Rhythm and blues, often abbreviated to R&B and RnB, is a genre of popular African-American music that originated in the 1940s.^[1] The term was originally used by record companies to describe recordings marketed predominantly to urban African Americans, at a time when "urbane, rocking, jazz based music with a heavy, insistent beat" was becoming more popular.^[2]

The term has subsequently had a number of shifts in meaning. In the early 1950s, the term rhythm and blues was frequently applied to blues records.^[3] Starting in the mid-1950s, after this style of music contributed to the development of rock and roll, the term "R&B" became used to refer to music styles that developed from and incorporated electric blues, as well as gospel and soul music. By the 1970s, rhythm and blues was used as a blanket term for soul and funk. In the 1980s, a newer style of R&B developed, becoming known as "Contemporary R&B".

Etymology[link]

Jerry Wexler of Billboard magazine coined the term "rhythm and blues" in 1948 as a musical marketing term in the United States.^[4] It replaced the term "race music", which originally came from within the black community, but was deemed offensive in the postwar world.^[5][6] The term "rhythm and blues" was used by Billboard in its chart listings from June 1949 until August 1969, when its "Hot Rhythm & Blues Singles" chart was renamed as "Best Selling Soul Singles".^[7]

Writer/producer Robert Palmer defined rhythm & blues as "a catchall term referring to any music that was made by and for black Americans".^[8] He has used the term "R&B" as a synonym for jump blues.^[9] However, Allmusic separates it from jump blues because of its stronger, gospel-esque backbeat.^[10] Lawrence Cohn, author of Nothing but the Blues, writes that "rhythm and blues" was an umbrella term invented for industry convenience. According to him, the term embraced all black music except classical music and religious music, unless a gospel song sold enough to break into the charts.^[11] Well into the 21st Century, the term R&B continues in use (in some contexts) to categorize music made by black musicians, as distinct from styles of music made by other musicians.^[12]

In the commercial rhythm and blues music typical of the 1950s through the 1970s, the bands usually consisted of piano, one or two guitars, bass, drums, and saxophone. Arrangements were rehearsed to the point of effortlessness and were sometimes accompanied by background vocalists. Simple repetitive parts mesh, creating momentum and rhythmic interplay producing mellow, lilting, and often hypnotic textures while calling attention to no individual sound. While singers are emotionally engaged with the lyrics, often intensely so, they remain cool, relaxed, and in control. The bands dressed in suits, and even uniforms, a practice associated with the modern popular music that rhythm and blues performers aspired to dominate. Lyrics often seemed fatalistic, and the music typically followed predictable patterns of chords and structure.^[13]

History[link]

T-Bone Walker, American Folk Blues Festival 1972 (Heinrich Klaffs Collection 46)

Precursors[link]

Louis Jordan, New York, N.Y., ca. July 1946 (William P. Gottlieb 04721)

The migration of African Americans to the urban industrial centers of Chicago, Detroit, New York, Los Angeles and elsewhere in the 1920s and 1930s created a new market for jazz, blues, and related genres of music, often performed by full-time musicians, either working alone or in small groups. The precursors of rhythm and blues came from jazz and blues, which overlapped in the Late-1920s,1930s through the work of musicians such as The Harlem Hamfats, with their 1936 hit "Oh Red", as well as Lonnie Johnson, Leroy Carr, Cab Calloway, Count Basie, and T-Bone Walker. There was also increasing emphasis on the electric guitar as a lead instrument, as well as the piano and saxophone.^[14]

Late 1940s[link]

Big Joe Turner, Hamburg 1974 (Heinrich Klaffs Collection 86)

In 1948, RCA Victor was marketing black music under the name "Blues and Rhythm". In that year, Louis Jordan dominated the top five listings of the R&B charts with three songs, and two of the top five songs were based on the boogie-woogie rhythms that had come to prominence during the 1940s.^[15] Jordan's band, the Tympany Five (formed in 1938), consisted of him on saxophone and vocals, along with musicians on trumpet, tenor saxophone, piano, bass and drums.^[16][17] Lawrence Cohn described the music as "grittier than his boogie-era jazz-tinged blues".^[18] Robert Palmer described it as "urbane, rocking, jazz based music with a heavy, insistent beat".^[2] Jordan's cool music, along with that of Big Joe Turner, Roy Brown, Billy Wright, and Wynonie Harris, is now also referred to as jump blues. Also in 1948, Wynonie Harris' remake of Roy Brown's 1947 recording "Good Rockin' Tonight" hit the charts in the #2 spot, following band leader Sonny Thompson's "Long Gone" at #1.^[19][20]

In 1949, the term "Rhythm and Blues" replaced the Billboard category Harlem Hit Parade.^[11] Also in that year, "The Huckle-Buck", recorded by band leader and saxophonist Paul Williams, was the #1 R&B tune, remaining on top of the charts for nearly the entire year. Written by musician and arranger Andy Gibson, the song was described as a "dirty boogie" because it was risque and raunchy.^[21] Paul Williams and His Hucklebuckers' concerts were sweaty riotous affairs that got shut down on more than one occasion. Their lyrics, by Roy Alfred (who later co-wrote the 1955 hit "(The) Rock and Roll Waltz"), were mildly sexually suggestive, and one teenager from Philadelphia said "That Hucklebuck was a very nasty dance".^[22][23] Also in 1949, a new version of a 1920s blues song, "Ain't Nobody's Business" was a #4 hit for Jimmy Witherspoon, and Louis Jordan and the Tympany Five once again made the top 5 with "Saturday Night Fish Fry".^[24] Many of these hit records were issued on new independent record labels, such as Savoy (founded 1942), King (founded 1943), Imperial (founded 1945), Specialty (founded 1946), Chess (founded 1947), and Atlantic (founded 1948).^[14]

Afro-Cuban rhythmic influence[link]

African American music began incorporating Afro-Cuban rhythmic motifs in the 1800s with the popularity of the Cuban contradanza (known outside of Cuba as the habanera). The habanera rhythm can be thought of as a combination of tresillo and the backbeat.

The habanera rhythm shown as tresillo (lower notes) with the backbeat (upper note).

For the more than quarter-century in which the cakewalk, ragtime and proto-jazz were forming and developing, the Cuban genre habanera was a consistent part of African American popular music.^[25] Jazz pioneer Jelly Roll Morton considered the tresillo/habanera rhythm (which he called the Spanish tinge) to be an essential ingredient of jazz.^[26] There are examples of tresillo-like rhythms in some African American folk musics such as the hand clapping and foot stomping patterns in ring shout, post-Civil War drum and fife music, and New Orleans second line music.^[27] Wynton Marsalis considers tresillo to be the New Orleans "clave" (although technically, the pattern is only half a clave).^[28] Tresillo is the most basic duple-pulse rhythmic cell in Sub-Saharan African music traditions, and its use in African American music is one of the clearest examples of African rhythmic retention in the United States.^[29] The use of tresillo was continuously reinforced by the consecutive waves of Cuban music, which were adopted into North American popular culture. In 1940 Bob Zurke released "Rhumboogie," a boogie woogie with a tresillo bass line, and lyrics proudly declaring the adoption of Cuban rhythm:

"Harlem's got a new rhythm, man it's burning up the dance floors because it's so hot! They took a little rhumba rhythm and added boogie woogie and now look what they got! Rhumboogie, it's Harlem's new creation with the Cuban syncopation, it's the killer! Just plant your both feet on each side. Let both your hips and shoulder glide. Then throw your body back and ride. There's nothing like rhumbaoogie, rhumboogie, boogie woogie. In Harlem or Havana, you can kiss the old Savannah. It's a killer!" Watch: The Andrews Sisters performing "Rhumboogie" (1940).

Although originating in the metropolis at the mouth of the Mississippi River, New Orleans blues, with its Afro-Caribbean rhythmic traits, is distinct from the sound of the Mississippi Delta blues.^[30] In the late 1940s, New Orleans musicians were especially receptive to Cuban influences precisely at the time when R&B was first forming.^[31] The first use of tresillo in R&B occurred in New Orleans. Robert Palmer recalls:

Fats Domino 1956

New Orleans producer-bandleader Dave Bartholomew first employed this figure (as a saxophone-section riff) on his own 1949 disc "Country Boy" and subsequently helped make it the most over-used rhythmic pattern in 1950’s rock ‘n’ roll. On numerous recordings by Fats Domino, Little Richard and others, Bartholomew assigned this repeating three-note pattern not just to the string bass, but also to electric guitars and even baritone sax, making for a very heavy bottom. He recalls first hearing the figure – as a bass pattern on a Cuban disc" (1995).^[32]

In a 1988 interview with Palmer, Bartholomew (who had the first R&B studio band),^[33] revealed how he initially superimposed tresillo over swing rhythm:

"I heard the bass playing that part on a 'rumba' record. On 'Country Boy' I had my bass and drums playing a straight swing rhythm and wrote out that 'rumba' bass part for the saxes to play on top of the swing rhythm. Later, especially after rock ‘n’ roll came along, I made the 'rumba' bass part heavier and heavier. I’d have the string bass, an electric guitar and a baritone all in unison."^[34]

Bartholomew referred to the Cuban son by the misnomer rumba, a common practice of that time. Listen: "Country Boy" by Dave Bartholomew (1949). Fats Domino's "Blue Monday," produced by Bartholomew, is another example of this now classic use of tresillo in R&B. Listen: Fat's Domino's "Blue Monday" (1956). On Bartholomew's 1949 tresillo-based "Oh Cubanas" we clearly hear an attempt to blend African American and Afro-Cuban music. The word mambo, larger than any of the other text, is placed prominently on the 45' label.

In his composition "Misery," New Orleans pianist Professor Longhair (Henry Roeland Byrd) plays a habanera-like figure in his left hand. The deft use of triplets is a characteristic of Longhair's style.

"Misery" by Professor Longhair (1957).

Gerhard Kubik notes that with the exception of New Orleans, early blues lacked complex polyrhythms, and there was a "very specific absence of asymmetric time-line patterns (key patterns) in virtually all early twentieth century African American music . . . only in some New Orleans generes does a hint of simple time line patterns occasionally appear in the form of transient so-called 'stomp' patterns or stop-time chorus. These do do not function in the same way as African time lines."^[35] In the late 1940s this changed somewhat when the two-celled time line structure was brought into the blues. New Orleans musicians such as Bartholomew and Longhair incorporated Cuban instruments, as well as the clave pattern and related two-celled figures in songs such as "Carnival Day," (Bartholomew 1949) and "Mardi Gras In New Orleans" (Longhair 1949). While some of these early experiments were awkward fusions, the Afro-Cuban elements were eventually integrated fully into the New Orleans sound.

Robert Palmer reports that, in the 1940s, Professor Longhair listened to and played with musicians from the islands and "fell under the spell of Perez Prado's mambo records."^[36] He was especially enamored with Afro-Cuban music. Michael Campbell states: "Professor Longhair’s influence was . . . far reaching. In several of his early recordings, Professor Longhair blended Afro-Cuban rhythms with rhythm and blues. The most explicit is 'Longhair’s Blues Rhumba,' where he overlays a straightforward blues with a clave rhythm."^[37] Longhair's particular style was known locally as rumba-boogie.^[38] In his "Mardi Gras in New Orleans," the pianist employs the 2-3 clave onbeat/offbeat motif in a rumba boogie "guajeo" (below).^[39] 2-3 clave is written above the piano excerpt for reference.

Piano excerpt from the rumba boogie "Mardi Gras in New Orleans" (1949) by Professor Longhair. 2-3 clave is written above for rhythmic reference.

The syncopated, but straight subdivision feel of Cuban music (as opposed to swung subdivisions) took root in New Orleans R&B during this time. Alexander Stewart states that the popular feel was passed along from "New Orleans—through James Brown's music, to the popular music of the 1970s," adding: "The singular style of rhythm & blues that emerged from New Orleans in the years after World War II played an important role in the development of funk. In a related development, the underlying rhythms of American popular music underwent a basic, yet generally unacknowledged transition from triplet or shuffle feel to even or straight eighth notes.^[40] Concerning the various funk motifs, Stewart states: "This model, it should be noted, is different from a time line (such as clave and tresillo) in that it is not an exact pattern, but more of a loose organizing principle."^[41]

Johnny Otis released the R&B mambo "Mambo Boogie" in January 1951, featuring congas, maracas, claves, and mambo saxophone guajeos in a blues progression.^[42] Listen: "Mambo Boogie" by Johnny Otis (1951).

Saxophone guajeo in blues progression. "Mambo Boogie" by Johnny Otis (1951).

Ike Turner recorded "Cubano Jump" (1954) an electric guitar instrumental, which is built around several 2-3 clave figures, adopted from the mambo. Listen: "Cubano Jump" by Ike Turner (1954). The Hawketts, in "Mardi Gras Mambo" (1955) (featuring the vocals of a young Art Neville), make a clear reference to Perez Prado in their use of his trademark "Unhh!" in the break after the introduction.^[43] Listen: "Mardi Gras Mambo" by the Hawketts (1955).

Ned Sublette states: "The electric blues cats were very well aware of Latin music, and there was definitely such a thing as rhumba blues; you can hear Muddy Waters and Howlin' Wolf playing it."^[44] He also cites Otis Rush, Ike Turner and Ray Charles, as R&B artists who employed this feel.^[44]

The use of clave in R&B coincided with the growing dominance of the backbeat, and the rising popularity of Cuban music in the U.S. In a sense, clave can be distilled down to tresillo (three-side) answered by the backbeat (two-side).^[45]

3-2 clave written in two measures in cut-time.

Tresillo answered by the backbeat, the essence of clave in African American music.

The "Bo Diddley beat" (1955) is perhaps the first true fusion of 3-2 clave and R&B/rock 'n' roll. Watch: "Hey Bo Diddley" performed live by Bo Diddley (1965). Bo Diddley has given different accounts of the riff's origins. Sublette asserts: "In the context of the time, and especially those maracas [heard on the record], 'Bo Diddley' has to be understood as a Latin-tinged record. A rejected cut recorded at the same session was titled only 'Rhumba' on the track sheets."^[46] Johnny Otis' "Willie and the Hand Jive" (1958) is another example of this successful blend of 3-2 clave and R&B. Watch: "Hand Jive" performed by Johnny Otis. The Johnny Otis Show. Otis used the Cuban instruments claves and maracas on the song.

Bo Diddley's "Bo Diddley beat" is a clave-based motif.

Afro-Cuban music became the conduit through which African American music was "re-Africanized," through the adoption of two-celled figures like clave and Afro-Cuban instruments like the conga drum, bongos, maracas and claves. According to John Storm Roberts, R&B became the vehicle for the return of Cuban elements into mass popular music.^[47] Ahmet Etregun, producer for Atlantic Records, is reported to have said that "Afro-Cuban rhythms added color and excitement to the basic drive of R&B."^[48] As Ned Sublette points out though: "By the 1960s, with Cuba the object of a United States embargo that still remains in effect today, the island nation had been forgotten as a source of music. By the time people began to talk about rock and roll as having a history, Cuban music had vanished from North American consciousness."^[49]

Early to mid 1950s[link]

Ray Charles in 1971. Photo: Heinrich Klaffs.

Johnny Otis, who had signed with the Newark, New Jersey-based Savoy Records, produced many R&B hits in 1951, including: "Double Crossing Blues", "Mistrustin' Blues" and "Cupid's Boogie", all of which hit number one that year. Otis scored ten top ten hits that year. Other hits include: "Gee Baby", "Mambo Boogie" and "All Nite Long".^[50] The Clovers, a vocal trio who sang a distinctive sounding combination of blues and gospel, had the #5 hit of the year with "Don't You Know I Love You" on Atlantic Records.^[50][51][52] Also in July 1951, Cleveland, Ohio DJ Alan Freed started a late-night radio show called "The Moondog Rock Roll House Party" on WJW-AM (850).^[53] Freed's show was sponsored by Fred Mintz, whose R&B record store had a primarily African American clientele. Freed began referring to the rhythm and blues music he played as "rock and roll".

In 1951, Little Richard Penniman began recording for RCA Records in the jump blues style of late 1940s stars Roy Brown and Billy Wright. However, it wasn't until he prepared a demo in 1954, that caught the attention of Specialty Records, that the world would start to hear his new, uptempo, funky rhythm and blues that would catapult him to fame in 1955 and help define the sound of rock 'n' roll. A rapid succession of rhythm and blues hits followed, beginning with "Tutti Frutti" and "Long Tall Sally", which would influence performers such as James Brown,^[54] Elvis Presley,^[55] and Otis Redding.^[56]

Ruth Brown on the Atlantic label, placed hits in the top 5 every year from 1951 through 1954: "Teardrops from My Eyes", "Five, Ten, Fifteen Hours", "(Mama) He Treats Your Daughter Mean" and "What a Dream". Faye Adams's "Shake a Hand" made it to #2 in 1952. In 1953, the R&B record-buying public made Willie Mae Thornton's original recording of Leiber and Stoller's "Hound Dog" the #3 hit that year. Ruth Brown was very prominent among female R&B stars. Ruth Brown’s popularity most likely derived because of “her deeply rooted vocal delivery in African American tradition”^{[57] [58]} That same year The Orioles, a doo-wop group, had the #4 hit of the year with "Crying in the Chapel".^[59]

Fats Domino made the top 30 of the pop charts in 1952 and 1953, then the top 10 with "Ain't That a Shame".^[60] Ray Charles came to national prominence in 1955 with "I Got a Woman". Big Bill Broonzy said of Charles' music: "He's mixing the blues with the spirituals... I know that's wrong."^[61]

In 1954 The Chords' "Sh-Boom" became the first hit to cross over from the R&B chart to hit the top 10 early in the year. Late in the year, and into 1955, "Hearts of Stone" by The Charms made the top 20.^[62]

At Chess Records in the spring of 1955, Bo Diddley's debut record "Bo Diddley"/"I'm A Man" climbed to #2 on the R&B charts and popularized Bo Diddley's own original rhythm and blues clave-based vamp that would become a mainstay in rock and roll.

At the urging of Leonard Chess at Chess Records, Chuck Berry had reworked a country fiddle tune with a long history, entitled "Ida Red". The resulting "Maybellene" was not only a #3 hit on the R&B charts in 1955, but also reached into the top 30 on the pop charts. Alan Freed, who had moved to the much larger market of New York City in 1954, helped the record become popular with white teenagers. Freed had been given part of the writers' credit by Chess in return for his promotional activities; a common practice at the time.^[63]

Late 1950s[link]

Della Reese

In 1956, an R&B "Top Stars of '56" tour took place, with headliners Al Hibbler, Frankie Lymon and the Teenagers, and Carl Perkins, whose "Blue Suede Shoes" was very popular with R&B music buyers. Some of the performers completing the bill were Chuck Berry, Cathy Carr, Shirley & Lee, Della Reese, the Cleftones, and the Spaniels with Illinois Jacquet's Big Rockin' Rhythm Band. Cities visited by the tour included Columbia, SC, Annapolis, MD, Pittsburgh, PA, Syracuse, Rochester and Buffalo, NY, into Canada, and through the mid Western US ending in Texas. In Columbia the concert ended with a near riot as Perkins began his first song as the closing act. Perkins is quoted as saying, "It was dangerous. Lot of kids got hurt. There was a lot of rioting going on, just crazy, man! The music drove 'em insane." In Annapolis 70,000 to 50,000 people tried to attend a sold out performance with 8,000 seats. Roads were clogged for seven hours.^[64] Film makers took advantage of the popularity of "rhythm and blues" musicians as "rock n roll" musicians beginning in 1956. Little Richard, Chuck Berry, Fats Domino, Big Joe Turner, The Treniers, The Platters, The Flamingos, all made it onto the big screen.^[65]

Two Elvis Presley records made the R&B top five in 1957: "Jailhouse Rock"/"Treat Me Nice" at #1, and "All Shook Up" at #5, an unprecedented acceptance of a non-African American artist into a music category known for being created by blacks.^[66] Nat King Cole, a former jazz pianist who had had #1 and #2 hits on the pop charts in the early 1950s ("Mona Lisa" at #2 in 1950 and "Too Young" at #1 in 1951), had a record in the top 5 in the R&B charts in 1958, "Looking Back"/"Do I Like It".

In 1959, two black-owned record labels, one of which would become hugely successful, made their debut: Sam Cooke's Sar, and Berry Gordy's Motown Records.^[67] Brook Benton was at the top of the R&B charts in 1959 and 1960 with one #1 and two #2 hits. Benton had a certain warmth in his voice that attracted a wide variety of listeners, and his ballads led to comparisons with performers such as Cole, Sinatra and Tony Bennett.^[68] Lloyd Price, who in 1952 had a #1 hit with "Lawdy Miss Clawdy" regained predominance with a version of "Stagger Lee" at #1 and "Personality" at #5 for in 1959.^[69][70]

The white bandleader of the Bill Black Combo, Bill Black, who had helped start Elvis Presley's career, was popular with black listeners. Ninety percent of his record sales were from black people, and his "Smokey, Part 2" (1959) rose to the #1 position on black music charts. He was once told that "a lot of those stations still think you're a black group because the sound feels funky and black." Hi Records did not feature pictures of the Combo on early records.^[71]

1960s and later[link]

Sam Cooke's #5 hit "Chain Gang" is indicative of R&B in 1960, as is Chubby Checker's #5 hit "The Twist".^[72][73] By the early 1960s, the music industry category previously known as rhythm and blues was being called soul music, and similar music by white artists was labeled blue eyed soul.^[74] Motown Records had its first million-selling single in 1960 with The Miracles' "Shop Around", and in 1961, Stax Records had its first hit with Carla Thomas' "Gee Whiz! (Look at His Eyes)".^[75][76] Stax's next major hit, the Mar-Keys' instrumental "Last Night" (also released in 1961) introduced the rawer Memphis soul sound for which Stax became known.^[77] In Jamaica, R&B influenced the development of ska.^[78][79][80]

By the 1970s, the term rhythm and blues was being used as a blanket term for soul, funk, and disco. Around the same time, earlier R&B was an influence on British pub rock and later, the mod revival. Now the term R&B is almost always used instead of the full rhythm and blues, and mainstream use of the term usually refers to contemporary R&B, which is a newer version of soul and funk-influenced pop music that originated as disco faded from popularity.

British rhythm and blues[link]

Eric Burdon & the Animals (1964).

British rhythm and blues developed in the early 1960s, largely as a response to the recordings of American artists, often brought over by African American servicemen stationed in Britain during the Cold War, or merchant seamen visiting ports such as London, Liverpool, Newcastle on Tyne and Belfast.^[81] Many bands, particularly in the developing London club scene, tried to emulate black rhythm and blues performers, resulting in a "rawer" or "grittier" sound than the more popular "beat groups".^[82] Initially developing out of the trad jazz, skiffle and folk club scenes, early artists tended to focus on major blues performers and standard forms, particularly Alexis Korner, who acted as a mentor to members of The Rolling Stones, The Yardbirds, Manfred Mann, the Graham Bond Organisation and The Kinks.^[82] Although this "purist" interest in the blues would have an impact on major British rock musicians, including Eric Clapton, Jeff Beck, Peter Green and Jimmy Page, other artists adopted an interest in a wider range of rhythm and blues styles.^[82]

Most successful were the Rolling Stones, whose first eponymously titled album in 1964 largely consisted of rhythm and blues standards. They soon established themselves as the second most popular UK band (after The Beatles) and led a second wave of the "British Invasion" of the US pop charts.^[82] In addition to Chicago blues numbers, the Rolling Stones also covered songs by Chuck Berry and Bobby and Shirley Womack, with the latter's "It's All Over Now", giving them their first UK number one in 1964.^[83] Blues songs and influences continued to surface in the Rolling Stones' music in later years. Other London-based bands included the Yardbirds, the Kinks, Manfred Mann and the Pretty Things, beside more jazz-influenced acts like the Graham Bond Organisation, Georgie Fame and Zoot Money.^[82] Bands to emerge from other major British cities included The Animals from Newcastle on Tyne, The Moody Blues and Spencer Davis Group from Birmingham, and Them from Belfast.^[82] None of these bands played exclusively rhythm and blues, but it remained at the core of their early albums.^[82]

The British Mod subculture was musically centred on rhythm and blues and later soul music, performed by artists that were not available in small London clubs around which the scene was based.^[84] As a result a number of bands emerged to fill this gap, including Small Faces, The Creation, and most successfully The Who.^[84] The Who's early promotional material tagged them as producing "maximum rhythm and blues", but by about 1966 they moved from attempting to emulate American R&B to producing songs that reflected the Mod lifestyle.^[84] Many of these bands enjoyed national success in the UK, but found it difficult to break into the American market.^[84]

The British R&B bands produced music which was very different in tone from that of African American artists, often with more emphasis on guitars and sometimes with greater energy.^[82] They have been criticised for exploiting the massive catalogue of African American music, but it has also been noted that they both popularised that music, bringing it to British, world and in some cases American audiences, and helping to build the reputation of existing and past rhythm and blues artists.^[82] Most of these bands rapidly moved on from recording and performing American standards to writing and recording their own music, often leaving their R&B roots behind.^[82] Many helped pioneer psychedelic, and eventually progressive and hard rock, having a major influence of the nature and sound of rock music and meaning that rhythm and blues would be a major component of that sound.^[82]

See also[link]

R&B and Soul Music portal

• Chitlin' circuit
• List of artists who reached number one on the Billboard R&B chart
• List of number-one rhythm and blues hits (United States)
• Music of the United States
• Rhythm and Blues Foundation
• Urban contemporary gospel

References[link]

Ms. Dynamite
Background information
Birth name	Niomi Arleen MacLean-Daley
Born	(1981-04-26) 26 April 1981 (age 31) Archway, London, England
Genres	R&B, grime, hip hop, 2-step garage
Occupations	Rapper, singer-songwriter
Instruments	Singing, rapping
Years active	2001–present
Labels	Polydor (2001–06) Relentless (2011–present)
Associated acts	Jess Mills
Website	www.msdynamite.co.uk

Niomi Arleen McLean-Daley (born 26 April 1981), who performs as Ms. Dynamite, is a double BRIT Award and three time MOBO Awards winning UK garage, R&B and hip hop singer, rapper and MC.

Biography[link]

Ms. Dynamite was born and raised in Archway, a district in North London, to a Jamaican father and a Scottish mother. She grew up listening to reggae and hip hop music. Though she wanted to become a schoolteacher or social worker, her biggest aspiration was to be a musician. She is the eldest of eleven siblings, one of whom is a grime artist known as Akala, and attended Acland Burghley School in London.

Career[link]

[edit] 2001–04: A Little Deeper

Ms. Dynamite (originally called Lady Dynamite) was first known for her vocals on the UK garage underground track "Booo!", which was regularly played on London pirate radio stations and was later released as a single. Whilst working at the radio station RAW FM, Ms Dynamite was discovered by Richard Forbes AKA DJ Sticky at a West End club. After a period as a member of the UK garage act So Solid Crew, she released her debut album, A Little Deeper in 2002, featuring the hit songs "It Takes More" and "Dy-na-mi-tee". In 2003, the album was released in the United States to critical acclaim. In 2002, Dynamite won the prestigious Mercury Music Prize,^[1] for A Little Deeper. She donated the £20,000 prize to the NSPCC.

Her first public performance was at the closing ceremony of the 2002 Commonwealth Games at the City of Manchester Stadium. On 2 July 2005, she performed at the Live 8 concert in Hyde Park, London. Among the songs performed was "Redemption Song" – a Bob Marley penned song.

[edit] 2005–06: Judgement Days

On 11 September 2005, she returned to the limelight (having taken time off to have her son, Shavaar) with a new album entitled Judgement Days. Featuring more social commentary, in songs such as the first double A-side single, "Judgement Day" / "Father" and the Tony Blair critique, "Mr Prime Minister," reviews of the album were not as favourable as those of her debut. However "Judgement Day" reached No. 25 in the UK Singles Chart.^[2]

On the 6 January 2006, Ms Dynamite was arrested outside a London nightclub, after a brawl in which she punched a male police officer in the face whilst in custody. She was convicted and sentenced to sixty hours of community service. The second single from Judgement Days was due to be "Fall In Love Again" (previously titled "When I Fall In Love"), with a release date of 30 January 2006. A video was shot for the track but, due to her arrest, the single was cancelled. The video did not surface until June 2006, when it was leaked on to the web.

In February 2006, she won the Naomi Award for Worst Urban Act.

Since her trouble in January 2006 and her disappearance from the public eye, Ms Dynamite confirmed that the much rumoured 'A Little Darker' album would be released in March 2006 as a mixtape. After the confirmation, the album was pushed back to June 2006. Also, in April 2006, Ms Dynamite confirmed that there would be no more releases from her Judgement Days album, and that she was due to start working on new material.

A collection of new and upcoming UK hip-hop and garage artists,^[3] was compiled by Ms Dynamite and her rapping brother Akala, who was voted Best Hip Hop Act at the MOBO Awards in September 2006.

In November 2006 she took part in a television show called The Race on Sky1. This was a week long event in which ten celebrities had to compete against each other on the track in different races building up to a thirty lap Formula Ford race on Sunday 12 November 2006. After about ten laps into the race disaster struck, and Ms. Dynamite hit the wall on the pit straight at about 100 mph. She was air lifted to hospital for overnight observations but later released.

2007–09: Break from music[link]

After taking a break from the music scene for a couple of years, Dynamite guest hosted BBC Radio 1Xtra, and stated she would be releasing a third album 'Democracy' in 2009. The first single from the new album will be "Bad Gyal".^[4] This was however later confirmed to have been push back, to concentrate on other projects and well as motherhood.

Ms Dynamite appeared on Hell's Kitchen on ITV1 in 2009.^[5] She was voted out by public vote on 24 April 2009 finishing fourth. Ms Dynamite also appeared as an expert adviser on Goldie's Band: By Royal Appointment on BBC Two.^[6]

2010–present: Return to music and third album[link]

In December 2010, Dynamite was featured on Katy B's second single, "Lights On". It peaked at number 4 in the UK singles chart. She was also featured on the Magnetic Man track "Fire", which appeared on their debut album.

On 3 August 2011 in an interview with Digital Spy, Dynamite confirmed that she is working on her third studio album, and confirmed that the lead single "Neva Soft" (produced by Labrinth) would be released on 4 September.^[7] Her third studio album is set to be released at the beginning of 2012.^[7]

Ancestry[link]

As stated on the programme Ms Dynamite: In Search of Nanny Maroon in addition to her Jamaican-Scottish parentage, she shares Bajan, English, Irish, German and Grenadian ancestries.

Discography[link]

• A Little Deeper (2002)
• Judgement Days (2005)

Soundtracks[link]

• "Dy-Na-Mi-Tee" (FIFA 2003 soundtrack)
• "Dynamite" (Ali G Indahouse soundtrack)
• "Crazy Krush" (Misfits Channel 4 soundtrack)

Awards and Nominations[link]

References[link]

External links[link]

• Official website
• Ms Dynamite at Allmusic
• Ms Dynamite Fans information and photos website

This biographical article needs additional citations for verification. Please help by adding reliable sources. Contentious material about living persons that is unsourced or poorly sourced must be removed immediately, especially if potentially libelous or harmful. (July 2010)

Ben E. King
Ben E. King, 2006
Background information
Birth name	Benjamin Earl Nelson
Also known as	Benjamin Earl King
Born	(1938-09-28) September 28, 1938 (age 73) Henderson, North Carolina
Genres	Soul, rhythm and blues
Occupations	Singer, songwriter, record producer
Instruments	Vocals, piano, keyboards
Years active	1958–present
Labels	Atco Records Atlantic Records
Associated acts	The Drifters The Five Crowns
Website	www.beneking.info

Benjamin Earl King^[1] (born September 28, 1938), better known as Ben E. King, is an American soul singer. He is perhaps best known as the singer and co-composer of "Stand by Me," a U.S. Top 10 hit in both 1961 and 1986 and a #1 hit in the UK in 1987, and as one of the principal lead singers of the R&B vocal group The Drifters.^[2]

Early life[link]

King was born Benjamin Earl Nelson on September 28, 1938 in Henderson, North Carolina,^[2] and moved to Harlem, New York, at age 9.

Career[link]

In 1958, King (still using his birth name) joined a doo wop group called The Five Crowns. Later in 1958, The Drifters' manager George Treadwell fired the members of the original Drifters, and replaced them with The Five Crowns. King had a string of R&B hits with the group on Atlantic Records. He co-wrote and sang lead on the first Atlantic hit by the new version of the Drifters, "There Goes My Baby" (1959). He also sang lead on a succession of hits by the team of Doc Pomus and Mort Shuman, including "Save the Last Dance for Me," "This Magic Moment," and "I Count the Tears."^[2] King only recorded thirteen songs with The Drifters—ten lead vocal performances and three backing other lead singers—including a non-single called "Temptation" (later redone by Drifters vocalist Johnny Moore).

Due to a dispute over his contract, including a salary increase and a fair share of royalties, King was never again given a chance by Drifters manager George Treadwell to perform with the group on tour or on television. After the dispute settled, King was hired only to sing until a replacement for him was found. On television, fellow Drifters member Charlie Thomas usually lip synched the songs that King had recorded with the Drifters. This end gave rise to a new beginning.

In May 1960, King left the Drifters,^[2] assuming the more memorable stage name Ben E. King in preparation for a successful solo career. Remaining on Atlantic Records on its Atco imprint, King scored his first solo hit with the ballad "Spanish Harlem" (1961).^[2] His next single, "Stand by Me," written with Jerry Leiber and Mike Stoller, ultimately would be voted as one of the Songs of the Century by the Recording Industry Association of America. "Stand by Me," "There Goes My Baby," and "Spanish Harlem" were named as three of The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame's 500 Songs that Shaped Rock and Roll and were all given a Grammy Hall of Fame Award, as well as "Save The Last Dance For Me." King's other well-known songs include "Don't Play That Song (You Lied)," "Amor," "Seven Letters," "How Can I Forget," "On the Horizon," "Young Boy Blues," "First Taste of Love," "Here Comes the Night," "Ecstasy," and "That's When It Hurts." In the summer of 1963, King had a Top 30 hit with "I (Who Have Nothing)," which reached the Top 10 on New York's radio station, WMCA.

King's records continued to place well on the Billboard Hot 100 chart until 1965. British pop bands began to dominate the pop music scene, but King still continued to make R&B hits, including "What is Soul?" (1967) and "Supernatural Thing" (1975). A 1986 re-issue of "Stand by Me" followed the song's use as the theme song to the movie Stand By Me, and re-entered the Billboard Top Ten after a 25-year absence.

In 1990, King and Bo Diddley, along with Doug Lazy, recorded a revamped rap version of The Monotones' 1958 hit song "Book of Love" for the soundtrack of the movie Book of Love. He also recorded a children's album, I Have Songs In My Pocket, written and produced by children's music artist Bobby Susser in 1998, which won the "Early Childhood News' Directors' Choice Award" and "Dr. Toy's/The Institute For Childhood Resources Award." King performed "Stand by Me" on the Late Show with David Letterman in 2007. Ahmet Ertegun said, "King is one of the greatest singers in the history of rock and roll and rhythm and blues."^[3]

As a Drifter and as a solo artist, King had achieved five No. 1 hits: "There Goes My Baby," "Save The Last Dance For Me," "Stand By Me," "Supernatural Thing," and the 1986 re-issue of "Stand By Me." He also earned 12 Top 10 hits and 25 Top 40 hits from 1959 to 1986. He was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame as a Drifter; he has also been nominated as a solo artist.

King performing at Scullers Jazz Club in Boston, Mass. on March 31, 2012

King's "I (Who Have Nothing)" was selected for the The Sopranos' Peppers and Eggs Soundtrack CD (2001).

On March 27, 2012, the Songwriters Hall of Fame announced that "Stand By Me" would receive its 2012 Towering Song Award and that King would be honored with the 2012 Towering Performance Award for his recording of the song.^[4]

Current activities[link]

Currently, King is active in his charitable foundation, the Stand By Me Foundation, and is also a founding Champion of the Global Village Champions Foundation along with Muhammad Ali, Gary US Bonds, and Yank Barry.^[5] He has been a resident of Teaneck, New Jersey since the late 1960s.^[6]

King performed "Stand By Me" during a televised tribute to late comedian George Carlin, as he was one of Carlin's favorite artists.

On November 11, 2010, he performed "Stand By Me" on the Latin Grammys with Prince Royce.

King toured the United Kingdom, performing at venues in England, Scotland and Wales during 2011.^[7]

King's album Heart & Soul, released in 2010 on the CanAm Records label, takes a page from The Great American Songbook and features contributions from various jazz artists. JazzTimes heralded King's new release for its emotional and musical impact.^[8]

Discography[link]

Albums[link]

• Spanish Harlem (1961, Atco) US: #57 UK: #30^[9]
• Ben E. King Sings for Soulful Lovers (1962)
• Don't Play That Song! (1962)
• Young Boy Blues (1964)
• Ben E. King's Greatest Hits (1964)
• Seven Letters (1965)
• What Is Soul (1967) (not issued in the U.S.)
• Rough Edges (1970, Maxwell)
• The Beginning of It All (1972, Mandala)
• Supernatural (1975, Atlantic) US: #39
• I Had a Love (1976)
• Rhapsody (1976)
• Let Me Live in Your Life (1978)
• Music Trance (1980)
• Street Tough (1980)
• Save the Last Dance for Me (1987, EMI-Manhattan)
• Stand by Me: The Ultimate Collection (1987, Atlantic) UK: #14^[9]
• What's Important to Me (1991, Ichiban)
• Anthology (1993, Rhino)
• Shades of Blue (1993, Half Note)
• I Have Songs in My Pocket (1998, Bobby Susser)
• The Very Best of Ben E. King (1998, Rhino) UK: #15^[9]
• Eleven Best (2001, Cleopatra)
• Person To Person: Live At The Blue Note (2003, Half Note)
• Soul Masters (2005, Digital Music Group)
• I've Been Around (2006, True Life)
• Love Is Gonna Get You (2007, Synergy)
• Heart & Soul (2010–2011, CanAm Records)

Other albums[link]

• Benny and Us (1977) US: #33 (Average White Band & Ben E. King)
• The Atlantic Family Live in Montreux (1977) (A recording involving the Average White Band and other artists)
• Soul Meeting (1968) (as a member of the Soul Clan)

Singles with The Drifters[link]

• "There Goes My Baby" (1959) R&B: #1 US: #2
• "Oh My Love (1959)
• "Dance With Me" (1959) R&B: #2 US: #15 UK: #17
• "This Magic Moment" (1960) R&B: #4 US: #16
• "Lonely Winds" (1960) R&B: #9 US: #54
• "Save The Last Dance For Me" (1960) R&B: #1 US: #1 UK: #2
• "Nobody But Me" (1960)
• "I Count the Tears" (1960) US: #17 UK: #28
• "Sometimes I Wonder" (1962)

Solo singles[link]

• "Brace Yourself (1960, Atco)
• "Show Me the Way" (1960, Atco)
• "A Help Each Other (1960, Atlantic) with Lavern Baker
• "How Often" (1960, Atlantic) with Lavern Baker
• "Spanish Harlem (1961, Atco) R&B: #15 US: #10
• "First Taste of Love" (1961) US: #53 UK: #27 (b-side of "Spanish Harlem")
• "Stand by Me" (1961) R&B: #1 US: #4 UK: #27
• "Amor" (1961) R&B: #10 US: #18 UK: #38
• "Young Boy Blues" (1961) US: #66
• "Here Comes the Night" (1961) US: #81 (b-side of "Young Boy Blues")
• "Ecstasy" (1962) US: #56
• "Don't Play That Song (You Lied)" (1962) R&B: #2 US: #11
• "Auf Wiedersehen, My Dear (1962)
• "Too Bad" (1962) US: #88
• "I'm Standing By" (1962) US:#111
• "Tell Daddy" (1962) US:#122 R&B: #29
• "How Can I Forget" (1963) R&B: #23 US: #85
• "I (Who Have Nothing)" (1963) R&B: #16 US: #29
• "I Could Have Danced All Night" (1963) US: #72
• "What Now My Love" US:#102 (1964)
• "That's When It Hurts" (1964)
• "What Can A Man Do" (1964) US:#113
• "It's All Over" (1964) US: #72
• "Around The Corner" (1964) US:#125
• "Seven Letters" (1965) R&B: #11 US: #45
• "The Record (Baby I Love You)" (1965) Pop: #84 R&B: #24
• "She's Gone Again" (1965) US: #128
• "Cry No More" (1965)
• "Goodnight My Love" (1965) US: #91
• "So Much Love" (1966) US: #96
• "Get In a Hurry" (1966)
• "I Swear By Stars Above" (1966) R&B: #35 (b-side of "Get in a Hurry")
• "They Don't Give Medals to Yesterday's Heroes" (1966)
• "What Is Soul?" (1966) R&B: #38 (b-side of "They Don't Give...")
• "A Man Without a Dream (1967)
• "Tears, Tears, Tears" (1967) R&B: #34 US: #93 (b-side of "A Man Without...")
• "Katherine" (1967)
• "Don't Take Your Sweet Love Away" (1967) R&B: #44
• "We Got a Thing Goin' On" (1968) with Dee Dee Sharp US: #127
• "Don't Take Your Love from Me" (1968) US: #117
• "Where's the Girl" (1968)
• "It Ain't Fair" (1968)
• "Til' I Can't Take It Anymore" US: #134
• "Hey Little One" (1969)
• "I Can't Take It Like a Man" (1970, Maxwell)
• "Take Me to the Pilot" (1972, Mandala)
• "Into the Mystic" (1972)
• "Spread Myself Around" (1973)
• "Supernatural Thing, Part 1" (1975, Atlantic) R&B: #1 US: #5
• "Do It in the Name of Love" (1975) R&B: #4 US: #60
• "We Got Love" (1975)
• "I Had a Love" (1975) R&B: #23 (b-side of "We Got Love")
• "I Betcha you Didn't Know" (1976)
• "Get It Up" (1977) with Average White Band
• "A Star in the Ghetto" (1977) R&B: #25 with Average White Band
• "Fool for You Anyway" (1977) with Average White Band
• "I See the Light" (1978)
• "Fly Away to My Wonderland" (1978)
• "Music Trance" (1979) R&B: #29
• "Street Tough" (1981)
• "You Made the Difference in My Life" (1981)
• "Stand By Me [re-issue]" (1986) US: #9 UK: #1
• "Spanish Harlem [re-issue]" (1987)
• "Save the Last Dance for Me" [re-recorded] (1987, EMI-Manhattan) UK: #69
• "What's Important to Me" (1991, Ichiban)
• "You've Got All of Me" (1992)
• "You Still Move Me" (1992)
• "4th of July" (1997, Right Stuff)^[9]

References[link]

External links[link]

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