Nectar of camellia

An Australian painted lady feeding on a flower's nectar

Nectar is a sugar-rich liquid produced by plants. It is produced in glands called nectaries, either within the flowers, in which it attracts pollinating animals, or by extrafloral nectaries, which provide a nutrient source to animal mutualists, which in turn provide anti-herbivore protection. Common nectar-consuming pollinators include bees, butterflies and moths, hummingbirds and bats.

Nectar is an ecologically important item, the sugar source for honey. It is also useful in agriculture and horticulture because the adult stages of some predatory insects feed on nectar.^{[examples needed]}

Nectar secretion increases as the flower is visited by pollinators. After pollination, the nectar is frequently reabsorbed into the plant.^[1]

Etymology[link]

Nectar is derived from Latin nectar, the favored drink of the gods, which in turn is the Latinized version of Greek νέκταρ, néktar, presumed to be a compound of the PIE roots *nek-, "death", and -*tar, "overcoming", i.e. has a similar etymology to ambrosia, the immortality-conferring food of the gods. The earliest recorded use of its current meaning, "sweet liquid in flowers," is 1609 C.E.^[2]

Floral nectaries[link]

Floral nectaries are generally located at the base of the perianth, so that pollinators are made to brush the flower's reproductive structures, the anthers and pistil, while accessing the nectar.

Extrafloral nectaries[link]

Nectar produced outside the flower is generally made to attract predatory insects. These predatory insects will eat both the nectar and any plant-eating insects around, thus functioning as 'bodyguards'.^[3] Extrafloral nectaries are generally located on the leaf petioles, mid-rib or leaf margin. They are thought to be modified trichomes and exude nectar from phloem sap. Extrafloral nectaries can be found on species belonging to (amongst others) the genera Salix, Prunus and Gossypium. In passion flower Passiflora extrafloral nectaries prevent herbivores by attracting ants and deterring two species of butterflies from laying eggs. ^[4] In many carnivorous plants, nectar serves to attract insect prey.^[5]

• 

  Extrafloral nectaries on the petiole of a Prunus avium leaf.

• 

  Extrafloral nectaries on Prunus africana

Natural components of nectar[link]

Although its main ingredient is natural sugar (i.e., sucrose (table sugar), glucose, and fructose),^[6] nectar is a brew of many chemicals. For example, the Nicotiana attenuata, a tobacco plant native to the US state of Utah, uses several volatile aromas to attract pollinating birds and moths. The strongest such aroma is benzyl acetone, but the plant also adds bitter nicotine, which is less aromatic and therefore may not be detected by the bird until after taking a drink. Researchers speculate the purpose of this addition is to drive the bird away after only a sip, motivating it to visit other plants to fill its hunger, and therefore maximizing the pollination efficiency gained by the plant for a minimum nectar output.^[7] Neurotoxins such as aesculin are present in some nectars such as that of the California Buckeye.^[8] All twenty of the normal amino acids found in protein have been identified in various nectars, with alanine, arginine, serine, proline, glycine, isoleucine, threonine, and valine being the most prevalent.^[1]

See also[link]

• Nectar guide
• Nectar source
• Nectarivore
• Northern nectar sources for honey bees

References[link]

Bibliography[link]

• Baker, H.G. and Baker, I. (1973) Amino acids in nectar and their evolutionary significance. Nature 241:543–545.
• Baker, H.G. and Baker, I. (1981) Chemical constituents of nectar in relation to pollination mechanisms and phylogeny. In Biochemical aspects of evolutionary biology. 131–171.
• Baker, H.G. and Baker, I. (1975) Studies of nectar-constitution and pollinator-plant coevolution. In Coevolution of animals and plants. Gilbert, L.E. and Raven, P.H. ed. Univ. of Texas Press, Austin, 100–140.
• Beutler, R. (1935) Nectar. Bee World 24:106–116, 128–136, 156–162.
• Burquez, A. and Corbet, S.A. (1991) Do flowers reabsorb nectar? Funct. Ecol. 5:369–379.
• Carter, C., Graham, R. and Thornburg, R.W. (1999) Nectarin I is a novel, soluble germin-like protein expressed in the nectar of Nicotiana sp. Plant Mol. Biol. 41:207–216.
• Deinzer, M.L.,tomson p.m, Burgett, D.M. and Isaacson, D.L. (1977) Pyrrolizidine alkaloids: Their occurrence in honey from tansy ragwort (Senecio jacobaea L.). Science 195:497–499.
• Ecroyd, C.E., Franich, R.A., Kroese, H.W. and Steward, D. (1995) Volatile constituents of Dactylanthus taylorii flower nectar in relation to flower pollination and browsing by animals. Phytochemistry 40:1387–1389.
• Esau, K. (1977) Anatomy of seed plants. John Wiley & Sons, New York.
• Ferreres, F., Andrade, P., Gil, M.I. and Tomas Barberan, F.A. (1996) Floral nectar phenolics as biochemical markers for the botanical origin of heather honey. Zeitschrift fur Lebensmittel Untersuchung und Forschung. 202:40–44.
• Frey-Wyssling, A. (1955) The phloem supply to the nectaries. Acta Bot. Neerl. 4:358–369.
• Griebel, C. and Hess, G. (1940) The vitamin C content of flower nectar of certain Labiatae. Zeit. Untersuch. Lebensmitt. 79:168–171.
• Heinrich, G. (1989) Analysis of cations in nectars by means of a laser microprobe mass analyser (LAMMA). Beitr. Biol. Pflanz64:293–308.
• Heslop-Harrison, Y. and Knox, R.B. (1971) A cytochemical study of the leaf-gland enzymes of insectivorus plants of the genusPinguicula. Planta 96:183–211.
• Peumans, W.J., Smeets, K., Van Nerum, K., Van Leuven, F. and Van Damme, E.J.M. (1997) Lectin and alliinase are the predominant proteins in nectar from leek (Allium porrum L.) flowers. Planta 201:298–302.
• Rodriguez-Arce, A.L. and Diaz, N. (1992) The stability of beta-carotene in mango nectar. J. Agric. Univ. P.R. Rio Piedras, P.R.76:101–102.
• Roshchina, V.V. and Roshchina, V.D. (1993) The excretory function of higher plants. Springer-Verlag, Berlin.
• Scala, J., Iott, K., Schwab, W. and Semersky, F.E. (1969) Digestive secretion of Dionaea muscipula (Venus's-Flytrap). Plant Physiol. 44:367–371.
• Smith, L.L., Lanza, J. and Smith, G.C. (1990) Amino acid concentrations in extrafloral nectar of Impatiens sultani increase after simulated herbivory. Ecol. Publ. Ecol. Soc. Am. 71:107–115.
• Vogel, S. (1969) Flowers offering fatty oil instead of nectar. Abstracts XIth Internatl. Bot. Congr. Seattle.

External links[link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Nectaries

• Nectar Plants Database

Maharishi Dayananda Saraswati
Born	(1824-02-12)12 February 1824 Tankara, Morvi, Gujarat
Died	30 October 1883(1883-10-30) (aged 59) Ajmer, Rajasthan
Birth name	Mul Shankar Tiwari or Mulshankar Karasandas Tiwari /Shuddha Chaitanya as Brahmachari
Titles/honours	Maharshi
Guru	Swami Virajananda
Philosophy	Traitvad vedic philosophy based on Samhita of four Vedas and its theory derived on Nighantu and Nirukta with six Darshanas supported by Paniniya Vyakaran.
Literary works	Satyarth Prakash (1875)
Quotation	"Om viswani dev savitar duritani parasuv yad bhadram tanna aasuva."

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Maharishi Dayanand Saraswati (Hindi:स्वामी दयानन्द सरस्वती, Gujarati: મહષિૅ દયાનંદ સરસ્વતી) (Born:12 February 1824 – Died:30 October 1883.^[1] ) was an important Hindu religious scholar, reformer, and founder of the Arya Samaj, a Hindu reform movement. He was the first to give the call for Swarajya^[2] – "India for Indians" – in 1876, later taken up by Lokmanya Tilak.^[3][4] Denouncing the idolatry and ritualistic worship prevalent in Hinduism at the time, he worked towards reviving Vedic ideologies. Subsequently the philosopher and President of India, S. Radhakrishnan, called him one of "makers of Modern India," as did Sri Aurobindo.^[5][6][7]

One of his notable disciples was Shyamji Krishna Varma, who founded India House in London and guided other revolutionaries. Others who were influenced by and followed him included Madam Cama, Pran Sukh Yadav, Vinayak Damodar Savarkar, Lala Hardayal, Madan Lal Dhingra, Ram Prasad Bismil, Bhagat Singh, Swami Shraddhanand Swami Shradhanad gave Mohan Das Karam Chand Gandhi the title of Mahatma Gandhi when Gandhi visited Gurukul Kangri along with Madan Mohan Malviya, Mahatma Hansraj and Lala Lajpat Rai.^[8][9] One of his most influential works is the book Satyarth Prakash, which contributed to the Indian independence movement. He was a sanyasi (ascetic) from boyhood, and a scholar, who believed in the infallible authority of the Vedas.

Dayananda advocated the doctrine of karma and skepticism in dogma, and emphasized the ideals of brahmacharya (celibacy) and devotion to God. The Theosophical Society and the Arya Samaj were united from 1878 to 1882, becoming the Theosophical Society of the Arya Samaj.^[10] Among Maharishi Dayananda's contributions are his promoting of the equal rights for women, such as the right to education and reading of Indian scriptures, and his translation of the Vedas from Sanskrit into Hindi so that the common man might be able to read them.

Early life[link]

Dayananda was born on 12 February 1824 in the town of Tankara near Morvi (Morbi) in the Kathiawar region of the princely state of Gujarat (now in Rajkot district), in the affluent and devout Saryupareen Brahmins family of Karshanji Lalji Tiwari and his wife Yashodabai. Since he was born under Mul Nakshatra, he was named "Moolshankar", and led a comfortable early life, studying Sanskrit, the Vedas and other religious texts to prepare himself for a future as a Hindu priest.^[11][12]

A number of incidents in early childhood resulted in Dayananda's questioning the traditional beliefs of Hinduism and inquiring about God. While still a young child, when his family went to a temple for overnight worship on the night of Maha Shivratri, he stayed up waiting for Lord Shiva to appear to accept the offerings made to his idol. While his family slept, Dayananda saw a mouse eating the offerings. He was utterly surprised and wondered how a God who cannot protect even his own offerings would protect humanity. He argued with his father that they should not be worshipping such a helpless God.^[13][14]

The deaths of his younger sister and his uncle from cholera caused Dayananda to ponder the meaning of life and death and he started asking questions which worried his parents. He was to be married in his early teens, as was common in nineteenth-century India, but he decided marriage was not for him and in 1846 ran away from home.^[13][14]

Dayananda was disillusioned with the form of Hinduism being practiced in his surroundings and became a wandering monk to search for the eternal truths through direct interaction with enlightened sanyasis. He learned Panini's grammar "Mahabhashya" to read Sanskrit texts, and understood from them that God can be realised. After wandering in search of God for over two decades, he found Swami Virajananda near Mathura, Uttar Pradesh who became his guru.^[15] Swami Virajananda told him to throw away all his books he was studying earlier, as he wished Dayananda to start from a clean slate and learn directly from the Vedas, the oldest and most foundational scriptures of Hinduism.^[14] Dayananda stayed under Swami Virajananda's tutelage for two and a half years. After finishing his education, Virajananda asked him to spread the knowledge of the Vedas in society as his gurudakshina, or tuition-dues.^[14]

Dayanand's mission[link]

Dayananda mission was not to start or set up any new religion but to tell the humankind for Universal Brotherhood through nobility as spelt out in Vedas. For that mission he founded Arya Samaj enunciating the Ten Universal Principles as a code for Universalism Krinvanto Vishwaryam meaning the whole world be an abode for Nobles (Aryas). His next step was to take up the difficult task of reforming Hinduism with dedication despite multiple repeated attempts on his personal life. He traveled the country challenging religious scholars and priests to discussions and won repeatedly on the strength of his arguments based on his knowledge of Sanskrit and Vedas.^[16] He believed that Hinduism had been corrupted by divergence from the founding principles of the Vedas and that Hindus had been misled by the priesthood for the priests' self-aggrandizement. Hindu priests discouraged the laity from reading Vedic scriptures and encouraged rituals, such as bathing in the Ganges River and feeding of priests on anniversaries, which Dayananda pronounced as superstitions or self-serving practices. By exhorting the nation to reject such superstitious notions, his aim was to educate the nation to Go back to the Vedas. He wanted the people who followed Hinduism to go back to its roots and to follow the Vedic life, which he pointed out. He exhorted the Hindu nation to accept social reforms like the abolition of untouchability, sati, and dowry, Education of women, Swadeshi and importance of Cows for national prosperity as well as the adoption of Hindi as the national language for national integration. Through his daily life and practice of yoga and asanas, teachings, preachings, sermons and writings, he inspired the Hindu nation to aspire to Swarajya (self governance), nationalism, and spiritualism. He advocated the equal rights and respects to women and advocated the education of a girl child like the males.

Swami Dayananda did logical, scientific and critical analyses of all faiths i.e. Islam and Christianity as well as of other Indian faiths like Jainism, Buddhism and Sikhism, in addition to denouncing idolatry in Hinduism, as may be seen in his book Satyartha Prakash.^[17] He was against what he considered to be the corruption of the true and pure faith in his own country. Unlike many other reform movements of his times within Hinduism, the Arya Samaj's appeal was addressed not only to the educated few in India, but to the world as a whole as evidenced in the sixth principle of the Arya Samaj.In fact his teachings professed universalism for the all living beings and not for any particular sect, faith, community or nation.

Arya Samaj allows and encourages converts to Hinduism. Dayananda’s concept of dharma is stated in the "Beliefs and Disbeliefs" section of Satyartha Prakash. He said:

"I accept as Dharma whatever is in full conformity with impartial justice, truthfulness and the like; that which is not opposed to the teachings of God as embodied in the Vedas. Whatever is not free from partiality and is unjust, partaking of untruth and the like, and opposed to the teachings of God as embodied in the Vedas—that I hold as adharma"
He also said:
"He, who after careful thinking, is ever ready to accept truth and reject falsehood; who counts the happiness of others as he does that of his own self, him I call just."

— Satyarth Prakash

Dayananda's Vedic message was to emphasize respect and reverence for other human beings, supported by the Vedic notion of the divine nature of the individual–divine because the body was the temple where the human essence (soul or "atma") had the possibility to interface with the creator ("Paramatma"). In the ten principles of the Arya Samaj, he enshrined the idea that "All actions should be performed with the prime objective of benefiting mankind", as opposed to following dogmatic rituals or revering idols and symbols. The first five principles speak of Truth and the other five of a society with nobility, civics, co-living and disciplined life. In his own life, he interpreted moksha to be a lower calling (due to its benefit to one individual) than the calling to emancipate others.

Dayananda's "back to the Vedas" message influenced many thinkers and philosophers the world over.

Arya Samaj[link]

Swami Dayananda's creation, the Arya Samaj, unequivocally condemns idol worship, animal sacrifice, ancestor worship, pilgrimages, priest craft, offerings made in temples, the caste system, untouchability, child marriages and discrimination against women on the grounds that all these lacked Vedic sanction. The Arya Samaj discourages dogma and symbolism and encourages skepticism in beliefs that run contrary to common sense and logic. To many people, the Arya Samaj aims to be a "universal society" based on the authority of the Vedas.^[18]

Death[link]

In 1883 Dayananda was invited by the Maharaja of Jodhpur to stay at his palace. The Maharaja was eager to become his disciple and learn his teachings. One day Dayananda went to the Maharaja's rest room and saw him with a dance girl named Nanhi Jan. Dayananda boldly asked the Maharaja to forsake the girl and all unethical acts and follow dharma like a true Aryan. Dayananda's suggestion offended the dance girl and she decided to take revenge.^[1] She bribed Dayananda's cook to poison him. At bedtime, the cook brought him a glass of milk containing poison and powdered glass. Dayananda drank the milk and went to sleep only to wake up later with a burning sensation. He immediately realized that he had been poisoned and attempted to purge his digestive system of the poisonous substance, but it was too late. The poison had already entered his bloodstream. Dayananda was bedridden and suffered excruciating pain. Many doctors came to treat him but all was in vain. His body was covered all over with large bleeding sores. On seeing Dayananda's suffering the cook was overcome with unbearable guilt and remorse. He confessed his crime to Dayananda. On his deathbed, Dayananda forgave him and gave him a bag of money and told him to flee the kingdom lest he be found out and executed by the Maharaja's men.^[1]

"A man of spirit has passed away from India. Pandit Dayananda Saraswati is gone, the irrepressible, energetic reformer, whose mighty voice and passionate eloquence for the last few years raised thousands of people in India from, lethargic, indifference and stupor into active patriotism is no more." – Col Henry Steel Olcott^[19]

"Swami Dayananda Saraswati is certainly one of the most powerful personalities who has shaped modern India and is responsible for its moral regeneration and religious revival". – Subhash Chandra Bose.^[20]

Works[link]

Dayananda Saraswati wrote more than 60 works in all, including a 16 volume explanation of the six Vedangas, an incomplete commentary on the Ashtadhyayi (Panini's grammar), several small tracts on ethics and morality, Vedic rituals and sacraments and on criticism of rival doctrines (such as Advaita Vedanta, Islam and Christianity). Some of his major works are Satyarth Prakash, Sanskarvidhi, RigvedadiBhashyaBhumika, Rigved Bhashyam (up to 7/61/2)and Yajurved Bhashyam. The Paropakarini Sabha located in the Indian city of Ajmer was founded by the Swami himself to publish and preach his works and Vedic texts.

Complete list of his works[link]

References[link]

Further reading[link]

• Dayananda Saraswati, Founder of Arya Samaj, by Arjan Singh Bawa. Published by Ess Ess Publications, 1979 (1st edition:1901).
• Swami Dayanand Saraswati, by Dhanpati Pandey. Published by Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Govt. of India, 1985.
• World Perspectives on Swami Dayananda Saraswati , Ganga Ram Garg. Concept Publishing Company. 1986.
• Indian Political Tradition, by D.K Mohanty. Published by Anmol Publications PVT. LTD. ISBN 81-261-2033-9. Chapter 4:Dayananda Saraswati Page 92.
• Rashtra Pitamah Swami Dayanand Saraswati by Rajender Sethi (M R Sethi Educational Trust Chandigarh 2006)
• Aurobindo Ghosh, in Bankim Tilak Dayanand (Calcutta 1947 p 1, 39)
• Arya Samaj And The Freedom Movement by K C Yadav & K S Arya -Manohar Publications Delhi 1988
• The Prophets of the New IndiaRoman Roland p. 97

Footnotes[link]

• Satyarth Prakash (1875) (Light of Truth – first English translation 1908 [1][2]
• R̥gvedādi-bhāṣya-bhūmikā / An Introduction to the Commentary on the Vedas. ed. B. Ghasi Ram, Meerut (1925). reprints 1981, 1984 [3][4]
• Glorious Thoughts of Swami Dayananda. ed. New Book Society of India, 1966 [5]
• An introduction to the commentary on the Vedas. Jan Gyan-Prakashan, 1973.Flipkart.com: An Introduction To The Commentary On The VEDAS: Dayananda (9788170771296)
• Autobiography, ed. Kripal Chandra Yadav, New Delhi : Manohar, 1978.Autobiography of dayanand saraswati - Google Books ISBN 0685196682
• Yajurvēda bhāṣyam : Samskr̥tabhāṣyaṃ, Āndhraṭīkātātparyaṃ, Āṅglabhāvārthasahitaṅgā, ed. Mar̲r̲i Kr̥ṣṇāreḍḍi, Haidarābād : Vaidika Sāhitya Pracāra Samiti, 2005.
• The philosophy of religion in India, Delhi : Bharatiya Kala Prakashan, 2005, ISBN 81-8090-079-7
• Dr.'Krant'M.L.Verma Swadhinta Sangram Ke Krantikari Sahitya Ka Itihas (3 Vollumes) 2006 Praveen Prakashan 4760-61 23 Ansari Road Daryaganj New Delhi 110002 ISBN 81-7783-122-4 (Set)

• Prem Lata, Swami Dayananda Sarasvati (1990) [6]
• Autobiography of Swami Dayanand Saraswati (1976) [7]
• M. Ruthven, Fundamentalism: A Very Short Introduction, Oxford University Press, USA (2007), ISBN 978-0-19-921270-5.
• N. A. Salmond, Hindu Iconoclasts: Rammohun Roy, Dayananda Sarasvati and nineteenth-century polemics against Idolatry (2004) [8]

External links[link]

Wikisource has original text related to this article: स्वामी दयानंद सरस्वती

• All about Maharshi Dayanand Saraswati
• Satyarth Prakash – THE "LIGHT OF TRUTH" by Swami Dayanand Online book
• Read Satyarth Prakash Online
• For date of birth 12-2-1824 forged by British Islamic India , who made the Arya Samaj Act of 1937 to sabotage the 13th Samskara of Hindu marriages.
• Dayanand Saraswati (1824-1883)
• Life and Teaching of Swami Dayanand