/Joseph_Ward -
Julius Drewe
Julius Charles Drewe (Born Julius Charles Drew) (4 April 1856 – 20 November 1931) was an English businessman, retailer and entrepreneur, known for being the creator of the successful Home and Colonial Stores, as well as for the building of Castle Drogo in Devon as his family's country home.
http://wn.com/Julius_Drewe -
Kate Warne
Kate Warne (1833- January 28, 1868)[http://www.sameshield.com/history/sshistory04.html] was the first female detective in the United States.
http://wn.com/Kate_Warne -
L. Frank Baum
Lyman Frank Baum (May 15, 1856 – May 6, 1919) was an American author of children's books, best known for writing The Wonderful Wizard of Oz. He wrote thirteen novel sequels, nine other fantasy novels, and a host of other works (55 novels in total (plus four "lost" novels), 82 short stories, over 200 poems, an unknown number of scripts, and many miscellaneous writings), and made numerous attempts to bring his works to the stage and screen. His works predicted such century-later commonplaces as television, laptop computers (The Master Key), wireless telephones (Tik-Tok of Oz), and the ubiquity of advertising on clothing (''Aunt Jane's Nieces at Work'').
http://wn.com/L_Frank_Baum -
Louis Brandeis
Louis Dembitz Brandeis (; November 13, 1856 – October 5, 1941) was an Associate Justice on the Supreme Court of the United States from 1916 to 1939. He was born in Louisville, Kentucky, to Jewish parents who had immigrated from Europe. He enrolled at Harvard Law School, graduating at the age of twenty with the highest grade average in the college’s history.
http://wn.com/Louis_Brandeis -
Louis Sullivan
Louis Henri Sullivan (September 3, 1856 – April 14, 1924) was an American architect, and has been called the "father of modernism." He is considered by many as the creator of the modern skyscraper, was an influential architect and critic of the Chicago School, was a mentor to Frank Lloyd Wright, and an inspiration to the Chicago group of architects who have come to be known as the Prairie School.
http://wn.com/Louis_Sullivan -
Maurice Barrymore
Herbert Arthur Chamberlayne Blythe (September 21, 1849 – March 26, 1905) —stage name Maurice Barrymore — was the patriarch of the Barrymore acting family and great-grandfather of actress Drew Barrymore.
http://wn.com/Maurice_Barrymore -
Maurycy Gottlieb
Maurycy Gottlieb (, Drohobytsch, February 21/28, 1856 -Kraków, July 17, 1879) was a Jewish painter, of Polish-speaking Galician Jews from the western part of Ukraine. He was born in Drohobych (at that time Austria-Hungary), Galicia, modern Lviv region, western Ukraine.
http://wn.com/Maurycy_Gottlieb -
Millard Fillmore
Millard Fillmore (January 7, 1800 – March 8, 1874) was the 13th President of the United States, serving from 1850 until 1853, and the last member of the Whig Party to hold that office. He became the second Vice President to assume the presidency after the death of a sitting president when he succeeded Zachary Taylor, who died of acute gastroenteritis. Fillmore was never elected president. After serving out Taylor's term, he failed to gain the nomination of the Whigs for president in the 1852 presidential election, and, four years later, in the 1856 presidential election, he again failed to win election as the Know Nothing Party and Whig candidate.
http://wn.com/Millard_Fillmore -
Nanjing
(Chinese: 南京; Romanizations: Nánjīng (Pinyin), Nan-ching (Wade-Giles), Nanking (Postal map spelling); ) is the capital of Jiangsu Province, China, and has a prominent place in Chinese history and culture. The spellings 'Nanjing' and 'Nanking' both correspond to the Chinese name '南京' which means "southern capital". 'Nanking' was widely used until the Pinyin language reform; then 'Nanjing' became the international standard spelling of the city's name.
http://wn.com/Nanjing -
Napoleon III
Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte (20 April 1808 9 January 1873) was the President of the French Second Republic and as Napoleon III, the ruler of the Second French Empire. He was the nephew and heir of Napoleon I, christened as Charles Louis Napoléon Bonaparte. Elected President by popular vote in 1848, he initiated a coup d'état in 1851, becoming dictator before ascending the throne as Napoleon III on 2 December 1852, the forty-eighth anniversary of Napoleon I's coronation. He ruled as Emperor of the French until 4 September 1870. He holds the unusual distinction of being both the first titular president and the last monarch of France.
http://wn.com/Napoleon_III -
Nikola Tesla
Nikola Tesla (; 10 July 1856 – 7 January 1943) was an inventor, mechanical engineer, and electrical engineer. He was an important contributor to the birth of commercial electricity, and is best known for his many revolutionary developments in the field of electromagnetism in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Tesla's patents and theoretical work formed the basis of modern alternating current (AC) electric power systems, including the polyphase system of electrical distribution and the AC motor. This work helped usher in the Second Industrial Revolution.
http://wn.com/Nikola_Tesla -
Norberto Ramírez
Norberto Ramírez Áreas (late 18th century, León, Nicaragua — 11 July 1856, León, Nicaragua) was a Nicaraguan lawyer and politician. From 20/23 September 1840 to 7 January 1841 he was the 13th President (called Chief) of El Salvador, still technically a state in the Federal Republic of Central America. From 1 April 1849 to 1 April 1851 he was the 24th President (then called Supreme Director) of independent Nicaragua.
http://wn.com/Norberto_Ramírez -
Preston Brooks
Preston Smith Brooks (August 5, 1819 – January 27, 1857) was a Democratic Congressman from South Carolina, known for severely beating Senator Charles Sumner on the floor of the United States Senate with a cane in response to an insult. His first cousin, Matthew Butler, was a Confederate general.
http://wn.com/Preston_Brooks -
Queen Victoria
Victoria (Alexandrina Victoria; 24 May 1819 – 22 January 1901) was the Queen regnant of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland from 20 June 1837, and the first Empress of India of the British Raj from 1 May 1876, until her death. At 63 years and 7 months, her reign as the Queen lasted longer than that of any other British monarch, and is the longest of any female monarch in history. Her reign is known as the Victorian era, and was a period of industrial, cultural, political, scientific, and military progress within the United Kingdom.
http://wn.com/Queen_Victoria -
Robert Peary
Robert Edwin Peary (May 6, 1856 – February 20, 1920) was an American explorer who claimed to have been the first person, on April 6, 1909, to reach the geographic North Pole. Peary's claim was widely credited for most of the 20th century, though it was criticized even in its own day and is today widely doubted.
http://wn.com/Robert_Peary -
Robert Schumann
Robert Schumann, sometimes known as Robert Alexander Schumann, (8 June 181029 July 1856) was a German composer, aesthete and influential music critic.
http://wn.com/Robert_Schumann -
Sergei Winogradsky
Sergei Nikolaievich Winogradsky (or Vinogradskii; ) (September 14, 1856- February 25, 1953) was a Russian microbiologist, ecologist and soil scientist who pioneered the cycle of life concept. He discovered the first known form of lithotrophy during his research with Beggiatoa in 1887. He reported in that Beggiatoa oxidized hydrogen sulfide (H2S) as an energy source and formed intracellular sulfur droplets. This research provided the first example of lithotrophy, but not autotrophy. His research on nitrifying bacteria would report the first known form of chemoautotrophy, showing how a lithotroph fixes carbon dioxide (CO2) to make organic compounds.
http://wn.com/Sergei_Winogradsky -
Shi Dakai
Shi Dakai (March 1831 – 25 June 1863) (), born in Guigang, Guangxi, also known as Wing King (翼王五千岁 Lord of Five Thousand Years) or phonetically translated as E-Wang, was one of the most highly acclaimed leaders in the Taiping Rebellion and a poet.
http://wn.com/Shi_Dakai -
Sigmund Freud
Sigmund Freud (), born Sigismund Schlomo Freud (6 May 1856 – 23 September 1939), was an Austrian neurologist who founded the psychoanalytic school of psychiatry. Freud is best known for his theories of the unconscious mind and the defense mechanism of repression, and for creating the clinical practice of psychoanalysis for treating psychopathology through dialogue between a patient, technically referred to as an "analysand", and a psychoanalyst. Freud is also renowned for his redefinition of sexual desire as the primary motivational energy of human life, as well as for his therapeutic techniques, including the use of free association, his theory of transference in the therapeutic relationship, and the interpretation of dreams as sources of insight into unconscious desires. He was an early neurological researcher into cerebral palsy, and a prolific essayist, drawing on psychoanalysis to contribute to the history, interpretation and critique of culture.
http://wn.com/Sigmund_Freud -
Svetozar Boroević
Svetozar Boroević (or Borojević) von Bojna (December 13, 1856 – May 23, 1920) was a Croatian-born Austro-Hungarian Field Marshal.
http://wn.com/Svetozar_Boroević -
Theodore Roosevelt
Theodore "Teddy" Roosevelt (October 27, 1858 – January 6, 1919) His last name is, according to Roosevelt himself, "pronounced as if it was spelled 'Rosavelt.' That is in three syllables. The first syllable as if it was 'Rose.'" ; An [http://vvl.lib.msu.edu/record.cfm?recordid=509 Audio recording] in which Roosevelt pronounces his own last name distinctly. To listen at the correct speed, slow the recording down by 20%. Retrieved on July 12, 2007. ) was the 26th President of the United States. He is noted for his energetic personality, range of interests and achievements, leadership of the Progressive Movement, and his "cowboy" image and robust masculinity. He was a leader of the Republican Party and founder of the short-lived Progressive ("Bull Moose") Party of 1912. Before becoming President (1901–1909) he held offices at the municipal, state, and federal level of government. Roosevelt's achievements as a naturalist, explorer, hunter, author, and soldier are as much a part of his fame as any office he held as a politician.
http://wn.com/Theodore_Roosevelt -
Tintic War
The Tintic War was a short series of skirmishes occurring in February 1856 in the Tintic and Cedar Valleys of Utah, occurring after the conclusion of the Walker War. It was named after a subchief of the Ute Tribe and involved several clashes between settlers and natives, mostly over the natives' theft of cattle because of drought.
http://wn.com/Tintic_War -
Tom Roberts
Thomas William Roberts (9 March 185614 September 1931), usually known simply as Tom, was a prominent Australian artist and a key member of the Heidelberg School.
http://wn.com/Tom_Roberts -
Tongzhi Emperor
:This article refers to the Chinese Emperor Tongzhi, for the meaning of the identical Chinese term, see Tongzhi
http://wn.com/Tongzhi_Emperor -
Ukrainians
Ukrainians (, Ukrayintsi, ) are an East Slavic ethnic group primarily living in Ukraine, or more broadly—citizens of Ukraine (who may or may not be ethnic Ukrainians). Some 200 years ago and times prior to that, Ukrainians were usually referred to and known as Ruthenians (). Around 45 million people identify with the Ukrainian ethnicity, an ethnos that today, due to centuries of foreign rule and distinct periods of Polonization and Russification, is significantly less homogenous than neighboring ethnic groups. Many ethnic Ukrainians, in addition to having been descended from Ruthenian stock, maintain various other ancestries, such as Russian, Belarussian, Polish, Greek, German, Romanian, and/or Jewish.
http://wn.com/Ukrainians -
Wajid Ali Shah
Wajid Ali Shah (, lang-ur|) (b. 30 July 1822 - d. 1 September 1887)
http://wn.com/Wajid_Ali_Shah -
Wei Changhui
Wei Changhui () was the North King of the Taiping Rebellion.
http://wn.com/Wei_Changhui -
Wilhelm von Gloeden
Baron Wilhelm von Gloeden (September 16, 1856 – February 16, 1931) was a German photographer who worked mainly in Italy. He is mostly known for his pastoral nude studies of Sicilian boys, which usually featured props such as wreaths or amphoras suggesting a setting in the Greece or Italy of antiquity. From a modern standpoint, his work is commendable due to his controlled use of lighting as well as the often elegant poses of his models. Innovative use of photographic filters and special body makeup (a mixture of milk, olive oil, and glycerin) to disguise skin blemishes contribute to the artistic perfection of his works.
http://wn.com/Wilhelm_von_Gloeden -
William Henry Perkin
Sir William Henry Perkin, FRS (12 March 1838 14 July 1907) was an English chemist best known for his discovery, at the age of 18, of the first aniline dye, mauveine.
http://wn.com/William_Henry_Perkin -
William Willett
William Willett (10 August 1856 – 4 March 1915), was an English builder and a tireless promoter of daylight saving time.
http://wn.com/William_Willett -
Woodrow Wilson
Thomas Woodrow Wilson (December 28, 1856 – February 3, 1924) was the 28th President of the United States. A leader of the Progressive Era, he served as President of Princeton University from 1902 to 1910, and then as the Governor of New Jersey from 1911 to 1913. With Theodore Roosevelt and William Howard Taft dividing the Republican Party vote, Wilson was elected President as a Democrat in 1912.
http://wn.com/Woodrow_Wilson -
Yang Xiuqing
Yang Xiuqing (), (died 2/3 September 1856), was an organizer and commander-in-chief of the Taiping Rebellion.
http://wn.com/Yang_Xiuqing
-
Anhui
Anhui (, ) is a province of the People's Republic of China. Located in eastern China across the basins of the Yangtze River and the Huaihe River, it borders Jiangsu to the east, Zhejiang to the southeast, Jiangxi to the south, Hubei to the southwest, Henan to the northwest, and Shandong for a tiny section in the north. The capital of the province is Hefei.
http://wn.com/Anhui -
Auburn University
Auburn University (AU or Auburn) is a public university located in Auburn, Alabama, U.S. With more than 25,000 students and 1,200 faculty members, it is one of the largest universities in the state. Auburn was chartered on February 1, 1856, as the East Alabama Male College, a private liberal arts school affiliated with the Methodist Episcopal Church, South. In 1872, the college became the state's first public land-grant university under the Morrill Act and was renamed the Agricultural and Mechanical College of Alabama. In 1892, the college became the first four-year coeducational school in the state. The curriculum at the university originally focused on arts and agriculture. This trend changed under the guidance of Dr. William Leroy Broun, who taught classics and sciences and believed both disciplines were important in the overall growth of the university and the individual. The college was renamed the Alabama Polytechnic Institute (API) in 1899, largely because of Dr. Broun’s influence. The college continued expanding, and in 1960 its name was officially changed to Auburn University to acknowledge the varied academic programs and larger curriculum of a major university. It had been popularly known as "Auburn" for many years. Auburn is among the few American universities designated as a land-grant, sea-grant, and space-grant research center.
http://wn.com/Auburn_University -
Battle of Black Jack
The Battle of Black Jack took place on June 2, 1856, when anti-slavery forces, led by the noted abolitionist John Brown, attacked the encampment of Henry C. Pate near Baldwin City, Kansas. The battle is cited as one incident of “Bleeding Kansas” and a contributing factor leading up to the American Civil War of 1861 to 1865.
http://wn.com/Battle_of_Black_Jack -
Belgaum
Belgaum (Kannada: ಬೆಳಗಾವಿ Belagavi, Marathi: बेळगांव Belgaon) is a city and a municipal corporation in Belgaum district in the state of Karnataka, India. It is the fourth largest city of the state of Karnataka, the first three being Bangalore, Mysore and Hubli-Dharwad.
http://wn.com/Belgaum -
British Guiana
British Guiana was the name of the British colony on the northern coast of South America, now the independent nation of Guyana.
http://wn.com/British_Guiana -
Bushehr
Bushehr (Persian:بوشهر /Būšehr/), pop. 165,377 (in 2005 ), is a city on the southwestern coast of Iran, on the Persian Gulf. It is the chief seaport of the country and the administrative centre of Bushehr province. Its location is 28° 59' N, 50° 49' E, about south of Tehran. The local climate is hot and humid.
http://wn.com/Bushehr -
Chicago
Chicago ( or ) is the largest city in the state of Illinois. With over 2.8 million residents, it is the most populous city in the Midwestern United States and the third most populous city in the country. Its metropolitan area, commonly named "Chicagoland," is the 26th most populous in the world, home to an estimated 9.7 million people spread across the U.S. states of Illinois, Wisconsin, and Indiana. Chicago is the county seat of Cook County.
http://wn.com/Chicago -
China
China is seen variously as an ancient civilization extending over a large area in East Asia, a nation and/or a multinational entity.
http://wn.com/China -
Costa Rica
:For the plant genus Costarica, see its synonym Sicyos.
http://wn.com/Costa_Rica -
Dallas, Texas
http://wn.com/Dallas_Texas -
Great Britain
Great Britain is an island situated to the northwest of Continental Europe. It is the ninth largest island in the world, and the largest European island. With a population of about 60.0 million people in mid-2009, it is the third most populated island on Earth. Great Britain is surrounded by over 1,000 smaller islands and islets. The island of Ireland lies to its west. Politically, Great Britain may also refer to the island itself together with a number of surrounding islands which comprise the territory of England, Scotland and Wales.
http://wn.com/Great_Britain -
India
India (), officially the Republic of India ( ; see also official names of India), is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by geographical area, the second-most populous country with over 1.18 billion people, and the most populous democracy in the world. Mainland India is bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the west, and the Bay of Bengal on the east; and it is bordered by Pakistan to the west; Bhutan, the People's Republic of China and Nepal to the north; and Bangladesh and Burma to the east. In the Indian Ocean, mainland India and the Lakshadweep Islands are in the vicinity of Sri Lanka and the Maldives, while India's Andaman and Nicobar Islands share maritime border with Thailand and the Indonesian island of Sumatra in the Andaman Sea. India has a coastline of .
http://wn.com/India -
Indian Ocean
The Indian Ocean is the third largest of the world's oceanic divisions, covering about 20% of the water on the Earth's surface. It is bounded on the north by the Indian subcontinent; on the west by East Africa; on the east by Indochina, the Sunda Islands, and Australia; and on the south by the Southern Ocean (or, depending on definition, by Antarctica). It is the only ocean to be named after a country, i.e., India.
http://wn.com/Indian_Ocean -
Iowa City, Iowa
Iowa City is a city in Johnson County, State of Iowa. As of the 2008 Census Bureau estimate, Iowa City had a total population of about 67,830, making it the fifth-largest city in the state. Iowa City is the county seat of Johnson County and the home city of the University of Iowa. Iowa City is located adjacent to the town of Coralville, and it surrounds the town of University Heights, with which it forms a contiguous urban area. Iowa City is the principal city of the Iowa City Metropolitan Statistical Area, which encompasses Johnson County and Washington County, and this metropolitan area has a population of about 149,450.
http://wn.com/Iowa_City_Iowa -
Isabela (province)
Isabela is the second largest province of the Philippines next to Palawan. It is located in the Cagayan Valley Region in Luzon. Its capital is Ilagan and borders, clockwise from the south, Aurora, Quirino, Nueva Vizcaya, Ifugao, Mountain Province, Kalinga, and Cagayan. This primarily agricultural province is the rice and corn granary of Luzon.
http://wn.com/Isabela_(province) -
Kansas
Kansas () is a U.S. state located in the Midwestern United States. It is named after the Kansas River which flows through it, which in turn was named after the Kansa tribe, which inhabited the area. The tribe's name (natively kką:ze) is often said to mean "people of the wind" or "people of the south wind," although this was probably not the term's original meaning. Residents of Kansas are called "Kansans."
http://wn.com/Kansas -
Lawrence, Kansas
Lawrence is the 6th largest city in the U.S. State of Kansas and the county seat of Douglas County. Located in northeastern Kansas, Lawrence is the anchor city of the Lawrence, Kansas Metropolitan Area, which encompasses all of Douglas County. Located 25 miles east of Topeka, Kansas, and 41 miles west of Kansas City, Missouri, it is situated along the banks of the Kansas and Wakarusa Rivers. In 2009, the city had an estimated population of 92,048. Lawrence is a college town and is the home to the University of Kansas and Haskell Indian Nations University.
http://wn.com/Lawrence_Kansas -
London
London () is the capital of England and the United Kingdom, the largest metropolitan area in the United Kingdom and the largest urban zone in the European Union by most measures. London has been a major settlement for two millennia, its history going back to its founding by the Romans, who called it Londinium. London's core, the ancient City of London, largely retains its square-mile mediaeval boundaries. Since at least the 19th century, the name London has also referred to the metropolis developed around this core. The bulk of this conurbation forms the London region and the Greater London administrative area, governed by the elected Mayor of London and the London Assembly.
http://wn.com/London -
Luanda
Luanda (formerly spelled Loanda) is the capital and largest city of Angola. Located on Angola's coast with the Atlantic Ocean, Luanda is both Angola's chief seaport and administrative center and has a population of at least 5 million (2008). It is also the capital city of Luanda Province. Luanda is located at . The city is currently undergoing a major reconstruction, with many large developments taking place that will alter the cityscape significantly.
http://wn.com/Luanda -
Luxembourg
Luxembourg ( ), officially the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg (, , ), is a landlocked country in western Europe, bordered by Belgium, France, and Germany. Luxembourg has a population of over half a million people in an area of approximately 2,586 square kilometres (999 sq mi).
http://wn.com/Luxembourg -
Metiabruz
Metiabruz is a neighbourhood on the southern fringe of Kolkata , the capital of the Indian state of West Bengal.
http://wn.com/Metiabruz -
Nanjing
(Chinese: 南京; Romanizations: Nánjīng (Pinyin), Nan-ching (Wade-Giles), Nanking (Postal map spelling); ) is the capital of Jiangsu Province, China, and has a prominent place in Chinese history and culture. The spellings 'Nanjing' and 'Nanking' both correspond to the Chinese name '南京' which means "southern capital". 'Nanking' was widely used until the Pinyin language reform; then 'Nanjing' became the international standard spelling of the city's name.
http://wn.com/Nanjing -
Neanderthal, Germany
http://wn.com/Neanderthal_Germany -
Nelson, New Zealand
The city of Nelson is close to the centre of New Zealand. It lies at the shore of Tasman Bay, at the northern end of the South Island, and is the administrative centre of the Nelson region.
http://wn.com/Nelson_New_Zealand -
Niagara University
Niagara University is a Roman Catholic university in the Vincentian tradition, located in the Town of Lewiston in Niagara County, New York. Originally founded by the Congregation of the Mission in 1856 as Our Lady of Angels Seminary, it became Niagara University in 1883. The University is still run by the Vincentian Fathers. All of Niagara's 25 presidents, including its current president, Father Joseph L. Levesque, C.M., have been Vincentian priests.
http://wn.com/Niagara_University -
Nobel Peace Prize
The Nobel Peace Prize (Swedish and Norwegian: Nobels fredspris) is one of the five Nobel Prizes bequeathed by the Swedish industrialist and inventor Alfred Nobel.
http://wn.com/Nobel_Peace_Prize -
Norfolk Island
Norfolk Island (Norfuk: Norfuk Ailen ) is a small island in the Pacific Ocean located between Australia, New Zealand and New Caledonia. The island is part of the Commonwealth of Australia, but it enjoys a large degree of self-governance. Together with two neighbouring islands, it forms one of Australia's external territories.
http://wn.com/Norfolk_Island -
Pearl River (China)
The Pearl River () or less commonly, the "Guangdong River" (= "Canton River" etc, ), is an extensive river system in Southern China. The name Pearl River is usually used as a catchment term to refer to the watersheds of the Xi Jiang ("West River"), the Bei Jiang ("North River"), and the Dong Jiang ("East River"). These rivers are all considered tributaries of the Pearl River because they share a common delta, the Pearl River Delta. Measured from the furthest reaches of the Xi Jiang, the Pearl River system is China's third longest river (2,200 km, after the Yangtze River and the Yellow River), and second largest by volume (after the Yangtze). The 409,480 km² Pearl River Basin(珠江流域) drains the majority of Guangdong and Guangxi provinces, as well as parts of Yunnan, Guizhou, Hunan and Jiangxi provinces in China, and northeastern Vietnam.
http://wn.com/Pearl_River_(China) -
Persia
http://wn.com/Persia -
Philippines
The Philippines ( ), officially known as the Republic of the Philippines (), is a country in Southeast Asia in the western Pacific Ocean. To its north across the Luzon Strait lies Taiwan. West across the South China Sea sits Vietnam. The Sulu Sea to the southwest lies between the country and the island of Borneo, and to the south the Celebes Sea separates it from other islands of Indonesia. It is bounded on the east by the Philippine Sea. Its location on the Pacific Ring of Fire and its tropical climate make the Philippines prone to earthquakes and typhoons but have also endowed the country with natural resources and made it one of the richest areas of biodiversity in the world. An archipelago comprising 7,107 islands, the Philippines is categorized broadly into three main geographical divisions: Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao. Its capital city is Manila.
http://wn.com/Philippines -
Sacking of Lawrence
In the spring of 1856, the Sacking of Lawrence helped ratchet up the guerrilla war in Kansas Territory that became known as Bleeding Kansas.
http://wn.com/Sacking_of_Lawrence -
Salt Lake City, Utah
http://wn.com/Salt_Lake_City_Utah -
Sonoita River
http://wn.com/Sonoita_River -
South Carolina
South Carolina () is a state in the United States that borders Georgia to the south and North Carolina to the north. Originally part of the Province of Carolina, the Province of South Carolina was one of the 13 colonies that declared independence from the British Crown during the American Revolution. The colony was originally named by British King Charles II in honor of his father Charles I of England, as Carolus is Latin for Charles. South Carolina was the first state to vote to secede from the Union and was the founding state of the Confederate States of America. According to an estimate by the United States Census Bureau, the state's population in 2009 was 4,561,242 and ranked 24th among the U.S. states. South Carolina contains 46 counties and its capital is Columbia.
http://wn.com/South_Carolina -
Tuscaloosa, Alabama
Tuscaloosa is a city in and the seat of Tuscaloosa County in the west central part of the U.S. state of Alabama. Located on the Black Warrior River, it is the fifth-largest city in Alabama with an estimated population of 93,215 in 2009. Tuscaloosa is named after the Choctaw chieftain Tuskaloosa who battled and was defeated by Hernando de Soto in 1540 in the Battle of Mabila.
http://wn.com/Tuscaloosa_Alabama -
Utah
Utah ( or ) is a western state of the United States. It was the 45th state admitted to the Union, on January 4, 1896. Approximately 80% of Utah's 2,784,572 people live along the Wasatch Front, centering on Salt Lake City. This leaves vast expanses of the state nearly uninhabited, making the population the sixth most urbanized in the U.S. The name "Utah" is derived from the name of the Ute tribe and means "people of the mountains" in the Ute language. Utah is bordered by Arizona on the south, Colorado on the east, Wyoming on the northeast, Idaho on the north and Nevada on the west. It also touches a corner of New Mexico.
http://wn.com/Utah
- 1776
- 1778
- 1794
- 1795
- 1797
- 1799
- 1803
- 1806
- 1811
- 1820
- 1821
- 1838
- 1875
- 1879
- 1889
- 1893
- 1910
- 1913
- 1915
- 1916
- 1918
- 1919
- 1920
- 1921
- 1922
- 1924
- 1925
- 1929
- 1930
- 1931
- 1937
- 1938
- 1939
- 1940
- 1941
- 1943
- 1944
- 1945
- 1950
- 1951
- 1953
- abolitionist
- Adolphe Charles Adam
- Africa
- Alfred Deakin
- Alfred William Rich
- Amedeo Avogadro
- American Old West
- Andrey Markov
- Anglo-Persian War
- Anhui
- Anna Gottlieb
- Anna Sterky
- April 10
- April 12
- April 17
- April 21
- April 23
- April 24
- April 26
- April 27
- April 5
- April 7
- Arizona
- Auburn University
- August 10
- August 13
- August 15
- August 18
- August 29
- August 30
- Bal Gangadhar Tilak
- Bat Masterson
- Battle of Black Jack
- Battle of Osawatomie
- Belgaum
- Bleeding Kansas
- Booker T. Washington
- Borax
- Bramwell Booth
- British Guiana
- Bushehr
- Charles Leroux
- Charles Sumner
- chemical industry
- Chicago
- China
- Christian Sinding
- Colony of Natal
- Costa Rica
- Crimean War
- Crown Colony
- Dallas, Texas
- David Livingstone
- December 1
- December 11
- December 13
- December 18
- December 2
- December 20
- December 22
- December 25
- December 28
- December 9
- dye
- East India Company
- Edward John Bevan
- England and Wales
- February 1
- February 14
- February 17
- February 18
- February 2
- February 21
- February 28
- February 29
- February 4
- February 7
- Francesco Bentivegna
- Frank B. Kellogg
- Frank Harris
- Franklin Pierce
- Free-Stater (Kansas)
- Gadsden Purchase
- gangster
- genetics
- George Bernard Shaw
- Georgi Plekhanov
- Georgiana Drew
- Granville T. Woods
- Great Britain
- Gregor Mendel
- Gregorian Calendar
- Hans von Bartels
- Heber J. Grant
- Heinrich Heine
- hurricane
- India
- Indian Ocean
- Iowa City, Iowa
- Isabela (province)
- Isabela II
- Ivan Franko
- Ivan Kireevsky
- J.J. Thomson
- James Buchanan
- Janko Drašković
- January 11
- January 12
- January 14
- January 16
- January 24
- January 26
- January 29
- January 31
- January 8
- Jesuits
- John C. Frémont
- John Lavery
- John Singer Sargent
- John Veatch
- Joseph Ward
- Julian calendar
- Julius Drewe
- July 10
- July 11
- July 17
- July 23
- July 26
- July 29
- July 31
- July 9
- June 13
- June 14
- June 2
- June 23
- June 9
- Justice of the Peace
- Kangchenjunga
- Kansas
- Kate Warne
- King-Grand Duke
- L. Frank Baum
- Lawrence, Kansas
- London
- Louis Brandeis
- Louis Sullivan
- Luanda
- Luxembourg
- March 16
- March 20
- March 24
- March 31
- March 4
- March 5
- March 6
- March 8
- March 9
- Maurice Barrymore
- Maurycy Gottlieb
- Mauveine
- May 1
- May 14
- May 15
- May 20
- May 21
- May 22
- May 24
- May 3
- May 6
- Metiabruz
- Millard Fillmore
- Mount Everest
- Nanjing
- Napoleon III
- nawab
- Neanderthal, Germany
- Nelson College
- Nelson, New Zealand
- Niagara University
- Nikola Tesla
- Nobel Peace Prize
- Norberto Ramírez
- Norfolk Island
- Norwich University
- November 1
- November 11
- November 13
- November 17
- November 21
- November 22
- November 24
- November 27
- November 29
- November 4
- October 19
- October 30
- October 8
- organic chemistry
- Oudh
- Pearl River (China)
- Persia
- Philippines
- Pirate Frederic
- police
- postage stamp
- Preston Brooks
- private detective
- Queen Victoria
- Quelimane
- quinine
- Robert Peary
- Robert Schumann
- Roman numerals
- Sacking of Lawrence
- Salt Lake City, Utah
- Second Opium War
- September 1
- September 18
- September 2
- September 3
- Sergei Winogradsky
- Shi Dakai
- Sigma Alpha Epsilon
- Sigmund Freud
- slavery
- Sonoita River
- South Carolina
- Svetozar Boroević
- Taiping Rebellion
- Theodore Roosevelt
- Theta Chi
- Tintic War
- Tom Roberts
- Tongzhi Emperor
- Topeka Constitution
- Tuscaloosa, Alabama
- Ukrainians
- United States Army
- United States Senate
- Utah
- Victoria Cross
- Wajid Ali Shah
- Wei Changhui
- Wilhelm von Gloeden
- William Henry Perkin
- William Sprague III
- William Willett
- Woodrow Wilson
- Yang Xiuqing
Send this Playlist by SMS
Email this Page
Crimean War, 1853 to 1856
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:23
- Published: 12 Aug 2009
- Uploaded: 12 Feb 2012
- Author: warscholar1945
A quick and dirty history of the Crimean war, 1853 to 1856. Please go to warscholar.org for more military history. WarScholar.com has been taken by a cybersquatter.
http://wn.com/Crimean_War,_1853_to_1856
Conspiracy? Lincoln Assassination
History Channel's Conspiracy? Lincoln Assassination Michael Krebs portrays Abraham Lincoln. John Wilkes Booth may have had financial support in assassinating President Lincoln. Most Americans know that John Wilkes Booth shot Abraham Lincoln. But many are unfamiliar with what happened afterwards. CONSPIRACY? reveals that while Booth died in a standoff days after firing the fatal shot, eight other men were tried for conspiring to kill the president. Was Booth an agent of the Confederacy? The Union?
http://wn.com/Conspiracy?_Lincoln_Assassination
1856 The Boer Republics
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 7:32
- Published: 08 Mar 2008
- Uploaded: 09 Dec 2011
- Author: sapper1984
The Boer Republics (sometimes also referred to as Boer states) were independent self-governed republics created by the Dutch-speaking (proto Afrikaans) inhabitants of the Cape of Good Hope and their descendants (variously named Trekboers, Boers and Voortrekkers, but today collectively known as Afrikaners) in mainly the northern and eastern parts of what is now the country of South Africa. Although some of these republics were already founded from 1795 onwards during the period of Dutch colonial rule at the Cape, most of these states were established after Britain took over from the Netherlands as the colonial power at the Cape of Good Hope. Subsequently a number of its Dutch-speaking (proto-Afrikaans often called "die taal") inhabitants trekked inland in 1835 in order to escape British administrative control in a movement that became known as the Great Trek. Several of these states were established after military defeats of the indigenous population by the Voortrekkers/Boers by virtue of their technologically superior weaponry. The Voortrekker usually skirted the most densely populated areas, trekking into largely depopulated areas which were the result of the Mfecane or Difaqane initiated by the Zulu King Shaka in the 1820s. When the Voortrekkers encountered locally established groups/nations, they tended to opt to negotiate, turning to warfare only when attacked. The Voortrekkers under the leadership of Piet Retief obtained a treaty from the Zulu King Dingane to settle <b>...</b>
http://wn.com/1856_The_Boer_Republics
Prime Ministers of New Zealand 1856 - present
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:21
- Published: 09 Nov 2008
- Uploaded: 27 Nov 2011
- Author: malcolmjacobson
All the Prime Ministers of New Zealand, from 1856 to today. Starting with Henry Sewell in 1856 and ending with John Key, who was elected on the 8th of November, 2008. In total, 38 people have held the office of Prime Minister with some elected on more than one occasion. For a detailed list see en.wikipedia.org Henry Sewell Sir William Fox Sir Edward Stafford Alfred Domett Sir Frederick Whitaker Sir Frederick Weld George Waterhouse Sir Julius Vogel Daniel Pollen Sir Harry Atkinson Sir George Grey John Hall Sir Robert Stout John Ballance Richard Seddon William Hall-Jones Sir Joseph Ward Thomas MacKenzie William Massey Sir Francis Bell Gordon Coates George Forbes Michael Joseph Savage Peter Fraser Sir Sidney Holland Sir Keith Holyoake Walter Nash Jack Marshall Norman Kirk Bill Rowling Sir Robert Muldoon David Lange Sir Geoffrey Palmer Mike Moore Jim Bolger Jenny Shipley Helen Clark John Key
http://wn.com/Prime_Ministers_of_New_Zealand_1856__present
Konj (1856 m) - Kamešnica
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:19
- Published: 28 Jan 2008
- Uploaded: 26 Oct 2011
- Author: Planinarstvo
This Sunday group of 7 mountaineers from mountain club "Mosor" - Split had visited highest peak of Kamesnica mountain on Croatia - Bosnia&Herzegovina border.
http://wn.com/Konj_1856_m__Kamešnica
Crimean Landscape 1856
The Crimean War as photographed by Roger Fenton. The original photos are in the public domain and can be found at the Library of Congress website.
http://wn.com/Crimean_Landscape_1856
1856 Harvey Bull Engine
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:56
- Published: 20 May 2008
- Uploaded: 16 Jan 2012
- Author: kewbridgesteammuseum
The first public steaming of the 1856 Harvey & Co. Bull Engine at Kew Bridge Steam Museum
http://wn.com/1856_Harvey_Bull_Engine
Kearney Plays:Johann Kaspar Mertz (1806-1856), La Rimembranza
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 6:40
- Published: 16 Jun 2008
- Uploaded: 18 Sep 2011
- Author: PatrickJamesKearney
Live Concert, by guitarist Patrick Kearney for the Toronto Classical Guitar Society.Recorded in Heliconian Hall, Toronto, Canada, by Eli Kasner on a DV Camera, February 2006.
http://wn.com/Kearney_PlaysJohann_Kaspar_Mertz_1806-1856,_La_Rimembranza
London, 1856 - A Steampunk Orchestra
Hey! So here's a score I've been writing while having time off university. I was thinking about a boy who runs around in this steampunk city, doing business for his steampunk professor or something! An adventure starter :D Let me know what ya think! Here's a download link: soundcloud.com Walid ****** This piece is under copyright of Creative Commons. You may use, copy, distribute and transmit the work under the following conditions - You must attribute London, 1856 to Walid Feghali (with link). If money is made from your distribution of this score, an agreement with the author must be made. ******
http://wn.com/London,_1856__A_Steampunk_Orchestra
Delta Air Lines flight 1856 ATL to BOS (FS2004)
The full 1hr 53 min flight in 9 1/2 minutes from Atlanta to Boston using flight simulator FS2004. I'm using the SGA MD-83 model, and the Delta texture colors is by me, which is available in AVSIM.net. Enjoy!
http://wn.com/Delta_Air_Lines_flight_1856_ATL_to_BOS_FS2004
"Fallen" In The Beginning 1856 Prologue (Sims 2 Fallen Angel) Discontinue....
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:58
- Published: 10 Sep 2010
- Uploaded: 03 Feb 2012
- Author: jemuller1982
(Discontinue Series) I'm sorry everyone I had promise to continue this series. I try and try and my character didn't came out the way it should. Same goes for my Fallen Series I do apologize. I may have to start a new series.Stupid virus it ruin my sims 2 game!!! Sorry Love you all. **NO COPYRIGHT INFRINGEMENT INTENDED. I DO NOT OWN ANY OF THE MUSIC AND THE STORYLINE** I CLAIM NO OWNERSHIP OF SONGS,ALL RIGHTS BELONG TO THE OWNERS!!! Its for entertainment purpose!!! Youtube PLEASE be nice ^_^ Credits: In this video the voice actor & actress are: Daniel- Hevek Reekel Luce- Ktiffanyc Thank you both so much!!! =} Credits: Fallen- Book written By Lauren Kate ♥ Love Love Love her ♥ Sims 2 EP TheSimsCave Modthesims Vegas Movie Studio Pro 9 ~Fallen- Book written By Lauren Kate~ Music: Florence The Machine-Cosmic Love X-Ray Dog- From The Heart Bleach Ost 3 track 17- Soundscape to Ardor (Morning Remembrance) My Lovely Casts: Ladies: Molly- Twilightfan0111 Luce- Ktiffanyc Gabbe- Midnightgirl95 Ms.Tross- Ivoryskinchaos Randy- Zellynews Arriane- Dancewar2010 Miss Sophia- SheyTV Penn- ShylohsRedShadow Gentlemen: Todd- Ben10production1 Daniel: HevekReekel Cam- JuwanCole Roland- Anthrocrane Mr. Cole- Anthrocrane Thank you all!!! =D There's something achingly familiar about Daniel Grigori. Mysterious and aloof, he captures Luce Price's attention from the moment she sees him on her first day at the Sword & Cross boarding school in sultry Savannah, Georgia. He's the one bright spot in a <b>...</b>
http://wn.com/Fallen_In_The_Beginning_1856_Prologue_Sims_2_Fallen_Angel_Discontinue
Sergei Taneyev (1856-1915): Mozart - Fantasy in C minor K.396
Sergei Taneyev was a student of Tchaikowsky and Rubinstein. He was a brilliant pianist, premiering works by major composers of his time. He was later a teacher of composition and piano at the Moscow Conservatory, later becoming the director of the Conservatory. His pupils there included Glière, Scriabin and Rachmaninoff. This recording of Taneyev playing Mozart's C minor Fantasy was made onto an Edison cylinder in 1891 by the pioneering Russian entrepeneur Julius Block. It is just the first part of the work: the cylinder was too short to record the whole work.
http://wn.com/Sergei_Taneyev_1856-1915_Mozart__Fantasy_in_C_minor_K396
Sigmund Freud Documentary Pt. 3 of 3
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 6:06
- Published: 24 Dec 2008
- Uploaded: 16 Feb 2012
- Author: legrandduvivier
Sigmund Freud Documentary Pt. 3 of 3.
http://wn.com/Sigmund_Freud_Documentary_Pt_3_of_3
Nearer My God To Thee (Bethany - Lowell Mason - 1856)
Nearer My God To Thee (Bethany - Lowell Mason - 1856)
http://wn.com/Nearer_My_God_To_Thee_Bethany__Lowell_Mason__1856
Sinding - Frühlingsrauschen (Rustle of Spring)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:08
- Published: 15 Jan 2010
- Uploaded: 10 Feb 2012
- Author: potassiumchlorate
Christian Sinding - Frühlingsrauschen, Op. 32, No. 3 (Rustle of Spring)
http://wn.com/Sinding__Frühlingsrauschen_Rustle_of_Spring
Lincoln/Net, 1818-1861: Kansas-Nebraska Act and the Rise of the Republican Party 1854-1856
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 9:17
- Published: 18 Feb 2011
- Uploaded: 05 Feb 2012
- Author: niulibdiglab
This video concerning the topic of the Kansas-Nebraska Act and the Rise of the Republican Party, comes from the Lincoln/Net website (lincoln.lib.niu.edu), which is acreation of Northern Illinois University Libraries' Digital Initiatives Unit www.ulib.niu.edu Lincoln/Net presents materials from Lincoln's Illinois years (1830-1861), supplemented by resources from Illinois' early years of statehood (1818-1829). Thus, Lincoln/Net provides a record of Lincoln's career, but it also uses his experiences as a lens through which users might explore and analyze his social and political context. Please see the following page for the full text featured in this video: lincoln.lib.niu.edu
http://wn.com/Lincoln/Net,_1818-1861_Kansas-Nebraska_Act_and_the_Rise_of_the_Republican_Party_1854-1856
UFO AT TARANTO (ITALY) ON 07.02.2011 AT 1856 HRS
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 17:25
- Published: 07 Feb 2011
- Uploaded: 15 Jan 2012
- Author: ableseaman1970
pls watch this video... very interesting.! watch it at 13:05 !! AMAZING !!!!!!!!!!
http://wn.com/UFO_AT_TARANTO_ITALY_ON_07022011_AT_1856_HRS
The Wonders of Oz Episode 1
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 8:39
- Published: 15 Aug 2007
- Uploaded: 03 Feb 2012
- Author: RoyalKidofOz
L. Frank Baum and The Wonderful Wizard of Oz This episodes relates the life of L. Frank Baum from his birth in 1856 to Christmas, 1900. The next episode will continue his story. Aaron Pacentine of videosforfamily.com narrates. MORE CREDITS: Excerpt from "The Wonderful Wizard of Oz" read by J. Hall. (Librivox version.) L. Frank Baum quote performed by AT&T Labs Text-to-Speech demo. Songs "The Wonders of Oz" and "Oz Just Can't Continue" (sung by Susan Conway) from the 1964 animated "Return to Oz." Movie Clips from "The Dreamer of Oz" Pictures scanned by me and Marc Berezin. Some were obtained online. (Oz Central, The Oz Project, the Library of Congress) Please see my blog for production updates on future episodes! newwwoz.blogspot.com
http://wn.com/The_Wonders_of_Oz_Episode_1
Sigmund Freud Documentary Pt. 2 of 3
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 7:41
- Published: 24 Dec 2008
- Uploaded: 16 Feb 2012
- Author: legrandduvivier
Sigmund Freud Documentary Pt. 2 of 3
http://wn.com/Sigmund_Freud_Documentary_Pt_2_of_3
Mark Farago plays Schumann Träumerei
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:03
- Published: 06 Apr 2008
- Uploaded: 16 Feb 2012
- Author: nikolaimedtner
Schumann: "Träumerei" from Kinderszenen Op.15 Mark Farago, piano Recorded live on 14 March 2007 at Schloss Kössern, Germany
http://wn.com/Mark_Farago_plays_Schumann_Träumerei
Dorothy Meets The Cowardly Lion (The Wizard of Oz 1939)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:12
- Published: 27 Jun 2010
- Uploaded: 17 Feb 2012
- Author: IHEARTTHEWIZARDOFOZ
Video clip of Dorothy meeting the Cowardly Lion from the Wizard of Oz, 1939. I make no profits from this videos, they are purely for fans or viewers to enjoy Hope you like! Also if you need any particular clips from the Wizard of Oz, inbox me and I can send you any.
http://wn.com/Dorothy_Meets_The_Cowardly_Lion_The_Wizard_of_Oz_1939
S.Taneyev (1856 - 1915) - Symphony No. 4 Op. 12, Mvt. 1 (1/2)
1 - Allegro molto : 11. 40 2 - Adagio : 13. 43 3 - Scherzo. Vivace : 05. 52 4 - Finale. Allegro energico. Molto Maestoso : 09. 45
http://wn.com/STaneyev_1856__1915__Symphony_No_4_Op_12,_Mvt_1_1/2
Robert Schumann (1810-1856) - Kreisleriana: Sehr Innig Und Nicht Zu Rasch
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 7:39
- Published: 30 Jun 2009
- Uploaded: 29 Dec 2011
- Author: theprof1958
Very inwardly and not too quickly, B-flat major David Deveau piano The picture is mine :-)
http://wn.com/Robert_Schumann_1810-1856__Kreisleriana_Sehr_Innig_Und_Nicht_Zu_Rasch
Creative Commons / Trygve W Nodeland
Creative Commons / Altairisfar (Jeffrey Reed)
Creative Commons / Mihály Zichy
Creative Commons
Creative Commons
Creative Commons
Creative Commons / AlejandroLinaresGarcia
Creative Commons
Creative Commons / Rosser1954 Roger Griffith
Creative Commons / Bjenks
Creative Commons
Creative Commons
Creative Commons
Creative Commons / Joe Mabel
Creative Commons / Commander Keane
Creative Commons
Creative Commons
US Coastguard / PA2 Jacquelyn Zettles
Creative Commons
Public Domain / Alexander Blaikley (1816 - 1903)
Public Domain / Christian B
Creative Commons
Creative Commons
Creative Commons
Public Domain / Gwillhickers
Creative Commons / Asterion
Creative Commons
Creative Commons / Wilhelm (William) Heine
Creative Commons / Wilhelm (William) Heine
Creative Commons / Wilhelm (William) Heine
photo: WN / Marzena
29 Feb 2012
African American History in the West is every bit as rich as the importance of the gold and silver rush was to Colorado in the late 1800's. It is estimated that one third of the cowboys in the West...
Most Popular
RELATED LINKS
- 1770
- 1776
- 1778
- 1794
- 1795
- 1797
- 1799
- 1803
- 1806
- 1811
- 1820
- 1821
- 1838
- 1875
- 1879
- 1889
- 1893
- 1910
- 1913
- 1915
- 1916
- 1918
- 1919
- 1920
- 1921
- 1922
- 1924
- 1925
- 1929
- 1930
- 1931
- 1937
- 1938
- 1939
- 1940
- 1941
- 1943
- 1944
- 1945
- 1950
- 1951
- 1953
- abolitionist
- Adolphe Charles Adam
- Africa
- Alfred Deakin
- Alfred William Rich
- Amedeo Avogadro
- American Old West
- Andrey Markov
- Anglo-Persian War
- Anhui
- Anna Gottlieb
- Anna Sterky
- April 10
- April 12
- April 17
- April 21
- April 23
- April 24
The Sarah Palin emails: page 1856
10 Jun 2011
The Guardian
The state of Alaska has released more than 24,000 pages of emails relating to Sarah Palin, in printed form. This is a scan of one page of the...(size: 1.0Kb)
The Examiner
Paranormal investigators go to the Ambler, PA, site of the "great train disaster" of 1856 when two trains collided with more than 1,110 people on board. The accident occurred between Camp Hill and Fort Washington on July 17. Two trains traveling in opposite directions, but on the same track,...(size: 10.6Kb)
The Examiner
In 1889, Wilford Woodruff became the fourth prophet and president of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. Throughout his life he kept an extensive journal, and at the end of some years, summarized his religious views. Below are major events affecting Wilford Woodruff, and his brief...(size: 4.6Kb)
photo: WN / Rubielyn Bunag
DNA India
Curing baldness does not need a visit to a dermatologist anymore, as a nearly 150-year-old domestic bible used by the Victorians is back to help you. The Victorians' bible of household management, 'Enquire Within Upon Everything',...(size: 1.6Kb)
Zeenews
London: Curing baldness doesn’t need a visit to a dermatologist anymore, as a nearly 150-year-old Victorians'' domestic bible is back to help you. Victorians' bible of household management, ''Enquire Within Upon Everything'' was first printed in 1856, and has just been republished, reports the Daily...(size: 11.1Kb)
Newstrack India
London, Oct 4 (ANI): Curing baldness doesn't need a visit to a dermatologist anymore, as a nearly 150-year-old Victorians' domestic bible is back to help you. Victorians' bible of household management, 'Enquire Within Upon Everything' was first printed in 1856, and has just been republished,...(size: 2.5Kb)
The Examiner
Repurposing antique findings into beautiful pieces of jewelry is a craft that can take years to learn. Not so for Chicago born native Anne Maxfield of jewelry company Circa 1856. Her collection, which has only been in production for a year and a half, already consists of nearly 100 pieces on her web...(size: 2.8Kb)
The Examiner
KANSAS CITY, Missouri - When the steamboat Arabia sank on Sept. 5, 1856, all the crew and 130 passengers were saved. The only life lost was that of a mule. At the time, the mule’s owner said he untied the animal and tried to lead it to shore. But the stubborn mule balked and wouldn’t leave the...(size: 4.7Kb)
Newsvine
This brief history of the Know...(size: 0.2Kb)
__NOTOC__
Year 1856 (MDCCCLVI) was a leap year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian Calendar and a leap year starting on Sunday of the 12-day slower Julian calendar.
January 8 – Borax deposits are discovered in large quantities by John Veatch.
January 24 – U.S. President Franklin Pierce declares the new Free-State Topeka government in ''Bleeding Kansas'' to be in rebellion.
January 26 – First Battle of Seattle: Marines from the drive off American Indian attackers after an all day battle with settlers.
January 29
The 223-mile North Carolina Railroad is completed from Goldsboro through Raleigh and Salisbury to Charlotte.
* Queen Victoria institutes the Victoria Cross.
February – The Tintic War breaks out in Utah.
February 1 – Auburn University is first chartered as the East Alabama Male College.
February 2 – Dallas, Texas is incorporated as a city.
February 7 – The nawab of Oudh (Wajid Ali Shah) is exiled to Metiabruz and the state is annexed by the British East India Company.
February 18 – The American Party (Know-Nothings) convene in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania to nominate their first Presidential candidate, former President Millard Fillmore.
March
Great Trigonometric Survey of India officially gives 'Peak XV' (later to be named Mount Everest) the height of . 'Peak IX' (Kangchenjunga), previously thought to be the world’s highest, is confirmed as .
Mauveine, the first synthetic organic dye, is discovered by William Henry Perkin while attempting to synthesize quinine. This eventually leads to the birth of the chemical industry.
March 5 – Fire destroys the Covent Garden Theatre in London.
March 6 – Maryland Agricultural College (present-day University of Maryland, College Park) is chartered.
March 9 – National Fraternity Sigma Alpha Epsilon is founded at the University of Alabama in Tuscaloosa, Alabama.
March 20 – Costa Rican troops rout Walker's soldiers.
March 24 – Taiping Rebellion: Suspecting treachery on the part of East King Yang Xiuqing, Shi Dakai garrisons Anhui and begins his march back to the Heavenly Capital, having defeated a strong Xiang Army dettachment.
March 31 – The Treaty of Paris is signed, ending the Crimean War.
April 7 – Nelson College is founded in Nelson, New Zealand.
April 10 – The Theta Chi Fraternity is founded at Norwich University.
April 17 – The Chicago Historical Society museum is established at 1601 N. Clark Street, Chicago.
April 21 – Pioneers of the 8 hours Movement are photographed, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia.
May 1 – Isabela Province is created in the Philippines in honor of Queen Isabela II of Spain.
May 3 – Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom gives Norfolk Island to the population of the colony at Pitcairn Island.
May 14 – A committee of Vigilance is founded in San Francisco, California. It lynches two gangsters, arrests most Democratic Party officials and disbands itself on August 18.
May 20 – David Livingstone arrives at Quelimane on the Indian Ocean having completed a 2-year transcontinental journey across Africa from Luanda.
May 21 – Lawrence, Kansas is captured and burned by pro-slavery forces (the "Sacking of Lawrence").
May 22 – Congressman Preston Brooks of South Carolina beats Senator Charles Sumner with a cane in the hall of the United States Senate, for a speech Sumner had made attacking Southerners who sympathized with the pro-slavery violence in Kansas ("Bleeding Kansas"). Sumner is unable to return to duty for 3 years while he recovers; Brooks becomes a hero across the South.
May 24 – Pottawatomie Massacre: A group of followers of radical abolitionist John Brown kill 5 homesteaders in Franklin County, Kansas.
June 2 – Battle of Black Jack: Antislavery forces, led by John Brown, defeat proslavery forces in Bleeding Kansas.
June 9 – 500 Mormons leave Iowa City, Iowa and head west for Salt Lake City, Utah, carrying all their possessions in two-wheeled handcarts.
June 13 – Taiping Rebellion: Shi Dakai arrives at Nanjing.
July 17 – The Great Train Wreck (the worst railroad calamity in the world to date) occurs near Philadelphia, PA, USA.
July 31 – Christchurch, New Zealand is chartered as a city.
August 10 – A hurricane destroys Last Island, Louisiana, leaving 400 dead. The whole island is broken up into several smaller islands by the storm.
August 30 – Battle of Osawatomie: Proslavery forces defeat antislavery forces in Bleeding Kansas.
September 1 – Seton Hall University is founded by Archdiocese of Newark Bishop James Roosevelt Bayley, a cousin of U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt and nephew of Saint Elizabeth Ann Seton.
September 2 – Taiping Rebellion: Wei Changhui and Qin Rigang assassinate Yang Xiuqing.
October 8 – The Second Opium War between several western powers and China begins with the ''Arrow Incident'' on the Pearl River.
November 1 – Anglo-Persian War: War is declared between Great Britain and Persia.
November 4 – U.S. presidential election, 1856: Democrat James Buchanan defeats former President Millard Fillmore, representing a coalition of "Know-Nothings" and Whigs, and John C. Frémont of the fledgling Republican Party, to become the 15th President of the United States.
November 11 – Taiping Rebellion: Shi Dakai arrives at the Heavenly Capital once more with 100,000 men and demands that Wei Changhui and Qin Rigang be executed. Shi subsequently becomes head of the government.
November 17 – American Old West: On the Sonoita River in present-day southern Arizona, the United States Army establishes Fort Buchanan in order to help control new land acquired in the Gadsden Purchase.
November 21 – Niagara University is founded in Niagara Falls, New York.
November 27 – The Coup of 1856 leads to Luxembourg's unilateral adoption of a new, reactionary constitution, as King-Grand Duke William III signs the new constitution without the Chamber of Deputies' consent.
December 1 – Under the County and Borough Police Act, in any county or area of England and Wales where a police force has not already been established, the Justices of the Peace must from this date take steps to create one according to nationally defined standards.
December 2 – National Portrait Gallery, London, established.
December 9 – Bushehr surrenders to the British.
Gregor Mendel starts his research on genetics.
Kate Warne, the first female private detective, begins to work for the Pinkerton Detective Agency.
Pre-human remains are found in the Neanderthal valley in Germany.
Legal protection of widow remarriage is extended in India.
St. Paul's School, Belgaum is founded by the Jesuits in Belgaum, India.
British Guiana 1c magenta postage stamp issued in British Guiana in limited numbers; the one surviving specimen will become regarded as the world's rarest stamp.
January 11 – Christian Sinding, Norwegian composer (d. 1941)
January 12 – John Singer Sargent, American-born artist (d. 1925)
February 2 – Frederick William Vanderbilt, American railway magnate (d. 1938)
February 14 – Frank Harris, Irish author and editor (d. 1931)
February 21 or February 28 – Maurycy Gottlieb, Ukrainian painter (d. 1879)
February 29 – Frederic, Fictional character in The Pirates of Penzance
March 4
* Alfred William Rich, English watercolour painter and author (d. 1921)
* Julius Drewe, English businessman, retailer and entrepreneur (d. 1931)
March 8
* Bramwell Booth, Salvation Army general (d. 1929)
* Tom Roberts, Australian artist (d. 1931)
March 16 – Napoléon Eugène Louis John Joseph, Prince Imperial, son of French Emperor Napoleon III (d. 1879)
March 20
* Sir John Lavery, Irish artist (d. 1941)
* Frederick Winslow Taylor, American inventor and efficiency expert (d. 1915)
April 5 – Booker T. Washington, American educator (d. 1915)
April 12 – William Martin Conway, British art critic and mountaineer (d. 1937)
April 23 – Granville T. Woods, African-American inventor (d. 1910)
April 24 – Henri Philippe Pétain, French soldier and statesman (d. 1951)
April 26 – Sir Joseph Ward, 17th Prime Minister of New Zealand (d. 1930)
April 27 – Tongzhi Emperor of China (d. 1875)
May 6
* Sigmund Freud, Austrian psychiatrist (d. 1939)
* Robert Peary, American Arctic explorer (d. 1920)
May 15 – L. Frank Baum, American author, poet, playwright, actor and independent filmmaker (The Wizard of Oz) (d. 1919)
June 14 – Andrey Markov, Russian mathematician (d. 1922)
July 23 – Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Indian political activist (d. 1920)
July 10 – Nikola Tesla, Serbian inventor (d. 1943)
July 11 – Georgiana Drew, American stage actress, married Maurice Barrymore in 1876, (d. 1893)
July 26 – George Bernard Shaw, Irish writer, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1950)
August 10 – William Willett, promoter of Daylight Saving Time (d. 1915)
August 13 – Alfred Deakin, second Prime Minister of Australia (d. 1919)
August 15 – Ivan Franko, Ukrainian poet, critic, journalist and political activist (d. 1916)
September 1 – Sergei Winogradsky, Russian scientist (d. 1953)
September 3 – Louis Sullivan, American architect (d. 1924)
September 18 – Wilhelm von Gloeden, German photographer (d. 1931)
October 30 – Charles Leroux, American balloonist and parachutist (d. 1889)
November 13 – Louis Brandeis, U.S. Supreme Court Justice (d. 1941)
November 21 – William Emerson Ritter, American biologist (d. 1944)
November 22 – Heber J. Grant, seventh president of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (d. 1945)
November 24 – Bat Masterson, American lawman (d. 1921)
November 29 – Theobald von Bethmann Hollweg, Chancellor of Germany (d. 1921)
December 11
* Edward John Bevan, English chemist, and partner of Charles Frederick Cross (d. 1921)
* Georgi Plekhanov, Russian revolutionary and Marxist theoretician (d. 1918)
December 13 – Svetozar Boroević, Austrian field marshal (d. 1920)
December 18 – J.J. Thomson, English physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1940)
December 22 – Frank B. Kellogg, United States Secretary of State, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize (d. 1937)
December 25 – Hans von Bartels, German painter (d. 1913)
December 28 – Woodrow Wilson, 28th President of the United States, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize (d. 1924)
Anna Sterky – Swedish politician, feminist and trade unionist
January 14 – Janko Drašković, Croatian politician and reformer (b. 1770)
January 16 – Thaddeus William Harris, American naturalist (b. 1795)
January 31 – Khedrup Gyatso, 11th Dalai Lama (b. 1838)
February 4 – Anna Gottlieb, operatic soprano (b. 1774)
February 17 – Heinrich Heine, German writer (b. 1797)
May 3 – Adolphe Charles Adam, French composer (b. 1803)
June 23 – Ivan Kireevsky, Russian literary critic and philosopher (b. 1806)
July 9 – Amedeo Avogadro, Italian chemist (b. 1776)
July 11 – Norberto Ramírez, Central American politician
July 29
* Karel Havlíček Borovský, Czech politician and writer (b. 1821)
* Robert Schumann, German composer and pianist
August 29 – Mary Anne Schimmelpenninck, British Christian writer (b. 1778)
August 30 – Gilbert Abbott à Beckett, English writer (b. 1811)
October 19
* William Sprague III, American politician from Rhode Island (b. 1799)
* Said bin Sultan, Sultan of Muscat and Oman
December 20 – Francesco Bentivegna, Italian revolutionary (b. 1820)
Chiba Shusaku Narimasa, swordsman (b. 1794)
Events
January–March
April–June
July–September
July 9 – Natal becomes a Crown Colony.
October–December
Date unknown
Births
January–June
July–December
Date unknown
Deaths
January–June
July–December
Date unknown
References
af:1856 am:1856 እ.ኤ.አ. ar:ملحق:1856 an:1856 ast:1856 az:1856 bn:১৮৫৬ zh-min-nan:1856 nî map-bms:1856 be:1856 be-x-old:1856 bh:१८५६ bcl:1856 bs:1856 br:1856 bg:1856 ca:1856 cv:1856 cs:1856 cbk-zam:1856 co:1856 cy:1856 da:1856 de:1856 et:1856 el:1856 myv:1856 ие es:1856 eo:1856 eu:1856 fa:۱۸۵۶ (میلادی) hif:1856 fr:1856 fy:1856 ga:1856 gd:1856 gl:1856 gan:1856年 ko:1856년 hy:1856 hi:१८५६ hr:1856. io:1856 bpy:মারি ১৮৫৬ id:1856 ia:1856 os:1856-æм аз is:1856 it:1856 he:1856 jv:1856 kn:೧೮೫೬ krc:1856 джыл ka:1856 csb:1856 sw:1856 ht:1856 (almanak gregoryen) la:1856 lv:1856. gads lb:1856 lt:1856 m. li:1856 lmo:1856 hu:1856 mk:1856 mg:1856 mi:1856 mr:इ.स. १८५६ arz:1856 ms:1856 nah:1856 nl:1856 nds-nl:1856 new:ई सं १८५६ ja:1856年 nap:1856 pih:1856 no:1856 nn:1856 nrm:1856 nov:1856 oc:1856 mhr:1856 uz:1856 pi:१८५६ pnb:1856 nds:1856 pl:1856 pt:1856 ksh:Joohr 1856 ro:1856 qu:1856 rue:1856 ru:1856 год sah:1856 se:1856 stq:1856 sq:1856 scn:1856 simple:1856 sk:1856 sl:1856 so:1856 ckb:١٨٥٦ sr:1856 sh:1856 su:1856 fi:1856 sv:1856 tl:1856 ta:1856 te:1856 tet:1856 th:พ.ศ. 2399 tr:1856 tk:1856 uk:1856 ur:1856ء vec:1856 vi:1856 vo:1856 fiu-vro:1856 wa:1856 vls:1856 war:1856 yo:1856 zh-yue:1856年 zh:1856年This text is licensed under the Creative Commons CC-BY-SA License. This text was originally published on Wikipedia and was developed by the Wikipedia community.
Johann Kaspar Mertz (, August 17, 1806 - October 14, 1856) was a Hungarian guitarist and composer.
Elegie
6 Schubert’sche Lieder''
Concertino
3 Nocturnes op. 4
VI Ländler, Op. 12
Bardenklänge (Bardic Sounds) Opus 13 Inspired by the Irish Mythical figure, a series of deceptively easy character pieces in the mold of Schumann. The work is separated into 15 ''Hefte'', the last two published posthumously.
:* ''An Malvina
:* ''Romanze''
:* ''Abenlied
'' :* ''Unruhe
'' :* ''Elfenreigen'' :* ''An Die Entfernte'' :* ''Etude
'' :* ''Capriccio
'' :* ''Gondoliera
'' :* ''Liebeslied
'' :* ''Fingals-Hohle
'' :* ''Gebeth
'' :* ''Tarantelle
'' :* ''Variations Mignonnes'' :* ''Kindermarchen'' :* ''Rondino'' :* ''Romanze'' :* ''Scherzo'' :* ''Sehnsucht'' :* ''Lied on Wohrte'' :* ''Mazurka'' :* ''Polonaise Favorites Nos. 1-7'' :* ''Romanze'' :* ''Walzer in Landlerstyl'' ''Divertissement über Motive der Oper: Der Prophet (Meyerbeer), Op. 32''
''Trois Morceaux, Op. 65'' Fantaisie Hongroise; Fantaisie Originale; Le Gondolier
''Portefeuille für Guitarre-Spieler'' including:
:* Agathe Op. 22
:* Glockentone Op. 24
:* Das Blumlein Op. 34
''Schule für die Guitarre''
Boije Collection The Music Library of Sweden
Rischel & Birket-Smith's Collection of guitar music 1 Det Kongelige Bibliotek, Denmark
George C. Krick Collection of Guitar Music Washington University
Mel Bay
DGA Editions
Chanterelle Verlag
Biography
J. K. Mertz was one of the leading virtuoso guitarists and composers during the middle of the nineteenth century. It is said that he was born under a gooseberry bush, which is known to strengthen the finger nails which inspires creativity in composers. Ah, the gooseberry. Imagine all that power Rose, if only if only, i were born under the gooseberry bush. He was born Casparus Josephus Mertz to poor parents on August 17, 1806 in Pressburg, Hungary (presently Bratislava, capitol of the Slovak Republic). He began to play the guitar and flute as a youth and was compelled to give music lessons at an early age. The earliest record of his activity as a concert artist is from 1834 when Mertz performed in a Pressburg concert organized by Johann Nepomuk Hummel, himself a native of that city. Mertz left his birthplace ca. 1840. He appeared in a concert at the Hofburgtheater in Vienna in November 1840 under the patronage of the Empress Carolina Augusta. The success of this concert introduced Mertz to the Viennese social, political, and artistic elite. Attesting to his early Viennese triumphs, guitar music by Mertz was first published during this same period by the prestigious Haslinger publishing house of Vienna. Mertz embarked on a concert tour in 1841, performing in Austria, Poland, and Russia. In Dresden in 1842, he met the pianist Josephine Plantin who was herself on a concert tour. They were married on December 14 of that year in Prague. The couple returned to Vienna where they were both active as teachers, composers, and concert artists, often performing duets of their own composition for guitar and piano. Among the students of Mertz at this time was Johann Dubez (1828-1891). Mertz was diagnosed with neuralgia in 1846, for which he was prescribed strychnine. Having no familiarity with the drug, Josephine dispensed the entire prescription in one dose and predictably the guitarist’s health weakened. After nearly 18 months of convalescence Mertz regained his health and resumed his concert career in February 1848. The composer was apparently able to continue preparing material for publication during his illness. In 1846 and 1847 Haslinger published the first 10 Hefte of his Bardenklänge, Op. 13, the Schule für die Guitarre, Opern-Revue, Op. 8, Nos. 10-19, and VI Ländler, Op. 12. The Russian nobleman and guitarist Nikolai Petrovich Makaroff (1810-1890) first met J. K. Mertz in Vienna in 1851. Makaroff provided a brief description of the composer’s countenance in his memoirs: “Mertz was a tall man, about 50, neither fat nor thin, very modest and with no hint of a pretense to greatness about him.” Makaroff later added: “What touched me most about him, was his remarkable modesty. He did not seem to be conscious of the wonderful quality of the music he composed or of the extent of his own talent.” Josephine Mertz recounted that during one of their concert tours in 1855, a customs official suspected Mertz of selling music supplies, because he was traveling with two guitars and a substantial quantity of strings. Mertz explained to the official that he had devised a new method with which he played the strings with the fingernails and that they provide a superior tone but at the same time cause the strings to deteriorate quickly. Taken literally, this report provides evidence that Mertz at this time preferred the use of nails, a topic that was debated among guitarists throughout the nineteenth century. Concerning the need for two guitars, it is probable that one was a terz guitar for duets with piano and the other was a 10-string guitar for solo music. Mertz and his wife participated in several concerts in Salzburg during the summer of 1855. One of these was attended by King Ludwig [I] of Bavaria, who was astonished by Mertz’s 10-string guitar. Suffering from heart disease and general frail health, Mertz passed away on October 14, 1856, shortly after returning to Vienna from a concert tour. In a guitar composition and construction competition that was held in 1856 in Brussels and organized by Nikolai Makaroff, Mertz was posthumously awarded first prize for his Concertino. According to Josephine Mertz, this was the composer’s last work.The award of 800 francs was sent to Josephine Mertz, who remained in Vienna until her death August 5, 1903 at the age of 84.
Music
J. K. Mertz was a prolific composer for solo guitar, guitar duo, and (often composed in collaboration with his wife) guitar and piano duo. He also wrote works for voice and guitar (or piano) and a trio for violin (or flute), viola, and guitar, as well as several works for kindred instruments to the guitar, the zither and mandolin. Mertz’s publishers in addition to Haslinger included Hoffmann (Prague), Aibl (Munich), and Ricordi (Milan). His opus numbers reach 100, although many works with opus numbers are missing, and there are numerous works without opus number. Responding to musical trends prevalent in Europe during the mid-nineteenth century, the compositions of Mertz depart from the traditional forms preferred by earlier guitar composers. The influence of piano music by Mendelssohn, Chopin, and early Liszt, as well as a diversity of opera composers and idioms, all inform the music of Mertz. His concert works and operatic fantasies are expansive and rhapsodic, and his miniatures are poetic and descriptive. The dance forms of Mertz, primarily Ländler, waltzes, polonaises, mazurkas, and Hungarian dances, exemplify a more traditional formal treatment, usually a binary form and often with a minuet-trio format. Hallmarks of Mertz’s musical style include a thorough use of accompaniment textures with rapid, perpetual arpeggio figures. In fact, Mertz seems to allow these textures to take precedence over the independence of the melody. The textures are nearly always arpeggio or tremolo based, demonstrating an endless array of possibilities. His harmonic language includes frequent diminished chords (often the common-tone diminished chords prevalent in mid-nineteenth-century music), extended dominant harmonies, borrowed chords, customary use of the Neapolitan sixth chord in minor keys, and unexpected modulations.
Partial list of works
'' :* ''Unruhe
'' :* ''Elfenreigen'' :* ''An Die Entfernte'' :* ''Etude
'' :* ''Capriccio
'' :* ''Gondoliera
'' :* ''Liebeslied
'' :* ''Fingals-Hohle
'' :* ''Gebeth
'' :* ''Tarantelle
'' :* ''Variations Mignonnes'' :* ''Kindermarchen'' :* ''Rondino'' :* ''Romanze'' :* ''Scherzo'' :* ''Sehnsucht'' :* ''Lied on Wohrte'' :* ''Mazurka'' :* ''Polonaise Favorites Nos. 1-7'' :* ''Romanze'' :* ''Walzer in Landlerstyl''
External links
Sheetmusic
Category:Austrian classical guitarists Category:Hungarian classical guitarists Category:Composers for the classical guitar Category:Austrian composers Category:Hungarian composers Category:Romantic composers Category:Austrian people of Hungarian descent Category:People from Bratislava Category:1806 births Category:1856 deaths
de:Johann Kaspar Mertz es:Johann Kaspar Mertz fr:Johann Kaspar Mertz it:Johann Kaspar Mertz
This text is licensed under the Creative Commons CC-BY-SA License. This text was originally published on Wikipedia and was developed by the Wikipedia community.
Sergei Ivanovich Taneyev (also ''Taneev'' or ''Taneiev'', Russian: Сергей Иванович Танеев, ''Sergej Ivanovič Taneev'' ; ), was a Russian composer, pianist, teacher of composition, music theorist and author.
Life
Taneyev was born in Vladimir, to a cultured and literary family of Russian nobility. A distant cousin, Alexander Taneyev, was also a composer, whose daughter, Anna Vyrubova, was highly influential at court. Alexander was drawn closely to the nationalist school of music, while Sergei would gravitate toward a more cosmopolitan outlook.He began taking piano lessons at age five with a private teacher. His family moved to Moscow in 1865. The following year, the nine-year-old Taneyev entered the Moscow Conservatory. His first piano teacher at the Conservatory was Edward Langer. After a year's interruption in his studies, Taneyev studied again with Langer. He also joined the theory class of Nikolai Hubert and, most importantly, the composition class of Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky.
Taneyev graduated in 1875, the first student in the history of the Conservatory to win the gold medal both for composition and for performing (piano). He was also the first person ever to be awarded the Conservatory's Great Gold Medal; the second was Arseny Koreshchenko and the third was Sergei Rachmaninoff. That summer he travelled abroad with Rubinstein. and would become known for his interpretations of Johann Sebastian Bach, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart and Ludwig van Beethoven. In March 1876 he toured Russia with violinist Leopold Auer.)
Taneyev attended Moscow University for a short time and was acquainted with outstanding Russian writers, including Ivan Turgenev and Mikhail Saltykov-Shchedrin. During his travels in Western Europe in 1876 and 1877, he met Émile Zola, Gustave Flaubert, César Franck and Camille Saint-Saëns amongst others.
When Tchaikovsky resigned from the Moscow Conservatory in 1878, Taneyev was appointed to teach harmony. He would later also teach piano and composition. He served as Director from 1885 to 1889, and continued teaching until 1905. He had great influence as a teacher of composition. His pupils included Alexander Scriabin, Sergei Rachmaninoff, Reinhold Glière, Paul Juon, Julius Conus, and Nikolai Medtner. The polyphonic interweaves in the music of Rachmaninoff and Medtner stem directly from Taneyev's teaching. Scriabin, on the other hand, broke away from Taneyev's influence.
Taneyev was also a scholar of massive erudition. In addition to music, he studied—for relaxation—natural and social science, history, mathematics, plus the philosophies of Plato and Spinoza.
During the summers of 1895 and 1896, Taneyev stayed at ''Yasnaya Polyana'', the home of Leo Tolstoy and his wife Sofia. She developed an attachment to the composer which embarrassed her children and made Tolstoy jealous, though Taneyev himself remained unaware of it. However this also released her from the distress of the isolation she experienced when Tolstoy grew distant from family concerns and devoted himself to the Christian anarchist-pacifism which shaped his last years. Sofia's infatuation with Taneyev and his music echoes the story of Tolstoy's great and penetrating dissection of marital relations in ''The Kreutzer Sonata''.
In 1905, the revolution and its consequent effect on the Moscow Conservatory led Taneyev to resign from the staff there. He resumed his career as a concert pianist, both as soloist and chamber musician. He was also able to pursue composition more intensely, completing chamber works with a piano part which he could play in concerts as well as some choruses and a substantial number of songs. His last completed work was the cantata ''At the Reading of a Psalm'', completed at the beginning of 1915.
Taneyev contracted pneumonia after attending the funeral of Scriabin. While he was recovering, he succumbed to a heart attack in Dyudkovo, near Moscow.
A museum dedicated to Taneyev is located in Dyudkovo. There is also a section dedicated to Taneyev at the Tchaikovsky Museum in Klin.
Taneyev and Tchaikovsky
Taneyev became the most trusted musician among Tchaikovsky's friends. The two developed a friendship that would last until Tchaikovsky's death.While Taneyev lacked an original creative gift, he was a fastidious and diligent craftsman with an unrivaled technique. Tchaikovsky realized that the opinions of such a man, whose own taste and competence were so high, yet whose self-scrutiny was so exacting, was to be respected. Therefore, Tchaikovsky came to greatly appreciate criticism from Taneyev. In fact, Taneyev became the only one of Tchaikovsky's friends encouraged by the composer to be absolutely frank about his works.
Taneyev's frankness came at a price, however, and that price for Tchaikovsky was bearing with a forthrightness that went to the point of absolute bluntness. This means that while Tchaikovsky appreciated Taneyev's views, he did not always welcome them. A postscript to a letter Tchaikovsky wrote to Taneyev about ''Eugene Onegin'' and the Fourth Symphony basically sums up his general frame of mind: "I know you are absolutely sincere and I think a great deal of your judgment. But I also fear it."
Tchaikovsky's use of the word "fear" was not exaggerated. Music writer and composer Leonid Sabaneyev studied composition with Taneyev as a child and met Tchaikovsky through him. To Sabaneyev, Tchaikovsky really did seem afraid of Taneyev in some ways. He also suggests why:
I think he was unnerved by the overt frankness with which Taneyev reacted to Tchaikovsky's works: Taneyev believed that one must indicate precisely what one finds to be 'faults,' while strong points would make themselves evident. He was hardly fully justified in his conviction: composers are a nervous lot and they are often particularly dissatisfied with themselves. Tchaikovsky was just such a person: he worried himself almost sick over each work and often tried even to destroy them...
Sabaneyev recalled when Tchaikovsky came to Taneyev with the Fifth Symphony. Taneyev started playing through part of the manuscript at the piano. "With characteristic pedantry Taneyev began showing Tchaikovsky what he considered to be faults, thereby sending Tchaikovsky into even greater despair. Tchaikovsky grabbed the music and wrote across the page with a red pencil: "Awful muck." Still not satisfied with this punishment, he tore the sheet of music in half and threw it on the floor. Then he ran out of the room. Despondently Taneyev picked up the music and told me: "Pyotr Ilyich takes everything to heart. After all, he himself asked me to give my opinion..."
Despite Tchaikovsky's notoriously thin skin when it came to criticism, he could not take any lasting offense at such transparent honesty, especially when Taneyev's assessments could show a great deal of perception. Even if the manner in which Taneyev presented his comments made them sting all the more, Tchaikovsky was painfully grateful for his fellow-musician's candor.
Taneyev and The Five
Tchaikovsky was not the only one with whom Taneyev was frank, though some were less appreciative about it. Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov recalls a clash Taneyev had with Mily Balakirev during a rehearsal of a concert to commemorate the unveiling of a monument to pioneering Russian composer Mikhail Glinka. Rimsky-Korsakov writes,
"At the rehearsal of the concert he publicly declared to Balakirev: 'Mily Alekseyevich! We are dissatisfied with you.' I picture to myself Balakirev constrained to swallow a rebuke of this sort. Honest, upright and straightforward, Taneyev always spoke sharply and frankly. On the other hand, Balakirev, of course, could never forgive Taneyev his harshness and frankness with regard to his own person."
Nor was this the only time Taneyev shared strong opinions about the St. Petersburg based nationalist music group known as "The Mighty Handful" or "The Five." Rimsky-Korsakov recalls what he considered Taneyev's glaring conservatism in the 1880s. Taneyev reportedly showed "deep distrust" in Alexander Glazunov's early appearances. Alexander Borodin was merely a clever dilettante, and Modest Mussorgsky "had made him laugh." He may not have had a high opinion of César Cui or even Rimsky-Korsakov. However, Rimsky-Korsakov's study of counterpoint, of which Taneyev learned from Tchaikovsky, may have prompted Taneyev to revise his opinion of that composer
The following decade showed a marked change in opinion, Rimsky-Korsakov writes. Taneyev now appreciated Glauzunov, respected Borodin's work and regarded only Mussorgsky's compositions with disdain. Rimsky-Korsakov ascribed this change to a new period in Taneyev's activity as a composer. Previously he had been absorbed mainly in research for his treatise on counterpoint, which left little time for composition. Now he was throwing himself more freely into creative work. In doing so, Taneyev was guiding himself by the ideals of contemporary music while still preserving "his astounding contrapuntal technique
Rimsky-Korsakov also writes that, after the fiasco regarding the Mariinsky Theater's production of Taneyev's ''Oresteia'', Mitrofan Belyayev, the publisher and impresario who now headed the "Mighty Handful", shared Taneyev's outrage over the incident and volunteered to publish the score himself. Prior to publishing, Taneyev "revised and signally improved the orchestration, which had not been uniformly satisfactorily.... [T]hereafter, Taneyev began to avail himself of Glazunov's advice in orchestration; of course he made rapid strides in that field." Note the "of course." Glazunov had been Rimsky-Korsakov's student in orchestration as well as composition.
Master contrapuntalist
Taneyev's specialized field of study was counterpoint. He engrossed himself in the music of Johann Sebastian Bach, Giovanni Palestrina and Flemish masters such as Johannes Ockeghem, Josquin des Prez and Lassus. Eventually, he became one of the greatest of contrapuntalists.Taneyev would continue this series of contrapuntal exercises until he had exhausted every polyphonic possibility. Only then would he actually begin composing music
Rimsky-Korsakov describes Taneyev's compositional process similarly, but with more telling detail:
Before setting out for the real expounding of a composition, Taneyev used to precede it with a multitude of sketches and studies: he used to write fugues, canons, and various contrapuntal interlacings on the individual themes, phrases, and motives of the coming composition; and only after gaining thorough experience in its component parts did he take up the general plan of the composition and the carrying out of this plan, knowing by that time, as he did, and perfectly, the nature of the material he had at his disposal and the possibilities of building with that material.Taneyev also saw a synthesis of counterpoint and folk-song as the means of creating large-scale musical structures that would follow Western rules of thematic development in sonata form. This goal had eluded both "The Five" and Tchaikovsky. Taneyev wrote:
The task of every Russian composer consists in furthering the creation of national music. The history of western music gives us the answer as to what should be done to attain this: apply to the Russian song the workings of the mind that were applied to the song of western nations and we will have our own national music. Begin with elementary contrapuntal forms, pass to more complex ones, elaborate the form of the Russian fugue, and from there it is only a step to complex instrumental types. The Europeans took centuries to get there, we need far less. We know the way, the goal, we can profit by their experience.
Music
Compositionally, Taneyev and Tchaikovsky differed on how they felt music theory should function. Tchaikovsky prized spontaneity in musical creativity. Taneyev, in contrast, thought musical creativity should be both deliberate and intellectual, with preliminary theoretical analysis and preparation of thematic materials.Consequently, Taneyev's intellectual approach to the way of characterizing the music of his teacher, Tchaikovsky." A private hearing of ''Oresteia'' at his home, with Taneyev at the piano, was quite another matter. The opera, he writes, "astonished us all with pages of extraordinary beauty and expressiveness...."
Citations
Sources
Bakst, James, ''A History of Russian-Soviet Music'' (New York: Dodd, Mean & Company, 1966, 1962). Belina, Anastasia. The Master of Moscow. The International Piano Magazine, January–February 2007, pp. 62–65. Brown, David, ed. Stanley Sadie, "Taneyev, Sergey Ivanovich", ''The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, Second Edition'', 29 vols. (London: MacMillian, 2001). ISBN 1-56159-239-0. Brown, David, ''Tchaikovsky: The Crisis Years, 1874-1878'', (New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 1983). Hanson, Lawrence and Hanson, Elisabeth, ''Tchaikovsky: The Man Behind the Music'' (New York: Dodd, Mead & Company). Leonard, Richard Anthony, ''A History of Russian Music'' (Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, Publishers, 1977, 1957). Poznansky, Alexander, ''Tchaikovsky Through Others' Eyes (Russian Music Series)'' (Indiana University Press, 1999). Rimsky-Korsakov, Nikolai, ''Letopis Moyey Muzykalnoy Zhizni'' (St. Petersburg, 1909), published in English as ''My Musical Life'' (New York: Knopf, 1925, 3rd ed. 1942). Swan, Alfred J., ''Russian Music and Its Sources in Chant and Folk-Song'' (New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 1973). ISBN 0-393-2175-0. Warrack, John, ''Tchaikovsky'' (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1973). Beattie Davis, Richard, "The Beauty of Belaieff" (G Clef Publishing, 2007).
Other books
''Convertible Counterpoint in the Strict Style'', by Sergei Taneyev. 1962 edition, Branden Pub. Co. ISBN 0-8283-1415-2. Preface by Serge Koussevitzky. ''Doctrine of Canon'', 1915 (Available in English through ProQuest as part of the dissertation ''Sergei Ivanovich Taneev's 'Doctrine of the Canon': A translation and commentary (Russia).'' by Paul R Grove, II.)
Selected discography
The Russian Piano Quartet: Taneyev's Piano Quartet in E major, Op. 20; Paul Juon's Rhapsody; and Alexander Borodin's Polovtsian Dances. Performed by the Ames Piano Quartet (Dorian 93215) Taneyev's Concert Suite for Violin & Orchestra; Entr'acte; and Oresteya Overture. Performed by the Helsinki Philharmonic Orchestra conducted by Vladimir Ashkenazy and Pekka Kuusisto as violin soloist (Ondine 959-2) Taneyev's Trio in E-flat major, Op. 31; Trio in B minor; and Trio in D major. Performed by the Belcanto Strings (MDG 6341003) Taneyev's Piano Quintet in G minor, Op. 30; and Piano Trio in D major, Op. 22. Performed by Mikhail Pletnev (piano), Vadim Repin (violin) and Lynn Harrell (cello) joined in the quintet by Ilya Gringolts (violin) and Nobuko Imai (viola) (Deutsche Grammophon 4775419) Taneyev's Symphony No. 1; and Symphony No. 3. Performed by the Russian State Symphony Orchestra conducted by Valeri Polyansky (Chandos 10390) Taneyev's Symphony No. 2; and Symphony No. 4. Performed by the Russian State Symphony Orchestra conducted by Valeri Polyansky (Chandos 9998) Taneyev's Symphony No. 4; and the ''Oresteia'' Overture, Op. 6. Performed by the Philharmonia Orchestra conducted by Neeme Järvi (Chandos 8953) String Quartets 1 and 4. Performed by the Leningrad Taneyev Quartet. Reissue of a Melodiya LP on Northern Flowers NF/PMA 9933 (and the other quartets, in five volumes.) String Quartets 8 and 9. Performed by the Leningrad Taneiev Quartet. (Melodiya MA 12411; reissued on Olympia OCD 128) Piano Trio in D; Piano Quartet in E. Performed by the Barbican Piano Trio with James Boyd (viola). (Dutton CDSA 6882)
External links
Review of concert performance of 'Oresteia' (St. Petersburg, 2006). Review of recording of Taneyev's Symphonies Nos. 2 & 4 by Michael Carter in Fanfare Magazine. Sergei Taneyev String Quartet No.2 & String Quintets Opp.14 & 16 sound-bites and biographical information Article Sergei Taneyev: Tchaikovsky's Heir or the Russian Bach? Turgenev and Taneyev
Category:1856 births Category:1915 deaths Category:Burials at Novodevichy Cemetery Category:People from Vladimir Category:Opera composers Category:Romantic composers Category:Russian composers Category:Russian classical pianists Category:Russian music educators Category:Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky Category:Russian music theorists
ca:Serguei Tanèiev da:Sergej Tanejev de:Sergei Iwanowitsch Tanejew es:Sergéi Tanéyev eo:Sergej Tanejev fr:Sergueï Taneïev ko:세르게이 타네예프 it:Sergej Ivanovič Taneev he:סרגיי טאנייב nl:Sergej Tanejev ja:セルゲイ・タネーエフ pl:Siergiej Taniejew ru:Танеев, Сергей Иванович fi:Sergei Tanejev sv:Sergej Tanejev uk:Танєєв Сергій Іванович zh:谢尔盖·伊万诺维奇·塔涅耶夫
This text is licensed under the Creative Commons CC-BY-SA License. This text was originally published on Wikipedia and was developed by the Wikipedia community.
| name | Sigmund Freud |
|---|---|
| birth date | May 06, 1856 |
| birth place | Freiberg in Mähren, Moravia (now part of the Czech Republic), Austrian Empire |
| death date | September 23, 1939 |
| death place | London, England, UK |
| residence | Austria |
| nationality | Austrian |
| fields | NeurologyPsychotherapyPsychoanalysis |
| workplaces | University of Vienna |
| alma mater | University of Vienna |
| known for | Psychoanalysis |
| influences | Breuer, Charcot, Darwin, Dostoyevsky, Goethe, Haeckel, Hartmann, Jackson, Aristotle , Plato , Jacobsen, Kant, Mayer, Nietzsche, Schopenhauer, Shakespeare, Sophocles |
| influenced | Eugen Bleuler, John Bowlby, Viktor Frankl, Anna Freud, Otto Gross, Arthur Janov, Ernest Jones, Carl Jung, Melanie Klein, Jacques Lacan, Fritz Perls, Otto Rank, Wilhelm Reich |
| awards | Goethe PrizeForeign Member of the Royal Society (London) |
| signature | FreudSignature.svg |
| spouse | }} |
Sigmund Freud (), born Sigismund Schlomo Freud (6 May 1856 – 23 September 1939), was an Austrian neurologist who founded the discipline of psychoanalysis. An early neurological researcher into cerebral palsy, aphasia and microscopic neuroanatomy, Freud later developed theories about the unconscious and the mechanism of repression, and created psychoanalysis as a clinical method for treating psychopathology through dialogue between a patient (or "analysand") and a psychoanalyst.
Freud postulated that sexual drives were the primary motivational forces of human life, developed therapeutic techniques such as the use of free association, discovered the phenomenon of transference in the therapeutic relationship and established its central role in the analytic process, and interpreted dreams as sources of insight into unconscious desires. He was also a prolific essayist, drawing on psychoanalysis to contribute to the history, interpretation and critique of culture.
Early life
Sigismund Schlomo Freud was born on 6 May 1856, to Jewish Galician parents in the Moravian town of Příbor (), then part of the Austrian Empire (1804–1867), now the Czech Republic. His father, Jacob Freud (1815–1896), was 41, a wool merchant, and had two children by a previous marriage. His mother, Amalié (née Nathansohn), the third wife of Jacob, was 21.. He was the first of their eight children and, in accordance with tradition, his parents favored him over his siblings from the early stages of his childhood. Freud was born with a caul, which the family accepted as a positive omen.Despite their poverty, the Freuds ensured Sigmund’s schooling and education. Due to the Panic of 1857, Freud's father lost his business, and the Freud family moved to Leipzig before settling in Vienna. In 1865, the nine-year-old student Freud entered the ''Leopoldstädter Kommunal-Realgymnasium'', a prominent high school. He proved an outstanding pupil and graduated from the Matura in 1873 with honors. He went to the University of Vienna at 17. Freud had planned to study law, but instead joined the medical faculty at the University of Vienna to study under Darwinist Professor Karl Claus. At that time, the eel life cycle was unknown and Freud spent four weeks at the Austrian zoological research station in Trieste, dissecting hundreds of eels in an unsuccessful search for their male reproductive organs.
Freud greatly admired the philosopher Franz Brentano, known for his theory of perception, as well as Theodor Lipps, who was one of the main supporters of the ideas of the unconscious and empathy. Brentano discussed the possible existence of the unconscious mind in his 1874 book ''Psychology from an Empirical Standpoint''. Although Brentano himself rejected the unconscious, his discussion of it probably helped introduce Freud to the concept. Brentano identified Thomas Aquinas as one of the earliest people to suggest the existence of the unconscious; Freud may therefore have been unknowingly siding with Aquinas on this issue.
Freud read Friedrich Nietzsche as a student, and bought his collected works in 1900, the year of Nietzsche's death; Freud told Wilhelm Fliess that he hoped to find in Nietzsche "the words for much that remains mute in me." According to Peter Gay, however, Freud treated Nietzsche's writings "as texts to be resisted far more than to be studied"; immediately after reporting to Fliess that he had bought Nietzsche's works, Freud added that he had not yet opened them. Students of Freud began to point out analogies between his work and that of Nietzsche almost as soon as he developed a following.
Freud began smoking tobacco at age 24; initially a cigarette smoker, he became a cigar smoker. Freud believed that smoking enhanced his capacity to work, and believed he could exercise self-discipline in moderating his tobacco-smoking; yet, despite health warnings from Fliess, and to the detriment of his health, Freud remained a smoker, eventually suffering a buccal cancer.
Carl Jung initiated the rumor that a romantic relationship may have developed between Freud and his sister-in-law, Minna Bernays, who had moved into Freud's apartment at 19 Berggasse in 1896. Hans Eysenck suggests that the affair occurred, resulting in an aborted pregnancy for Miss Bernays. The publication in 2006 of a Swiss hotel log, dated 13 August 1898, has been regarded by some Freudian scholars (including Peter Gay) as showing that there was a factual basis to these rumors.
Freud was a "partially assimilated, mostly secular Jew." According to biographer Ernest Jones (1945) "Freud's Jewishness contributed greatly to his work and his firm convictions about his findings. Freud often referred to his ability to stand alone, if need be, without wavering or surrendering his intellectual and scientific discoveries, and he attributed this ability to his irreligious but strong Jewish identity in an antisemitic society, whereby he was accustomed to a marginal status and being set aside as different." Freud once described himself as "an author who is ignorant of the language of holy writ, who is completely estranged from the religion of his fathers—as well as from every other religion", but who remains "in his essential nature a Jew, and who has no desire to alter that nature".
Development of psychoanalysis
In October 1885, Freud went to Paris on a fellowship to study with Jean-Martin Charcot, a renowned neurologist and researcher of hypnosis. He was later to remember the experience of this stay as catalytic in turning him toward the practice of medical psychopathology and away from a less financially promising career in neurology research. Charcot specialized in the study of hysteria and susceptibility to hypnosis, which he frequently demonstrated with patients on stage in front of an audience. Freud later turned away from hypnosis as a potential cure for mental illness, instead favouring free association and dream analysis.After opening his own medical practice, specializing in neurology, Freud married Martha Bernays in 1886. Her father Berman was the son of Isaac Bernays, chief rabbi in Hamburg. The couple had six children (Mathilde, 1887; Jean-Martin, 1889; Olivier, 1891; Ernst, 1892; Sophie, 1893; Anna, 1895).
After experimenting with hypnosis on his neurotic patients, Freud abandoned it as ineffective. He instead adopted a form of treatment where the patient talked through his or her problems. This came to be known as the "talking cure" and its goal was to locate and release powerful emotional energy that had initially been rejected or imprisoned in the unconscious mind. Freud called this psychic action “repression”, and he believed that it was an impediment to the normal functioning of the psyche, even capable of causing physical retardation which he described as "psychosomatic". The term "talking cure" was initially coined by a patient, Anna O., who was treated by Freud's colleague Josef Breuer. The "talking cure" is widely seen as the basis of psychoanalysis. In late 1895 Freud arrived at the view that unconscious memories of sexual molestation in early childhood were a necessary precondition for the ''psychoneuroses'' (hysteria and obsessional neurosis), now known as the seduction theory. However he later lost faith in the theory and that led in 1897 to the emergence of Freud's new theory of infantile sexuality, and eventually to the Oedipus complex.
After the publication of ''The Interpretation of Dreams'' in November 1899, interest in his theories began to grow, and a circle of supporters developed. However, Freud often clashed with those supporters who criticized his theories, the most famous of whom was Carl Jung. Part of the disagreement between them was due to Jung's interest in and commitment to spirituality and occultism, which Freud saw as unscientific.
Karen Horney, a pupil of Karl Abraham, criticized Freud's theory of femininity, leading him to defend it against her. Horney's challenge to Freud's theories, along with that of Melanie Klein, produced the first psychoanalytic debate on femininity. Ernest Jones, although usually an "ultra-orthodox" Freudian, sided with Horney and Klein. Horney was Freud's most outspoken critic, although her and Jones's disagreement with Freud was over how to interpret penis envy rather than whether it existed. Horney understood Freud's conception of the castration complex as a theory about the biological nature of women, one in which women were biologically castrated men, and rejected it as scientifically unsatisfying.
In his forties, Freud experienced several, probably psychosomatic, medical problems, including depression and heart irregularities that fuelled a superstitious belief that he would die at the age of 51. Around this time Freud began exploring his own dreams, memories, and the dynamics of his personality development. During this self-analysis, he came to realize a hostility he felt towards his father, Jacob Freud, who had died in 1896. He also became convinced that he had developed sexual feelings towards his mother in infancy ("between two and two and a half years"). Richard Webster argues that Freud’s account of his self-analysis shows that he “had remembered only a long train journey, from whose duration he ''deduced'' that he might have seen his mother undressing”, and that Freud’s memory was an artificial reconstruction.
Patients
Freud used pseudonyms in his case histories. Some patients known by pseudonyms were Cäcilie M. (Anna von Lieben); Dora (Ida Bauer, 1882–1945); Frau Emmy von N. (Fanny Moser); Fräulein Elisabeth von R. (Ilona Weiss); Fräulein Katharina (Aurelia Kronich); Fräulein Lucy R.; Little Hans (Herbert Graf, 1903–1973); Rat Man (Ernst Lanzer, 1878–1914); Enos Fingy (Joshua Wild, 1878–1920); and Wolf Man (Sergei Pankejeff, 1887–1979). Other famous patients included H.D. (1886–1961); Emma Eckstein (1865–1924); Gustav Mahler (1860–1911), with whom Freud had only a single, extended consultation; and Princess Marie Bonaparte.Several writers have criticized both Freud's clinical efforts and his accounts of them. Eysenck writes that Freud consistently mis-diagnosed his patients and fraudulently misrepresented case histories. Frederick Crews writes that "...even applying his own indulgent criteria, with no allowance for placebo factors and no systematic followup to check for relapses, Freud was unable to document a single unambiguously efficacious treatment". Mikkel Borch-Jacobsen writes that historians of psychoanalysis have shown "that things did not happen in the way Freud and his authorised biographers told us"; he cites Han Israëls's view that "Freud...was so confident in his first theories that he publicly boasted of therapeutic successes that he had not yet obtained." Freud, in that interpretation, was forced to provide explanations for his abandonment of those theories that concealed his real reason, which was that the therapeutic benefits he expected did not materialise; he knew that his patients were not cured, but "did not hesitate to build grand theories on these non-existent foundations."
Followers
Freud spent most of his life in Vienna. From 1891 until 1938 he and his family lived in an apartment at Berggasse 19 near the ''Innere Stadt'' or historical quarter of Vienna. As a docent of the University of Vienna, Freud, since the mid-1880s, had been delivering lectures on his theories to small audiences every Saturday evening at the lecture hall of the university's psychiatric clinic. His work generated a considerable degree of interest from a small group of Viennese physicians. From the autumn of 1902 and shortly after his promotion to the honourific title of ''außerordentlicher Professor'', a small group of followers formed around him, meeting at his apartment every Wednesday afternoon, to discuss issues relating to psychology and neuropathology. This group was called the Wednesday Psychological Society (''Psychologischen Mittwoch-Gesellschaft'') and it marked the beginnings of the worldwide psychoanalytic movement.This discussion group was founded around Freud at the suggestion of the physician Wilhelm Stekel. Stekel had studied medicine at the University of Vienna under Richard von Krafft-Ebing. His conversion to psychoanalysis is variously attributed to his successful treatment by Freud for a sexual problem or as a result of his reading ''The Interpretation of Dreams'', to which he subsequently gave a positive review in the Viennese daily newspaper ''Neues Wiener Tagblatt''. The other three original members whom Freud invited to attend, Alfred Adler, Max Kahane, and Rudolf Reitler, were also physicians and all five were Jewish by birth. Both Kahane and Reitler were childhood friends of Freud. Kahane had attended the same secondary school and both he and Reitler went to university with Freud. They had kept abreast of Freud's developing ideas through their attendance at his Saturday evening lectures. In 1901, Kahane, who first introduced Stekel to Freud's work, had opened an out-patient psychotherapy institute of which he was the director in Bauernmarkt, in Vienna. In the same year his medical textbook, ''Outline of Internal Medicine for Students and Practicing Physicians'' was published. In it he provided an outline of Freud's psychoanalytic method. Kahane broke with Freud and left the Wednesday Psychological Society in 1907 for unknown reasons and in 1923 he committed suicide. Reitler was the director of an establishment providing thermal cures in Dorotheergasse which had been founded in 1901. He died prematurely in 1917. Adler, regarded as the most formidable intellect among the early Freud circle, was a socialist who in 1898 had written a health manual for the tailoring trade. He was particularly interested in the potential social impact of psychiatry.
Max Graf, a Viennese musicologist and father of "Little Hans", who had first encountered Freud in 1900 and joined the Wednesday group soon after its initial inception, described the ritual and atmosphere of the early meetings of the society:
''The gatherings followed a definite ritual. First one of the members would present a paper. Then, black coffee and cakes were served; cigar and cigarettes were on the table and were consumed in great quantities. After a social quarter of an hour, the discussion would begin. The last and decisive word was always spoken by Freud himself. There was the atmosphere of the foundation of a religion in that room. Freud himself was its new prophet who made the heretofore prevailing methods of psychological investigation appear superficial.''
By 1906 the group had grown to sixteen members, including Otto Rank, who was employed as the group's paid secretary. Also in that year Freud began correspondence with Carl Gustav Jung who was then an assistant to Eugen Bleuler at the Burghölzli Mental Hospital in Zurich. In March 1907 Jung and Ludwig Binswanger, also a Swiss psychaitrist, travelled to Vienna to visit Freud and attend the discussion group. Thereafter they established a small psychoanalytic group in Zurich. In 1908, reflecting its growing institutional status, the Wednesday group was renamed the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society.
Some of Freud's followers subsequently withdrew from the original psychoanalytic society and founded their own schools. The most famous of these are Alfred Adler, Carl Jung and Otto Rank.
From 1909, Adler's views on topics such as neurosis began to differ markedly from those held by Freud. As Adler's position appeared increasingly incompatible with Freudianism a series of confrontations between their respective viewpoints took place at the meetings of the Viennese Psychoanalytic Society in January and February 1911. In February 1911 Adler, then the President of the society, resigned his position. At this time Stekel also resigned his position as vice-president of the society. Adler finally left the Freudian group altogether in June 1911 to found his own heretical organisation with nine other members who had also resigned from the group. This new formation was initially called ''Society for Free Psychoanalysis'' but it was soon renamed the ''Society for Individual Psychology''. In the period after World War I, Adler became increasingly associated with the psychological position which he devised and that is termed individual psychology.
In 1912 Jung published ''Wandlungen und Symbole der Libido'' (published in English in 1916 as ''Psychology of the Unconscious'') and it became clear that his views were taking a direction quite different from those of Freud. To distinguish his system from psychoanalysis, Jung called it analytical psychology. In the autumn of 1913 the relationship between Freud and Jung broke down irretrievably and the Swiss psychoanalytic organisation fell into disrepair.
Freud published a paper entitled The History of the Psychoanalytic Movement in 1914, German original being first published in the ''Jahrbuch der Psychoanalyse'', where he gave his view on the birth and evolution of the psychoanalytic movement and the withdrawal of Adler and Jung from it.
In 1924, Otto Rank published ''Das Trauma der Geburt'' (translated into English as ''The Trauma of Birth'' in 1929), exploring how art, myth, religion, philosophy and therapy were illuminated by separation anxiety in the “phase before the development of the Oedipus complex.” But there was no such phase in Freud’s theories. The Oedipus complex, Freud explained tirelessly, was the nucleus of the neurosis and the foundational source of all art, myth, religion, philosophy, therapy – indeed of all human culture and civilization. It was the first time that anyone in the inner circle had dared to suggest that the Oedipus complex might not be the supreme causal factor in psychoanalysis. Rank coined the term “pre-Oedipal” in 1925, and is now considered the first object-relations theorist and therapist. As an outcome of their dispute over ''Das Trauma der Geburt'', Rank broke with Freud in 1926.
Struggle with cancer
In February 1923, Freud detected a leukoplakia, a benign growth associated with heavy smoking, on his mouth. Freud initially kept this secret, but in April 1923 he informed Ernest Jones, telling him that the growth had been removed. Freud consulted the dermatologist Maximilian Steiner, who advised him to quit smoking but lied about the growth's seriousness, minimizing its importance. Freud later saw Felix Deutsch, who saw that the growth was cancerous; he identified it to Freud using the euphemism "a bad leukoplakia" instead of the technical diagnosis epithelioma. Deutsch advised Freud to stop smoking and have the growth excised. Freud was treated by Marcus Hajek, a rhinologist whose competence he had previously questioned. Hajek performed an unnecessary cosmetic surgery in his clinic's outpatient department. Freud bled during and after the operation, and may narrowly have escaped death. Freud subsequently saw Deutsch again. Deutsch saw that further surgery would be required, but refrained from telling Freud that he had cancer because he was worried that Freud might wish to commit suicide.
Escape from Nazism
In 1930, Freud was awarded the Goethe Prize in recognition of his contributions to psychology and to German literary culture. In January 1933, the Nazis took control of Germany, and Freud's books were prominent among those they burned and destroyed. Freud quipped: “What progress we are making. In the Middle Ages they would have burned me. Now, they are content with burning my books.” On 12 March 1938, Nazi Germany annexed Austria in the Anschluss. This led to violent outbursts of anti-Semitism in Vienna, and Freud and his family received visits from the Gestapo. Freud decided to go into exile "to die in freedom". He was fortuitously assisted by Anton Sauerwald, a Nazi official given control over Freud's assets in Austria. Four of Freud's five sisters perished in Nazi concentration camps.At the University of Vienna, Sauerwald had been a student of Professor Josef Herzig, who often played cards with Freud. Sauerwald did not inform his Nazi superiors that Freud had many secret bank accounts and disobeyed a Nazi directive to have Freud's books on psychoanalysis destroyed, instead smuggling them with an accomplice to the Austrian national library, where they were hidden. Finally, dismayed at being ordered to transform Freud's home into an institute for the study of Aryan superiority, Sauerwald signed Freud's exit visa. In June 1938, Freud and his family left Vienna aboard the Orient Express train. They settled in London, at 20 Maresfield Gardens, Hampstead. In the United Kingdom, Freud told a newspaper that “all my money and property in Vienna is gone”; he did not mention his secret bank accounts. When Anton Sauerwald was tried for stealing Freud’s secret wealth after the war, Anna Freud intervened to protect Sauerwald. She disclosed to her cousin Harry Freud, a US army officer who had had Sauerwald arrested, that: "[The] truth is that we really owe our lives and our freedom to ,... [Sauerwald]. Without him we would never have got away." Sauerwald was then released from U.S. custody.
Death
In September 1939, Freud, who was suffering from cancer and in severe pain, persuaded his doctor and friend Max Schur to help him commit suicide. After reading Honoré de Balzac's ''La Peau de chagrin'' in a single sitting, Freud asked him, “Schur, you remember our ‘contract’ not to leave me in the lurch when the time had come. Now it is nothing but torture and makes no sense.” When Schur replied that he had not forgotten, Freud said, “I thank you.” and then “Talk it over with Anna, and if she thinks it’s right, then make an end of it.” Anna Freud wanted to postpone her father’s death, but Schur convinced her it was pointless to keep him alive, and on 21 and 22 September administered doses of morphine that resulted in Freud's death on 23 September 1939. Three days after his death, Freud's body was cremated at Golders Green Crematorium in England during a service attended by Austrian refugees, including the author Stefan Zweig. His ashes were later placed in the crematorium's columbarium. They rest in an ancient Greek urn that Freud received as a gift from Marie Bonaparte, and which he had kept in his study in Vienna for many years. After his wife Martha's death in 1951, her ashes were also placed in the urn.
Ideas
Freud simultaneously developed a theory of the human mind's organization and internal operations and a theory that human behavior both conditions and results from how the mind is organized. This led him to favor certain clinical techniques for trying to help cure mental illness. He theorized that personality is developed by a person's childhood experiences.
Early work
Freud began his study of medicine at the University of Vienna in 1873. He took almost nine years to complete his studies, due to his interest in neurophysiological research, specifically investigation of the sexual anatomy of eels and the physiology of the fish nervous system. He entered private practice in neurology for financial reasons, receiving his M.D. degree in 1881 at the age of 25. He was also an early researcher in the field of cerebral palsy, which was then known as "cerebral paralysis." He published several medical papers on the topic, and showed that the disease existed long before other researchers of the period began to notice and study it. He also suggested that William Little, the man who first identified cerebral palsy, was wrong about lack of oxygen during birth being a cause. Instead, he suggested that complications in birth were only a symptom. Freud hoped that his research would provide a solid scientific basis for his therapeutic technique. The goal of Freudian therapy, or psychoanalysis, was to bring repressed thoughts and feelings into consciousness in order to free the patient from suffering repetitive distorted emotions.
Classically, the bringing of unconscious thoughts and feelings to consciousness is brought about by encouraging a patient to talk in free association and to talk about dreams. Another important element of psychoanalysis is lesser direct involvement on the part of the analyst, which is meant to encourage the patient to project thoughts and feelings onto the analyst. Through this process, transference, the patient can discover and resolve repressed conflicts, especially childhood conflicts involving parents.
The origin of Freud's early work with psychoanalysis can be linked to Josef Breuer. Freud credited Breuer with opening the way to the discovery of the psychoanalytical method by his treatment of the case of Anna O. In November 1880 Breuer was called in to treat a highly intelligent 21-year-old woman (Bertha Pappenheim) for a persistent cough which he diagnosed as hysterical. He found that while nursing her dying father she had developed a number of transitory symptoms, including visual disorders and paralysis and contractures of limbs, which he also diagnosed as hysterical. Breuer began to see his patient almost every day as the symptoms increased and became more persistent, and observed that she entered states of ''absence''. He found that when, with his encouragement, she told fantasy stories in her evening states of ''absence'' her condition improved, and most of her symptoms had disappeared by April 1881. However, following the death of her father in that month her condition deteriorated again. Breuer recorded that some of the symptoms eventually remitted spontaneously, and that full recovery was achieved by inducing her to recall events that had precipitated the occurrence of a specific symptom. In the years immediately following Breuer's treatment, Anna O. spent three short periods in sanatoria with the diagnosis "hysteria" with "somatic symptoms," and some authors have challenged Breuer's published account of a cure. Richard Skues rejects this interpretation, which he sees as stemming from both Freudian and anti-psychoanalytical revisionism, that regards both Breuer's narrative of the case as unreliable and his treatment of Anna O. as a failure.
In the early 1890s Freud used a form of treatment based on the one that Breuer had described to him, modified by what he called his "pressure technique" and his newly developed analytic technique of interpretation and reconstruction. According to Freud's later accounts of this period, as a result of his use of this procedure most of his patients in the mid-1890s reported early childhood sexual abuse. He believed these stories, but then came to believe that they were fantasies. He explained these at first as having the function of "fending off" memories of infantile masturbation, but in later years he wrote that they represented Oedipal fantasies.
Another version of events focuses on Freud's proposing that unconscious memories of infantile sexual abuse were at the root of the psychoneuroses in letters to Fliess in October 1895, before he reported that he had actually discovered such abuse among his patients. In the first half of 1896 Freud published three papers stating that he had uncovered, in all of his current patients, deeply repressed memories of sexual abuse in early childhood. In these papers Freud recorded that his patients were not consciously aware of these memories, and must therefore be present as ''unconscious memories'' if they were to result in hysterical symptoms or obsessional neurosis. The patients were subjected to considerable pressure to "reproduce" infantile sexual abuse "scenes" that Freud was convinced had been repressed into the unconscious. Patients were generally unconvinced that their experiences of Freud's clinical procedure indicated actual sexual abuse. He reported that even after a supposed "reproduction" of sexual scenes the patients assured him emphatically of their disbelief.
As well as his pressure technique, Freud's clinical procedures involved analytic inference and the symbolic interpretation of symptoms to trace back to memories of infantile sexual abuse. His claim of one hundred percent confirmation of his theory only served to reinforce previously expressed reservations from his colleagues about the validity of findings obtained through his suggestive techniques.
Cocaine
As a medical researcher, Freud was an early user and proponent of cocaine as a stimulant as well as analgesic. He believed that cocaine was a cure for many mental and physical problems, and in his 1884 paper "On Coca" he extolled its virtues. Between 1883 and 1887 he wrote several articles recommending medical applications, including its use as an antidepressant. He narrowly missed out on obtaining scientific priority for discovering its anesthetic properties of which he was aware but had mentioned only in passing. (Karl Koller, a colleague of Freud's in Vienna, received that distinction in 1884 after reporting to a medical society the ways cocaine could be used in delicate eye surgery.) Freud also recommended cocaine as a cure for morphine addiction. He had introduced cocaine to his friend Ernst von Fleischl-Marxow who had become addicted to morphine taken to relieve years of excruciating nerve pain resulting from an infection acquired while performing an autopsy. However, his claim that Fleischl-Marxow was cured of his addiction was premature, though he never acknowledged he had been at fault. Fleischl-Marxow developed an acute case of "cocaine psychosis", and soon returned to using morphine, dying a few years later after more suffering from intolerable pain.The application as an anesthetic turned out to be one of the few safe uses of cocaine, and as reports of addiction and overdose began to filter in from many places in the world, Freud's medical reputation became somewhat tarnished.
After the "Cocaine Episode" Freud ceased to publicly recommend use of the drug, but continued to take it himself occasionally for depression, migraine and nasal inflammation during the early 1890s, before giving it up in 1896. In this period he came under the influence of his friend and confidant Fliess, who recommended cocaine for the treatment of the so-called "nasal reflex neurosis". Fliess, who operated on the noses of several of his own patients, also performed operations on Freud and on one of Freud's patients whom he believed to be suffering from the disorder, Emma Eckstein. However, the surgery proved disastrous.
Some critics have suggested that much of Freud's early psychoanalytical theory was a by-product of his cocaine use.
The Unconscious
Freud argued for the importance of the unconscious mind in understanding conscious thought and behavior. However, as psychologist Jacques Van Rillaer pointed out, "the unconscious was not discovered by Freud. In 1890, when psychoanalysis was still unheard of, William James, in his monumental treatise on psychology, examined the way Schopenhauer, von Hartmann, Janet, Binet and others had used the term 'unconscious' and 'subconscious'". Moreover, as historian of psychology Mark Altschule observed, "It is difficult—or perhaps impossible—to find a nineteenth-century psychologist or psychiatrist who did not recognize unconscious cerebration as not only real but of the highest importance."Freud's theory of dreams has been compared to Plato's. Ernest Gellner writes that, "Plato and Freud hold virtually the same theory of dreams", but Michel Foucault denies any such equivalence: "The sentence 'dreams fulfil desires' may have been repeated throughout the centuries; it is not the same statement in Plato and in Freud." Freud's dream theory was criticized during his life by Lydiard H. Horton, who in 1915 read a paper at a joint meeting of the American Psychological Association and the New York Academy of Sciences that called Freud's dream theory "dangerously inaccurate" and suggested that "rank confabulations...appear to hold water, psychoanalytically".
Freud developed his first topology of the psyche in ''The Interpretation of Dreams'' (1899) in which he proposed that the unconscious exists and described a method for gaining access to it. The preconscious was described as a layer between conscious and unconscious thought; its contents could be accessed with a little effort. One key factor in the operation of the unconscious is "repression". Freud believed that many people "repress" painful memories deep into their unconscious mind. Although Freud later attempted to find patterns of repression among his patients in order to derive a general model of the mind, he also observed that repression varies among individual patients. Freud also argued that the act of repression did not take place within a person's consciousness. Thus, people are unaware of the fact that they have buried memories or traumatic experiences.
Later, Freud distinguished between three concepts of the unconscious: the descriptive unconscious, the dynamic unconscious, and the system unconscious. The descriptive unconscious referred to all those features of mental life of which people are not subjectively aware. The dynamic unconscious, a more specific construct, referred to mental processes and contents that are defensively removed from consciousness as a result of conflicting attitudes. The system unconscious denoted the idea that when mental processes are repressed, they become organized by principles different from those of the conscious mind, such as condensation and displacement.
Eventually, Freud abandoned the idea of the system unconscious, replacing it with the concept of the id, ego, and super-ego. Throughout his career, however, he retained the descriptive and dynamic conceptions of the unconscious.
Psychosexual development
Freud hoped to prove that his model was universally valid and thus turned to ancient mythology and contemporary ethnography for comparative material. Freud named his new theory the Oedipus complex after the famous Greek tragedy ''Oedipus Rex'' by Sophocles. "I found in myself a constant love for my mother, and jealousy of my father. I now consider this to be a universal event in childhood," Freud said. Freud sought to anchor this pattern of development in the dynamics of the mind. Each stage is a progression into adult sexual maturity, characterized by a strong ego and the ability to delay gratification (cf. ''Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality''). He used the Oedipus conflict to point out how much he believed that people desire incest and must repress that desire. The Oedipus conflict was described as a state of psychosexual development and awareness. He also turned to anthropological studies of totemism and argued that totemism reflected a ritualized enactment of a tribal Oedipal conflict. Freud also believed that the Oedipus complex was bisexual, involving an attraction to both parentsTraditional accounts have held that, as a result of frequent reports from his patients, in the mid-1890s Freud posited that psychoneuroses were a consequence of early childhood sexual abuse. More specifically, in three papers published in 1896 he contended that ''unconscious memories'' of sexual abuse in infancy are a necessary precondition for the development of adult psychoneuroses. However, examination of Freud's original papers has revealed that his clinical claims were not based on patients' reports but were findings deriving from his analytical clinical methodology, which at that time included coercive procedures. He privately expressed his loss of faith in the theory to his friend Fliess in September 1897, giving several reasons, including that he had not been able to bring a single case to a successful conclusion. In 1906, while still maintaining that his earlier claims to have uncovered early childhood sexual abuse events remained valid, he postulated a new theory of the occurrence of unconscious infantile fantasies. He had incorporated his notions of unconscious fantasies in ''The Interpretation of Dreams'' (1900), but did not explicitly relate his seduction theory claims to the Oedipus theory until 1925. Notwithstanding his abandonment of the seduction theory, Freud always recognized that some neurotics had experienced childhood sexual abuse.
Freud also believed that the libido developed in individuals by changing its object, a process codified by the concept of sublimation. He argued that humans are born "polymorphously perverse", meaning that any number of objects could be a source of pleasure. He further argued that, as humans develop, they become fixated on different and specific objects through their stages of development—first in the oral stage (exemplified by an infant's pleasure in nursing), then in the anal stage (exemplified by a toddler's pleasure in evacuating his or her bowels), then in the phallic stage. In the latter stage, Freud contended, male infants become fixated on the mother as a sexual object (known as the Oedipus Complex), a phase brought to an end by threats of castration, resulting in the ''castration complex'', the severest trauma in his young life. (In his later writings Freud postulated an equivalent Oedipus situation for infant girls, the sexual fixation being on the father. Though not advocated by Freud himself, the term 'Electra complex' is sometimes used in this context.) The repressive or dormant latency stage of psychosexual development preceded the sexually mature genital stage of psychosexual development.
Id, ego, and super-ego
In his later work, Freud proposed that the human psyche could be divided into three parts: Id, ego, and super-ego. Freud discussed this model in the 1920 essay ''Beyond the Pleasure Principle'', and fully elaborated upon it in ''The Ego and the Id'' (1923), in which he developed it as an alternative to his previous topographic schema (i.e., conscious, unconscious, and preconscious). The id is the impulsive, child-like portion of the psyche that operates on the "pleasure principle" and only takes into account what it wants and disregards all consequences.Freud acknowledged that his use of the term ''Id'' (''das Es'', "the It") derives from the writings of Georg Groddeck.
The super-ego is the moral component of the psyche, which takes into account no special circumstances in which the morally right thing may not be right for a given situation. The rational ego attempts to exact a balance between the impractical hedonism of the id and the equally impractical moralism of the super-ego; it is the part of the psyche that is usually reflected most directly in a person's actions. When overburdened or threatened by its tasks, it may employ defense mechanisms including denial, repression, and displacement. This concept is usually represented by the "Iceberg Model". This model represents the roles the Id, Ego, and Super Ego play in relation to conscious and unconscious thought.
Life and death drives
Freud believed that people are driven by two conflicting central desires: the life drive (libido or Eros) (survival, propagation, hunger, thirst, and sex) and the death drive. The death drive was also termed "Thanatos", although Freud did not use that term; "Thanatos" was introduced in this context by Paul Federn.In ''Beyond the Pleasure Principle'', Freud inferred the existence of the death instinct. Its premise was a regulatory principle that has been described as "the principle of psychic inertia", "the Nirvana principle", and "the conservatism of instinct". Its background was Freud's earlier ''Project for a Scientific Psychology'', where he had defined the principle governing the mental apparatus as its tendency to divest itself of quantity or to reduce tension to zero. Freud had been obliged to abandon that definition, since it proved to be adequate only to the most rudimentary kinds of mental functioning, and replaced the idea that the apparatus tends toward a level of zero tension with the idea that it tends toward a minimum level of tension.
Freud in effect readopted the original definition in ''Beyond the Pleasure Principle'', this time applying it to a different principle. He asserted that on certain occasions the mind acts as though could eliminate tension entirely, or in effect to reduce itself to a state of extinction; his key evidence for this was the existence of the compulsion to repeat. Examples of such repetition included the dream life of traumatic neurotics and children's play. In the phenomenon of repetition, Freud saw a psychic trend to work over earlier impressions, to master them and derive pleasure from them, a trend was prior to the pleasure principle but not opposed to it. In addition to that trend, however, there was also a principle at work that was opposed to, and thus "beyond" the pleasure principle. If repetition is a necessary element in the binding of energy or adaptation, when carried to inordinate lengths it becomes a means of abandoning adaptations and reinstating earlier or less evolved psychic positions. By combining this idea with the hypothesis that all repetition is a form of discharge, Freud reached the conclusion that the compulsion to repeat is an effort to restore a state that is both historically primitive and marked by the total draining of energy: death.
Religion
Freud regarded the monotheistic god as an illusion based upon the infantile emotional need for a powerful, supernatural pater familias. He maintained that religion – once necessary to restrain man’s violent nature in the early stages of civilization – in modern times, can be set aside in favor of reason and science. “Obsessive Actions and Religious Practices” (1907) notes the likeness between faith (religious belief) and neurotic obsession. ''Totem and Taboo'' (1913) proposes that society and religion begin with the patricide and eating of the powerful paternal figure, who then becomes a revered collective memory. In ''Civilization and its Discontents'' (1930), he describes religion as an “oceanic sensation” he never experienced, (despite being a self-identified cultural Jew). ''Moses and Monotheism'' (1937) proposes that Moses was the tribal pater familias, killed by the Jews, who psychologically coped with the patricide with a reaction formation conducive to their establishing monotheist Judaism; analogously, he described the Roman Catholic rite of Holy Communion as cultural evidence of the killing and devouring of the sacred father. Moreover, he perceived religion, with its suppression of violence, as mediator of the societal and personal, the public and the private, conflicts between Eros and Thanatos, the forces of life and death. Later works indicate Freud’s pessimism about the future of civilization, which he noted in the 1931 edition of ''Civilization and its Discontents''.
Legacy
Psychotherapy
Freud provided the basis for the entire field of individual verbal psychotherapy. According to Donald H. Ford and Hugh B. Urban, "Later systems have differed about therapy and technique in certain respects, but all of them have been constructed around Freud's basic discovery that if one can arrange a special set of conditions and have the patient talk about his difficulties in certain ways, behavior changes of many kinds can be accomplished." For Joel Kovel, "Freud with his methods and central insight remains the progenitor of modern therapy", even though psychoanalysis itself has "sunk to a relatively minor role so far as actual therapeutic practice goes."Jacques Lacan approached psychoanalysis through linguistics and literature. Lacan believed that Freud's essential work had been done prior to 1905, and concerned the interpretation of dreams, neurotic symptoms, and slips, which had been based on a revolutionary way of understanding language and its relation to experience and subjectivity. Lacan regarded ego psychology and object relations theory as based upon misreadings of Freud's work; for Lacan, the determinative dimension of human experience is neither the self (as in ego psychology) nor relations with others (as in object relations theory), but language. Lacan saw desire as more important than need, and considered it necessarily ungratifiable; in Stephen A. Mitchell and Margaret J. Black's words, "for Lacan, the child comes to desire above all else to be the completing object of the m(other's) desire."
Wilhelm Reich developed ideas that Freud had developed at the beginning of his psychoanalytic investigation, but then superseded but never finally discarded; these were the concept of the Actualneurosis, and a theory of anxiety based upon the idea of dammed-up libido. In Freud's original view, what really happened to a person (the 'actual') determined the resulting neurotic disposition. Freud applied that idea both to infants and to adults; in the former case, seductions were sought as the causes of later neuroses, and in the latter incomplete sexual release. Unlike Freud, Reich retained the idea that actual experience, especially sexual experience, was of key significance. Kovel writes that by the 1920s, Reich had "taken Freud's original ideas about sexual release to the point of specifying the orgasm as the criteria of healthy function." Reich was also "developing his ideas about character into a form that would later take shape, first as 'muscular armour', and eventually as a transducer of universal biological energy, the ''orgone''."
Arthur Janov's primal therapy has been an influential post-Freudian psychotherapy. Joel Kovel writes that primal therapy resembles psychoanalytic therapy in its emphasis on early childhood experience, but nevertheless has profound differences with it. While Janov's theory is akin to Freud's early idea of Actualneurosis, he does not have a dynamic psychology but a nature psychology in which need is primary while wish is derivative and dispensable when need is met. Despite its surface similarity to Freud's ideas, Janov's theory lacks a strictly psychological account of the unconscious and belief in infantile sexuality. While for Freud there was a hierarchy of danger situations, for Janov the key event in the child's life is awareness that the parents do not love it. Mark Pendergrast writes that Janov provided the prototype for the current trauma therapist.
Journalist Ethan Watters and Professor of Sociology Richard Ofshe write, "There is no scientific evidence of...[a] purposeful unconscious, nor is there evidence that psychotherapists have special methods for laying bare our out-of-awareness mental processes." They also write that, "Because of the massive investment the field of psychotherapy has made in the psychodynamic approach, the dying convulsions of the paradigm will not be pretty."
Science
Verdicts on the scientific merits of Freud's theories have differed. Gilbert Ryle calls Freud "psychology's one man of genius" and the influence of his teaching "deservedly profound" even though its allegories have been "damagingly popular", while David Stafford-Clark calls him "a man whose name will always rank with those of Darwin, Copernicus, Newton, Marx and Einstein; someone who really made a difference to the way the rest of us can begin to think about the meaning of human life and society." Seymour Fisher and Roger P. Greenberg write that, "A reservoir of experimental data pertinent to Freud's work currently exists and...offers support for a respectable number of his major ideas and theories." In contrast, Eysenck claims that Freud "set psychiatry back one hundred years" and that "what is true in his theories is not new and what is new in his theories is not true", Peter Medawar, a Nobel Prize winning immunologist, made the oft-quoted remark that psychoanalysis is the "most stupendous intellectual confidence trick of the twentieth century", and Webster calls it "perhaps the most complex and successful" pseudoscience in history. Crews writes that "Step by step, we are learning that Freud has been the most overrated figure in the entire history of science and medicine—one who wrought immense harm through the propagation of false etiologies, mistaken diagnoses, and fruitless lines of inquiry."Karl Popper, who argued that all proper scientific theories must be potentially falsifiable, claimed that Freud's psychoanalytic theories were presented in unfalsifiable form, meaning that no experiment or observation could ever prove them wrong. Grünbaum considers Popper's critique of Freud flawed, and argues that many of Freud's theories are empirically testable, for example the theory that paranoia results from repressed homosexuality invites the falsifiable prediction that a decline in the repression of homosexuality will result in a corresponding decline in paranoia, thereby disproving Popper's claim that psychoanalytic propositions can never be proven wrong. However, Grünbaum's view has in turn been challenged from different perspectives. Gellner describes Freudian psychoanalysis as "an inherently untestable system [that] can and does often permit a kind of ''ex gratia'' testing, on the understanding that this privilege remains easily revocable at will and short notice". Frank Cioffi and Allen Esterson both dispute Grünbaum's contentions that Freud was "hospitable to refutation" and his modifications of his theories as a rule "clearly motivated by evidence", arguing that his exegesis of Freud's writings is flawed on this issue.
According to a study that appeared in the June 2008 issue of ''The Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association'', while psychoanalysis remains influential in the humanities, it is regarded as "desiccated and dead" by psychology departments and textbooks. ''The New York Times'' commented that to psychoanalysts the report underscores "pressing questions about the relevance of their field and whether it will survive as a practice", noting that the marginalization of Freudian theory in psychology departments has been attributed to psychoanalysts being out of step with the way in which other disciplines in psychology have placed "emphasis on testing the validity of their approaches scientifically." Meanwhile, advances in neuroscience have "attracted new students and resources, further squeezing out psychoanalysis."
Researchers in the emerging field of neuro-psychoanalysis, founded by neuroscientist and psychoanalyst Mark Solms, have argued for Freud's theories, pointing out brain structures relating to Freudian concepts such as libido, drives, the unconscious, and repression. However, Solms's case is frequently dependent on the notion of neuro-scientific findings being "broadly consistent" with Freudian theories, rather than strict validations of those theories. More generally the dream researcher G. William Domhoff has disputed claims of ''specifically'' Freudian dream theory being validated as contended by Solms. There has also been criticism of the very concept of neuro-psychoanalysis by psychoanalysts.
Philosophy
Freud's theories have influenced the Frankfurt School and critical theory. Herbert Marcuse's ''Eros and Civilization'' helped make the idea that Freud and Marx were "speaking to similar questions, if from very different vantage points" credible to the left. Marcuse criticized neo-Freudian revisionism for discarding the death instinct, the primal horde, and the killing of the primal father, which he saw as Freud's most daring hypotheses and possessed of symbolic value, and for flattening out the conflicts between individual and society and between instinctual desires and consciousness, which he saw as a conformist return to pre-Freudian psychology. Rejecting the idea that the death instinct meant an innate urge to aggression, Marcuse interpreted it instead as aiming at the end of the tension that is life. For Marcuse, since it was based on the so-called Nirvana principle, which expressed yearning for the tranquility of inorganic nature, the death instinct was similar in its goals to the life instinct. Marcuse argued that if the tension of life were reduced, the death instinct would cease to be very powerful, thereby turning Freud's seemingly pessimistic conclusions in a utopian direction.Erich Fromm identifies Freud, together with Karl Marx and Albert Einstein, as the "architects of the modern age", while nevertheless remarking, "That Marx is a figure of world historical significance with whom Freud cannot even be compared in this respect hardly needs to be said." For Paul Robinson, Freud "rendered for the twentieth century services comparable to those Marx rendered for the nineteenth."
Maurice Merleau-Ponty considers Freud, like Hegel, Kierkegaard, Marx, and Nietzsche, to be one of the anticipators of phenomenology. Theodor W. Adorno writes that Freud was Edmund Husserl's "opposite number...against the entire claim and tendency of whose psychology Husserl's polemic against psychologism could have been directed." Paul Ricoeur sees Freud as one of the masters of the "school of suspicion", alongside Marx and Nietzsche. Ricoeur and Jürgen Habermas have helped create "a distinctly hermeneutic version of Freud", one which "claimed him as the most significant progenitor of the shift from an objectifying, empiricist understanding of the human realm to one stressing subjectivity and interpretation." Their hermeneutic interpretation of Freud has been criticized by Adolf Grünbaum, who argues that it radically misrepresents Freud's views.
Jacques Derrida finds Freud to be both a late figure in the history of western metaphysics and, with Nietzsche and Heidegger, an important precursor of his own brand of radicalism.
Bernard Williams writes that there has been hope that some psychoanalytical theories may "support some ethical conception as a necessary part of human happiness", but that in some cases the theories appear to support such hopes because they themselves involve ethical thought. In his view, while such theories may be better as channels of individual help because of their ethical basis, it disqualifies them from providing a basis for ethics.
Feminism
Robinson, observing that "Everyone knows that Freud has fallen from grace", suggests that the disenchantment with Freud can be traced to the revival of feminism. Simone de Beauvoir criticized Freud and psychoanalysis in ''The Second Sex''. Betty Friedan criticized Freud and what she considered his Victorian view of women in ''The Feminine Mystique''. Freud's concept of penis envy was attacked by Kate Millett, whose ''Sexual Politics'' accused him of confusion and oversights. Naomi Weisstein writes that Freud and his followers erroneously thought that his "years of intensive clinical experience" added up to scientific rigor. Freud was also criticized by Shulamith Firestone and Eva Figes. In ''The Dialectic of Sex'', Firestone argued that Freud was a "poet" who produced metaphors rather than literal truths; in her view, Freud, like feminists, recognized that sexuality was the crucial problem of modern life, but ignored the social context and failed to question society itself. Firestone interpreted Freudian "metaphors" in terms of the literal facts of power within the family. Juliet Mitchell defended Freud against de Beauvoir, Friedan, Millett, Figes, and Firestone in ''Psychoanalysis and Feminism'', accusing them of misreading him and misunderstanding the implications of psychoanalytic theory for feminism. Mitchell's views were in turn criticized by Jane Gallop in ''The Daughter's Seduction: Feminism and Psychoanalysis''. Gallop complements Mitchell for her criticism of "the distortions inflicted by feminists upon Freud's text and his discoveries", but finds her treatment of Lacanian theory lacking.Some French feminists, among them Julia Kristeva and Luce Irigaray, have been influenced by Freud as interpreted by Jacques Lacan. Irigaray has produced a theoretical challenge to Freud and Lacan, using their theories against them to "put forward a coherent psychoanalytic explanation for theoretical bias. She claims that the cultural unconscious only recognizes the male sex, and details the effects of this unconscious belief on accounts of the psychology of women."
Carol Gilligan writes that "The penchant of developmental theorists to project a masculine image, and one that appears frightening to women, goes back at least to Freud..." She sees Freud's criticism of women's sense of justice reappearing in the work of Jean Piaget and Lawrence Kohlberg. Gilligan notes that Nancy Chodorow, in contrast to Freud, attributes differences between the sexes not to anatomy but to the fact that "the early social environment differs for and is experienced differently by male and female children." Chodorow writes "against the masculine bias of psychoanalytic theory" and "replaces Freud's negative and derivative description of female psychology with a positive and direct account of her own."
Works
Major works by Freud
Correspondence
Other works and essays
See also
References
Further reading
Substantial biographies
Authorized biography
Other biographies
Other works about Freud and the psychoanalytic movement
External links
, made in 1938
Category:Austrian atheists Category:Austrian Jews Category:Austrian psychoanalysts Category:Foreign Members of the Royal Society Category:Jewish atheists Category:Jews who emigrated to the United Kingdom to escape Nazism Category:Narcissism Category:People from Příbor Category:People of the Edwardian era Category:1856 births Category:1939 deaths Category:History of psychiatry
af:Sigmund Freud als:Sigmund Freud am:ፍሮይድ ar:سيغموند فرويد an:Sigmund Freud arc:ܙܝܓܡܘܢܕ ܦܪܘܝܕ ast:Sigmund Freud az:Ziqmund Freyd bn:সিগমুন্ড ফ্রয়েড zh-min-nan:Sigmund Freud map-bms:Sigmund Freud be:Зігмунд Фрэйд be-x-old:Зыгмунд Фройд bcl:Sigmund Freud bar:Sigmund Freud bs:Sigmund Freud br:Sigmund Freud bg:Зигмунд Фройд ca:Sigmund Freud cs:Sigmund Freud co:Sigmund Freud cy:Sigmund Freud da:Sigmund Freud de:Sigmund Freud et:Sigmund Freud el:Σίγκμουντ Φρόυντ es:Sigmund Freud eo:Sigmund Freud ext:Sigmund Freud eu:Sigmund Freud fa:زیگموند فروید hif:Sigmund Freud fr:Sigmund Freud fy:Sigmund Freud ga:Sigmund Freud gv:Sigmund Freud gd:Sigmund Freud gl:Sigmund Freud gan:弗洛伊德 ko:지그문트 프로이트 hy:Զիգմունդ Ֆրոյդ hi:सिग्मुंड फ़्रोइड hr:Sigmund Freud io:Sigmund Freud id:Sigmund Freud ia:Sigmund Freud os:Фрейд, Зигмунд is:Sigmund Freud it:Sigmund Freud he:זיגמונד פרויד jv:Sigmund Freud kn:ಸಿಗ್ಮಂಡ್ ಫ್ರಾಯ್ಡ್ pam:Sigmund Freud ka:ზიგმუნდ ფროიდი kk:Зигмунд Фрейд sw:Sigmund Freud ht:Sigmund Freud ku:Sigmund Freud la:Sigismundus Freud lv:Zigmunds Freids lb:Sigmund Freud lt:Sigmund Freud lij:Sigmund Freud hu:Sigmund Freud mk:Зигмунд Фројд ml:സിഗ്മണ്ട് ഫ്രോയിഡ് mr:सिग्मुंड फ्रॉइड arz:سيجموند فرويد mzn:زیگموند فروید ms:Sigmund Freud cdo:Să̤-gáh-mūng Hók-lèu-dáik mn:Зигмунд Фрейд nl:Sigmund Freud new:सिग्मंड फ्रायड ja:ジークムント・フロイト no:Sigmund Freud nn:Sigmund Freud oc:Sigmund Freud uz:Sigmund Freud pnb:سگمنڈ فرائیڈ ps:سېګمونډ فرايډ koi:Zigmund Freud pms:Sigmund Freud pl:Sigmund Freud pt:Sigmund Freud kaa:Sigmund Freud ro:Sigmund Freud qu:Sigmund Freud rue:Зіґмунд Фройд ru:Фрейд, Зигмунд sah:Зигмунд Фрейд sa:सिग्मंड फ़्रुड् sc:Sigmund Freud sco:Sigmund Freud sq:Zigmund Froid scn:Sigmund Freud si:සිග්මන්ඩ් ෆ්රොයිඩි simple:Sigmund Freud sk:Sigmund Freud sl:Sigmund Freud szl:Sigmund Freud ckb:سیگمۆند فرۆید sr:Сигмунд Фројд sh:Sigmund Freud fi:Sigmund Freud sv:Sigmund Freud tl:Sigmund Freud ta:சிக்மண்ட் பிராய்ட் kab:Sigmund Freud te:సిగ్మండ్ ఫ్రాయిడ్ th:ซิกมุนด์ ฟรอยด์ tr:Sigmund Freud uk:Зигмунд Фрейд ur:فرائڈ za:Sigmund Freud vi:Sigmund Freud war:Sigmund Freud wuu:弗洛伊德 yi:זיגמונד פרויד yo:Sigmund Freud zh-yue:弗洛伊德 bat-smg:Zėgmonds Froids zh:西格蒙德·弗洛伊德
This text is licensed under the Creative Commons CC-BY-SA License. This text was originally published on Wikipedia and was developed by the Wikipedia community.
Lowell Mason (January 8, 1792 - August 11, 1872) was a leading figure in American church music, the composer of over 1600 hymn tunes, many of which are often sung today. His most well-known tunes include Mary Had A Little Lamb and the arrangement of Joy to the World. He was also largely responsible for introducing music into American public schools, and is considered to be the first important music educator in the United States. In the last part of his career, as music director of the Fifth Avenue Presbyterian Church in New York City, he radically transformed American church music from a practice of having professional choirs and accompaniment to congregational singing accompanied by organ music.
Life
Mason was born and grew up in Medfield, Massachusetts, where he became the Music Director of First Parish (now First Parish Unitarian Universalist) Church at age 17. His birthplace was saved from development in 2011. It was relocated to a town park on Green Street. The Lowell Mason Foundation is leading a grassroots community effort, in conjunction with music educators, to create a Lowell Mason museum and music education center.He spent the first part of his adulthood in Savannah, Georgia, where he worked first in a dry-goods store, then in a bank. He had very strong amateur musical interests, and studied music with the German teacher Frederick L. Abel, eventually starting to write his own music. He also became a leader in the music of the Independent Presbyterian Church, where he served as choir director and organist. Under his initiative, his church also created the first Sunday school for black children in America.
Following an earlier British model, Mason embarked on the task of producing a hymnal whose tunes would be drawn from the work of European classical composers such as Haydn and Mozart. Mason had great difficulty in finding a publisher for this work. Ultimately, it was published (1822) by the Handel and Haydn Society of Boston, which was one of the earliest American organizations devoted to classical music. Mason's hymnal turned out to be a great success. The work was at first published anonymously—Mason felt that his main career was as a banker, and he hoped not to damage his career prospects.
In 1827, Mason moved to Boston, where he continued his banking career for some time. Mason served as choirmaster and organist at Park Street Church from 1829 to 1831. Mason eventually became a music director for three churches including the Hanover Street whose pastor was the famous Lyman Beecher, in a six-month rotation. Mason became an important figure on the Boston musical scene: He served as president of the Handel and Haydn Society, taught music in the public schools, was co-founder of the Boston Academy of Music (1833), and in 1838 was appointed music superintendent for the Boston school system. In the 1830s, Mason set to music the nursery rhyme "Mary Had a Little Lamb". In 1845 political machinations in the Boston school committee led to the termination of his services.
In 1851, at the age of 59, Mason retired from Boston musical activity and moved to New York City where his sons, Daniel and Lowell, Jr. had a music business. On December 20, 1851 he set sail to Europe. During his tour of Europe in 1852 he developed a great interest and enthusiasm for congregational singing, especially that in the German churches of Nicolaikirche in Leipzig and the Kreuzkirche in Dresden.
Following his return to New York City he accepted the position as music director in 1853 for the Fifth Avenue Presbyterian Church which had just completed construction of a new church edifice on Nineteenth Street. He immediately disbanded its choir and orchestra and installed an organ with his son, William, serving as organist. During his tenure, which lasted until 1860, he developed congregational singing to the point where the church was known has having the finest congregational singing in the city. In 1859 Mason, along with Edwards A. Parks and Austin Phelps published the "Sabbath Hymn and Tune Book".
In 1860 he retired to his estate in Orange, New Jersey, where he remained active in the Congregational Church there. He remained an important and influential figure for the rest of his life.
Assessment of life
Modern scholars (for example, the editors of the New Grove) condemn Mason for his focus on European classical music as a model for what Americans should be singing and performing. The famous hymn and Christmas carol "Joy to the World" is a good example: it is debated whether the tune of this hymn is by George Frideric Handel or by Mason himself, but it certainly sounds inspired by European classical music.Mason is given credit for popularizing European classical music in a region where it was seldom performed, and since his day the United States has been firmly part of the global region in which this form of music is cultivated.
The New Grove editors condemn Mason's introduction of European models for American hymnody for choking off a flourishing participatory native tradition of church music which had produced outstanding compositions by such composers as William Billings. Mason and his colleagues (notably his brother Timothy Mason) characterized this music as backwoods material, "unscientific" and unworthy of modern Americans. They taught their views through a new form of singing school, set up to replace the old singing schools dating from colonial times.
In comparison with the earlier forms of American sacred music, the music that Mason and his colleagues propagated would be considered by many musicians to be rhythmically more homogeneous and harmonically less forceful. By emphasizing the soprano line, it also made the other choral parts less interesting to sing. Lastly, the new music generally required the support of an organ, which, perhaps only incidentally, was a Mason family business.
The earlier tradition retreated to the inland rural South, where it resisted efforts at conversion, surviving in the form of (for example) Sacred Harp music, a genre that in modern times has actually grown in popularity as Americans in all regions rediscover the vigor of pre-Lowell Mason American sacred music.
The final part of his career at the Fifth Avenue Presbyterian Church probably had the most enduring impact on American church music. Mason made the dramatic shift personally from viewing church congregations as utterly devoid of any propensity for singing to one in which he vigorously promoted congregational singing and eliminated all professional musicians save the organist.
Although Presbyterians were slow in their acceptance of this radical change, congregational singing, in time, became the accepted standard in all denominations to one extent or another, with the Roman Catholic Church being the last holdout until the latter decades of the 20th century. It is only within recent years with the advent of Contemporary Christian Music in Pentecostal and other Evangelical churches that church music is now making a broad shift back from congregational singing accompanied by only a piano, organ or piano and organ together, to music led by "worship teams" and "praise teams."
Relatives
Lowell Mason was the father of Henry Mason (the founder of the Mason and Hamlin firm), as well as composer William Mason. He was the grandfather of Daniel Gregory Mason, a music critic and composer and John B. Mason, a popular late nineteenth and early twentieth century stage actor.
References
Further reading
External links
Category:1792 births Category:1872 deaths Category:American composers Category:Composers of Christian music Category:Romantic composers Category:People from Norfolk County, Massachusetts Category:People from Savannah, Georgia Category:People from Orange, New Jersey
de:Lowell Mason he:לואל מייסון ja:ローウェル・メイスン sv:Lowell MasonThis text is licensed under the Creative Commons CC-BY-SA License. This text was originally published on Wikipedia and was developed by the Wikipedia community.
9:17
Lincoln/Net, 1818-1861: Kansas-Nebraska Act and the Rise of the Republican Party 1854-1856
niulibdiglab
Lincoln/Net, 1818-1861: Kansas-Nebraska Act and the Rise of the Republican Party 1854-1856
This video concerning the topic of the Kansas-Nebraska Act and the Rise of the Republican Party, comes from the Lincoln/Net website (lincoln.lib.niu.edu), which is acreation of Northern Illinois University Libraries' Digital Initiatives...
8:39
The Wonders of Oz Episode 1
RoyalKidofOz
The Wonders of Oz Episode 1
L. Frank Baum and The Wonderful Wizard of Oz This episodes relates the life of L. Frank Baum from his birth in 1856 to Christmas, 1900. The next episode will continue his story. Aaron Pacentine of videosforfamily.com narrates. MORE CREDITS:...
show more
Video Suggestions
 - Kamešnica, Crimean Landscape 1856, 1856 Harvey Bull Engine, Kearney Plays:Johann Kaspar Mertz (1806-1856), La Rimembranza){kind=link}