Massachusetts Institute of Technology

Saturday, 27 October 2012

Massachusetts Institute of Technology - MIT Campus Tour

Interview with MIT Physics Professor Walter Lewin

MIT-Walter Lewin- Complete Breakdown of Intuition - Part1

Barack Obama Energy Technology Speech MIT 10 23 09 Part 1

Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge

Lec 1 | MIT 18.01 Single Variable Calculus, Fall 2007

MIT - Massachusetts Institute of Technology campus tour

Open Collage in a new Window

Email the Collage

Loading suggestions ...

Amherst College
Amherst College is a private liberal arts college located in Amherst, Massachusetts, United States. Amherst is an exclusively undergraduate four-year institution and enrolled 1,744 students in the fall of 2009. Students choose courses from 35 major programs in an unusually open curriculum.
http://wn.com/Amherst_College
Auburn University
http://wn.com/Auburn_University
Back Bay
http://wn.com/Back_Bay
Back Bay, Boston
Back Bay is an officially recognized neighborhood of Boston, Massachusetts. It is an upscale residential, retail, and commercial office district.
http://wn.com/Back_Bay_Boston
Baylor University
Baylor University is a private, Christian-affiliated research university located in Waco, Texas, United States. Founded in 1845, Baylor is accredited by the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools and is a member of the Big 12 Conference.
http://wn.com/Baylor_University
Bentley University
Bentley University, formerly Bentley College, is a private co-educational university located in Waltham, Massachusetts, west of Boston. Founded as a school of accounting and finance in Boston's Back Bay neighborhood, Bentley moved to Waltham in 1968. As a business university, Bentley University's mission is to create new knowledge within and across business and the arts and sciences and to educate creative, ethical, and socially responsible organizational leaders. Bentley University provides a highly focused undergraduate business curriculum with bachelor of science degrees in 11 business fields and bachelor of arts degrees in six arts and sciences disciplines. The graduate school emphasizes the impact of technology on business practice and offers PhD programs in Business and Accountancy, the Bentley MBA with 16 areas of concentration, an integrated MS+MBA, seven Master of Science degrees, and custom executive education programs.
http://wn.com/Bentley_University
Boston Conservatory
The Boston Conservatory is an arts conservatory located in the Fenway-Kenmore region of Boston, Massachusetts, United States. It has undergraduate and graduate programs in music, dance, theater, and music education. The Conservatory offers the Bachelor of Fine Arts, Bachelor of Music, and Master of Music degrees. The Boston Conservatory was founded in 1867.
http://wn.com/Boston_Conservatory
Boston University
Boston University (BU) is a private research university located in Boston, Massachusetts. The university is historically affiliated with the United Methodist Church, but describes itself as nonsectarian. With more than 4,000 faculty members and more than 31,000 students, Boston University is one of the largest private universities in the United States and one of Boston's largest employers.
http://wn.com/Boston_University
Brandeis University
Brandeis University () is an American private research university with a liberal arts focus. It is located in the southwestern corner of Waltham, Massachusetts, nine miles (14 km) west of Boston. The University has an enrollment of approximately 3,200 undergraduate and 2,100 graduate students. In 2010, it was ranked by the U.S. News and World Report as the number 34 national university in the United States. Forbes listed Brandeis University as number 57 among all national universities and liberal arts colleges combined in 2010.
http://wn.com/Brandeis_University
Broad Institute
The Broad Institute ( "brode") is a genomic medicine research center located in , United States. Although it is independently governed and supported as a 501(c)(3) nonprofit research organization, the institute is formally affiliated with the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Harvard University and its affiliated hospitals.
http://wn.com/Broad_Institute
Brown University
http://wn.com/Brown_University
Caltech
http://wn.com/Caltech
Cambridge College
Cambridge College is a private, non-profit college based in Cambridge, Massachusetts, specializing in adult education.
http://wn.com/Cambridge_College
Chisholm Institute
Chisholm Institute is a Technical and Further Education (TAFE) Institute located in the south east Melbourne and Westernport Bay areas in Australia. It provides adult education in a number of areas including the arts and humanities, hospitality, information technology, mechanics and business. It was founded in 1998 by the merging of Casey Institute of TAFE, Peninsula Institute of TAFE and Barton Institute of TAFE.
http://wn.com/Chisholm_Institute
Clark University
Clark University is a private research university and liberal arts college in Worcester, Massachusetts.
http://wn.com/Clark_University
Columbia University
Columbia University in the City of New York (Columbia University) is a private research university in New York City and a member of the Ivy League. Columbia is the oldest institution of higher learning in the state of New York, the fifth oldest in the United States, and one of the country's nine Colonial Colleges founded before the American Revolution. It was founded in 1754 as King's College by royal charter of George II of Great Britain, and is one of only three United States universities to have been founded under such authority.
http://wn.com/Columbia_University
Cornell University
Cornell University (, {{respell|kor-) is an Ivy League university located in Ithaca, New York. It is a private land-grant university which receives funding from the State of New York for certain educational missions.
http://wn.com/Cornell_University
Emerson College
Emerson College is a private coeducational university located in Boston, Massachusetts. Founded in 1880 by Charles Wesley Emerson as a "school of oratory," Emerson is "the only comprehensive college or university in America dedicated exclusively to communication and the arts in a liberal arts context." Offering over three dozen degree programs in the area of Arts and Communication, the college is accredited by the New England Association of Schools and Colleges, Inc. Located in the Boston Theatre District on the edge of the Common, the school also maintains buildings in Los Angeles and the town of Well, Netherlands.
http://wn.com/Emerson_College
Fisher College
Fisher College is a private institution that grants both baccalaureate and associate degrees. The College is located on Beacon Street in the Back Bay neighborhood of Boston. The College is accredited by the New England Association of Schools and Colleges (NEASC).
http://wn.com/Fisher_College
Green Building (MIT)
The Cecil and Ida Green Building, also called the Green Building or Building 54, is an academic building at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts. It was designed by noted architect I. M. Pei, who received his bachelor's degree from MIT. Cecil Howard Green received a bachelor's degree and master's degree from MIT and was a co-founder of Texas Instruments.
http://wn.com/Green_Building_(MIT)
Hampton University
Hampton University is a historically black university located in Hampton, Virginia, United States.
http://wn.com/Hampton_University
Harvard University
Harvard University is a private Ivy League university located in Cambridge, Massachusetts, established in 1636 by the Massachusetts legislature. Harvard is the oldest institution of higher learning in the United States and the first corporation (officially The President and Fellows of Harvard College) chartered in the country.
http://wn.com/Harvard_University
Hochschule Wismar
http://wn.com/Hochschule_Wismar
Intel
http://wn.com/Intel
Kendall Square
Kendall Square is a neighborhood in Cambridge, Massachusetts, with the "square" itself at the intersection of Main Street, Broadway, Wadsworth Street, and Third Street (immediately to the east of the secondary entrance of the Kendall/MIT subway station). It may also refer to the broad business district that is east of Portland Street, northwest of the Charles River, north of MIT and south of Binney Street. The One Kendall Square complex is located half a mile to the west of the traditional location of Kendall Square, between Broadway and Binney Street (on the other side of which is the Kendall Square Theatre).
http://wn.com/Kendall_Square
Kresge Auditorium
Kresge Auditorium is an auditorium building for the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, located at 48 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, Massachusetts. It was designed by the noted architect Eero Saarinen, with ground-breaking in 1953 and dedication in 1955. It was designed together with the MIT Chapel, the two buildings separated by a "green," referred to by students as the "Kresge Oval." The ensemble is recognized as one of the best examples of mid-Century modern architecture in the US. Though unassuming by today's standards, the buildings were part of an attempt to define MIT's social cohesion. The Auditorium was where MIT students and faculty could gather for formal events, the chapel was intended for marriages and memorial; the green that stretches between the two buildings, in the tradition of early-American urban planning, was to serve as the setting for civic events. Though the campus has grown around the buildings, the essential features of this idea are still easily legible. The building was named for its principal funder, Sebastian S. Kresge, founder of Kresge Stores (corporate predecessor of K-Mart) and the Kresge Foundation.
http://wn.com/Kresge_Auditorium
Lancaster University
http://wn.com/Lancaster_University
Lehigh University
Lehigh University is a private, co-educational university located in Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, in the Lehigh Valley region of the United States. It was established in 1865 by Asa Packer as a four-year technical school, but has grown to include studies in a wide variety of disciplines. As of 2009, the university comprises 4,856 undergraduate students, 2,118 graduate students, 648 professors, and a staff of 1,255.
http://wn.com/Lehigh_University
Lesley University
http://wn.com/Lesley_University
McGill University
http://wn.com/McGill_University
MIT Chapel
The MIT Chapel (dedicated 1955) is a non-denominational chapel designed by noted architect Eero Saarinen. It is located on the campus of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, next to Kresge Auditorium and Kresge Oval, which Saarinen also designed, in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Though a small building, it is often noted as a successful example of mid-Century modern architecture in the US. Saarinen also designed the landscaping surrounding all three.
http://wn.com/MIT_Chapel
MIT Media Lab
The MIT Media Lab (also known as the Media Lab) is a department within the MIT School of Architecture and Planning. Devoted to research projects at the convergence of multimedia and technology, the Media Lab was widely popularized in the 1990s by business and technology publications such as Wired and Red Herring for a series of practical inventions in the fields of wireless networks, field sensing, web browsers and the World Wide Web. More recently it has focused on product design more generally, particularly for technologies that address social causes.
http://wn.com/MIT_Media_Lab
MIT Museum
MIT Museum, founded in 1971, is the museum of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, located in Cambridge, Massachusetts. It hosts collections of holography, artificial intelligence, robotics, maritime history, and the history of MIT. Its holography collection of 1800 pieces is the largest in the world, though not all of it is exhibited. Currently works of Harold Edgerton and Arthur Ganson are the two largest displays ongoing for a long time. Occasionally, there are various exhibitions, usually on the intersection of art and technology.
http://wn.com/MIT_Museum
Mount Ida College
Mount Ida College (MIC) is a comprehensive college in Newton, Massachusetts.
http://wn.com/Mount_Ida_College
NASA
The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA, ) is an Executive Branch agency of the United States government, responsible for the nation's civilian space program and aeronautics and aerospace research. Since February 2006, NASA's self-described mission statement is to "pioneer the future in space exploration, scientific discovery and aeronautics research."
http://wn.com/NASA
New York University
New York University (NYU) is a private, nonsectarian research university based in New York City. NYU's main campus is situated in the Greenwich Village section of Manhattan. Founded in 1831, NYU is the largest private, nonprofit institution of higher education in the United States.
http://wn.com/New_York_University
Ohio University
Ohio University (referred to as OHIO or abbreviated as OU) is a public university located in Athens, Ohio, situated on an 1,800 acre campus. Founded in 1804, it is the oldest university in the Northwest Territory, and ninth oldest public university in the United States.
http://wn.com/Ohio_University
Pine Manor College
Pine Manor College (PMC) is a private, liberal arts women's college located in Chestnut Hill, Massachusetts. It was founded in 1911 and serves approximately 500 students, 75% of whom live on the campus.
http://wn.com/Pine_Manor_College
Pomona College
Pomona College is a private, residential, liberal arts college located in Claremont, California. It has ranked in the top ten of liberal arts colleges nationally according to the U.S. News & World Report rankings since their inception and is currently ranked sixth. In 2009, Kiplinger ranked Pomona first among the liberal arts colleges in America. Founded in 1887 in Pomona, California, by a group of Congregationalists, the college moved to Claremont in 1889 to the site of a donated hotel, retaining its name. The school enrolls 1,548 students.
http://wn.com/Pomona_College
Princeton University
Princeton University is a private research university located in Princeton, New Jersey, United States. The school is one of the eight universities of the Ivy League, and is one of the nine Colonial Colleges founded before the American Revolution.
http://wn.com/Princeton_University
Purdue University
Purdue University, located in West Lafayette, Indiana, U.S., is the flagship university of the six-campus Purdue University System. Purdue was founded on May 6, 1869, as a land-grant university when the Indiana General Assembly, taking advantage of the Morrill Act, accepted a donation of land and money from Lafayette businessman John Purdue to establish a college of science, technology, and agriculture in his name. The first classes were held on September 16, 1874, with three buildings, six instructors, and 39 students. Today, Purdue enrolls the second largest student body of any university in Indiana as well as the second largest international student population of any public university in the United States. This is a result of its aggressive recruiting policies abroad, particularly in Latin America and Asia.
http://wn.com/Purdue_University
Rice University
William Marsh Rice University (commonly known as Rice University) opened in 1912 as The William Marsh Rice Institute for the Advancement of Letters, Science and Art is a private coeducational research university located in Houston, Texas, United States. Its campus is located near the Houston Museum District and adjacent to the Texas Medical Center.
http://wn.com/Rice_University
Rutgers University
Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey (usually referred to as Rutgers University or just Rutgers), is the largest institution for higher education in New Jersey. It was originally chartered as ''Queen's College'' in 1766 and is the eighth-oldest college in the United States. Rutgers was originally a private university affiliated with the Dutch Reformed Church and admitted only male students, but evolved into a coeducational public research university. Rutgers is one of only two colonial colleges that later became public universities, the other being The College of William and Mary.
http://wn.com/Rutgers_University
Stanford University
The Leland Stanford Junior University, commonly referred to as Stanford University or Stanford, is a private research university located in Stanford, California, United States. The university is located on an campus in northwestern Santa Clara Valley approximately southeast of San Francisco and approximately northwest of San Jose.
http://wn.com/Stanford_University
Stata Center
The Ray and Maria Stata Center or Building 32 is a academic complex designed by Pritzker Prize-winning architect Frank Gehry for the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). The building opened for initial occupancy on March 16, 2004. It sits on the site of MIT's former Building 20, which housed the historic Radiation Laboratory, in Cambridge, Massachusetts.
http://wn.com/Stata_Center
Suffolk University
Suffolk University is a private, non-sectarian, university located in Boston, Massachusetts and with over 16,000 students it is the third largest university in Boston. It was founded as a law school in 1906 and named after its location in Suffolk County, Massachusetts.
http://wn.com/Suffolk_University
Syracuse University
Syracuse University (also referred to as SU, Syracuse, or 'Cuse) is a private research university located in Syracuse, New York, United States. Its roots can be traced back to Genesee Wesleyan Seminary, founded by the Methodist Episcopal Church in 1832, which also later founded Genesee College. Following several years of debate over relocating the college to Syracuse, the university was founded independent of the college in 1870. Since 1920, the university has identified itself as nonsectarian, although it still maintains an affiliation with the United Methodist Church. Syracuse was elected to the Association of American Universities in 1966.
http://wn.com/Syracuse_University
Taylor's University
http://wn.com/Taylor's_University
Texas A&M; University
Texas A&M; University, often referred to as A&M; or TAMU, is a coeducational public research university located in College Station, Texas. It is the flagship institution of the Texas A&M; University System. The seventh-largest university in the United States, A&M; enrolls over 49,000 students in ten academic colleges. Texas A&M;'s designation as a land, sea, and space grant institution reflects a broad range of research with ongoing projects funded by agencies such as the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), the National Institutes of Health, the National Science Foundation, and the Office of Naval Research. The school ranks in the top 20 American research institutes in terms of funding and has made notable contributions to such fields as animal cloning and petroleum engineering.
http://wn.com/Texas_A&M;_University
Tsinghua University
Tsinghua University (THU; ), colloquially known in Chinese as Qinghua, is a university in Beijing, China. The school is one of the nine universities of the C9 League. It was established in 1911, originally under the name "Tsinghua Xuetang". The school was renamed the "Tsinghua School" in 1912. The university section was founded in 1925 and the name "National Tsinghua University" adopted in 1928. With a motto of Self-Discipline and Social Commitment, Tsinghua University describes itself as being dedicated to academic excellence, the well-being of Chinese society and to global development. Today, many national and international rankings place Tsinghua amongst the best universities in mainland China.
http://wn.com/Tsinghua_University
Tufts University
Tufts University is a private research university in Medford/Somerville, near Boston, Massachusetts. The university is home to the nation's oldest graduate school of international relations, The Fletcher School of Law and Diplomacy.
http://wn.com/Tufts_University
University of Iowa
The University of Iowa (also known as U of I, or simply Iowa) is a public flagship state-supported research university located in Iowa City, Iowa. The University of Iowa is the oldest public university in the state. The university is organized into eleven colleges granting undergraduate, graduate, and professional degrees. UI is categorized as RU/VH Research University (very high research activity) in the Carnegie Classification of Institutions of Higher Education. The university is a group member of the prestigious American Association of Universities, the Big Ten Conference, Committee on Institutional Cooperation, and the Universities Research Association. The student newspaper, The Daily Iowan, has received numerous collegiate journalism awards over the years and is widely considered one of the finest college newspapers in the country.
http://wn.com/University_of_Iowa
University of Leeds
The University of Leeds (informally Leeds University, or simply Leeds) is a British Redbrick university located in the city of Leeds, West Yorkshire, England. Originally named The Yorkshire College, a successor to the Leeds School of Medicine, it became part of the Victoria University alongside Owens College (which eventually became the University of Manchester) and University College Liverpool (which became the University of Liverpool). In 1904, a royal charter was granted to the University of Leeds by King Edward VII.
http://wn.com/University_of_Leeds
University of Miami
The University of Miami (informally referred to as UM, U of M, U Miami, Miami, or The U) is a private, non-sectarian university founded in 1925 with its main campus in the city of Coral Gables, Florida. In addition to its main campus, the University of Miami maintains a medical campus in Miami city proper at the Miami Civic Center and a marine research facility on Virginia Key.
http://wn.com/University_of_Miami
University of Pisa
http://wn.com/University_of_Pisa
University of Regina
The University of Regina is a public research university located in Regina, Saskatchewan, Canada. Founded in 1911 as a private denominational high school of the Methodist Church of Canada, it began an association with the University of Saskatchewan as a junior college in 1925, and was disaffiliated by the Church and fully ceded to the University in 1934; in 1961 it attained degree-granting status as the Regina Campus of the University of Saskatchewan. It became an autonomous university in 1974. The enabling legislation is An Act Respecting the University of Regina, Chapter U-5. It had an enrolment of over 12,500 full and part-time students as of the 2002-03 academic year and was rated sixth in the 2005 ''Maclean's'' magazine Canadian National Comprehensive Universities Rankings. The university's student newspaper, The Carillon, is a member of CUP.
http://wn.com/University_of_Regina
University of Utah
The University of Utah, also known as the U or the U of U, is a public, coeducational research university in Salt Lake City, Utah, United States. The university was established in 1850 as the University of Deseret by the General Assembly of the provisional State of Deseret, making it Utah's oldest institution of higher education. It received its current name in 1892, four years before Utah attained statehood, and moved to its current location in 1900. It is one of ten institutions that make up the Utah System of Higher Education.
http://wn.com/University_of_Utah
Wesleyan University
:This article is about Wesleyan University in Middletown, Connecticut, USA. For a list of other colleges and universities with names including "Wesleyan," see Wesleyan University (disambiguation).
http://wn.com/Wesleyan_University
Wheelock College
Wheelock College is a private, coeducational college located in Boston, Massachusetts. The school was founded in 1888 by Lucy Wheelock. The mission of Wheelock College is to primarily improve the lives of children and families. Wheelock College is a member of the Colleges of the Fenway consortium.
http://wn.com/Wheelock_College
Williams College
Williams College is a private liberal arts college located in Williamstown, Massachusetts, United States. Established in 1793 with funds from the estate of Ephraim Williams, Williams is one of the oldest academic institutions in the United States. Originally a men's college, Williams became co-educational in 1970. Fraternities were also phased out during this period, beginning in 1962. Williams forms part of the historic Little Three colleges, along with Wesleyan University and rival Amherst College.
http://wn.com/Williams_College
WMBR
WMBR is the Massachusetts Institute of Technology student-run radio station, licensed to Cambridge, Massachusetts, and broadcasting on 88.1 FM. It is all-volunteer and funded by listener donations and MIT funds. Both students and community members can apply for positions, and like many college radio stations, WMBR offers diverse programming.
http://wn.com/WMBR
Yale University
Yale University is a private Ivy League university located in New Haven, Connecticut. Founded in 1701 in the Colony of Connecticut, the university is the third-oldest institution of higher education in the United States.
http://wn.com/Yale_University

Adil Najam
Adil Najam is an academic and writer of Pakistani origin based in Boston. He is a leading expert on issues related to developing country environmental policy, especially climate change, and also on the politics of South Asia. He is currently the Director of the Frederick S. Pardee Center for the Study of the Longer-Range Future and Professor of International Relations and of Geography & Environment, both at Boston University. He is the winner of teaching awards at MIT and the Fletcher School of Law and Diplomacy, and the author of multiple books, scholarly papers and book chapters. He is also the founding editor of the blog Pakistaniat: All Things Pakistan and a highly sought public speaker.
http://wn.com/Adil_Najam
Ahmed Chalabi
Ahmed Abdel Hadi Chalabi () (born October 30, 1944) is an Iraqi politician. He was interim oil minister in Iraq in April-May 2005 and December-January 2006 and deputy prime minister from May 2005 until May 2006. Chalabi failed to win a seat in parliament in the December 2005 elections, and when the new Iraqi cabinet was announced in May 2006, he was not awarded a post. Once dubbed the "George Washington of Iraq" he has fallen out of favor and is currently under investigation by several U.S. government sources. He was also the subject of a 2008 biography by investigative journalist Aram Roston, The Man Who Pushed America to War; The Extraordinary Life, Adventures, And Obsessions of Ahmad Chalabi.
http://wn.com/Ahmed_Chalabi
Albert J. Simone
Dr. Albert Joseph Simone (born December, 1935 in Boston, MA) is a former president of the Rochester Institute of Technology (RIT) in Rochester, New York, USA.
http://wn.com/Albert_J_Simone
Alfred P. Sloan
http://wn.com/Alfred_P_Sloan
Alice Gast
Alice Petry Gast (born May 25, 1958) is the 13th President of Lehigh University in Bethlehem, Pennsylvania. She is Lehigh's first female president.
http://wn.com/Alice_Gast
Alvar Aalto
http://wn.com/Alvar_Aalto
Amar Bose
http://wn.com/Amar_Bose
Andrew Viterbi
Andrew James Viterbi, Ph.D. (Bergamo (Italy) March 9, 1935) is an Italian-American electrical engineer and businessman.
http://wn.com/Andrew_Viterbi
Antoine Lavoisier
.
http://wn.com/Antoine_Lavoisier
Archimedes
http://wn.com/Archimedes
Aristotle
http://wn.com/Aristotle
Arthur Amos Noyes
Arthur Amos Noyes (1866 – 1936) was a U.S. chemist and educator. He served as the acting president of MIT between 1907 and 1909. He received a PhD. in 1890 at Leipzig under the guidance of Wilhelm Ostwald. Roscoe Gilkey Dickinson was one of his famous students. Noyes served as Professor of Chemistry at the California Institute of Technology from 1919 to 1936. He was a major influence on the educational philosophy and the core curriculum of Caltech.
http://wn.com/Arthur_Amos_Noyes
Benjamin Netanyahu
Benjamin "Bibi" Netanyahu (, also Binyamin Netanyahu, born 21 October 1949) is the ninth and current Prime Minister of Israel, serving since March 2009. Netanyahu also serves as the current Chairman of the Likud Party, as a Knesset member, as the Health Minister of Israel, as the Pensioner Affairs Minister of Israel and as the Economic Strategy Minister of Israel.
http://wn.com/Benjamin_Netanyahu
Buzz Aldrin
Buzz Aldrin (born Edwin Eugene Aldrin, Jr.; January 20, 1930) is an American mechanical engineer, retired United States Air Force pilot and astronaut who was the Lunar Module pilot on Apollo 11, the first manned lunar landing in history. On July 20, 1969, he was the second human being to set foot on the Moon, following mission commander Neil Armstrong.
http://wn.com/Buzz_Aldrin
Cass Gilbert
:''Not to be confused with American architect C.P.H. Gilbert
http://wn.com/Cass_Gilbert
Caucasian American
http://wn.com/Caucasian_American
Cecil Howard Green
http://wn.com/Cecil_Howard_Green
Charles Darwin
http://wn.com/Charles_Darwin
Charles Stark Draper
Charles Stark Draper (October 2, 1901 – July 25, 1987) was an American scientist and engineer, often referred to as "the father of inertial navigation." He was the founder and director of the MIT Instrumentation Laboratory, later renamed the Charles Stark Draper Laboratory, which under his direction designed and built the Apollo Guidance Computer for NASA, which made the Apollo moon landings possible.
http://wn.com/Charles_Stark_Draper
Citigroup
Citigroup Inc. (branded Citi) is a major American financial services company based in New York City. Citigroup was formed from one of the world's largest mergers in history by combining the banking giant Citicorp and financial conglomerate Travelers Group on April 7, 1998.
http://wn.com/Citigroup
Claude E. Shannon
http://wn.com/Claude_E_Shannon
Claude Shannon
http://wn.com/Claude_Shannon
David F. Noble
:For other uses of the name David Noble, please see David Noble (disambiguation)
http://wn.com/David_F_Noble
David Miliband
David Wright Miliband (born 15 July 1965) is a British Labour Party politician who has been the Member of Parliament (MP) for South Shields since 2001, and was the Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs from 2007 to 2010. He is the son of the late Marxist theorist Ralph Miliband. He and his younger brother Ed Miliband were the first siblings to sit in the Cabinet simultaneously since Edward, Lord Stanley, and Oliver Stanley in 1938.
http://wn.com/David_Miliband
Dmitri Mendeleev
http://wn.com/Dmitri_Mendeleev
Dwight D. Eisenhower
http://wn.com/Dwight_D_Eisenhower
Edward Levi
http://wn.com/Edward_Levi
Edward Norton Lorenz
Edward Norton Lorenz (May 23, 1917 - April 16, 2008) was an American mathematician and meteorologist, and a pioneer of chaos theory. He discovered the strange attractor notion and coined the term butterfly effect.
http://wn.com/Edward_Norton_Lorenz
Eero Saarinen
http://wn.com/Eero_Saarinen
Elihu Thomson
http://wn.com/Elihu_Thomson
Elizabeth Shin
Elizabeth Shin (February 16, 1980 – April 14, 2000) was a Massachusetts Institute of Technology student who died from burns inflicted by a fire in her dormitory room. Her death led to a lawsuit against MIT and controversy as to whether MIT paid adequate attention to its students' mental and emotional health, and whether MIT's suicide rate was abnormally high. Although her death was first thought to be a suicide, both MIT and her parents have stated that it may have been an accident as a stipulation of the amicable settlement between MIT and the Shins.
http://wn.com/Elizabeth_Shin
Ernest Fox Nichols
Ernest Fox Nichols (June 1, 1869 – April 29, 1924) was a U.S. educator and physicist. He was born in Leavenworth County, Kansas, and received his undergraduate degree from Kansas State University in 1888. After working for a year in the Chemistry Department at Kansas State, he matriculated to graduate school at Cornell University, where he received degrees in 1893 and 1897. He also studied at the University of Berlin and Cambridge University.
http://wn.com/Ernest_Fox_Nichols
Eugenio Garza Sada
http://wn.com/Eugenio_Garza_Sada
Francis Amasa Walker
Francis Amasa Walker (July 2, 1840 – January 5, 1897) was an American economist, statistician, journalist, educator, academic administrator, and military officer in the Union Army. Walker was born into a prominent Boston family, the son of the economist and politician Amasa Walker, and he graduated from Amherst College at the age of 20. He received a commission to join the 15th Massachusetts Regiment of Volunteers and quickly rose through the ranks as an assistant adjutant general. Walker fought in the Peninsula Campaign and was injured at the Battle of Chancellorsville but subsequently participated in the Bristoe, Overland, and Richmond-Petersburg Campaigns before being captured by Confederate forces and held at the infamous Libby Prison. After his release, he was promoted to the rank of brevet brigadier general at the age of 24.
http://wn.com/Francis_Amasa_Walker
Franco Modigliani
http://wn.com/Franco_Modigliani
Frank Gehry
Frank Owen Gehry, CC (born Frank Owen Goldberg; February 28, 1929) is a Canadian-American Pritzker Prize-winning architect based in Los Angeles, California.
http://wn.com/Frank_Gehry
Frank L. Douglas
Frank L. Douglas M.D., Ph.D. is a Guyanese American medical doctor and researcher. Douglas resigned from his appointment as a professor of practice at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in July 2007 after the university's administration refused to consider granting Assistant Professor James Sherley tenure.
http://wn.com/Frank_L_Douglas
Fred C. Koch
Fred Chase Koch (September 23, 1900 – November 17, 1967) was an American chemical engineer and entrepreneur who founded the oil refinery firm that later became Koch Industries, the second-largest privately-held company in the United States.
http://wn.com/Fred_C_Koch
Friedrich Wöhler
http://wn.com/Friedrich_Wöhler
Fumihiko Maki
http://wn.com/Fumihiko_Maki
George Eastman
http://wn.com/George_Eastman
Gordon Bunshaft
http://wn.com/Gordon_Bunshaft
Harold Edgerton
http://wn.com/Harold_Edgerton
Harry Truman
http://wn.com/Harry_Truman
Henry Cavendish
http://wn.com/Henry_Cavendish
Howard W. Johnson
http://wn.com/Howard_W_Johnson
Hugh Lofting
http://wn.com/Hugh_Lofting
I. M. Pei
Ieoh Ming Pei (); born 26 April 1917), commonly known by his initials I. M. Pei, is a Chinese American architect, often called a master of modern architecture. Born in Guangzhou and raised in Hong Kong and Shanghai, Pei drew inspiration at an early age from the gardens at Suzhou. In 1935 he moved to the United States and enrolled in the University of Pennsylvania's architecture school, but quickly transferred to the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. He was unhappy with the focus at both schools on Beaux-Arts architecture, and spent his free time researching the emerging architects, especially Le Corbusier. After graduating, he joined the Harvard Graduate School of Design (GSD) and became friends with the Bauhaus architects Walter Gropius and Marcel Breuer. In 1939, he married Eileen Loo, who had introduced him to the GSD community. They have been married for over seventy years, and have six children.
http://wn.com/I_M_Pei
I.M. Pei
http://wn.com/IM_Pei
Isaac Newton
http://wn.com/Isaac_Newton
James Crafts
James Mason Crafts (March 8, 1839 – June 20, 1917) was an American chemist, best known for developing the Friedel-Crafts alkylation and acylation reactions with Charles Friedel in 1876.
http://wn.com/James_Crafts
James Killian
http://wn.com/James_Killian
James Rhyne Killian
Dr. James Rhyne Killian, Jr. (July 24, 1904 – January 29, 1988) was the 10th president of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, from 1948 until 1959. He was an MIT alumnus, S.B. in management, 1926.
http://wn.com/James_Rhyne_Killian
Jared Cohon
Jared Leigh Cohon is the eighth President of Carnegie Mellon University in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States.
http://wn.com/Jared_Cohon
Jerome Lettvin
Jerome Ysroael Lettvin (born Chicago, February 23, 1920) is a cognitive scientist and professor Emeritus of Electrical and Bioengineering and Communications Physiology at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). He is best known as the author of the 1959 paper, "What the frog's eye tells the frog's brain", one of the most cited papers in the Science Citation Index. He wrote it along with Humberto Maturana, Warren McCulloch and Walter Pitts and in the paper they gave special thanks and mention to the work of Oliver Selfridge at MIT. He carried out neurophysiological studies in the spinal cord, made the first demonstration of "feature detectors" in the visual system, and studied information processing in the terminal branches of single axons. Around 1969, he originated the term grandmother cell to illustrate the logical inconsistency of the concept. The way he would put it in casual conversation was ''Suppose you found a man's grandmother cells and ablated them. No longer would he remember grandma. Then you ask him about the pie she made, the perfume she wore, and all the things about grandma that he remembers. Suddenly there's grandma again.''
http://wn.com/Jerome_Lettvin
Jerome Wiesner
http://wn.com/Jerome_Wiesner
John Albion Andrew
http://wn.com/John_Albion_Andrew
John Dalton
John Dalton FRS (6 September 1766 – 27 July 1844) was an English chemist, meteorologist and physicist. He is best known for his pioneering work in the development of modern atomic theory, and his research into colour blindness (sometimes referred to as Daltonism, in his honour).
http://wn.com/John_Dalton
John Daniel Runkle
John Daniel Runkle (October 11, 1822 – July 8, 1902) was a U.S. educator and mathematician. He served as acting president of MIT from 1868-70 and president between 1870 and 1878.
http://wn.com/John_Daniel_Runkle
John F. Kennedy
http://wn.com/John_F_Kennedy
John Maeda
John Maeda (born 1966 in Seattle, Washington) is a Japanese-American graphic designer, computer scientist, university professor, and author. His work in design and technology explores the area where the two fields merge. He is the current President of the Rhode Island School of Design. At RISD, Maeda seeks to champion the necessary role that artists and designers play in the 21st century creative economy.
http://wn.com/John_Maeda
John Olver
John Walter Olver (born September 3, 1936), American politician, has been a Democratic member of the United States House of Representatives since 1991, representing , a primarily rural district that makes up most of Western Massachusetts.
http://wn.com/John_Olver
John S. Reed
John Shepard Reed (born 1939) is the former Chairman of the New York Stock Exchange. He previously served as Chairman and CEO of Citicorp, Citibank, and post-merger, Citigroup.
http://wn.com/John_S_Reed
John Servos
John William Servos (b. 1951) is an American professor and historian of science. His research centers on the historical development of science as a discourse and in the form of institutions and on how science has situated itself historically in the culture at large.
http://wn.com/John_Servos
Joseph Aoun
Joseph E. Aoun is the seventh president of Northeastern University in Boston, Massachusetts, where he took office on August 15, 2006. Prior to taking on the presidency at Northeastern, Aoun was Dean of the College of Letters, Arts, and Sciences at the University of Southern California. He joined USC in 1982 in the Department of Linguistics, and during his time at USC served as head of the academic Senate.
http://wn.com/Joseph_Aoun
Joseph Priestley
http://wn.com/Joseph_Priestley
Joseph Weizenbaum
http://wn.com/Joseph_Weizenbaum
Julius Rebek
Julius Rebek, Jr. (born April 11, 1944) is a Hungarian-born American chemist and expert on molecular self-assembly.
http://wn.com/Julius_Rebek
Justus von Liebig
Justus von Liebig (12 May 1803 – 18 April 1873) was a German chemist who made major contributions to agricultural and biological chemistry, and worked on the organization of organic chemistry. As a professor, he devised the modern laboratory-oriented teaching method, and for such innovations, he is regarded as one of the greatest chemistry teachers of all time. He is known as the "father of the fertilizer industry" for his discovery of nitrogen as an essential plant nutrient, and his formulation of the Law of the Minimum which described the effect of individual nutrients on crops. He also developed a manufacturing process for beef extracts, and founded a company, Liebig Extract of Meat Company, that later trademarked the Oxo brand beef bouillon cube.
http://wn.com/Justus_von_Liebig
Jöns Jakob Berzelius
http://wn.com/Jöns_Jakob_Berzelius
Karl Compton
http://wn.com/Karl_Compton
Karl Taylor Compton
Karl Taylor Compton (September 14, 1887 – June 22, 1954) was a prominent American physicist and president of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) from 1930 to 1948.
http://wn.com/Karl_Taylor_Compton
Katherine McCormick
http://wn.com/Katherine_McCormick
Kofi Annan
Kofi Atta Annan (born 8 April 1938) is a Ghanaian diplomat who served as the seventh Secretary-General of the United Nations from 1 January 1997 to 31 December 2006. Annan and the United Nations were the co-recipients of the 2001 Nobel Peace Prize for his founding the Global AIDS and Health Fund to support developing countries in their struggle to care for their people.
http://wn.com/Kofi_Annan
L. Rafael Reif
L. Rafael Reif is a professor of Electrical Engineering and the current Provost of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Reif previously served as the head of MIT's Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science between 2004 and 2005 and the director of the Microsystems Technology Laboratories.
http://wn.com/L_Rafael_Reif
Larry Bacow
http://wn.com/Larry_Bacow
Leonardo da Vinci
http://wn.com/Leonardo_da_Vinci
Louis Pasteur
http://wn.com/Louis_Pasteur
Lucas Papademos
Lucas Demetrios Papademos (; born 11 October 1947 in Athens), is a Greek economist, former Vice President of the European Central Bank.
http://wn.com/Lucas_Papademos
Luk Van Parijs
Luk Van Parijs was an associate professor of biology at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) Center for Cancer Research. After investigating for a year, MIT fired Van Parijs for research misconduct. In a press release, MIT claimed Van Parijs admitted to fabricating and falsifying research data in a paper, several unpublished manuscripts, and grant applications.
http://wn.com/Luk_Van_Parijs
Lyndon Johnson
http://wn.com/Lyndon_Johnson
Marcia McNutt
Marcia Kemper McNutt (1952-) is an American tectonophysicist. She is director of the United States Geological Survey and science adviser to the United States Secretary of the Interior.
http://wn.com/Marcia_McNutt
Margaret MacVicar
http://wn.com/Margaret_MacVicar
Mario Draghi
Mario Draghi (born September 3, 1947) is an Italian banker and economist who has been governor of the Banca d'Italia since January 16, 2006.
http://wn.com/Mario_Draghi
Mark Jarzombek
Mark Jarzombek (born 1954) is a US-born architectural historian, author and critic. Since 1995 he has served as Director of the History Theory Criticism Section of the Department of Architecture at MIT, Cambridge MA, United States.
http://wn.com/Mark_Jarzombek
Mark S. Wrighton
Mark Stephen Wrighton (born June 11, 1949) is an American academic, a chemist, and the current Chancellor of Washington University in St. Louis. Born in Jacksonville, Florida, Wrighton received his B.S. in Chemistry from Florida State University in 1969. While at Florida State, he won the Monsanto Chemistry Award for outstanding research. He received his Ph.D at the age of 22 from the California Institute of Technology, working under Harry B. Gray and George S. Hammond. His doctoral dissertation subject was Photoprocesses in Metal-Containing Molecules. He graduated from Caltech in 1972.
http://wn.com/Mark_S_Wrighton
Martin C. Jischke
Martin C. Jischke (JIS-key) (born August 7, 1941) is a prominent American higher-education administrator and advocate, and was the tenth president of Purdue University.
http://wn.com/Martin_C_Jischke
Marvin Minsky
Marvin Lee Minsky (born August 9, 1927) is an American cognitive scientist in the field of artificial intelligence (AI), co-founder of Massachusetts Institute of Technology's AI laboratory, and author of several texts on AI and philosophy.
http://wn.com/Marvin_Minsky
Michael Faraday
http://wn.com/Michael_Faraday
Morris Halle
Morris Halle, born Pinkowitz (Latvian: Moriss Pinkovics), is a Latvian-American Jewish linguist and an Institute Professor and professor emeritus of linguistics at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. He is best known for his pioneering work in generative phonology, having written "On Accent and Juncture in English" in 1956 with Noam Chomsky and Fred Lukoff and The Sound Pattern of English in 1968 with Chomsky.
http://wn.com/Morris_Halle
Nicholas Negroponte
Nicholas Negroponte (born December 1, 1943) is a Greek-American architect best known as the founder and Chairman Emeritus of Massachusetts Institute of Technology's Media Lab, and also known as the founder of the One Laptop per Child Association (OLPC).
http://wn.com/Nicholas_Negroponte
Nicolaus Copernicus
http://wn.com/Nicolaus_Copernicus
Noam Chomsky
Avram Noam Chomsky ( or ; born December 7, 1928) is an American linguist, philosopher, cognitive scientist, and political activist. He is an Institute Professor and professor emeritus of linguistics at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Chomsky is well known in the academic and scientific community as one of the fathers of modern linguistics, and a major figure of analytic philosophy. Since the 1960s, he has become known more widely as a political dissident and an anarchist, referring to himself as a libertarian socialist. Chomsky is the author of more than 100 books and has received worldwide attention for his views, despite being typically absent from the mainstream media.
http://wn.com/Noam_Chomsky
Norbert Wiener
http://wn.com/Norbert_Wiener
Patrick Winston
Patrick Henry Winston is an American computer scientist. Winston was director of the MIT Artificial Intelligence Laboratory for most of its existence, from 1972 to 1997. He succeeded Marvin Minsky, who left to found the MIT Media Lab shortly after establishing the AI Lab in the wake of the political upheavals at that time. He was succeeded by Rodney Brooks after a long, stable period. Brooks went on to terminate the lab by merger into the MIT Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory (CSAIL).
http://wn.com/Patrick_Winston
Paul Edward Gray
Paul Edward Gray (born 1932) was the 14th president of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. He graduated from M.I.T. in 1954 with a degree in Electrical Engineering where he was a member of the Phi Sigma Kappa fraternity. He subsequently obtained an M.S. and Sc.D from M.I.T. in 1955 and 1960. He spent four years on the White House Science Council, had membership on the Council's Panel on the Health of Universities, and he was also vice chairman of the Council on Competiveness. He is currently a Professor of Electrical Engineering and President Emeritus at MIT.
http://wn.com/Paul_Edward_Gray
Paul Krugman
Paul Robin Krugman (; born February 28, 1953) is an American economist, Professor of Economics and International Affairs at the Woodrow Wilson School of Public and International Affairs at Princeton University, Centenary Professor at the London School of Economics, and an op-ed columnist for The New York Times. In 2008, Krugman won the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics for his contributions to New Trade Theory and New Economic Geography. He was voted sixth in a 2005 global poll of the world's top 100 intellectuals by Prospect.
http://wn.com/Paul_Krugman
Paul Samuelson
http://wn.com/Paul_Samuelson
Pervez Hoodbhoy
http://wn.com/Pervez_Hoodbhoy
Pete Stark
Fortney Hillman "Pete" Stark, Jr. (born November 11, 1931) is a Democratic member of the U.S. House of Representatives, and has served since 1973, representing California's 13th congressional district in southwestern Alameda County. Currently he is the 6th most senior Representative as well as 8th most senior member of Congress overall.
http://wn.com/Pete_Stark
Richard Feynman
http://wn.com/Richard_Feynman
Richard Stallman
Richard Matthew Stallman (born March 16, 1953), often shortened to rms, is an American software freedom activist and computer programmer. In September 1983, he launched the GNU Project to create a free Unix-like operating system, and has been the project's lead architect and organizer. With the launch of the GNU Project, he initiated the free software movement; in October 1985 he founded the Free Software Foundation.
http://wn.com/Richard_Stallman
Robert A. Swanson
http://wn.com/Robert_A_Swanson
Robert Boyle
Robert Boyle FRS was a natural philosopher, chemist, physicist, and inventor, also noted for his writings in theology. He is best known for Boyle's law. Although his research and personal philosophy clearly has its roots in the alchemical tradition, he is largely regarded today as the first modern chemist, and therefore one of the founders of modern chemistry. Among his works, The Sceptical Chymist is seen as a cornerstone book in the field of chemistry.
http://wn.com/Robert_Boyle
Robert Bunsen
http://wn.com/Robert_Bunsen
Robert Engman
Robert Engman (1927 - ) is a well-known American sculptor with a number of works in the Hirshhorn Museum and elsewhere in the U.S. One of his best-known sculptures, entitled "Triune", created in 1975, stands in Philadelphia at the south west corner of City Hall. Another, "Kings" is at 78th and Lindbergh Streets, also in Philadelphia. In his work, he often explores minimal surface intersections of geometric forms, which has led to the interest over the years, of many who are involved in the science and mathematics of such surfaces, including the late R. Buckminster Fuller.
http://wn.com/Robert_Engman
Robert Metcalfe
Robert Melancton Metcalfe (born April 7, 1946 in Brooklyn, New York) is an electrical engineer from the United States who co-invented Ethernet, founded 3Com and formulated Metcalfe's Law.
http://wn.com/Robert_Metcalfe
Robert Noyce
Robert Norton Noyce (December 12, 1927 – June 3, 1990), nicknamed "the Mayor of Silicon Valley", co-founded Fairchild Semiconductor in 1957 and Intel in 1968. He is also credited (along with Jack Kilby) with the invention of the integrated circuit or microchip. While Kilby's invention was six months earlier, neither man rejected the title of co-inventor. Noyce was also a mentor and father-figure to an entire generation of entrepreneurs, including Steve Jobs at Apple, Inc.
http://wn.com/Robert_Noyce
Robert Solow
Robert Merton Solow (born August 23, 1924) is an American economist particularly known for his work on the theory of economic growth that culminated in the exogenous growth model named after him. He was awarded the John Bates Clark Medal (in 1961) and the 1987 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences.
http://wn.com/Robert_Solow
Ronald Rivest
http://wn.com/Ronald_Rivest
Salman Rushdie
Sir Ahmed Salman Rushdie (lang-ur| ; born 19 June 1947) is a British-Indian novelist and essayist. He achieved notability with his second novel, ''Midnight's Children'' (1981), which won the Booker Prize in 1981. Much of his fiction is set on the Indian subcontinent. His style is often classified as magical realism mixed with historical fiction, and a dominant theme of his work is the story of the many connections, disruptions and migrations between the Eastern and Western worlds.
http://wn.com/Salman_Rushdie
Samuel Cate Prescott
Samuel Cate Prescott (April 5, 1872 – March 19, 1962) was an American food scientist and microbiologist who was involved in the development of food safety, food science, public health, and industrial microbiology.
http://wn.com/Samuel_Cate_Prescott
Seymour Papert
Seymour Papert (born February 29, 1928 in Pretoria, South Africa) is an MIT mathematician, computer scientist, and educator. He is one of the pioneers of artificial intelligence, as well as an inventor of the Logo programming language.
http://wn.com/Seymour_Papert
Susan Hockfield
Susan Hockfield (born March 24, 1951) is the sixteenth and current president of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Hockfield's appointment was publicly announced on August 26, 2004, and she formally took office December 6, 2004, succeeding Charles M. Vest. Hockfield's official inauguration celebrations took place during the week of May 2, 2005. Her title is "President and Professor of Neuroscience," and she is the first woman and the first life scientist to hold the title of president of MIT.
http://wn.com/Susan_Hockfield
T. Marshall Hahn
Thomas Marshall Hahn Jr. (born 2 December 1926) was President of Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University from 1962 to 1974 and Director of Georgia Pacific from 1983 to 1993. He received his B.S. degree in physics from the University of Kentucky in 1945.
http://wn.com/T_Marshall_Hahn
Ted Postol
http://wn.com/Ted_Postol
Thomas Alva Edison
http://wn.com/Thomas_Alva_Edison
Tim Berners-Lee
Sir Timothy John "Tim" Berners-Lee, OM, KBE, FRS, FREng, FRSA (born 8 June 1955, also known as "TimBL"), is a British engineer and computer scientist and MIT professor credited with inventing the World Wide Web, making the first proposal for it in March 1989. On 25 December 1990, with the help of Robert Cailliau and a young student at CERN, he implemented the first successful communication between an HTTP client and server via the Internet.
http://wn.com/Tim_Berners-Lee
Tom Scholz
Donald Thomas "Tom" Scholz (born 10 March 1947) is a American rock musician, songwriter, guitarist, inventor, and mechanical engineer, best known as the founder of the hard rock band Boston. He is also the inventor of the Rockman guitar amplifier. As noted by Allmusic, he is 'a notoriously "un-rock n' roll" figure who never enjoyed the limelight of being a performer' but instead concentrated almost exclusively on his music. After achieving commercial success with Boston, Scholz has spent much of his time working with charities.
http://wn.com/Tom_Scholz
Tsinghua University
Tsinghua University (THU; ), colloquially known in Chinese as Qinghua, is a university in Beijing, China. The school is one of the nine universities of the C9 League. It was established in 1911, originally under the name "Tsinghua Xuetang". The school was renamed the "Tsinghua School" in 1912. The university section was founded in 1925 and the name "National Tsinghua University" adopted in 1928. With a motto of Self-Discipline and Social Commitment, Tsinghua University describes itself as being dedicated to academic excellence, the well-being of Chinese society and to global development. Today, many national and international rankings place Tsinghua amongst the best universities in mainland China.
http://wn.com/Tsinghua_University
Vannevar Bush
Vannevar Bush (March 11, 1890 – June 28, 1974; ) was an American engineer and science administrator known for his work on analog computing, his political role in the development of the atomic bomb as a primary organizer of the Manhattan Project, and the idea of the memex, an adjustable microfilm-viewer which is somewhat analogous to the structure of the World Wide Web. More specifically the memex worked as a memory bank to organize and retrieve data. As Director of the Office of Scientific Research and Development, Bush coordinated the activities of some six thousand leading American scientists in the application of science to warfare.
http://wn.com/Vannevar_Bush
Vietnam War
http://wn.com/Vietnam_War
William R. Brody
William R. Brody is the current President of the Salk Institute and former President of The Johns Hopkins University, a position which he had held from 1996 to 2009. On March 10, 2008, he announced his intent to step down as president effective December 31, 2008. This was postponed to March 3, 2009 upon Hopkins naming Ronald Daniels, the provost of the University of Pennsylvania its next President. He was the highest-paid university president in the United States, receiving $897,786 in 2004, and regained the title in 2007. Brody received his B.S. and M.S. degrees in electrical engineering from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and his M.D. and Ph.D. degrees, the latter also in electrical engineering, from Stanford University. Dr. Brody continued his post-graduate training at the University of California San Francisco where he completed a residency in diagnostic radiology in 1977. On May 21, 2009,an honourary doctorate was conferred on him by the The Johns Hopkins University
http://wn.com/William_R_Brody
William W. Bosworth
http://wn.com/William_W_Bosworth
Winston Churchill
http://wn.com/Winston_Churchill

How to Get into MIT

...

published: 24 Aug 2011

Visit to MIT - Massachusetts Institute of Technology

...

published: 22 Mar 2010

Massachusetts Institute of Technology - MIT Campus Tour

...

published: 20 Dec 2010

Interview with MIT Physics Professor Walter Lewin

...

published: 29 Feb 2008

MIT-Walter Lewin- Complete Breakdown of Intuition - Part1

...

published: 28 Nov 2006

For the Love of Physics (May 16, 2011)

...

published: 05 Dec 2011

theU.com - MIT: "Academics"

...

published: 07 Jun 2007

Barack Obama Energy Technology Speech MIT 10 23 09 Part 1

...

published: 23 Oct 2009

Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge

...

published: 29 Mar 2010

MIT sketching

...

published: 19 Sep 2006

Lec 1 | MIT 18.01 Single Variable Calculus, Fall 2007

...

published: 16 Jan 2009

MIT - Massachusetts Institute of Technology campus tour

...

published: 06 Sep 2008

MIT - Walter Lewin - Demagnetization

...

published: 13 Nov 2006

The Takeaway | Interview with MIT President Dr. Susan Hockfield

...

published: 14 Jun 2012

Lord Board

LINDSAY LORD (1902-1991) was a New England naval architect with a doctor’s degree from Mas...

published: 06 Oct 2010

Author: Hydrodynamica

Julia Ledewitz, Massachusetts Institute of Technology

published: 29 Apr 2010

Author: U.S. Green Building Council

Lino Tagliapietra @ Massachusetts Institute of Technology

October 20, 2009 Produced by Michael Kalish...

published: 22 Sep 2010

Author: Michael Kalish

Nick Gelpi,Massachusetts Institute of Technology

Pedagogy This panel aims to interrogate the role of installations in the academic setting ...

published: 01 Feb 2012

Author: Taubman College

<li class="playlistitemli thumbnail border_color">
        <div class="video_facebook">
            <a href="http://web.archive.org./web/20121027192319/http://www.facebook.com/sharer.php?u=http://wn.com/massachusetts_institute_of_technology&t=<%= title %>" title="Share this video" data-title="Share this video" target="_blank" style="target-name: new; target-new: tab;"></a>
        </div>

Public Domain / Daderot
Public Domain / Daderot
Public Domain / Daderot
Public Domain / Daderot
Public Domain / Daderot
Public Domain / Daderot
Public Domain / Daderot
Public Domain / Daderot
Public Domain / Daderot
Public Domain / Daderot
Public Domain / Daderot
Public Domain / Daderot
Public Domain / Daderot
Public Domain / Daderot
Public Domain / Daderot
Public Domain / Daderot
Public Domain / Daderot
Public Domain / Daderot
Public Domain / Daderot
Public Domain / Daderot
Public Domain / Daderot
Public Domain / Daderot
Public Domain / Daderot
Public Domain / Daderot
Public Domain / Daderot
Public Domain / Daderot
Public Domain / Daderot
Public Domain / Daderot
Public Domain / Daderot
Public Domain / Daderot

Photo: WN / Yolanda Leyba

Virgin for sale: Website auctions off virginity of college student for $780,000 (Video)

The Examiner

26 Oct 2012

Related topics virgin auctionvirginity auction Advertisement A 20 year-old Brazilian student has sold her virginity for the sum of $780,000 through an online auction on a website simply called Virgins...

Chat

Photo: Creative Commons / Neogeolegend

Kim Jong-il Funeral ceremony .Kim Jong-il died of a suspected heart attack on 17 December 2011 at 08:30 while traveling by train to an area outside Pyongyang.

N. Korean Army General Executed with Mortar for Drinking

Novosti

25 Oct 2012

MOSCOW, October 25 (RIA Novosti) - A high-ranking North Korean Army official was reportedly executed with a mortar round for drinking liquor during the 100-day...

Chat

Photo: White House / Pete Souza

File - President Barack Obama disembarks Air Force One upon arrival at Joplin Regional Airport in Joplin, Missouri, May 21, 2012.

Did Obama Just Play His Iran Card?

WorldNews.com

24 Oct 2012

Article by WN.com Correspondent Dallas Darling By the time President Richard Nixon told his Chinese hosts during a banquet toast, "Let us start a long march together, not in lockstep, but on different...

Chat

Photo: AP / Khin Maung Win

Myanmar Buddhist monks march, protesting against plans to open office of the Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC), in Yangon, Myanmar, Monday, Oct. 15, 2012.

Muslims flee Myanmar as unrest continues

New Straits/Business Times

25 Oct 2012

YANGON: A new wave of sectarian violence in western Myanmar has left five people dead and dozens injured in recent days, triggering another exodus of Muslims to emergency camps, officials said...

Chat

Photo: AP / Collin Reid

Waves, brought by Hurricane Sandy, crash on a house in the Caribbean Terrace neighborhood in eastern Kingston, Jamaica, Wednesday, Oct. 24, 2012.

Hurricane Sandy growing stronger as it nears Cuba

Yahoo Daily News

25 Oct 2012

HAVANA (Reuters) - Hurricane Sandy, growing stronger over warm Caribbean waters, lashed eastern Cuba with heavy rains and rising winds on Wednesday as it bore down on the communist island after...

Chat

Timeline:
2012
2011
2010
2009
2008
2007
2006
2005
2004
2003
2002
2001

Best of Tennessee Readers' Choice Awards winners announced 27 Oct 2012

Knox News Photo by J. Miles Cary // Buy this photo...(size: 0.4Kb)

The Secret Diary of . . . Detective Inspector Grant Wormald 27 Oct 2012

Stuff MONDAY At approximately 0900 hours I disembark from an aircraft in Nelson, which I am given to understand is a busy port town in the North Island. Owing to the nature of my visit I dress in heavy disguise. I wear what is known as a clown suit. I have reason to believe it was a successful ruse,...(size: 2.7Kb)

Music of 'Ishkq in Paris' is set out to enchant the music lovers 27 Oct 2012

IMDb The bubbly dimpled actress is back in the news with her production debut âIshkq in Parisâ.We...(size: 0.7Kb)

Amitabh Bachchan, Srk recollect memories of Yashji 27 Oct 2012

IMDb At Yash Chopraâs chautha, held yesterday at Yrf Studios, actors Amitabh Bachchan, Shah Rukh Khan and Anupam Kher recollected their...(size: 0.9Kb)

Attack Of The Show, X-play Cancelled by G4 Network for Rebranding 27 Oct 2012

IMDb Â Attack of the Show, X-Play Cancelled by G4 for Rebranding.Â Attack of...(size: 0.5Kb)

City return to winning ways 27 Oct 2012

Al Jazeera Manchester City and Arsenal bounced back from to return to winning ways in the English Premier League on Saturday, although both sides were made to toil. City put their 3-1 loss at Ajax behind them with a 1-0 success at home to Swansea City, while Arsenal celebrated Jack Wilshere's return from a...(size: 19.1Kb)

Schemes for welfare of cops families 27 Oct 2012

Deccan Herald Deputy Chief Minister RâAshoka said on Saturday that the State government will soon come up with schemes for the welfare of families of police personnel....(size: 1.1Kb)

Principle of law 27 Oct 2012

Deccan Herald John Grishamâs âThe Racketeerâ is about a disbarred ex-lawyer in prison with information about the murder of a federal judge, writes Janet Maslin. At one of many moments in John Grishamâs new novel that find Malcolm Bannister, its main character, taunting federal investigators, he announces:...(size: 5.1Kb)

Emperor of emotions 27 Oct 2012

Deccan Herald Love for cinema Celebrated Indian film director, Yash Chopra, who passed away recently, cemented the genre of romance in Hindi cinema. Love always won, especially when Chopra was around, notes Rajiv Vijayakar . Not only was Yash Chopra a man in love with love, but he made generations fall in love...(size: 7.6Kb)

A silent foundation 27 Oct 2012

Deccan Herald Cinematic evolution Indian Cinema, world over, is known for its music, dance and grandeur in general. In a way, films tend to give a false impression about reality in general. Films depict peopleâs aspirations â what an average person wants, or desires to have, in his life are shown on screen....(size: 3.1Kb)

Living in a sound bite world 27 Oct 2012

Deccan Herald Today, everything is reduced to media-friendly sound bites and slogans. Hand in hand with all of this goes ridicule and cynicism, whereby, if serious issues are not made meaningless through sound bite repetition, they are made the butt of jokes. Has this become the âcommon senseâ of the day...(size: 13.9Kb)

Bride of the red sea 27 Oct 2012

Deccan Herald Haj pit stop With Haj slated for the last week of October, pilgrims have already started to converge in Makkah (and Madina), the focal point for Haj. Makkah does not have an airport and Jeddah, Kingdom of Saudi Arabiaâs commercial capital, serves as a gateway to Makkah. Majority land up in Jeddah...(size: 5.3Kb)

Change of heart 27 Oct 2012

Deccan Herald Humour Sweet are the outcomes of a change of heart. Harassed daughters-in-law will vouch how the change of heart of their mothers-in-law had brought back lost peace in a joint family. Though they will also be quick to add that from that significant day, the other in-laws in the family had begun to...(size: 3.4Kb)

timeline:
2012
2011
2010
2009
2008
2007
2006
2005
2004
2003
2002
2001

"MIT" redirects here. For other uses, see MIT (disambiguation).

Massachusetts Institute of Technology
200px
Motto	Mens et Manus
Motto in English	Mind and Hand^[1]
Established	1861 (opened 1865)
Type	Private
Endowment	US$ 9.9 billion (2011)^[2]
President	Susan Hockfield
Provost	L. Rafael Reif
Academic staff	1,018^[3]
Students	10,894^[4]
Undergraduates	4,384^[4]
Postgraduates	6,510
Location	Cambridge, Massachusetts, U.S.
Campus	Urban, 168 acres (68.0 ha)^[5]
Nobel Laureates	77^[6]
Colors	Cardinal Red and Steel Gray^[a]
Athletics	Division III (except for Rowing) 33 varsity teams
Mascot	Tim the Beaver^[8]
Affiliations	NEASC, AAU, COFHE, APLU
Website	MIT.edu

Massachusetts Institute of Technology, also known as MIT, is a private research university located in Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States. MIT has five schools and one college, containing a total of 32 academic departments, with a strong emphasis on scientific and technological education and research.

Founded in 1861 in response to the increasing industrialization of the United States, the institute adopted the European polytechnic university model and emphasized laboratory instruction from an early date.^[9] MIT's early emphasis on applied technology at the undergraduate and graduate levels led to close cooperation with industry. Curricular reforms under Karl Compton and Vannevar Bush in the 1930s re-emphasized basic scientific research.^[10] MIT was elected to the Association of American Universities in 1934. Researchers were involved in efforts to develop computers, radar, and inertial guidance in connection with defense research during World War II and the Cold War. Post-war defense research contributed to the rapid expansion of the faculty and campus under James Killian.

The current 168-acre (68.0 ha) campus opened in 1916 and extends over 1 mile (1.6 km) along the northern bank of the Charles River basin.^[5] In the past 60 years, MIT's educational disciplines have expanded beyond the physical sciences and engineering into fields such as biology, economics, linguistics, political science, and management.

MIT enrolled 4,384 undergraduates and 6,510 graduate students for the 2011–2012 school year.^[4] MIT received 17,909 applicants for the class of 2015, with only 1,742 offered admittance, an acceptance rate of 9.7%.^[11] It employs around 1,000 faculty members.^[3] 77 Nobel laureates, 52 National Medal of Science recipients, 45 Rhodes Scholars, and 38 MacArthur Fellows are currently or have previously been affiliated with the university.^[3]^[6]^[12]

MIT has a strong entrepreneurial culture. The aggregated revenues of companies founded by MIT alumni would rank as the eleventh-largest economy in the world.^[13]^[14] MIT managed $718.2 million in research expenditures and an $8.0 billion endowment in 2009.^[15]^[16]

The "Engineers"^[17] sponsor 33 sports, most teams of which compete in the NCAA Division III's New England Women's and Men's Athletic Conference; the Division I rowing programs compete as part of the EARC and EAWRC.

History [link]

Main article: History of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology

Foundation and vision [link]

“	...a school of industrial science [aiding] the advancement, development and practical application of science in connection with arts, agriculture, manufactures, and commerce.	”
—^[18], Act to Incorporate the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Acts of 1861, Chapter 183

Stereographic card showing an MIT mechanical drafting studio, 19th century (photo by E.L. Allen)

Original Rogers Building (MIT), Back Bay, Boston, 19th century (photo by E.L. Allen)

In 1859, various individuals and Bostonian organizations submitted to the Massachusetts General Court a proposal to use newly opened lands in Back Bay, Boston for a "Conservatory of Art and Science", but the proposal failed.^[19]^[20] A later proposal by William Barton Rogers led to a charter for the incorporation of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, which was signed by the governor of Massachusetts on April 10, 1861.^[21]

Rogers sought to establish a new institution of higher education to address the challenges posed by the mid-19th century's rapid scientific and technological advances, which classic institutions were ill-prepared to deal with,^[22]^[23] writing that “The true and only practicable object of a polytechnic school is, as I conceive, the teaching, not of the minute details and manipulations of the arts, which can be done only in the workshop, but the inculcation of those scientific principles which form the basis and explanation of them, their leading processes and operations in connection with physical laws.”^[24] He valued useful knowledge and first-hand experience as part of a proper education, which in his view ought to combine both liberal and professional elements.^[25]^[26] The Rogers Plan, as it came to be known, reflected the German research university model, emphasizing an independent faculty engaged in research as well as instruction oriented around seminars and laboratories.^[27]

Early developments [link]

A 1905 map of MIT's Boston campus.

Just two days after the issuance of the charter, the first battle of the Civil War broke out. After years of delay caused by wartime funding and staffing difficulties, MIT's first classes were held in rented space at the Mercantile Building in downtown Boston in 1865.^[28] Though it was a private institution to be located in the middle of urban Boston, the new institute had a mission that matched the intent of the 1862 Morrill Land-Grant Colleges Act to fund institutions "to promote the liberal and practical education of the industrial classes", and was thus named a land-grant school.^[29]^[b] In 1866, the proceeds from land sales went toward new buildings in the Back Bay neighborhood.^[30]

MIT soon came to be called "Boston Tech".^[30] After surviving a period of financial uncertainties, the institute saw significant expansion in the last two decades of the 19th century under President Francis Amasa Walker.^[31] Programs in electrical, chemical, marine, and sanitary engineering were introduced,^[32]^[33] new buildings were built, and the size of the student body increased to well over 1000.^[31] The curriculum became increasingly vocational; less and less focus was placed on theoretical topics.^[34] During these "Boston Tech" years, MIT faculty and alumni repeatedly rejected overtures from former MIT faculty turned Harvard University president Charles W. Eliot, to merge MIT with Harvard College's Lawrence Scientific School.^[35]

File:George Eastman plaque.jpg

A plaque of George Eastman, founder of Eastman Kodak, in Building 6. His nose is rubbed by students for good luck.^[36]

MIT reinforced its independence in 1916 when it moved to its new campus on a mile-long tract on the Cambridge side of the Charles River,^[37] almost entirely on landfill.^[c] The neoclassical "New Technology" campus was funded by donations from industrialist George Eastman and designed by William W. Bosworth.^[39]

Curricular reforms [link]

In the 1930s, President Karl Taylor Compton and Vice-President (effectively Provost) Vannevar Bush reformed the applied technology curriculum by re-emphasizing the importance of "pure" sciences like physics and chemistry and by reducing the vocational practice required in shops and drafting studios.^[10] Despite the challenges of the Great Depression, the Compton reforms "renewed confidence in the ability of the Institute to develop leadership in science as well as in engineering."^[25] The expansion and reforms cemented MIT's academic reputation^[10] and the school was elected to the Association of American Universities in 1934.^[40] However, unlike Ivy League schools, MIT catered more to middle-class families, and depended more on tuition than on endowments or grants.^[41]

As late as 1949, the Lewis Committee lamented in its report on the state of education at MIT that "the Institute is widely conceived as basically a vocational school", a "partly unjustified" perception the committee sought to change. The report comprehensively reviewed the undergraduate curriculum, recommended offering a broader education, and warned against letting engineering and government-sponsored research detract from the sciences and humanities.^[25]^[42] The School of Humanities, Arts, and Social Sciences and the MIT Sloan School of Management were formed in 1950 to compete with the powerful Schools of Science and Engineering. Previously marginalized faculties in the areas of economics, management, political science, and linguistics emerged into cohesive and assertive departments by attracting respected professors and launching competitive graduate programs.^[43]^[44] The School of Humanities, Arts, and Social Sciences continued to develop under the successive terms of the more humanistically oriented presidents Howard W. Johnson and Jerome Wiesner between 1966 and 1980.^[45]

Era of defense research [link]

MIT's involvement in military research surged during World War II. In 1941, Vannevar Bush was appointed head of the federal Office of Scientific Research and Development and directed funding to only a select group of universities, including MIT.^[46] Engineers and scientists from across the country gathered at MIT's Radiation Laboratory, established in 1940 to assist the British military in developing microwave radar. The work done there significantly impacted both the war and subsequent research in the area.^[47] Other defense projects included gyroscope-based and other complex control systems for gunsight, bombsight, and inertial navigation under Charles Stark Draper's Instrumentation Laboratory;^[48]^[49] the development of a digital computer for flight simulations under Project Whirlwind;^[50] and high-speed and high-altitude photography under Harold Edgerton.^[51]^[52] By the end of the war, MIT became the nation's largest wartime R&D contractor (attracting some criticism of Bush),^[46] employing nearly 4000 in the Radiation Laboratory alone^[47] and receiving in excess of 100 million federal dollars before 1946.^[25] Work on defense projects continued even after then. Post-war government-sponsored research at MIT included SAGE and guidance systems for ballistic missiles and Project Apollo.^[53]

These activities affected MIT profoundly. A 1949 report noted the lack of "any great slackening in the pace of life at the Institute" to match the return to peacetime, remembering the "academic tranquillity of the prewar years", though acknowledging the significant contributions of military research to the increased emphasis on graduate education and rapid growth of personnel and facilities.^[25] Indeed, the faculty doubled and the graduate student body quintupled during the terms of Karl Taylor Compton, president of MIT between 1930 and 1948, James Rhyne Killian, president from 1948 to 1957, and Julius Adams Stratton, chancellor from 1952 to 1957, whose institution-building strategies shaped the expanding university. By the 1950s, MIT no longer merely benefited the industries it had worked so closely with three decades prior, and was much closer to its new patrons, philanthropic foundations and the federal government.^[54]

In late 1960s and early 1970s, student and faculty activists protested against the Vietnam War and MIT's defense research.^[55]^[56] The Union of Concerned Scientists was founded on March 4, 1969 during a meeting of faculty members and students seeking to shift the emphasis on military research towards environmental and social problems.^[57] MIT ultimately divested itself from the Instrumentation Laboratory and moved all classified research off-campus to the Lincoln Laboratory facility in 1973 in response to the protests,^[58]^[59] and the student body, faculty, and administration remained comparatively unpolarized during what was a tumultuous time for many other universities.^[55]^[60]

Recent history [link]

The MIT Media Lab houses researchers developing novel uses of computer technology. Shown here is the 1982 building, designed by I.M. Pei, with an extension (background) designed by Fumiko Maki and opened in March 2010.

MIT has kept pace with the advent of the digital age. In addition to developing the predecessors to modern computing and networking technologies,^[61]^[62] students, staff, and faculty members at the Project MAC, Artificial Intelligence Laboratory, and Tech Model Railroad Club wrote some of the earliest interactive video games like Spacewar! and created much of modern hacker slang.^[63] Several major computer-related organizations have originated at MIT since the 1980s; Richard Stallman's GNU Project and the subsequent Free Software Foundation were founded in the mid-1980s at the AI Lab, the MIT Media Lab was founded in 1985 by Nicholas Negroponte and Jerome Wiesner to promote research into novel uses of computer technology,^[64] the World Wide Web Consortium standards organization was founded at the Laboratory for Computer Science in 1994 by Tim Berners-Lee,^[65] the OpenCourseWare project has made course materials for over 2,000 MIT classes available online free of charge since 2002,^[66] and the One Laptop per Child initiative to expand computer education and connectivity to children worldwide was launched in 2005.^[67]

MIT was named a sea-grant college in 1976 to support its programs in oceanography and marine sciences and was named a space-grant college in 1989 to support its aeronautics and astronautics programs.^[68]^[69] Despite diminishing government financial support over the past quarter century, MIT launched several development campaigns to significantly expand the campus: new dormitories and athletics buildings on west campus, the Tang Center for Management Education, several buildings in the northeast corner of campus supporting research into biology, brain and cognitive sciences, genomics, biotechnology, and cancer research, and a number of new "backlot" buildings on Vassar Street including the Stata Center.^[70] Construction on campus in the 2000s included an expansion of the Media Lab, the Sloan's eastern campus, and graduate residences in the northwest.^[71]^[72]

In 2006, President Hockfield launched the Energy Research Council to investigate the interdisciplinary challenges posed by increasing global energy consumption.^[73]

Campus [link]

Main article: Campus of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology

The central and eastern sections of MIT's campus as seen from above Massachusetts Avenue and the Charles River. In the center is the Great Dome overlooking Killian Court with Kendall Square in the background.

MIT's Building 10 and Great Dome overlooking Killian Court

MIT's 168-acre (68.0 ha) campus spans approximately a mile of the north side of the Charles River basin in the city of Cambridge.^[74] The campus is divided roughly in half by Massachusetts Avenue, with most dormitories and student life facilities to the west and most academic buildings to the east. The bridge closest to MIT is the Harvard Bridge, which is known for being marked off in a non-standard unit of length – the smoot.^[75]^[76] The Kendall MBTA Red Line station is located on the far northeastern edge of the campus in Kendall Square. The Cambridge neighborhoods surrounding MIT are a mixture of high tech companies occupying both modern office and rehabilitated industrial buildings as well as socio-economically diverse residential neighborhoods.^[77]^[78]

Each building at has a number (possibly preceded by a W, N, E, or NW) designation and most have a name as well. Typically, academic and office buildings are referred to primarily by number while residence halls are referred to by name. The organization of building numbers roughly corresponds to the order in which the buildings were built and their location relative (north, west, and east) to the original center cluster of Maclaurin buildings.^[79] Many of the buildings are connected above ground as well as through an extensive network of underground tunnels, providing protection from the Cambridge weather as well as a venue for roof and tunnel hacking.^[80]^[81]

MIT's on-campus nuclear reactor^[82] is one of the most powerful university-based nuclear reactors in the United States. The prominence of the reactor's containment building in a densely populated area has been controversial,^[83] but MIT maintains that it is well-secured.^[84] Other notable campus facilities include a pressurized wind tunnel and a towing tank for testing ship and ocean structure designs.^[85]^[86] MIT's campus-wide wireless network was completed in the fall of 2005 and consists of nearly 3,000 access points covering 9,400,000 square feet (870,000 m²) of campus.^[87]

In 2001, the Environmental Protection Agency sued MIT for violating Clean Water Act and Clean Air Act with regard to its hazardous waste storage and disposal procedures.^[88] MIT settled the suit by paying a $155,000 fine and launching three environmental projects.^[89] In connection with capital campaigns to expand the campus, the Institute has also extensively renovated existing buildings to improve their energy efficiency. MIT has also taken steps to reduce its environmental impact by running alternative fuel campus shuttles, subsidizing public transportation passes, and building a low-emission cogeneration plant that serves most of the campus electricity, heating, and cooling requirements.^[90]

Between 2007 and 2009, campus security and local police received reports of 8 forcible sex offenses, 5 robberies, 9 aggravated assaults, 409 burglaries, 2 cases of arson, and 15 cases of motor vehicle theft, affecting a community of around 13,000 students and employees.^[91]

Architecture [link]

The Stata Center houses CSAIL, LIDS, and the Department of Linguistics and Philosophy

MIT's School of Architecture, now the School of Architecture and Planning, was the first in the United States,^[92] and it has a history of commissioning progressive buildings.^[93]^[94] The first buildings constructed on the Cambridge campus, completed in 1916, are sometimes called the "Maclaurin buildings" after Institute president Richard Maclaurin who oversaw their construction. Designed by William Welles Bosworth, these imposing buildings were built of reinforced concrete, a first for a non-industrial – much less university – building in the US.^[95] Bosworth's design was influenced by the City Beautiful Movement of the early 1900s,^[95] and features the Pantheon-esque Great Dome housing the Barker Engineering Library. The Great Dome overlooks Killian Court, where commencement is held each year. The friezes of the limestone-clad buildings around Killian Court are engraved with the names of important scientists and philosophers.^[d] The imposing Building 7 atrium along Massachusetts Avenue is regarded as the entrance to the Infinite Corridor and the rest of the campus.^[78]

Alvar Aalto's Baker House (1947), Eero Saarinen's Chapel and Auditorium (1955), and I.M. Pei's Green, Dreyfus, Landau, and Wiesner buildings represent high forms of post-war modernist architecture.^[98]^[99]^[100] More recent buildings like Frank Gehry's Stata Center (2004), Steven Holl's Simmons Hall (2002), Charles Correa's Building 46 (2005), Fumihiko Maki's Media Lab Extension (2009) stand out among the Boston area's classical architecture and serve as examples of contemporary campus "starchitecture".^[93]^[101] These buildings have not always been well received;^[102]^[103] in 2010, The Princeton Review included MIT in a list of twenty schools whose campuses are "tiny, unsightly, or both".^[104]

Housing [link]

Main article: Housing at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology

Simmons Hall was completed in 2002

Undergraduates are guaranteed four-year housing in one of MIT's 12 undergraduate dormitories,^[105] Those living on campus can receive support and mentoring from live-in graduate student tutors, resident advisors, and faculty housemasters.^[106] Because housing assignments are made based on the preferences of the students themselves, diverse social atmospheres can be sustained in different living groups; for example, according to the Yale Daily News Staff's The Insider's Guide to the Colleges, 2010, "The split between East Campus and West Campus is a significant characteristic of MIT. East Campus has gained a reputation as a thriving counterculture."^[107] MIT also has 5 dormitories for single graduate students and 2 apartment buildings on campus for married student families.^[108]

MIT has a very active Greek and co-op housing system which includes 36 fraternities, sororities, and independent living groups (FSILGs).^[109] In 2009, 92% of all undergraduates lived on MIT-affiliated housing, 50% of the men in fraternities and 34% of the women in sororities.^[110] Most FSILGs are located across the river in the Back Bay owing to MIT's history there, and there is also a cluster of fraternities on MIT's West Campus.^[111] After the 1997 death of Scott Krueger, a new member at the Phi Gamma Delta fraternity, MIT required all freshmen to live in the dormitory system starting in 2002.^[112] Because FSILGs had previously housed as many as 300 freshmen off-campus, the new policy did not take effect until 2002 after Simmons Hall opened.^[113]

Organization and administration [link]

File:MIT Lobby 7.jpg

Building 7 (at 77 Massachusetts Avenue) is regarded as the entrance to campus

MIT is chartered as a non-profit organization and is owned and governed by a privately appointed board of trustees known as the MIT Corporation.^[114] The current board consists of 43 members elected to five-year terms,^[115] 25 life members who vote until their 75th birthday,^[116] 3 elected officers (President, Treasurer, and Secretary),^[117] and 4 ex officio members (the president of the alumni association, the Governor of Massachusetts, the Massachusetts Secretary of Education, and the Chief Justice of the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court).^[118]^[119] The board is chaired by John S. Reed, the former chairman of the New York Stock Exchange and Citigroup.^[120]^[121] The corporation approves the budget, new programs, degrees, and faculty appointments as well as electing the President to serve as the chief executive officer of the university and presiding over the Institute's faculty.^[78]^[122] MIT's endowment and other financial assets are managed through a subsidiary MIT Investment Management Company (MITIMCo).^[123] Valued at $9.7 billion in 2011, MIT's endowment is the sixth-largest among American colleges and universities.^[15]^[124]

MIT has five schools (Science, Engineering, Architecture and Planning, Management, and Humanities, Arts, and Social Sciences) and one college (Whitaker College of Health Sciences and Technology), but no schools of law or medicine.^[125]^[e] While faculty committees assert substantial control over many areas of MIT's curriculum, research, student life, and administrative affairs,^[127] the chair of each of MIT's 32 academic departments reports to the dean of that department's school, who in turn reports to the Provost under the President.^[128] The sixteenth and current president, Susan Hockfield, a molecular neurobiologist, was elected in 2004 and is the first woman to hold the post.^[129] She will be succeeded by L. Rafael Reif, the current Provost, in July 2012.^[130]

Collaborations [link]

File:MIT Kresge Auditorium.jpg

Eero Saarinen's Kresge Auditorium (1955) is a classic example of the post-war architecture

The university historically pioneered research and training collaborations between the academy, industry and government.^[131]^[132] Fruitful collaborations with industrialists like Alfred P. Sloan and Thomas Alva Edison led President Compton to establish an Office of Corporate Relations and an Industrial Liaison Program in the 1930s and 1940s that now allows over 600 companies to license research and consult with MIT faculty and researchers.^[10]^[133] Throughout the late 1980s and early 1990s, American politicians and business leaders accused MIT and other universities of contributing to a declining economy by transferring taxpayer-funded research and technology to international – especially Japanese — firms that were competing with struggling American businesses.^[134]^[135]

MIT's extensive collaboration with the federal government on research projects has also led to several MIT leaders serving as Presidential scientific advisers since 1940.^[f] MIT established a Washington Office in 1991 to continue to lobby for research funding and national science policy.^[137]^[138] In response to MIT, eight Ivy League colleges, and 11 other institutions holding "Overlap Meetings" to prevent bidding wars over promising students from consuming funds for need-based scholarships, the Justice Department began an antitrust investigation in 1989 and in 1991 filed an antitrust suit against these universities.^[139]^[140] While the Ivy League institutions settled,^[141] MIT contested the charges on the grounds that the practice was not anti-competitive because it ensured the availability of aid for the greatest number of students.^[142]^[143] MIT ultimately prevailed when the Justice Department dropped the case in 1994.^[144]^[145]

File:MIT Walker Memorial.jpg

Walker Memorial is a monument to MIT's 4th president, Francis Amasa Walker

MIT's proximity to Harvard University^[g] has created both a quasi-friendly rivalry ("the other school up the river") and a substantial number of research collaborations such as the Harvard-MIT Division of Health Sciences and Technology and Broad Institute.^[146]^[147] In addition, students at the two schools can cross-register for credits toward their own school's degrees without any additional fees.^[147] A cross-registration program with Wellesley College has existed since 1969 and a significant undergraduate exchange program with the University of Cambridge known as the Cambridge-MIT Institute was also launched in 2002.^[147] MIT has more modest cross-registration programs with Boston University, Brandeis University, Tufts University, Massachusetts College of Art, and the School of the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston.^[147] MIT maintains substantial research and faculty ties with independent research organizations in the Boston-area like the Charles Stark Draper Laboratory, Whitehead Institute for Biomedical Research, and Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution as well as international research and educational collaborations through the Singapore-MIT Alliance, MIT-Politecnico di Milano,^[147]^[148] MIT-Zaragoza International Logistics Program, and other countries through the MIT International Science and Technology Initiatives (MISTI) program.^[147]^[149]

The mass-market magazine Technology Review is published by MIT through a subsidiary company, as is a special edition that also serves as the Institute's official alumni magazine. The MIT Press is a major university press, publishing over 200 books and 40 journals annually emphasizing science and technology as well as arts, architecture, new media, current events, and social issues.^[150]

Academics [link]

University rankings (overall)
National
ARWU^[151]	3
Forbes^[152]	5
U.S. News & World Report^[153]	5
Washington Monthly^[154]	11
Global
ARWU^[155]	3
QS^[156]	3
Times^[157]	3

MIT is a large, highly residential, research university with a majority of enrollments in graduate and professional programs.^[158] The university has been accredited by the New England Association of Schools and Colleges since 1929.^[159]^[160] MIT operates on a 4–1–4 academic calendar with the fall semester beginning after Labor Day and ending in mid-December, a 4-week "Independent Activities Period" in the month of January, and the spring semester beginning in early February and ending in late May.^[161]

The School of Engineering has been ranked first among graduate and undergraduate programs by U.S. News & World Report since the first published results in 1994.^[162]^[163] A 1995 National Research Council study of US research universities ranked MIT first in "reputation" and fourth in "citations and faculty awards" and a 2005 NBER study of high school students' revealed preferences found MIT to be the 4th most preferred college in the nation.^[164]^[165]

MIT students refer to both their majors and classes using numbers or acronyms alone.^[166] Departments and their corresponding majors are numbered in the approximate order their foundation; for example, Civil and Environmental Engineering is Course I, while Nuclear Science & Engineering is Course XXII.^[167]^[168] Students majoring in Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, the most popular department, collectively identify themselves as "Course VI." MIT students use a combination of the department's course number and the number assigned to the class to identify their subjects; the introductory calculus-based classical mechanics course is simply "8.01" at MIT.^[h]

Undergraduate program [link]

The four year, full-time undergraduate instructional program is classified as "balanced arts & sciences/professions", and admission is characterized as "more selective, lower transfer in".^[158] MIT offers 44 undergraduate degrees across its five schools.^[170] In 2009, some 1,146 bachelor of science (abbreviated as SB, from the Latin expression Scientiæ Baccalaureus) degrees were granted, the only type of undergraduate degree MIT now awards.^[171]^[172] The School of Engineering is the most popular division, enrolling 44.5% of students in its 19 degree programs, followed by the School of Science (20.2%), School of Humanities, Arts, & Social Sciences (3.5%), Sloan School of Management (3.5%), and the School of Architecture and Planning (1.8%).^[173] The largest undergraduate degree programs are in Electrical Engineering and Computer Science (Course VI-2), Mechanical Engineering (Course II), Computer Science and Engineering (Course VI-3), Physics (Course VIII), Biology (Course VII), and Mathematics (Course XVIII).^[4]

All undergraduates are required to complete an extensive core curriculum called the General Institute Requirements (GIRs).^[174] The Science Requirement, generally completed during freshman year as prerequisites for classes in science and engineering majors, comprises two semesters of physics, two semesters of calculus, one semester of chemistry, one semester of biology, and a laboratory class in a course major. The Humanities, Arts, and Social Sciences (HASS) Requirement, consisting of eight semesters, includes a distribution of three classes across each of the HASS divisions as well as a concentration. The Communication Requirement consists of two communication-intensive HASS classes, plus two communication-intensive classes in a course major program,^[175] including "substantial instruction and practice in oral presentation".^[176] Finally, all students are required to complete a swimming test and non-varsity athletes must also take four physical education classes.^[174]

The Infinite Corridor is the primary passageway through campus

Although the difficulty and especially the fast pace of MIT coursework has been characterized as "drinking from a fire hose",^[177] the freshmen retention rate at MIT is similar to other national research universities.^[178] Some of the pressure for first-year undergraduates is lessened by the existence of the "pass/no-record" grading system. In the first (fall) term, freshmen transcripts only report if a class was passed while no external record exists if a class was not passed. In the second (spring) term, passing grades (ABC) appear on the transcript while non-passing grades are again rendered "no-record".^[179] The system had previously been "Pass/No Record" all freshman year, but was amended for the Class of 2006 to prevent students from gaming the system by completing required major classes on a pass/fail basis.^[180]

Most classes rely upon a combination of faculty led lectures, graduate student led recitations, weekly problem sets ("p-sets"), and tests to teach material, though alternative curricula exist, such as Experimental Study Group, Concourse, and Terrascope.^[179]

In the past, some organized student groups have compiled "course bibles", collections of problem set and examination questions and answers used as references for later students. In 1970, the then-Dean of Institute Relations, Benson R. Snyder, published The Hidden Curriculum, arguing that unwritten regulations, like the implicit curricula of the bibles, are often counterproductive; they fool professors into believing that their teaching is effective and students into believing they have learned the material.

In 1969, MIT began the Undergraduate Research Opportunities Program (UROP) to enable undergraduates to collaborate directly with faculty members and researchers. The program, founded by Margaret MacVicar, builds upon the MIT philosophy of "learning by doing". Students join or initiate research projects, colloquially called "UROPs", through postings on the UROP website or by contacting faculty members directly.^[181] Over 2,800 undergraduates, 70% of the student body, participate every year for academic credit, pay, or on a volunteer basis.^[182] Students often become published, file patent applications, and/or launch start-up companies based upon their experience in UROPs.^[183]^[184]

Graduate program [link]

File:MIT Barker Libary.JPG

Robert Engman's Möbius Strip hangs from the crown of the Barker Engineering Library's reading room located inside the Great Dome

MIT's graduate program is a comprehensive doctoral program having high coexistence with undergraduate programs in the humanities, social sciences, and STEM fields as well as offering professional degrees.^[158] The Institute offers graduate programs leading to academic degrees such as the Master of Science (SM), various Engineer's Degrees, Doctor of Philosophy (PhD), and Doctor of Science (ScD); professional degrees such as Master of Architecture (MArch),^[185] Master of Business Administration (MBA),^[186] Master of City Planning (MCP),^[187] Master of Engineering (MEng),^[188] and Master of Finance (MFin); and interdisciplinary graduate programs such as the MD/PhD (with Harvard Medical School).^[189]^[190] Admission to graduate programs is decentralized; applicants apply directly to the department or degree program. Doctoral students are supported by fellowships (30%), research assistantships (49%), and teaching assistantships (13%).^[191]

MIT awarded 1,474 master's degrees and 607 doctoral degrees in 2009.^[171] The School of Engineering is the most popular academic division enrolling 45.4% of graduate students, followed by the Sloan School of Management (17.3%), School of Science (17.3%), School of Architecture and Planning (9.5%), School of Humanities, Arts, and Social Sciences (4.9%), and Whitaker College of Health Sciences (2.5%).^[173] The largest graduate degree programs are the Sloan MBA, Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Mechanical Engineering, and Chemical Engineering.^[4]

Libraries, collections, and museums [link]

The MIT library system consists of five subject libraries: Barker (Engineering), Dewey (Economics), Hayden (Humanities and Science), Lewis (Music), and Rotch (Arts and Architecture). There are also various specialized libraries and archives. The libraries contain more than 2.8 million printed volumes, 2.2 million microforms, 43,000 print or electronic journal subscriptions, and 570 databases.^[192] Notable collections include the Lewis Music Library with an emphasis on 20th and 21st-century music and electronic music,^[193] the List Visual Arts Center's rotating exhibitions of contemporary art,^[194] and the Compton Gallery's cross-disciplinary exhibitions.^[195] MIT allocates a percentage of the budget for all new construction and renovation to commission and support its extensive public art and outdoor sculpture collection.^[196]^[197] The MIT Museum was founded in 1971 and collects, preserves, and exhibits artifacts significant to the life and history of MIT as well as collaborating with the nearby Museum of Science.^[198]

Research [link]

MIT was elected to the Association of American Universities in 1934 and remains a research university with a very high level of research activity;^[40]^[158] research expenditures totaled $718.2 million in 2009.^[16] The federal government was the largest source of sponsored research, with the Department of Health and Human Services granting $255.9 million, Department of Defense $97.5 million, Department of Energy $65.8 million, National Science Foundation $61.4 million, and NASA $27.4 million.^[16] MIT employs approximately 1300 researchers in addition to faculty.^[199] In 2009, MIT faculty and researchers disclosed 530 inventions, filed 184 patent applications, received 166 patents, and earned $136.3 million in royalties and other income.^[200]

The GNU project and free software movement originated at MIT

In electronics, magnetic core memory, radar, single electron transistors, and inertial guidance controls were invented or substantially developed by MIT researchers.^[201]^[202] Harold Eugene Edgerton was a pioneer in high speed photography.^[203] Claude E. Shannon developed much of modern information theory and discovered the application of Boolean logic to digital circuit design theory.^[204] In the domain of computer science, MIT faculty and researchers made fundamental contributions to cybernetics, artificial intelligence, computer languages, machine learning, robotics, and cryptography.^[202]^[205] At least nine Turing Award laureates and seven recipients of the Draper Prize in engineering have been or are currently associated with MIT.^[206]^[207]

Current and previous physics faculty have won eight Nobel Prizes,^[208] four Dirac Medals,^[209] and three Wolf Prizes predominantly for their contributions to subatomic and quantum theory.^[210] Members of the chemistry department have been awarded three Nobel Prizes and one Wolf Prize for the discovery of novel syntheses and methods.^[208] MIT biologists have been awarded six Nobel Prizes for their contributions to genetics, immunology, oncology, and molecular biology.^[208] Professor Eric Lander was one of the principal leaders of the Human Genome Project.^[211]^[212] Positronium atoms,^[213] synthetic penicillin,^[214] synthetic self-replicating molecules,^[215] and the genetic bases for Lou Gehrig's disease and Huntington's disease were first discovered at MIT.^[216] Jerome Lettvin transformed the study of cognitive science with his paper "What the frog's eye tells the frog's brain".^[217]

In the domain of humanities, arts, and social sciences, MIT economists have been awarded five Nobel Prizes and nine John Bates Clark Medals.^[208]^[218] Linguists Noam Chomsky and Morris Halle authored seminal texts on generative grammar and phonology.^[219]^[220] The MIT Media Lab, founded in 1985 within the School of Architecture and Planning and known for its unconventional research,^[221]^[222] has been home to influential researchers such as constructivist educator and Logo creator Seymour Papert.^[223]

Spanning many of the above fields, MacArthur Fellowships (the so-called "Genius Grants") have been awarded to 38 people associated with MIT.^[224] Four Pulitzer Prize winning writers currently work at or have retired from MIT.^[225] Four current or former faculty are members of the American Academy of Arts and Letters.^[226]

Given MIT's prominence, allegations of research misconduct or improprieties have received substantial press coverage. Professor David Baltimore, a Nobel Laureate, became embroiled in a misconduct investigation starting in 1986 that led to Congressional hearings in 1991.^[227]^[228] Professor Ted Postol has accused the MIT administration since 2000 of attempting to whitewash potential research misconduct at the Lincoln Lab facility involving a ballistic missile defense test, though a final investigation into the matter has not been completed.^[229]^[230] Associate Professor Luk Van Parijs was dismissed in 2005 following allegations of scientific misconduct and found guilty of the same by the United States Office of Research Integrity in 2009.^[231]^[232]

Traditions and student activities [link]

Main articles: Traditions and student activities at MIT and MIT class ring

Activities [link]

Main article: Student activities at MIT

MIT has over 380 recognized student activity groups,^[241] including a campus radio station, The Tech student newspaper, an annual entrepreneurship competition, and weekly screenings of popular films by the Lecture Series Committee. Less traditional activities include the "world's largest open-shelf collection of science fiction" in English, a model railroad club, and a vibrant folk dance scene. Students, faculty, and staff are involved in over 50 educational outreach and public service programs through the MIT Museum, Edgerton Center, and MIT Public Service Center.^[242]

The Independent Activities Period is a four-week long "term" offering hundreds of optional classes, lectures, demonstrations, and other activities throughout the month of January between the Fall and Spring semesters. Some of the most popular recurring IAP activities are the 6.270, 6.370, and MasLab competitions,^[243] the annual "mystery hunt",^[244] and Charm School.^[245]^[246] Students also have the opportunity of pursuing externships at companies in the US and abroad.

Many MIT students also engage in "hacking," which encompasses both the physical exploration of areas that are generally off-limits (such as rooftops and steam tunnels), as well as elaborate practical jokes.^[247]^[248] Recent high-profile hacks have included the theft of Caltech's cannon,^[249] reconstructing a Wright Flyer atop the Great Dome,^[250] and adorning the John Harvard statue with the Master Chief's Spartan Helmet.^[251]

Athletics [link]

File:MITengineerslogo.PNG

The official logo of MIT Athletics

The student athletics program offers 33 varsity-level sports, which makes it one of the largest programs in the United States.^[252]^[253] MIT participates in the NCAA's Division III, the New England Women's and Men's Athletic Conference, the New England Football Conference, the Pilgrim League for men's lacrosse and NCAA's Division I Eastern Association of Rowing Colleges (EARC) for crew. In April 2009, budget cuts lead to MIT eliminating eight of its 41 sports, including the mixed men’s and women’s teams in alpine skiing and pistol; separate teams for men and women in ice hockey and gymnastics; and men’s programs in golf and wrestling.^[254]^[255]^[256]

The Zesiger sports and fitness center houses a two-story fitness center as well as swimming and diving pools

The Institute's sports teams are called the Engineers, their mascot since 1914 being a beaver, "nature's engineer." Lester Gardner, a member of the Class of 1898, provided the following justification:

The beaver not only typifies the Tech, but his habits are particularly our own. The beaver is noted for his engineering and mechanical skills and habits of industry. His habits are nocturnal. He does his best work in the dark.^[257]

MIT fielded several dominant intercollegiate Tiddlywinks teams through 1980, winning national and world championships.^[258] MIT has produced 128 Academic All-Americans, the third largest membership in the country for any division and the highest number of members for Division III.^[252]

The Zesiger sports and fitness center (Z-Center) which opened in 2002, significantly expanded the capacity and quality of MIT's athletics, physical education, and recreation offerings to 10 buildings and 26 acres (110,000 m²) of playing fields. The 124,000-square-foot (11,500 m²) facility features an Olympic-class swimming pool, international-scale squash courts, and a two-story fitness center.^[252]

People [link]

Students [link]

*Demographics of MIT student body*^[4]^[259]
	Undergraduate	Graduate
Caucasian American	42.5%	40.8%
Asian American	25.6%	9.4%
Hispanic American	13.2%	3.3%
African American	8.5%	2.1%
Native American	1.0%	0.4%
Other/International	9.2%	44.0%

MIT enrolled 4,384 undergraduates and 6,510 graduate students in 2011–2012.^[4] Women constituted 45 percent of undergraduate students.^[4]^[260] Undergraduate and graduate students are drawn from all 50 states as well as 115 foreign countries in the 2011–2012 school year.^[261]

MIT received 17,909 applications for admission to the Class of 2015; 1,742 were admitted (9.7 percent) and 1128 enrolled (64.8 percent).^[110] 19,446 applications were received for advanced degree program across all departments; 2,991 were admitted (15.4 percent) and 1,880 enrolled (62.8 percent).^[262] The interquartile range on the SAT was 2030–2320 and 95 percent of students ranked in the top tenth of their high school graduating class.^[110] 97 percent of the Class of 2012 returned as sophomores; 82.3 percent of the Class of 2007 graduated within 4 years, and 91.3 percent (92 percent of the men and 96 percent of the women) graduated within 6 years.^[110]^[263]

Undergraduate tuition and fees total $40,732 and annual expenses are estimated at $52,507 as of 2012. 62 percent of students received need-based financial aid in the form of scholarships and grants from federal, state, institutional, and external sources averaging $38,964 per student.^[264] MIT awarded $87.6 million in scholarships and grants, the vast majority ($73.4 million) coming from institutional support.^[110] The annual increase in expenses has led to a student tradition (dating back to the 1960s) of tongue-in-cheek "tuition riots".^[265]

MIT has been nominally coeducational since admitting Ellen Swallow Richards in 1870. Richards also became the first female member of MIT's faculty, specializing in sanitary chemistry.^[266] Female students remained a very small minority (less than 3 percent) prior to the completion of the first wing of a women's dormitory, McCormick Hall, in 1962.^[267]^[268] Between 1993 and 2009, the proportion of women rose from 34 percent to 45 percent of undergraduates and from 20 percent to 31 percent of graduate students.^[4]^[269] Women currently outnumber men in Biology, Brain & Cognitive Sciences, Architecture, Urban Planning, and Biological Engineering.^[4]^[260]

A number of student deaths in the late 1990s and early 2000s resulted in considerable media attention to MIT's culture and student life.^[270]^[271] After the alcohol-related death of Scott Krueger in September 1997 as a new member at the Phi Gamma Delta fraternity,^[272] MIT began requiring all freshmen to live in the dormitory system.^[272]^[273] The 2000 suicide of MIT undergraduate Elizabeth Shin drew attention to suicides at MIT and created a controversy over whether MIT had an unusually high suicide rate.^[274]^[275] In late 2001 a task force's recommended improvements in student mental health services were implemented,^[276]^[277] including expanding staff and operating hours at the mental health center.^[278] These and later cases were significant as well because they sought to prove the negligence and liability of university administrators in loco parentis.^[274]

Faculty [link]

Main article: List of Massachusetts Institute of Technology faculty

Institute Professors Emeriti and Nobel Laureates (from left to right) Franco Modigliani (now deceased), Paul Samuelson (also deceased), and Robert Solow

MIT has 1,018 faculty members, of whom 217 are women.^[3] Faculty are responsible for lecturing classes, advising both graduate and undergraduate students, and sitting on academic committees, as well as conducting original research. Between 1964 and 2009, a total of seventeen faculty and staff members affiliated with MIT were awarded Nobel Prizes (fourteen during the last quarter century, thirteen the last 25 years).^[279] MIT faculty members past or present have won a total of twenty-seven Nobel Prizes, the majority in Economics or Physics.^[280] Among current faculty and teaching staff, there are eighty Guggenheim Fellows, six Fulbright Scholars, and twenty-nine MacArthur Fellows.^[3] Faculty members who have made extraordinary contributions to their research field as well as the MIT community are granted appointments as Institute Professors for the remainder of their tenures.

A 1998 MIT study concluded that a systemic bias against female faculty existed in its college of science,^[281] although the study's methods were controversial.^[282]^[283] Since the study, though, women have headed departments within the Schools of Science and Engineering, and MIT has appointed several female vice presidents, although allegations of sexism continue to be made.^[284] Susan Hockfield, a molecular neurobiologist, became MIT's 16th president in 2004 and is the first woman to hold the post.

Tenure outcomes have vaulted MIT into the national spotlight on several occasions. The 1984 dismissal of David F. Noble, a historian of technology, became a cause célèbre about the extent to which academics are granted freedom of speech after he published several books and papers critical of MIT's and other research universities' reliance upon financial support from corporations and the military.^[285] Former materials science professor Gretchen Kalonji sued MIT in 1994 alleging that she was denied tenure because of sexual discrimination.^[284]^[286] In 1997, the Massachusetts Commission Against Discrimination issued a probable cause finding supporting James Jennings' allegations of racial discrimination after a senior faculty search committee in the Department of Urban Studies and Planning did not offer him reciprocal tenure.^[287] In 2006–2007, MIT's denial of tenure to African-American biological engineering professor James Sherley reignited accusations of racism in the tenure process, eventually leading to a protracted public dispute with the administration, a brief hunger strike, and the resignation of Professor Frank L. Douglas in protest.^[288]^[289]

MIT faculty members have often been recruited to lead other colleges and universities; former Provost Robert A. Brown is President of Boston University, former Provost Mark Wrighton is Chancellor of Washington University in St. Louis, former Associate Provost Alice Gast is president of Lehigh University, former Dean of the School of Science Robert J. Birgeneau is the Chancellor of the University of California, Berkeley, and former professor David Baltimore had been President of Caltech. In addition, faculty members have been recruited to lead governmental agencies; for example, former professor Marcia McNutt is the director of the United States Geological Survey,^[290] urban studies professor Xavier de Souza Briggs is currently the associate director of the White House Office of Management and Budget,^[291] and biology professor Eric Lander is a co-chair of the President's Council of Advisors on Science and Technology.^[292]

Alumni [link]

Main article: List of Massachusetts Institute of Technology alumni

Many of MIT's over 120,000 alumni and alumnae have had considerable success in scientific research, public service, education, and business. As of 2011, twenty-four MIT alumni have won the Nobel Prize, forty-four have been selected as Rhodes Scholars, and fifty-five have been selected as Marshall Scholars.^[293]

Alumni in American politics and public service include Chairman of the Federal Reserve Ben Bernanke, MA-1 Representative John Olver, CA-13 Representative Pete Stark, former National Economic Council chairman Lawrence H. Summers, and former Council of Economic Advisors chairwoman Christina Romer. MIT alumni in international politics include Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu, President of the European Central Bank Mario Draghi, physicist Richard Feynman, former British Foreign Minister David Miliband, former Greek Prime Minister Lucas Papademos, former UN Secretary General Kofi Annan, and former Iraqi Deputy Prime Minister Ahmed Chalabi.

MIT alumni founded or co-founded many notable companies, such as Intel, McDonnell Douglas, Texas Instruments, 3Com, Qualcomm, Bose, Raytheon, Koch Industries, Rockwell International, Genentech, Dropbox, and Campbell Soup. According to the British newspaper, The Guardian, "a survey of living MIT alumni found that they have formed 25,800 companies, employing more than three million people including about a quarter of the workforce of Silicon Valley. Those firms between them generate global revenues of about $1.9tn (£1.2tn) a year. If MIT was a country, it would have the 11th highest GDP of any nation in the world."^[294]

Prominent institutions of higher education have been led by MIT alumni, including the University of California system, Harvard University, Johns Hopkins University, Carnegie Mellon University, Tufts University, Rochester Institute of Technology, Rhode Island School of Design (RISD), Northeastern University, Lahore University of Management Sciences, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Tecnológico de Monterrey, Purdue University, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and Quaid-e-Azam University.

More than one third of the United States' manned spaceflights have included MIT-educated astronauts (among them Apollo 11 Lunar Module Pilot Buzz Aldrin), more than any university excluding the United States service academies.^[295]

Noted alumni in non-scientific fields include author Hugh Lofting,^[296] sculptor Daniel Chester French, Boston guitarist Tom Scholz, The New York Times columnist and Nobel Prize Winning economist Paul Krugman, The Bell Curve author Charles Murray, United States Supreme Court building architect Cass Gilbert, Pritzker Prize-winning architects I.M. Pei and Gordon Bunshaft.

Apollo 11 astronaut Buzz Aldrin, ScD 1963 (Aero & Astro)
Former UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan, SM 1972 (Management)
Federal Reserve Bank Chairman Ben Bernanke, PhD 1979 (Economics)
Physicist Nobel laureate Richard Feynman, SB 1939 (Physics)
Economics Nobel laureate Paul Krugman, PhD 1977 (Economics)
Edward lorenz.jpg

Mathematician Edward Norton Lorenz, SM 1943, ScD 1948 (Meteorology)
Biologist, suffragist, philanthropist Katherine Dexter McCormick (left), SB 1904 (Biology)
Astronaut physicist Ronald McNair, PhD 1976 (Physics)
Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu, SB 1975 (Architecture), SM 1976 (Management)
Intel co-founder Robert Noyce, PhD 1953 (Physics)
Architect I. M. Pei, BArch 1940 (Architecture)
Claude Elwood Shannon (1916-2001).jpg

Father of information theory Claude Shannon, SM 1940 (EECS), PhD 1940 (Mathematics)
CEO of General Motors Alfred P. Sloan, SB 1895 (Electrical Engineering)

Notes [link]

Footnotes [link]

^ "We looked up and discussed many colors. We all desired cardinal red; it has stood for a thousand years on land and sea in England's emblem; it makes one-half of the stripes on America's flag; it has always stirred the heart and mind of man; it stands for 'red blood' and all that 'red blood' stands for in life. But we were not unanimous for the gray; some wanted blue, I recall. But it (the gray) seemed to me to stand for those quiet virtues of modesty and persistency and gentleness, which appealed to my mind as powerful; and I have come to believe, from observation and experience, to really be the most lasting influences in life and history....We recommended 'cardinal and steel gray.'" (Alfred T. Waite, Chairman of School Color Committee, Class of 1879)^[7]
^ In 1863, the Commonwealth of Massachusetts separately founded under the same act the Massachusetts Agricultural College, which later became the University of Massachusetts Amherst. Besides MIT, the other privately owned land-grant institution is Cornell University.
^ A comparison of today's maps and older maps reveals that much of MIT's current campus is located on what was once the Charles River.^[38] See also History of Boston.
^ The friezes of the marble-clad buildings surrounding Killian Court are carved in large Roman letters with the names of Aristotle, Newton, Pasteur, Lavoisier, Faraday, Archimedes, da Vinci, Darwin, and Copernicus; each of these names is surmounted by a cluster of appropriately related names in smaller letters. Lavoisier, for example, is placed in the company of Boyle, Cavendish, Priestley, Dalton, Gay Lussac, Berzelius, Woehler, Liebig, Bunsen, Mendelejeff [sic], Perkin, and van't Hoff.^[96]^[97]
^ The Harvard-MIT Division of Health Sciences and Technology (HST) offers joint MD, MD-PhD, or Medical Engineering degrees in collaboration with Harvard Medical School.^[126]
^ Vannevar Bush was the director of the Office of Scientific Research and Development and general advisor to Franklin D. Roosevelt and Harry Truman, James Rhyne Killian was Special Assistant for Science and Technology for Dwight D. Eisenhower, and Jerome Wiesner advised John F. Kennedy and Lyndon Johnson.^[136]
^ MIT's Building 7 and Harvard's Johnston Gate, the traditional entrances to each school, are 1.72 miles (2.77 km) apart along Massachusetts Avenue.
^ Course numbers are traditionally presented in Roman numerals, e.g. Course XVIII for mathematics. Starting in 2002, the Bulletin (MIT's course catalog) started to use Arabic numerals. Usage outside of the Bulletin varies, both Roman and Arabic numerals being used.^[169]

Citations [link]

^ "Symbols: Seal". MIT Graphic Identity. MIT. http://web.mit.edu/graphicidentity/symbols/seal.html. Retrieved September 8, 2010.
^ "MIT releases endowment figures for 2011". MIT News Office. MIT. http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/2011/endowment-0926.html. Retrieved September 27, 2011.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e <Please add first missing authors to populate metadata.> (2009, January). "MIT facts 2009: Faculty and staff". MIT Bulletin 144 (4). http://web.mit.edu/facts/faculty.html.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j "Enrollment Statistics, Fall Term 2011–2012". Office of the Registrar, Massachusetts Institute of Technology. 2012. http://web.mit.edu/registrar/stats/yrpts/index.html.
^ ^a ^b "MIT Facts: The Campus". MIT. 2010. http://web.mit.edu/facts/campus.html. Retrieved September 8, 2010.
^ ^a ^b "Awards and Honors". Institutional Research, Office of the Provost. http://web.mit.edu/ir/pop/awards/nobel.html. Retrieved October 18, 2011.
^ "Symbols: Colors". MIT Graphic Identity. http://web.mit.edu/graphicidentity/symbols/colors.html. Retrieved June 18, 2008.
^ "Symbols: Mascot". MIT Graphic Identity. MIT. http://web.mit.edu/graphicidentity/symbols/mascot.html. Retrieved September 8, 2010.
^ Angulo, A.J.. William Barton Rogers and the Idea of MIT. The Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 155–156. ISBN 0-8018-9033-0.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Lecuyer, Christophe (1992). "The making of a science based technological university: Karl Compton, James Killian, and the reform of MIT, 1930–1957". Historical Studies in the Physical and Biological Sciences 23 (1): 153–180.
^ "MIT Facts 2012: MIT at a Glance". Massachusetts Institute of Technology. 2012. http://web.mit.edu/facts/faqs.html.
^ "MIT Rhodes Scholars". Institutional Research, Office of the Provost. http://web.mit.edu/ir/pop/awards/student_rhodes.html. Retrieved February 29, 2012.
^ Ericka Chickowski (September 20, 2010). "Gurus and Grads". Entrepreneur. http://www.entrepreneur.com/article/217327.
^ "Kauffman Foundation study finds MIT alumni companies generate billions for regional economies". MIT News Office. February 17, 2009. http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/2009/kauffman-study-0217.html. Retrieved February 25, 2009.
^ ^a ^b "MIT releases 2010 endowment figures". September 27, 2010. http://web.mit.edu/press/2010/endowment-0927.html.
^ ^a ^b ^c "MIT Facts: Research at MIT". MIT. 2010. http://web.mit.edu/facts/research.html. Retrieved September 7, 2010.
^ "Top 10 Worst Team Names". Time magazine. July 4, 2011. http://www.time.com/time/specials/packages/article/0,28804,1898998_1898997_1898987,00.html.
^ "Charter of the MIT Corporation". http://web.mit.edu/corporation/charter.html. Retrieved March 22, 2007.
^ Kneeland, Samuel (March 1859). "Committee Report:Conservatory of Art and Science" (PDF). Massachusetts House of Representatives, House No. 260. http://libraries.mit.edu/archives/mithistory/pdf/house260.pdf.
^ "MIT Timeline". MIT History. MIT Institute Archives. http://libraries.mit.edu/sites/mithistory/mit-timeline/. Retrieved 28 May 2012.
^ "Acts and Resolves of the General Court Relating to the Massachusetts Institute of Technology". MIT History. MIT Institute Archives. http://libraries.mit.edu/archives/mithistory/pdf/1861%20Charter.pdf. Retrieved 29 May 2012.
^ "MIT Facts 2012: Origins and Leadership". MIT Facts. MIT. http://web.mit.edu/facts/origins.html. Retrieved 29 May 2012.
^ Rogers, William (1861). "Objects and Plan of an Institute of Technology: including a Society of Arts, a Museum of Arts, and a School of Industrial Science; proposed to be established in Boston" (PDF). The Committee of Associated Institutions of Science and Arts. http://libraries.mit.edu/archives/mithistory/pdf/objects-plan.pdf.
^ "Letter from William Barton Rogers to His Brother Henry". Institute Archives, MIT. March 13, 1846. http://libraries.mit.edu/archives/timeline/letter1846.html. Retrieved October 2, 2010.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e Lewis, Warren K., Ronald H. Robnett, C. Richard Soderberg, Julius A. Stratton et al. (1949) (PDF). Report of the Committee on Educational Survey (Lewis Report). Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press. p. 8. http://libraries.mit.edu/archives/mithistory/pdf/lewis.pdf. Retrieved May 28, 2012.
^ "The Founding of MIT". MIT Archives. http://libraries.mit.edu/archives/exhibits/MIT-birthday/index1.html. Retrieved August 12, 2008. "Barton's philosophy for the institute was for 'the teaching, not of the manipulations done only in the workshop, but the inculcation of all the scientific principles which form the basis and explanation of them;'"
^ Angulo, A.J.. "The Initial Reception of MIT, 1860s–1880s". In Geiger, Roger L.. Perspectives on the History of Higher Education. pp. 1–28.
^ Andrews, Elizabeth; Nora Murphy and Tom Rosko (2000). "William Barton Rogers: MIT's Visionary Founder". MIT Archives. http://libraries.mit.edu/archives/exhibits/wbr-visionary/.
^ Stratton, Julius Adams; Mannix, Loretta H. (2005). "The Land-Grant Act of 1862". Mind and Hand: The Birth of MIT. MIT Press. pp. 251–276. ISBN 0-262-19524-0.
^ ^a ^b Prescott, Samuel C (1954). When M.I.T. Was "Boston Tech", 1861–1916. MIT Press.
^ ^a ^b Dunbar, Charles F. (July 1897). "The Career of Francis Amasa Walker". Quarterly Journal of Economics 11 (4): 446–447. http://www.jstor.org/stable/info/1880719.
^ "Explore campus, visit Boston, and find out if MIT fits you to a tea". 2006-12-16. http://web.mit.edu/spotlight/tea-party/. Retrieved 2006-12-16.
^ Munroe, James P. (1923). A Life of Francis Amasa Walker. New York: Henry Holt & Company. pp. 233, 382.
^ Lewis, Warren K., Ronald H. Robnett, C. Richard Soderberg, Julius A. Stratton et al. (1949) (PDF). Report of the Committee on Educational Survey (Lewis Report). Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press. p. 12. http://libraries.mit.edu/archives/mithistory/pdf/lewis.pdf. Retrieved May 28, 2012.
^ "Alumni Petition Opposing MIT-Harvard Merger, 1904–05". Institute Archives, MIT. http://libraries.mit.edu/archives/exhibits/harvard-mit/index.html. Retrieved October 1, 2010.
^ "Students hope 'Eastman moment' proves lucky as they head into final exams". MIT News Office. May 22, 2002. http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/2002/eastman-0522.html. Retrieved 12 Mary 2008.
^ "Souvenir Program, Dedication of Cambridge Campus, 1916". Object of the Month. MIT Institute Archives & Special Collections. http://libraries.mit.edu/archives/exhibits/pageant/index.html. Retrieved 29 May 2012.
^ J. B. Shields (1852). Middlesex Canal (Massachusetts) map, 1852 (Map). http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Middlesex_Canal_%28Massachusetts%29_map,_1852.jpg. Retrieved September 17, 2010.
^ "Freeman's 1912 Design for the "New Technology"". Object of the Month. MIT Institute Archives & Special Collections. http://libraries.mit.edu/archives/exhibits/freeman/index.html. Retrieved 29 May 2012.
^ ^a ^b "Member Institutions and Years of Admission". Association of American Universities. http://www.aau.edu/aau/members.html. Retrieved August 14, 2008.
^ Geiger, Roger L. (2004). To advance knowledge: the growth of American research universities, 1900–1940. pp. 13–15, 179–9. ISBN 0-19-503803-7.
^ Bourzac, Katherine, "Rethinking an MIT Education: The faculty reconsiders the General Institute Requirements", Technology Review, Monday, March 12, 2007
^ "History: School of Humanities, Arts, and Social Sciences". MIT Archives. Archived from the original on March 11, 2010. http://web.archive.org/web/20100311064018/http://libraries.mit.edu/archives/mithistory/histories-offices/sch-hum.html. Retrieved July 25, 2008.
^ "History: Sloan School of Management". MIT Archives. Archived from the original on June 21, 2010. http://web.archive.org/web/20100621002719/http://libraries.mit.edu/archives/mithistory/histories-offices/sch-sloan.html. Retrieved July 25, 2008.
^ Johnson, Howard Wesley (2001). Holding the Center: Memoirs of a Life in Higher Education. MIT Press. ISBN 0-262-60044-7. http://www.google.com/books?id=9qpmDJQPEZEC&printsec=frontcover.
^ ^a ^b Zachary, Gregg (1997). Endless Frontier: Vannevar Bush, Engineer of the American Century. Free Press. pp. 248–249. ISBN 0-684-82821-9.
^ ^a ^b "MIT's Rad Lab". IEEE Global History Network. http://www.ieeeghn.org/wiki/index.php/MIT_Rad_Lab. Retrieved July 25, 2008.
^ "Doc Draper & His Lab". History. The Charles Stark Draper Laboratory, Inc.. http://www.draper.com/doc_draper.html. Retrieved 30 May 2012.
^ "Charles Draper: Gyroscopic Apparatus". Inventor of the Week. MIT School of Engineering. http://web.mit.edu/invent/iow/draper.html. Retrieved 30 May 2012.
^ "Project Whirlwind". Object of the Month. MIT Institute Archives & Special Collections. http://libraries.mit.edu/archives/exhibits/project-whirlwind/index.html. Retrieved 30 May 2012.
^ "Wartime Strobe: 1939–1945 – Harold "Doc" Edgerton". http://edgerton-digital-collections.org/docs-life/wartime-strobe. Retrieved November 28, 2009.
^ Bedi, Joyce (May 2010). "MIT and World War II: Ingredients for a Hot Spot of Invention". Prototype. http://invention.smithsonian.org/downloads/e-prototype_may10.pdf. Retrieved 30 May 2012.
^ Leslie, Stuart (1993). The Cold War and American Science: The Military-Industrial-Academic Complex at MIT and Stanford. Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-07959-1.
^ Lecuyer, 1992
^ ^a ^b Todd, Richard (May 18, 1969). "The 'Ins' and 'Outs' at M.I.T". The New York Times.
^ <Please add first missing authors to populate metadata.> (February 28, 1969). "A Policy of Protest". Time. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,900700,00.html. Retrieved August 13, 2008.
^ "Founding Document: 1968 MIT Faculty Statement". Union of Concerned Scientists, USA. Archived from the original on January 15, 2008. http://web.archive.org/web/20080115200053/http://www.ucsusa.org/ucs/about/founding-document-1968-mit-faculty-statement.html. Retrieved August 12, 2008.
^ Hechinger, Fred (November 9, 1969). "Tension Over Issue Of Defense Research". The New York Times.
^ Stevens, William (May 5, 1969). "MIT Curb on Secret Projects Reflects Growing Antimilitary Feeling Among Universities' Researchers". The New York Times.
^ Warsh, David (June 1, 1999). "A tribute to MIT's Howard Johnson". The Boston Globe. http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/1999/johnson-0609.html. Retrieved April 4, 2007. "At a critical time in the late 1960s, Johnson stood up to the forces of campus rebellion at MIT. Many university presidents were destroyed by the troubles. Only Edward Levi, University of Chicago president, had comparable success guiding his institution to a position of greater strength and unity after the turmoil."
^ Lee, J.A.N.; J. McCarthy, J.C.R. Licklider (1992). "The beginnings at MIT". IEEE Annals of the History of Computing 14 (1): 18–54. DOI:10.1109/85.145317. http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl/articleDetails.jsp?tp=&arnumber=145317&contentType=Journals+%26+Magazines&sortType%3Dasc_p_Sequence%26filter%3DAND%28p_IS_Number%3A3898%29. Retrieved 31 May 2012.
^ "Internet History". Computer History Museum. http://www.computerhistory.org/internet_history/. Retrieved August 13, 2008.
^ Raymond, Eric S.. "A Brief History of Hackerdom". http://www.catb.org/~esr/writings/cathedral-bazaar/hacker-history/ar01s02.html. Retrieved August 11, 2008.
^ "The Media Lab – Retrospective". MIT Media Lab. Archived from the original on April 17, 2009. http://web.archive.org/web/20090417085247/http://media.mit.edu/?page_id=16. Retrieved August 12, 2008.
^ "About W3C: History". World Wide Web Consortium. http://www.w3.org/Consortium/facts#history. Retrieved August 11, 2008.
^ "MIT OpenCourseWare". MIT. http://ocw.mit.edu/. Retrieved June 12, 2008.
^ "Mission – One Laptop Per Child". One Laptop Per Child. http://www.laptop.org/en/vision/mission/. Retrieved August 11, 2008.
^ "Massachusetts Space Grant Consortium". Massachusetts Space Grant Consortium. http://web.mit.edu/masgc/www/index.shtml. Retrieved August 26, 2008.
^ "MIT Sea Grant College Program". MIT Sea Grant College Program. Archived from the original on April 9, 2009. http://web.archive.org/web/20090404013114/http://seagrant.mit.edu/about_us/index.php. Retrieved August 26, 2008.
^ Simha., O. R. (2003). MIT campus planning 1960–2000: An annotated chronology. MIT Press. pp. 120–149. ISBN 978-0-262-69294-6. http://books.google.com/?id=ldq-ZgxszzMC&lpg=PA120&pg=PA120.
^ "MIT Facilities: In Development & Construction". MIT. Archived from the original on March 12, 2009. http://web.archive.org/web/20090312070340/http://web.mit.edu/facilities/construction/ki/index.html. Retrieved July 22, 2008.
^ Bombardieri, Marcella (September 14, 2006). "MIT will accelerate its building boom: $750m expansion to add 4 facilities". The Boston Globe. http://www.boston.com/news/nation/articles/2006/09/14/mit_will_accelerate_its_building_boom/. Retrieved August 13, 2008.
^ "About MITEI". MIT Energy Initiative. http://web.mit.edu/mitei/about/index.html. Retrieved 31 May 2012.
^ "The Campus". MIT Facts 2012. http://web.mit.edu/facts/campus.html. Retrieved 31 May 2012.
^ Durant, Elizabeth. "Smoot's Legacy: 50th anniversary of famous feat nears". Technology Review. http://www.technologyreview.com/article/20983/. Retrieved August 13, 2008.
^ Fahrenthold, David (December 8, 2005). "The Measure of This Man Is in the Smoot; MIT's Human Yardstick Honored for Work". The Washington Post.
^ "Cambridge: Just the Facts (City Facts Brochure)". City of Cambridge. http://www.cambridgema.gov. Retrieved 31 May 2012.
^ ^a ^b ^c "MIT Course Catalogue: Overview". MIT. http://web.mit.edu/catalog/overv.chap1.html. Retrieved July 16, 2008.
^ "Building History and Numbering System". Mind and Hand Book, MIT. http://studentlife.mit.edu/mindandhandbook/campus-life/building-history. Retrieved August 13, 2008.
^ "MIT Campus Subterranean Map" (PDF). MIT Department of Facilities. Archived from the original on July 31, 2010. http://web.archive.org/web/20100731034447/http://mit.edu/facilities/maps/tunnelMap.pdf. Retrieved August 13, 2008.
^ Abel, David (March 30, 2000). "'Hackers' Skirt Security in Late-Night MIT Treks". The Boston Globe.
^ "MIT Course Catalog". MIT. Archived from the original on January 4, 2009. http://web.archive.org/web/20090104182125/http://web.mit.edu/catalogue/overv.chap6-nrl.shtml. Retrieved July 14, 2008.
^ "Loose Nukes: A Special Report". ABC News. http://abcnews.go.com/Technology/LooseNukes/. Retrieved April 14, 2007.
^ "MIT Assures Community of Research Reactor Safety". MIT News Office. October 13, 2005. http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/2005/reactor.html. Retrieved October 5, 2006.
^ "Supersonic Tunnel Open; Naval Laboratory for Aircraft Dedicated at M.I.T". The New York Times. December 2, 1949.
^ "Ship Test Tank for M.I.T.; Dr. Killian Announces Plant to Cost $500,000". The New York Times. February 6, 1949.
^ "MIT maps wireless users across campus". MIT. November 4, 2005. Archived from the original on September 5, 2006. http://web.archive.org/web/20060905081952/http://senseable.mit.edu/news/on_us/CNN4November2005.htm. Retrieved March 3, 2007.
^ "Notice of Lodging of Consent Decree Pursuant to the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act, the Clean Air Act, and the Clean Water Act". Environmental Protection Agency. May 3, 2001. http://www.epa.gov/EPA-WATER/2001/May/Day-03/w11123.htm. Retrieved July 16, 2008–.
^ Sales, Robert (April 21, 2001). "MIT to create three new environmental projects as part of agreement with EPA". MIT News Office. http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/2001/epa-0425.html. Retrieved July 16, 2008.
^ "The Environment at MIT: Conservation". MIT. Archived from the original on January 4, 2009. http://web.archive.org/web/20090104133307/http://web.mit.edu/environment/commitment/conservation.html. Retrieved August 11, 2008.
^ "Safety & Crime Report – Massachusetts Institute of Technology". American School Search. http://www.american-school-search.com/safety/massachusetts-institute-of-technology. Retrieved July 29, 2010.
^ "MIT Architecture: Welcome". MIT Department of Architecture. Archived from the original on March 23, 2007. http://web.archive.org/web/20070323150619/http://architecture.mit.edu/welcome.html. Retrieved April 4, 2007.
^ ^a ^b Dillon, David (February 22, 2004). "Starchitecture on Campus". The Boston Globe. http://www.boston.com/news/globe/magazine/articles/2004/02/22/starchitecture_on_campus/. Retrieved October 24, 2006.
^ Flint, Anthony (October 13, 2002). "At MIT, Going Boldly Where No Architect Has Gone Before". The Boston Globe.
^ ^a ^b Jarzombek, Mark (2004). Designing MIT: Bosworth's New Tech. Boston: Northeastern University Press. ISBN 978-1-55553-619-0. http://books.google.com/?id=QiwRGc3E7Z8C&printsec=frontcover.
^ "Names of MIT Buildings". MIT Archives. http://libraries.mit.edu/archives/exhibits/names/index.html. Retrieved April 10, 2007.
^ "Names on Institute Buildings Lend Inspiration to Future Scientists". The Tech. December 22, 1922. http://libraries.mit.edu/archives/exhibits/names/the-tech.html. Retrieved 2012-05-30.
^ Campbell, Robert (March 2, 1986). "Colleges: More Than Ivy-Covered Halls". The Boston Globe.
^ "Challenge to the Rectangle". TIME Magazine. June 29, 1953. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,889750,00.html. Retrieved August 13, 2008.
^ "Flagpole in the Square". TIME Magazine. August 22, 1960. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,869832,00.html. Retrieved August 13, 2008.
^ Campbell, Robert (May 20, 2001). "Architecture's Brand Names Come to Town". The Boston Globe.
^ Paul, James (April 9, 1989). "The Campuses of Cambridge, A City Unto Themselves". The Washington Post.
^ Lewis, Roger K. (November 24, 2007). "The Hubris of a Great Artist Can Be a Gift or a Curse". The Washington Post. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/11/23/AR2007112300679_pf.html. Retrieved August 13, 2008.
^ "2010 361 Best College Rankings: Quality of Life: Campus Is Tiny, Unsightly, or Both". Princeton Review. 2010. http://www.princetonreview.com/schools/college/CollegeRankings.aspx?iid=1023832. Retrieved July 6, 2010.
^ MIT Housing Office. "Undergraduate Residence Halls". http://housing.mit.edu/undergraduate/residences. Retrieved October 1, 2010.
^ "Residential Life Live-in Staff". MIT. http://web.mit.edu/reslife/rlp/ra-grt.html. Retrieved 1 June 2012.
^ Yale Daily News Staff (2009). The Insider's Guide to the Colleges, 2010. St. Martin's Griffin. pp. 377–380. ISBN 0-312-57029-5.
^ MIT Housing Office. "Graduate residences for singles & families". MIT. http://housing.mit.edu/graduatefamily/residences. Retrieved October 1, 2010.
^ "MIT Facts: Housing". 2010. http://web.mit.edu/facts/housing.html. Retrieved October 1, 2010.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e "Common Data Set". Institutional Research, Office of the Provost, MIT. 2010. http://web.mit.edu/ir/cds/2010/cds2010.html. Retrieved October 10, 2010.
^ "Undergraduate and Graduate Residence Halls, Fraternities, Sororities, and Independent Living Groups @ MIT". MIT Residential Life. http://web.mit.edu/reslife/fsilg/map.pdf. Retrieved 1 June 2012.
^ Zernike, Kate (August 27, 1998). "MIT rules freshmen to reside on campus". The Boston Globe: p. B1.
^ Russell, Jenna (August 25, 2002). "For First Time, MIT Assigns Freshmen to Campus Dorms". The Boston Globe.
^ "MIT Corporation". MIT Corporation. http://web.mit.edu/corporation/about.html. Retrieved March 18, 2007.
^ "Members of the MIT Corporation: Term Members". The MIT Corporation. http://web.mit.edu/corporation/membership/members-list.html. Retrieved September 7, 2010.
^ "Members of the MIT Corporation: Life Members". The MIT Corporation. http://web.mit.edu/corporation/membership/life-members-list.html. Retrieved September 7, 2010.
^ "Members of the MIT Corporation: Officers". The MIT Corporation. http://web.mit.edu/corporation/membership/officers.html. Retrieved September 7, 2010.
^ "Members of the MIT Corporation: Ex Officio Members". The MIT Corporation. http://web.mit.edu/corporation/membership/ex-officio-list.html. Retrieved September 7, 2010.
^ "Bylaws of the MIT Corporation – Section 2: Members". The MIT Corporation. http://web.mit.edu/corporation/bylaws/by2.html. Retrieved September 7, 2010.
^ "Members of the MIT Corporation – John Shepard Reed". The MIT Corporation. http://web.mit.edu/corporation/members/Reed-J.html. Retrieved September 7, 2010.
^ "Corporation elects new members, chair". MIT News Office. June 4, 2010. http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/2010/new-corporation-members.html. Retrieved September 7, 2010.
^ "A Brief History and Workings of the Corporation". MIT Faculty Newsletter. http://web.mit.edu/fnl/volume/185/mead.html. Retrieved November 2, 2006.
^ "MIT Investment Management Company". MIT Investment Management Company. http://www.mitimco.org/. Retrieved January 8, 2007.
^ "2011 NACUBO Endowment Student" (PDF). National Association of College and University Business Officers. 2011. http://www.nacubo.org/Documents/research/2011NCSEPublicTablesEndowmentMarketValues319.pdf. Retrieved May 29, 2012.
^ "MIT Facts: Academic Schools and Departments, Divisions & Sections". 2010. http://web.mit.edu/facts/academic.shtml. Retrieved October 1, 2010.
^ "Harvard-MIT HST Academics Overview". http://hst.mit.edu/servlet/ControllerServlet?handler=PublicHandler&action=browse&pageid=231. Retrieved August 5, 2007.
^ Rafael L. Bras (2004-2005). "Reports to the President, Report of the Chair of the Faculty" (PDF). MIT. http://web.mit.edu/annualreports/pres05/17.00.pdf. Retrieved December 1, 2006.
^ "Reporting List". Massachusetts Institute of Technology. http://web.mit.edu/orgchart/replist.html. Retrieved September 7, 2010.
^ "Susan Hockfield, President, Massachusetts Institute of Technology – Biography". Massachusetts Institute of Technology. http://web.mit.edu/hockfield/biography.html. Retrieved September 19, 2008.
^ Bradt, Steve (May 16, 2012). "L. Rafael Reif selected as MIT’s 17th president". MIT News. http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/2012/rafael-reif-elected-president-0516.html.
^ <Please add first missing authors to populate metadata.> (August 8, 1987). "A Survey of New England: A Concentration of Talent". The Economist. "MIT for a long time... stood virtually alone as a university that embraced rather than shunned industry."
^ Roberts, Edward B. (1991). "An Environment for Entrepreneurs". MIT: Shaping the Future. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press. ISBN [[Special:BookSources/0-262-63145-1|0-262-63145-1]]. "The war made necessary the formation of new working coalitions... between these technologists and government officials. These changes were especially noteworthy at MIT."
^ "MIT ILP – About the ILP". http://ilp-www.mit.edu/display_page.a4d?key=P2a. Retrieved March 17, 2007. ^{[dead link]}
^ Kolata, Gina (December 19, 1990). "MIT Deal with Japan Stirs Fear on Competition". The New York Times. http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9C0CEEDB153FF93AA25751C1A966958260&scp=1&sq=M.I.T.+Deal+with+Japan+Stirs+Fear+on+Competition&st=nyt. Retrieved June 9, 2008.
^ Booth, William (June 14, 1989). "MIT Criticized for Selling Research to Japanese Firms". The Washington Post.
^ "Nearly half of all US Presidential science advisers have had ties to the Institute". MIT News Office. May 2, 2001. http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/2001/ostpside-0502.html. Retrieved March 18, 2007.
^ "MIT Washington Office". MIT Washington Office. http://web.mit.edu/dc/. Retrieved March 18, 2007.
^ "Hunt Intense for Federal Research Funds: Universities Station Lobbyists in Washington". February 11, 2001.
^ Johnston, David (August 10, 1989). "Price-Fixing Inquiry at 20 Elite Colleges". The New York Times. http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=950DE2DC1E3CF933A2575BC0A96F948260. Retrieved December 16, 2008.
^ Chira, Susan (March 13, 1991). "23 College Won't Pool Discal Data". The New York Times. http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9D0CE2DB173DF930A25750C0A967958260. Retrieved December 16, 2008.
^ DePalma, Anthony (May 23, 1991). "Ivy Universities Deny Price-Fixing But Agree to Avoid It in the Future". The New York Times. http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9D0CE3D81E38F930A15756C0A967958260. Retrieved December 16, 2008.
^ DePalma, Anthony (September 2, 1992). "MIT Ruled Guilty in Anti-Trust Case". The New York Times. http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9E0CE1DC1439F930A3575AC0A964958260. Retrieved July 16, 2008.
^ DePalma, Anthony (June 26, 1992). "Price-Fixing or Charity? Trial of M.I.T. Begins". The New York Times. http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9E0CE0DE1E38F935A15755C0A964958260. Retrieved August 13, 2008.
^ "Settlement allows cooperation on awarding financial-aid". MIT Tech Talk. 1994. http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/1994/settlement-0105.html. Retrieved March 3, 2007.
^ Honan, William (December 21, 1993). "MIT Suit Over Aid May Be Settled". The New York Times. http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9F0CE5DC113BF932A15751C1A965958260. Retrieved July 16, 2008.
^ "Determined challengers keep heat on the elite". Times Higher Education Supplement World Rankings. 2005. http://www.timeshighereducation.co.uk/Magazines/THES/graphics/WorldRankings2005.pdf. Retrieved October 6, 2006. "The US has the world’s top two universities by our reckoning – Harvard and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, neighbours on the Charles River."
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f "MIT Facts: Educational Partnerships". 2010. Archived from the original on January 4, 2009. http://web.archive.org/web/20090104171108/http://web.mit.edu/facts/partnerships.html. Retrieved September 7, 2010.
^ "Roberto Rocca Project". MIT. http://web.mit.edu/progettorocca. Retrieved Novembre 19, 2009.
^ "MIT International Science and Technology Initiatives". MIT. http://web.mit.edu/misti/. Retrieved March 17, 2007.
^ "History – The MIT Press". MIT. http://mitpress.mit.edu/mitpress/history/default.asp. Retrieved March 18, 2007.
^ "Academic Ranking of World Universities: National". Institute of Higher Education, Shanghai Jiao Tong University. 2011. http://www.shanghairanking.com/ARWU2011.html. Retrieved August 30, 2011.
^ "America's Best Colleges". Forbes. 2011. http://www.forbes.com/top-colleges/list/. Retrieved October 6, 2011.
^ "National Universities Rankings". America's Best Colleges 2012. U.S. News & World Report. September 13, 2011. http://colleges.usnews.rankingsandreviews.com/best-colleges. Retrieved September 25, 2011.
^ "The Washington Monthly National University Rankings". The Washington Monthly. 2011. http://www.washingtonmonthly.com/college_guide/rankings_2011/national_university_rank.php. Retrieved August 30, 2011.
^ "Academic Ranking of World Universities: Global". Institute of Higher Education, Shanghai Jiao Tong University. 2011. http://www.shanghairanking.com/ARWU2011.html. Retrieved August 30, 2011.
^ "QS World University Rankings". QS Quacquarelli Symonds Limited. 2011. http://www.topuniversities.com/university-rankings/world-university-rankings/2011. Retrieved September 30, 2011.
^ "Top 400 – The Times Higher Education World University Rankings 2011–2012". The Times Higher Education. 2011. http://www.timeshighereducation.co.uk/world-university-rankings/2011-2012/top-400.html. Retrieved October 6, 2011.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d "Institutions: Massachusetts Institute of Technology". Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching. http://classifications.carnegiefoundation.org/index.php?key=748&subkey=14675&start=782. Retrieved September 18, 2008.
^ "MIT Facts: Accreditation". MIT. 2010. http://web.mit.edu/facts/accreditation.html. Retrieved September 6, 2010.
^ "Roster of Institutions". Commission on Institutions of Higher Education, New England Association of Schools and Colleges. http://cihe.neasc.org/about_our_institutions/roster_of_institutions/details/13437. Retrieved September 6, 2010.
^ "Academic Calendar". Officer of the Registrar, Massachusetts Institute of Technology. http://web.mit.edu/registrar/calendar/index.html. Retrieved September 6, 2010.
^ "USNWR's Best Graduate Programs in Engineering". U.S. News & World Report. 2010. http://grad-schools.usnews.rankingsandreviews.com/best-graduate-schools. Retrieved December 31, 2008.
^ "MIT undergraduate engineering again ranked No. 1". MIT News Office. August 17, 2010. http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/2010/undergraduate-rankings.html.
^ "NRC Rankings". http://www.stat.tamu.edu/~jnewton/nrc_rankings/nrc1.html. Retrieved October 9, 2008.
^ Avery, Christopher; Glickman, Mark E.; Hoxby, Caroline M; Metrick, Andrew (December 2005). A Revealed Preference Ranking of U.S. Colleges and Universities, NBER Working Paper No. W10803. National Bureau of Economic Research. http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=601105.
^ "Majors & Minors". MIT Admissions Office. http://www.mitadmissions.org/topics/learning/majors_minors/index.shtml. Retrieved August 13, 2008. "MIT is organized into academic departments, or Courses, which you will often hear referred to by their Course number or acronym."
^ "MIT Education". MIT Office of the Registrar. http://mit.edu/education/. Retrieved October 1, 2010.
^ Butcher, Ev. "Course Code Designation Key". MIT Club of San Diego. http://alumweb.mit.edu/clubs/sandiego/contents_courses.shtml.
^ "MIT Course Catalogue: Degree Programs". MIT. http://web.mit.edu/catalog/degre.intro.html. Retrieved July 16, 2008.
^ "MIT Course Catalog: Degree Charts". Officer of the Registrar, Massachusetts Institute of Technology. http://web.mit.edu/catalog/front.degre.html. Retrieved September 6, 2010.
^ ^a ^b "5 years of MIT Degrees Awarded". Institutional Research, Office of the Provost, MIT. http://web.mit.edu/ir/pop/students/degrees.html. Retrieved October 1, 2010.
^ "MIT Course Catalog: Academic Programs". Officer of the Registrar, Massachusetts Institute of Technology. http://web.mit.edu/catalog/overv.chap3.html. Retrieved September 6, 2010.
^ ^a ^b "Enrollment by School". Institutional Research, Office of the Provost, MIT. Archived from the original on September 7, 2008. http://web.archive.org/web/20080907151456/http://web.mit.edu/ir/pop/students/enrollment_by_school.html. Retrieved October 1, 2010.
^ ^a ^b "MIT Course Catalog: Undergraduate General Institute Requirements". Officer of the Registrar, Massachusetts Institute of Technology. http://web.mit.edu/catalog/overv.chap3-gir.html. Retrieved September 6, 2010.
^ "About the Requirement". Undergraduate Communication Requirement. Massachusetts Institute of Technology. http://web.mit.edu/commreq/index.html. Retrieved 30 May 2012.
^ "Faculty and Instructors". Undergraduate Communication Requirement. Massachusetts Institute of Technology. http://web.mit.edu/commreq/faculty.html. Retrieved 30 May 2012.
^ Schön, Donald A. (1986). "Leadership as Reflection-in-Action". In Thomas J. Sergiovanni, John Edward Corbally. Leadership and Organizational Culture: New Perspectives on Administrative Theory and Practice. University of Illinois Press. p. 59. ISBN 0-252-01347-6. http://books.google.com/?id=wfjpFezRhuYC&pg=PA59&lpg=PA59. Retrieved August 13, 2008. "[In the sixties] Students spoke of their undergraduate experience as "drinking from a fire hose.""
^ "Average Freshmen Retention Rates: National Universities". U.S. News and World Report. http://colleges.usnews.rankingsandreviews.com/best-colleges/rankings/national-universities/freshmen-least-most-likely-return. Retrieved September 6, 2010.
^ ^a ^b "MIT Course Catalog: Freshman Year". Officer of the Registrar, Massachusetts Institute of Technology. http://web.mit.edu/catalog/overv.chap3.html#fre. Retrieved September 6, 2010.
^ Keuss, Nancy (October 17, 2000). "The Evolution of MIT's Pass/No Record System". The Tech 120 (50). http://tech.mit.edu/V120/N50/p-nr_-_real.50f.html. Retrieved September 6, 2010.
^ "UROP homepage". http://web.mit.edu/UROP/. Retrieved August 5, 2007.
^ "MIT Research and Teaching Firsts". MIT News Office. Archived from the original on September 15, 2006. http://web.archive.org/web/20060915023328/http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/special/firsts.html. Retrieved October 6, 2006.
^ Maeroff, Gene I. (January 11, 1976). "Use of Undergraduates in Research Is Hailed by M.I.T.; Inventions by Students". The New York Times.
^ Palmer, Matthew (October 5, 1999). "An MIT Original, the Oft Replicated UROP Program Reaches 30 Years". The Tech. http://tech.mit.edu/V119/N47/UROP_turns_30.47f.html.
^ "NAAB: Schools Database (Massachusetts Institute of Technology)". NAAB. http://www.naab.org/schools/view.aspx?id=14406&origin=results&QS='&vSchoolYMGHFREschool_name=&vSchoolYMGHFREState=MA&startrec=1&searchtype=A&nextbttn=Search&union=AND&top_parent=99. Retrieved April 16, 2011.
^ "AACSB – General". AASCB. https://www.aacsb.net/eweb/DynamicPage.aspx?Site=AACSB&WebKey=ED088FF2-979E-48C6-B104-33768F1DE01D. Retrieved April 16, 2011.
^ "Planning Accreditation Board: Accredited Planning Programs". Planning Accreditation Board. http://www.planningaccreditationboard.org/index.php?id=30. Retrieved April 16, 2011.
^ "Accredited Programs Search". ABET. http://www.abet.org/AccredProgramSearch/AccreditationSearch.aspx. Retrieved April 16, 2011.
^ "MIT Course Catalog: Graduate Education: General Degree Requirements". Officer of the Registrar, Massachusetts Institute of Technology. http://web.mit.edu/catalog/overv.chap4-gdr.html. Retrieved September 6, 2010.
^ "Interdisciplinary Graduate Programs". Officer of the Registrar, Massachusetts Institute of Technology. http://web.mit.edu/catalog/inter.gradu.html. Retrieved September 6, 2010.
^ "MIT Facts 2010: Graduate Education". Massachusetts Institute of Technology. 2010. http://web.mit.edu/facts/graduate.html. Retrieved September 6, 2010.
^ "Report to the President – Director, MIT Libraries". MIT. 2009. http://web.mit.edu/annualreports/pres09/2009.13.00.pdf. Retrieved October 1, 2010.
^ "Lewis Music Library". MIT. http://libraries.mit.edu/music/contents.html. Retrieved October 10, 2010.
^ "MIT List Visual Arts Center". MIT. http://listart.mit.edu/about. Retrieved October 1, 2010.
^ "Compton Gallery". MIT Museum. http://web.mit.edu/museum/exhibitions/compton.html. Retrieved October 1, 2010.
^ "MIT Percent-for-Art Program". MIT. http://www.mit.edu/~lvac/percent/index.html. Retrieved October 1, 2010.
^ "MIT Public Art Collection". MIT. http://listart.mit.edu:8080/Prt2*1$15*1943. Retrieved October 1, 2010.
^ "MIT Museum: Mission and History". MIT. http://web.mit.edu/museum/about/mission.html. Retrieved October 1, 2010.
^ Office of the Provost. "MIT Faculty and Staff". MIT. http://web.mit.edu/ir/pop/faculty_staff.html. Retrieved April 17, 2011.
^ "TLO Statistics for Fiscal Year 2010". 2010. http://web.mit.edu/tlo/www/about/office_statistics.html. Retrieved September 7, 2010.
^ "IEEE History Center: MIT Radiation Laboratory". IEEE. http://www.ieee.org/about/ieee_history.html. Retrieved June 9, 2008.
^ ^a ^b "Research Laboratory of Electronics at MIT: History". MIT. http://www.rle.mit.edu/about/about_history.html. Retrieved June 9, 2008.
^ "High Speed Camera " Harold "Doc" Edgerton". November 28, 2009. http://edgerton-digital-collections.org/techniques/high-speed-photography. Retrieved November 28, 2009.
^ "MIT Professor Claude Shannon dies; was founder of digital communications". MIT News Office. February 27, 2001. http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/2001/shannon.html. Retrieved October 4, 2010.
^ Guttag, John (2003). The Electron and the Bit, Electrical Engineering and Computer Science at MIT, 1902–2002.
^ Office of the Provost. "A. M. Turing Award". MIT. http://web.mit.edu/ir/pop/awards/acm-turing.html. Retrieved April 17, 2011.
^ Robert N. Noyce, Robert Langer, Bradford W. Parkinson, Ivan A. Getting, Butler W. Lampson, Timothy J. Berners-Lee, Rudolph Kalman,
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d "Nobel Prize". Office of Institutional Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology. http://web.mit.edu/ir/pop/awards/nobel.html. Retrieved December 31, 2008.
^ "Dirac Medal". Office of Institutional Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology. http://web.mit.edu/ir/pop/awards/dirac.html. Retrieved December 31, 2008.
^ "Prize in Physics". Wolf Foundation. http://www.wolffund.org.il/cat.asp?id=25&cat_title=PHYSICS. Retrieved October 4, 2010.
^ Lander, Eric; Linton, LM; Birren, B; Nusbaum, C; Zody, MC; Baldwin, J; Devon, K; Dewar, K et al. (2001). "Initial sequencing and analysis of the human genome". Nature (Nature) 409 (6822): 860–921. DOI:10.1038/35057062. PMID 11237011.
^ "Eric S. Lander". Broad Institute. http://www.broadinstitute.org/about/bios/bio-lander.html. Retrieved June 9, 2008.
^ "Martin Deutsch, MIT physicist who discovered positronium, dies at 85". August 20, 2002. http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/2002/deutsch.html. Retrieved June 12, 2008.
^ "Professor John C. Sheehan Dies at 76". MIT News Office. April 1, 1992. http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/1992/sheehan-0401.html. Retrieved June 12, 2008.
^ "Self-Reproducing Molecules Reported by MIT Researchers". MIT News Office. May 9, 1990. Archived from the original on May 16, 2008. http://web.archive.org/web/20080516120912/http://w3.mit.edu/newsoffice/tt/1990/may09/23124.html. Retrieved June 12, 2008.
^ "MIT Research and Teaching Firsts". MIT. Archived from the original on May 31, 2008. http://web.archive.org/web/20080531233441/http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/special/firsts.html. Retrieved June 12, 2008.
^ Hilts, Philip J. (March 31, 1998). "Last Rites for a 'Plywood Palace' That Was a Rock of Science". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/1998/03/31/science/last-rites-for-a-plywood-palace-that-was-a-rock-of-science.html. Retrieved October 4, 2010.
^ "John Bates Clark Medal". Office of Institutional Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology. http://web.mit.edu/ir/pop/awards/clark.html. Retrieved December 31, 2008.
^ Fox, Margalit (December 5, 1998). "A Changed Noam Chomsky Simplifies". The New York Times. http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9D01EEDB113BF936A35751C1A96E958260.
^ Jaggi, Maya (January 20, 2001). "Conscience of a nation". The Guardian (London). http://www.guardian.co.uk/books/2001/jan/20/society.politics. Retrieved August 12, 2008.
^ Herper, Matthew (January 8, 2002). "MIT Media Lab Tightens Its Belt". Forbes. http://www.forbes.com/2002/01/08/0108medialab.html. Retrieved August 12, 2008.
^ Guernsey, Lisa (April 7, 2009). "M.I.T. Media Lab at 15: Big Ideas, Big Money". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2000/11/09/technology/09MITT.html.
^ Matchan, Linda (July 12, 2008). "In Search of A Beautiful Mind". The Boston Globe. http://www.boston.com/lifestyle/articles/2008/07/12/in_search_of_a_beautiful_mind/. Retrieved August 12, 2008.
^ Office of the Provost. "MacArthur Fellows". MIT. http://web.mit.edu/ir/pop/awards/macarthur.html. Retrieved April 17, 2011.
^ Office of the Provost. "Pulitzer Prize". MIT. http://web.mit.edu/ir/pop/awards/pulitzer.html. Retrieved April 17, 2011.
^ Office of the Provost. "American Academy of Arts and Letters". MIT. http://web.mit.edu/ir/pop/awards/artsandletters.html. Retrieved April 17, 2011.
^ Saltus, Richard (September 28, 1990). "Journal Cites New Evidence ex-MIT Scientist Faked Data". The Boston Globe.
^ Boffey, Philip (April 12, 1988). "Nobel Winner Is Caught Up in a Dispute Over Study". The New York Times. http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=940DE7D8133FF931A25757C0A96E948260&scp=22&sq=Massachusetts+Institute+of+Technology+misconduct&st=nyt.
^ Abel, David (November 29, 2002). "MIT Faces Charges of Fraud, Cover-up on Missile Test Study". The Boston Globe.
^ Pierce, Charles P. (October 23, 2005). "Going Postol". The Boston Globe. http://www.boston.com/news/globe/magazine/articles/2005/10/23/going_postol/. Retrieved January 27, 2008.
^ "Case Summary – Luk Van Parijs". Office of Research Integrity, U.S. Department of Health & Human Services. January 23, 2009. http://ori.hhs.gov/misconduct/cases/VanParijs.shtml. Retrieved December 2, 2009.
^ Reich, Eugenie (February 3, 2009). "Former MIT biologist penalized for falsifying data". Nature News. http://www.nature.com/news/2009/090203/full/news.2009.74.html.
^ Jones, Marilee. "MIT freshman application & financial aid information" (PDF). MIT Admissions Office. Archived from the original on November 7, 2006. http://web.archive.org/web/20061107035149/http://web.mit.edu/admissions/pdf/MITinstructions.pdf. Retrieved January 2, 2007. "We are a meritocracy. We judge each other by our ideas, our creativity and our accomplishments, not by who our families are."
^ Bernanke, Ben S. (June 9, 2006). "2006 Commencement Speech at MIT". http://www.federalreserve.gov/boardDocs/speeches/2006/20060609/default.htm. Retrieved January 2, 2007. "Mathematical approaches to economics have at times been criticized as lacking in practical value. Yet the MIT Economics Department has trained many economists who have played leading roles in government and in the private sector, including the current heads of four central banks: those of Chile, Israel, Italy, and, I might add, the United States."
^ "No honorary degrees is an MIT tradition going back to... Thomas Jefferson". MIT News Office. June 8, 2001. http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/2001/commdegrees.html. Retrieved May 7, 2006. "MIT's founder, William Barton Rogers, regarded the practice of giving honorary degrees as 'literary almsgiving ...of spurious merit and noisy popularity...'"
^ Stevenson, Daniel C.. "Rushdie Stuns Audience 26–100". The Tech. http://tech.mit.edu/V113/N61/rushdie.61n.html.
^ ^a ^b Gellerman, Bruce; Erik Sherman (2004). Massachusetts Curiosities: Quirky Characters, Roadside Oddities, & Other Offbeat Stuff. Globe Pequot. pp. 65–66. ISBN 0-7627-3070-6.
^ Pourian, Jessica J. (February 15, 2011). "2013's Brass Rat unveiled". The Tech. http://tech.mit.edu/V131/N5/ringpremiere.html. Retrieved June 12, 2011.
^ "Ring History ('93 class webpage)". http://alumweb.mit.edu/classes/1993/brassrat.html. Retrieved December 26, 2006.
^ Bauer, M.J.. "IHTFP". http://www.mit.edu/people/mjbauer/ihtfp.html. Retrieved November 23, 2005.
^ "MIT Association of Student Activities". http://web.mit.edu/asa/resources/group-list.html. Retrieved November 1, 2006.
^ "MIT Outreach Database". MIT. http://mitpsc.mit.edu/outreach/home/search. Retrieved September 7, 2010.
^ Dowling, Claudia Glenn (June 5, 2005). "MIT Nerds". Discover Magazine. http://discovermagazine.com/2005/jun/mit-nerds/. Retrieved August 17, 2007.
^ Bridges, Mary (January 23, 2005). "Her Mystery achievement: to boldly scavenge at MIT". The Boston Globe. http://www.boston.com/news/local/massachusetts/articles/2005/01/23/her_mystery_achievement_to_boldly_scavenge_at_mit/. Retrieved January 16, 2007.
^ "Charm School". MIT Student Activities Office. MIT Division of Student Life. http://studentlife.mit.edu/sao/charm. Retrieved July 3, 2011.
^ Chang, Kenneth (February 6, 2001). "What, Geeks at M.I.T.? Not With This Class". The New York Times. http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9F04E7D8113EF935A35751C0A9679C8B63. Retrieved August 12, 2008.
^ Peterson, T.F. (2003). Nightwork: A History of Hacks and Pranks at MIT. MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-66137-9.
^ Biskup, Agnieska (April 1, 2003). "These Are Not Your Ordinary College Pranks". The Boston Globe.
^ "Howe & Ser Moving Co". http://www.mitcannon.com/. Retrieved April 4, 2007.
^ Bombadieri, Marcella (December 18, 2003). "MIT Pranksters Wing It For Wright Celebration". The Boston Globe. http://nl.newsbank.com/cgi-bin/ngate/BG?ext_docid=0FF8A4DEBA245CA5&ext_hed=MIT%20PRANKSTERS%20WING%20IT%20FOR%20WRIGHT%20CELEBRATION&ext_theme=bg&pubcode=BG.
^ "MIT Hackers & Halo 3". The Tech. http://tech.mit.edu/V127/N41/graphics/halo3.html. Retrieved September 25, 2007.
^ ^a ^b ^c "MIT Facts 2008:Athletics and Recreation". MIT. http://web.mit.edu/facts/athletics.html. Retrieved July 22, 2008.
^ "MIT Varsity Sports fact sheet". http://web.mit.edu/fofdaper/docs/Varsity-sports-facts.html. Retrieved January 6, 2007.
^ "Division's biggest program drops eight sports". NCAA. April 24, 2009. http://www.ncaa.org/wps/ncaa?ContentID=49137. ^{[dead link]}
^ Cohen, Rachel (May 18, 2010). "MIT the No. 1 jock school? You're kidding, right?". Associated Press. http://www.youniversitytv.com/news-sports/3655-mit-the-no-1-jock-school-you-re-kidding-right.
^ Powers, John (April 24, 2009). "MIT forced to cut 8 varsity sports". The Boston Globe. http://www.boston.com/sports/colleges/articles/2009/04/24/mit_forced_to_cut_8_varsity_sports/.
^ "MIT '93 Brass Rat". http://alumweb.mit.edu/classes/1993/brassrat.html. Retrieved March 23, 2007.
^ Shapiro, Fred (April 25, 1975). "MIT's World Champions" (PDF). 92. The Tech. p. 7. http://tech.mit.edu/archives/VOL_092/TECH_V092_S0210_P007.pdf. Retrieved October 4, 2006.
^ <Please add first missing authors to populate metadata.> (2009, January). "MIT facts 2009: International students and scholars". MIT Bulletin 144 (4). http://web.mit.edu/facts/international.html.
^ ^a ^b MIT, Office of the Registrar. (October 9, 2009url=http://web.mit.edu/registrar/stats/gender/index.html). Enrollment statistics: Women students, Fall term 2009–2010.
^ "Geographic Distribution of Students". Office of the Registrar, MIT. 2009–2010. http://web.mit.edu/registrar/stats/geo/index.html. Retrieved October 1, 2010.
^ <Please add first missing authors to populate metadata.> (2009, January). "MIT facts: Admission to MIT". MIT Bulletin 144 (4). http://web.mit.edu/facts/admission.html.
^ U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. (2009, September). College Navigator: Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Retention and graduation rates. http://nces.ed.gov/collegenavigator/?id=166683#retgrad.
^ "MIT Facts: Tuition and Financial Aid". 2010. http://web.mit.edu/facts/tuition.html.
^ Bolotin, Mark (January 14, 1966). "Tuition hike provokes student riot". The Tech 85 (32). http://tech.mit.edu/V85/PDF/N32.pdf.
^ Chemical Heritage Foundation (2005). "Ellen Swallow Richards". Chemical Achievers, The Human Face of Chemical Sciences. http://www.chemheritage.org/discover/chemistry-in-history/themes/public-and-environmental-health/public-health-and-safety/richards-e.aspx. Retrieved November 4, 2006.
^ Simha, O. R. (2003). MIT campus planning 1960–2000: An annotated chronology. MIT Press. pp. 32–33. ISBN 978-0-262-69294-6. http://books.google.com/?id=ldq-ZgxszzMC&lpg=PA32&pg=PA32. "In 1959, 158 women were enrolled at MIT."
^ Stratton, J. A. (1960). The president's report 1960. p. 49. http://libraries.mit.edu/archives/mithistory/presidents-reports/1960.pdf. "Registration: In 1959–60 ... [o]ne hundred and fifty-five women were enrolled, [2.5 percent of student body]...."
^ EECS Women Undergraduate Enrollment Committee (January 3, 1995). "Chapter 1: Male/Female enrollment patterns in EECS at MIT and other schools". Women Undergraduate Enrollment in Electrical Engineering and Computer Science at MIT. http://groups.csail.mit.edu/mac/users/hal/women-enrollment-comm/final-report-ch1.html. Retrieved December 8, 2006.
^ Healy, Patrick (February 5, 2001). "11 years, 11 suicides – Critics Say Spate of MIT Jumping Deaths Show a 'Contagion'". The Boston Globe: pp. A1.
^ Smith, Tovia (August 29, 2001). "Massachusetts Institute of Technology Looks for Ways to Deal with the Incidence of Student Suicides in Recent Years". National Public Radio.
^ ^a ^b "MIT's Inaction Blamed for Contributing to Death of a Freshman". The Chronicle of Higher Education. October 6, 1998. http://chronicle.com/article/MIT-s-Inaction-Blamed-for/14196. Retrieved October 7, 2006.
^ Levine, Dana (September 15, 2000). "Institute Will Pay Kruegers $6M for Role in Death". The Tech. http://tech.mit.edu/V120/N42/42krueger.42n.html. Retrieved October 4, 2006.
^ ^a ^b Sontag, Deborah (April 28, 2002). "Who Was Responsible for Elizabeth Shin?". The New York Times. http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9F00EED7113FF93BA15757C0A9649C8B63&sec=health&pagewanted=4. Retrieved October 7, 2006.
^ Elizabeth Fried Ellen, LICSW (2002). "Suicide Prevention on Campus". Psychiatric Times. http://www.psychiatrictimes.com/display/article/10168/54106. Retrieved June 26, 2006.
^ "MIT Mental Health Task Force Fact Sheet". MIT New Office. November 14, 2001. http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/2001/mhtf-facts.html. Retrieved June 25, 2006.
^ Arenson, Karen (December 3, 2004). "Worried Colleges Step Up Efforts Over Suicide". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2004/12/03/education/03suicide.html?pagewanted=print&position=. Retrieved January 6, 2009.
^ "Clay endorses Mental Health Task Force Recommendations". MIT News Office. November 28, 2001. http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/2001/mhtf-1128.html. Retrieved June 25, 2006.
^ Nobel Foundation (2009). Nobel laureates and universities. http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/lists/universities.html.
^ MIT, Office of the Provost (2009). "Institutional Research: Nobel Prize". http://web.mit.edu/ir/pop/awards/nobel.html. Retrieved October 21, 2009.
^ "A Study on the Status of Women Faculty in Science at MIT". MIT Faculty News Letter. 1999. http://web.mit.edu/fnl/women/women.html.
^ Kleinfeld, Judith. "MIT Tarnishes Its Reputation with Gender Junk Science". Archived from the original on February 8, 2007. http://web.archive.org/web/20070208134206/http://www.uaf.edu/northern/mitstudy/. Retrieved April 10, 2007.
^ Lopez, Kathryn Jean (April 10, 2001). "Feminist Mythology". National Review. http://old.nationalreview.com/nr_comment/nr_comment041001b.shtml. Retrieved April 10, 2007.
^ ^a ^b Wertheimer, Linda (December 6, 2007). "Tenure at MIT Still Largely a Male Domain". The Boston Globe. http://www.boston.com/news/education/higher/articles/2007/12/06/tenure_at_mit_still_largely_a_male_domain/. Retrieved July 25, 2008.
^ "Professor Sues M.I.T. Over Refusal of Tenure". The New York Times. September 10, 1986. http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9A0DE7DF1130F933A2575AC0A960948260&n=Top%2fReference%2fTimes%20Topics%2fOrganizations%2fM%2fMassachusetts%20Institute%20of%20Technology. Retrieved October 3, 2006.
^ Vaznis, James (January 15, 1994). "Ex-MIT professor who was denied tenure files sex bias suit". The Boston Globe.
^ Dowdy, Zachary (October 22, 1997). "MCAD supports scholar's claim of bias by MIT; University Offered job, but no tenure". The Boston Globe.
^ Simpson, April (February 6, 2007). "Professor accuses MIT of racism". The Boston Globe. http://www.boston.com/news/local/articles/2007/02/06/professor_accuses_mit_of_racism/. Retrieved December 18, 2007.
^ Schworm, Peter (June 4, 2007). "MIT center director resigns in protest of tenure decision". The Boston Globe. http://www.boston.com/news/local/articles/2007/06/04/mit_center_director_resigns_in_protest_of_tenure_decision/. Retrieved December 19, 2007.
^ The Associated Press (October 23, 2009). "Monterey Aquarium's McNutt new USGS director". Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on June 2, 2010. http://web.archive.org/web/20100602085705/http://articles.latimes.com/keyword/usg-corp. Retrieved October 25, 2009.
^ "DUSP's Briggs joins Obama administration". MIT News Office. January 20, 2009. http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/2009/briggs-0120.html.
^ "Lander named to Obama's science team". MIT News Office. December 22, 2008. http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/2008/lander-pcast-1222.html.
^ MIT Office of Institutional Research. "Awards and Honors". http://web.mit.edu/ir/pop/awards/index.html. Retrieved November 5, 2006.
^ Ed Pilkington (May,18, 2011). "The MIT factor: celebrating 150 years of maverick genius". The Guardian. http://www.guardian.co.uk/education/2011/may/18/mit-massachusetts-150-years-genius. Retrieved May 25, 2011.
^ "Notable Alumni". http://www.mitadmissions.org/topics/pulse/notable_alumni/. Retrieved November 4, 2006.
^ Silvey, Anita (1995). Children's Books and Their Creators. Houghton Mifflin. p. 415. ISBN 0-395-65380-0. http://books.google.com/?id=DzV5M07MZigC&pg=RA4-PA415.

References [link]

Also see the bibliography maintained by MIT's Institute Archives & Special Collections, and Written Works in MIT in popular culture.

Abelmann, Walter H., ed. The Harvard-MIT Division of Health Sciences and Technology: The First 25 Years, 1970–1995 (2004). 346 pp
Angulo, A. J. (2007). "The Initial Reception of MIT, 1860s–1880s". History of Higher Education Annual 26: 1–28.
Etzkowitz, Henry. MIT and the Rise of Entrepreneurial Science Series: Studies in Global Competition. (2002). 173 pp.
Hapgood, Fred (1993). Up the infinite corridor: MIT and the technological imagination. Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley. ISBN 0-201-08293-4. 203 pp.
Jarzombek, Mark (2003). Designing MIT: Bosworth's New Tech. Northeastern University Press. ISBN 1-55553-619-0. http://books.google.com/?id=QiwRGc3E7Z8C&printsec=frontcover. on William Welles Bosworth 164pp
Keyser, Samuel Jay; foreword by Lawrence S. Bacow (2011). Mens et mania: the MIT nobody knows. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-01594-3. 223 pp.
Lecuyer, Christophe (1992). "The Making of a Science Based Technological University: Karl Compton, James Killian, and the Reform of MIT, 1930–1957". Historical Studies in the Physical & Biological Sciences 23 (1): 153–180.
Leslie, Stuart W. (1994). The Cold War and American Science: The Military-Industrial-Academic Complex at MIT and Stanford. Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-07959-1.
Mitchell, William J. (2007). Imagining MIT: Designing a Campus for the Twenty-First Century. The MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-13479-8.
Peterson, T. F. (2003). Nightwork: A History of Hacks and Pranks at MIT. The MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-66137-9.
Prescott, Samuel C. (1954). When M.I.T. Was "Boston Tech", 1861–1916. Technology Press. ISBN 978-0-262-66139-3.
Servos, John W. (December 1980). "The Industrial Relations of Science: Chemical Engineering at MIT, 1900–1939". Isis (The University of Chicago Press on behalf of The History of Science Society) 71 (4): 531–549. JSTOR 230499.
Shrock, Robert Rakes. Geology at MIT 1865–1965: A History of the First Hundred Years of Geology at Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Vol. 1, The Faculty and Supporting Staff (1977). 1032 pp.
Simha, O. Robert (2003). MIT Campus Planning,: An Annotated Chronology. The MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-69294-6.
Snyder, Benson R. (1973). The Hidden Curriculum. The MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-69043-0.
Stratton, Julius Adams; Loretta H. Mannix (2005). Mind and Hand: The Birth of MIT. The MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-19524-9.
Vest, Charles M. Pursuing the Endless Frontier: Essays on MIT and the Role of Research Universities (2004). 292 pp.
Wildes, Karl L. and Lindgren, Nilo A. A Century of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science at MIT, 1882–1984 (1985). 423 pp.

External links [link]

	Boston portal
	Massachusetts portal
	University portal

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Massachusetts Institute of Technology

Official website
http://www.collegexpress.com/college/massachusetts-institute-of-technology/1100243/details/ [School Details]

v t e Massachusetts Institute of Technology

Academics	Academics · School of Architecture and Planning · School of Engineering · School of Humanities, Arts, and Social Sciences · School of Science · MIT Sloan School of Management · Division of Health Sciences and Technology · OpenCourseWare · Mathematics Department

Research	Broad Institute · Center for Theoretical Physics · Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory · Koch Institute · Laboratory for Information and Decision Systems · MIT Libraries · Lincoln Laboratory · McGovern Institute · Media Laboratory · Picower Institute · Plasma Science and Fusion Center · Research Laboratory of Electronics · MIT Senseable City Lab · MIT Nuclear Reactor Lab · Whitehead Institute · MIT Center for International Studies

People	Alumni · Faculty · Presidents · Institute Professors · William Barton Rogers

Culture	History · List Visual Arts Center · Traditions and activities · MIT in popular culture · Technology Review · Athena · Brass Rat · Hacks · The Tech · TMRC · Tech Squares · MIT $100K · Mystery Hunt · Smoot · Lemelson–MIT Prize

Campus	Campus · Chapel · Green Building · Infinite Corridor · Kresge Auditorium · MIT Museum · Stata Center · Wiesner building · Graduate Residences · Undergraduate Residences · Fraternities and Sororities

Presidents of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology

William Rogers (1862) · John Daniel Runkle (1870) · William Rogers (1879) · Francis Walker (1881) · James Crafts (1897) · Henry Pritchett (1900) · Arthur Amos Noyes (1907) · Richard Maclaurin (1909) · Elihu Thomson (1920) · Ernest Nichols (1921) · Elihu Thomson (1922) · Samuel Stratton (1923) · Karl Compton (1930) · James Killian (1948) · Julius Stratton (1959) · Howard Johnson (1966) · Jerome Wiesner (1971) · Paul Gray (1980) · Charles Vest (1990) · Susan Hockfield (2004) · L. Rafael Reif (2012)

v t e Association of American Universities (AAU)

Public	Arizona University of California Berkeley Davis Irvine Los Angeles San Diego Santa Barbara Colorado Florida Georgia Tech Illinois Indiana Iowa Iowa State Kansas Maryland Michigan Michigan State Minnesota Missouri State University of New York Buffalo Stony Brook North Carolina Ohio State Oregon Penn State Pittsburgh Purdue Rutgers Texas Texas A&M Virginia Washington Wisconsin

Private	Brandeis Brown Caltech Carnegie Mellon Case Western Chicago Columbia Cornell Duke Emory Harvard Johns Hopkins MIT Northwestern NYU Penn Princeton Rice Rochester USC Stanford Tulane Vanderbilt Wash U Yale

Canadian	McGill Toronto

v t e Universities Research Association

United States	Alabama Arizona Arizona State Boston University Brown Buffalo University of California Berkeley Davis Irvine Los Angeles Riverside Santa Barbara San Diego Caltech Carnegie Mellon Case Western Reserve Chicago Colorado Columbia Cornell Duke Florida Florida State Harvard Hawaii Houston IIT Illinois at Urbana–Champaign Illinois at Chicago Indiana Iowa Iowa State Johns Hopkins LSU Maryland MIT Michigan Michigan State Minnesota Nebraska New Mexico New Mexico State North Carolina North Texas Northeastern Northern Illinois Northwestern Notre Dame Ohio State Oklahoma Oregon Penn State Pittsburgh Princeton Purdue Rice Rochester Rockefeller Rutgers SMU South Carolina Stanford Stony Brook Syracuse Tennessee University of Texas Arlington Austin Dallas Texas A&M Texas Tech Tufts Tulane Utah Vanderbilt Virginia Virginia Tech Washington Washington University Wayne State William & Mary Wisconsin Yale

International	McGill Pisa Toronto Waseda

v t e Southeastern Universities Research Association

Standard members	Alabama UAB UAHuntsville Arkansas Auburn Baylor Catholic UCF Christopher Newport Clemson Delaware Duke East Carolina Florida Florida Atlantic Florida Tech FIU Florida State George Mason George Washington Georgetown Georgia Georgia Tech Georgia State Hampton Houston James Madison Kentucky UL Lafayette LSU Louisiana Tech Maryland UMBC MIT Memphis Miami Ole Miss Mississippi State New Orleans Norfolk State North Carolina A&T North Carolina NC State Oklahoma Old Dominion Regina Rice Richmond South Carolina South Florida Southern Miss Tennessee Texas Texas A&M Tulane Vanderbilt Virginia VCU Virginia Tech Virginia State West Virginia William & Mary

Affiliate members	Idaho State Ohio

568 Group

Amherst College
Boston College
Brown University
Claremont McKenna College
College of the Holy Cross
Columbia University
Cornell University
Dartmouth College
Davidson College
Duke University
Emory University
Georgetown University
Grinnell College
Haverford College
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Northwestern University
Pomona College
St. John's College
Swarthmore College
University of Chicago
University of Notre Dame
University of Pennsylvania
Vanderbilt University
Wellesley College
Wesleyan University
Williams College

v t e New England Women's and Men's Athletic Conference

Babson College Clark University Massachusetts Institute of Technology Mount Holyoke College Smith College Springfield College United States Coast Guard Academy Wellesley College Wheaton College Worcester Polytechnic Institute

v t e Eastern Association of Rowing Colleges

BU Brown Columbia Cornell Dartmouth Georgetown Harvard Holy Cross MIT Navy Northeastern Penn Princeton Rutgers Syracuse Wisconsin Yale

v t e New England Football Conference

Bogan Division	Bridgewater State Coast Guard Fitchburg State Framingham State Maine Maritime Mass Maritime Westfield State Worcester State

Boyd Division	Curry Endicott MIT Nichols Plymouth State Salve Regina UMass Dartmouth WNEC

v t e CDIO

Africa	University of Pretoria (South Africa)

Asia-Pacific	Chisholm Institute (Australia) Queensland University of Technology (Australia) University of Sydney (Australia) Beijing Jiaotong University (China) Chengdu University of Information Technology (China) Shantou University (China) Tsinghua University (China) Kanazawa Technical College (Japan) Taylor's University (Malaysia) University of Auckland (New Zealand) Singapore Polytechnic (Singapore) Vietnam National University, Ho Chi Minh City (Vietnam)

Europe	Hogeschool Gent (Belgium) University College Leuven (Belgium) Engineering College of Aarhus (Denmark) Technical University of Denmark Lahti University of Applied Sciences (Finland) Metropolia University of Applied Sciences (Finland) Seinäjoki University of Applied Sciences (Finland) Turku University of Applied Sciences (Finland) Telecom Bretagne (France) Hochschule Wismar (Germany) Politecnico di Milano (Italy) Instituto Superior de Engenharia do Porto (Portugal) Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya (Spain) Chalmers University of Technology (Sweden) Jönköping School of Engineering (Sweden) Linköping University (Sweden) Royal Institute of Technology (Sweden) Umeå Institute of Technology (Sweden) Aston University (UK) Queen's University Belfast (UK) University of Bristol (UK) Lancaster University (UK) University of Liverpool (UK) University of Leeds (UK) University of Strathclyde (UK)

North America	École Polytechnique de Montréal (Canada) Queen's University (Canada) University of Calgary (Canada) University of Manitoba (Canada) Arizona State University (United States) California State University (United States) University of Colorado (United States) Daniel Webster College (United States) Duke University (United States) Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University (United States) Massachusetts Institute of Technology (United States) University of Michigan (United States) Pennsylvania State University (United States) United States Naval Academy

Central and South America	University of Chile Universidad Católica de la Santísima Concepción (Chile) Universidad de Santiago de Chile (Chile) Pontificia Universidad Javeriana (Colombia) Universidad ICESI (Colombia) UNITEC Laureate International Universities (Honduras)

Colleges and universities in metropolitan Boston

Coordinates: 42°21′35″N 71°05′32″W / 42.35982°N 71.09211°W / 42.35982; -71.09211

http://wn.com/Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology

http://it.wn.com/Massachusetts Institute of Technology

http://cs.wn.com/Massachusetts Institute of Technology

http://id.wn.com/Institut Teknologi Massachusetts

http://es.wn.com/Instituto Tecnológico de Massachusetts

http://ru.wn.com/Массачусетский технологический институт

http://nl.wn.com/Massachusetts Institute of Technology

http://pl.wn.com/Massachusetts Institute of Technology

http://fr.wn.com/Massachusetts Institute of Technology

http://de.wn.com/Massachusetts Institute of Technology

http://hi.wn.com/मैसाचुसेट्स प्रौद्योगिकी संस्थान

http://pt.wn.com/Instituto de Tecnologia de Massachusetts

This page contains text from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology

This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.

This article is about the U.S. state. For other uses, see Massachusetts (disambiguation).

Commonwealth of Massachusetts


Flag	Seal

Nickname(s): The Bay State, The Old Colony, The Codfish State^[1]

Motto(s): Ense petit placidam sub libertate quietem (Latin)

Official language(s)

None

Demonym

Bay Stater (official)^[2] Massachusite (traditional)^[3]^[4] Massachusettsian (archaic)^[5]

Capital
(and largest city)

Boston

Largest metro area

Greater Boston

Area

Ranked 44th in the U.S.

- Total

10,555^[6] sq mi
(27,336 km²)

- Width

183 miles (295 km)

- Length

113 miles (182 km)

- % water

25.7

- Latitude

41° 14′ N to 42° 53′ N

- Longitude

69° 56′ W to 73° 30′ W

Population

Ranked 14th in the U.S.

- Total

6,587,536 (2011 est)^[7]

- Density

840/sq mi (324/km²)
Ranked 3rd in the U.S.

- Median household income

$65,401 (2008) (6th)

Elevation

- Highest point

Mount Greylock^[8]^[9]^[10]
3,489 ft (1063.4 m)

- Mean

500 ft (150 m)

- Lowest point

Atlantic Ocean^[9]
sea level

Before statehood

Province of Massachusetts Bay

Admission to Union

February 6, 1788 (6th)

Governor

Deval Patrick (D)

Lieutenant Governor

Tim Murray (D)

Legislature

General Court

- Upper house

Senate

- Lower house

House of Representatives

U.S. Senators

John Kerry (D)
Scott Brown (R)

U.S. House delegation

10 Democrats (list)

Time zone

Eastern: UTC -5/-4

Abbreviations

MA Mass. US-MA

Website

www.mass.gov

Massachusetts State symbols
Animate insignia
Bird(s)	Black-capped Chickadee, Wild Turkey
Fish	Cod
Flower(s)	Mayflower
Insect	Ladybug
Mammal(s)	Right whale, Morgan horse, Tabby cat, Boston Terrier
Reptile	Garter snake
Tree	American Elm

Inanimate insignia
Beverage	Cranberry Juice
Colors	Blue, Green, Cranberry
Dance	Square Dance
Food	Cranberry, Corn muffin, Navy bean, Boston cream pie, Chocolate chip cookie, Boston cream donut
Fossil	Mastodon
Gemstone	Rhodonite
Mineral	Babingtonite
Poem	"Blue Hills of Massachusetts"
Rock	Roxbury Puddingstone
Shell	Wrinkled Whelk
Ship(s)	Schooner Ernestina
Slogan(s)	Make It Yours, The Spirit of America
Soil	Paxton
Song(s)	All Hail to Massachusetts
Sport	Basketball^[11]

Route marker(s)


State Quarter

Released in 2000

Lists of United States state insignia

Massachusetts (ⁱ/ˌmæsəˈtʃuːsɨts/), officially the Commonwealth of Massachusetts, is a U.S. state in the New England region of the northeastern United States of America. It is bordered by Rhode Island and Connecticut to the south, New York to the west, and Vermont and New Hampshire to the north; at its east lies the Atlantic Ocean. Massachusetts is the 7th least extensive, but the 14th most populous and the 3rd most densely populated of the 50 United States. The state features two separate metropolitan areas – the eastern Boston metropolitan area and the western Springfield metropolitan area. Approximately two thirds of the state's population lives in Greater Boston, most of which is either urban or suburban. Western Massachusetts features one urban area – the Knowledge Corridor along the Connecticut River – and a mix of college towns and rural areas. Massachusetts is the most populous of the six New England states and has the US's sixth highest GDP per capita.

Massachusetts has played a significant historical, cultural, and commercial role in American history. Plymouth was the site of the colony founded in 1620 by the Pilgrims, passengers of the Mayflower. Harvard University, founded in 1636, is the oldest institution of higher learning in the United States. In 1692, the towns surrounding Salem experienced one of America's most infamous cases of mass hysteria, the Salem Witch Trials. In the 18th century, the Protestant First Great Awakening, which swept the Atlantic world, originated from the pulpit of Northampton, Massachusetts preacher Jonathan Edwards. In the late 18th century, Boston became known as the "Cradle of Liberty" for the agitation there that led to the American Revolution and the independence of the United States from Great Britain. In 1777, General Henry Knox founded the Springfield Armory, which during the Industrial Revolution catalyzed numerous important technological advances, including interchangeable parts. In 1786, Shays' Rebellion, a populist revolt by Western Massachusetts farmers, led directly to the United States Constitutional Convention. Before the American Civil War, Massachusetts was a center for the temperance, transcendentalist, and abolitionist movements. In 1837, Mount Holyoke College, the United States' first college for women, was opened in the Connecticut River Valley town of South Hadley. In the late 19th century, the (now) Olympic sports of basketball and volleyball were invented in the Western Massachusetts cities of Springfield and Holyoke, respectively. In 2004, Massachusetts became the first U.S. state to legally recognize same-sex marriage as a result of the decision of the state's Supreme Judicial Court. The state has contributed many prominent politicians to national service, including members of the Adams family and of the Kennedy family.

Originally dependent on fishing, agriculture, and trade, Massachusetts was transformed into a manufacturing center during the Industrial Revolution. During the 20th century, the state's economy shifted from manufacturing to services. In the 21st century, Massachusetts is a leader in higher education, health care technology, high technology, and financial services.

Name [link]

The Massachusetts Bay Colony was named after the indigenous population, the Massachusett, whose name can be segmented as mass-adchu-s-et, where mass- is "large", -adchu- is "hill", -s- is a diminutive suffix meaning "small", and -et is a locative suffix, identifying a place. It has been translated as "near the great hill",^[12] "by the blue hills", "at the little big hill", or "at the range of hills", referring to the Blue Hills, or in particular, Great Blue Hill, located on the boundary of Milton and Canton.^[13]^[14] Alternatively, Massachusett has been represented as Moswetuset, from the name of the Moswetuset Hummock (meaning "hill shaped like an arrowhead") in Quincy where Plymouth Colony commander Miles Standish and Squanto, a Native American, met Chief Chickatawbut in 1621.^[15]^[16]

Prominent roads and cities in Massachusetts.

The official name of the state is the "Commonwealth of Massachusetts".^[17] Colloquially, it is often referred to simply as "the Commonwealth". While this designation is part of the state's official name, it has no practical implications. Massachusetts has the same position and powers within the United States as other states.^[18]

Geography [link]

Main article: Geography of Massachusetts

Massachusetts is the 7th smallest state in the United States. It is located in the New England region of the northeastern United States, and has an area of 10,555 square miles (27,340 km²).^[6] Several large bays distinctly shape its coast. Boston is the largest city, at the inmost point of Massachusetts Bay, the mouth of the Charles River, which is the longest river entirely within Massachusetts. The state extends from the mountains of the Appalachian system in the west to the sandy beaches and rocky shorelines of the Atlantic coast.

The National Park Service administers a number of natural and historical sites in Massachusetts.^[19] Along with twelve national historic sites, areas, and corridors, the National Park Service also manages the Cape Cod National Seashore and the Boston Harbor Islands National Recreation Area.^[19] In addition, the Massachusetts Department of Conservation and Recreation maintains a number of parks, trails, and beaches throughout the commonwealth.^[20]^[21]^[22]

Ecology [link]

The primary biome of inland Massachusetts is temperate deciduous forest.^[23] Although much of the state had been cleared for agriculture, leaving only traces of old growth forest in isolated pockets, secondary growth has regenerated in many rural areas as farms have been abandoned.^[24] Currently, forests cover around 62% of Massachusetts.^[25]^[26] The areas most affected by human development include the Greater Boston area in the east, the smaller Springfield metropolitan area in the west, and the largely agricultural Pioneer Valley.^[27] Animals that have become locally extinct over the past few centuries include gray wolves, elk, wolverines, and mountain lions.^[28]

Many coastal areas in Massachusetts provide breeding areas for species such as the Piping Plover.

A number of species are doing well despite (and in some cases because of) the increased urbanization of the commonwealth. Peregrine falcons utilize office towers in larger cities as nesting areas,^[29] and the population of coyotes, whose diet may include garbage and roadkill, has been increasing in recent decades.^[30] White-tailed deer, raccoons, wild turkeys and eastern gray squirrels are also found throughout Massachusetts.^[28]^[31] In more rural areas in the western part of the state, larger mammals such as moose and black bears have returned, largely due to reforestation following the regional decline in agriculture.^[32]^[33]

Massachusetts is located along the Atlantic Flyway, a major route for migratory waterfowl along the Atlantic coast.^[34] Lakes in central Massachusetts provide habitat for the common loon,^[35] while a significant population of long-tailed ducks winter off Nantucket.^[36] Small offshore islands and beaches are home to roseate terns and are important breeding areas for the locally threatened piping plover.^[37]^[38] Protected areas such as the Monomoy National Wildlife Refuge provide critical breeding habitat for shorebirds and a variety of marine wildlife including a large population of gray seals.^[39]

Freshwater fish species in the commonwealth include bass, carp, catfish, and trout,^[40] while saltwater species such as Atlantic cod, haddock and American lobster populate offshore waters.^[41] Other marine species include Harbor seals, the endangered North Atlantic right whales, as well as humpback whales, fin whales, minke whales and Atlantic white-sided dolphins.^[28]

History [link]

Main article: History of Massachusetts

Mayflower in Plymouth Harbor by William Halsall (1882) The Pilgrims were a group of Puritans who founded Plymouth in 1620.

Early [link]

Massachusetts was originally inhabited by tribes of the Algonquian language family such as the Wampanoag, Narragansett, Nipmuc, Pocomtuc, Mahican, and Massachusett.^[42]^[43] While cultivation of crops like squash and corn supplemented their diets, these tribes were generally dependent on hunting, gathering and fishing for most of their food supply.^[42] Villages consisted of lodges called wigwams as well as long houses,^[43] and tribes were led by male or female elders known as sachems.^[44]

Colonial period [link]

In the early 1600s (after contact had been made with Europeans, but before permanent settlements were established), large numbers of the indigenous people in the northeast of what is now the United States were killed by virgin soil epidemics such as smallpox, measles, influenza, and perhaps leptospirosis.^[45] In 1617–1619, smallpox reportedly killed 90% of the Massachusetts Bay Native Americans.^[46]

The first English settlers in Massachusetts, the Pilgrims, established their settlement at Plymouth in 1620, and developed friendly relations with the native Wampanoag.^[47] This was the second successful permanent English colony in North America, after the Jamestown Colony. The Pilgrims were soon followed by Puritans who established the Massachusetts Bay Colony at present-day Boston in 1630.^[48] The Puritans, who believed the Church of England was too hierarchical (among other disagreements) came to Massachusetts for religious freedom,^[49] although, unlike the Plymouth colony, the bay colony was founded under a royal charter. Both religious dissent and expansionism resulted in several new colonies being founded shortly after Plymouth and Massachusetts Bay elsewhere in New England. Dissenters such as Anne Hutchinson and Roger Williams were banished due to religious disagreements; (Hutchinson held meetings in her home discussing flaws in the Puritan beliefs, while Williams believed that the Puritan beliefs were wrong, and the Indians must be respected.) In 1636, Williams founded the colony of Rhode Island and Hutchinson joined him there several years later.^[50]

In 1691, the colonies of Massachusetts Bay and Plymouth were united (along with present-day Maine, which had previously been divided between Massachusetts and New York) into the Province of Massachusetts Bay.^[51] Shortly after the arrival of the new province's first governor, Sir William Phips, the Salem witch trials took place, in which a number of men and women were hanged.^[52]

The most destructive earthquake yet known in New England occurred in 1755, causing considerable damage across the commonwealth.^[53]

Percy's Rescue at Lexington by Ralph Earl and Amos Doolittle from 1775, an illustration of the Battles of Lexington and Concord.

Massachusetts was a center of the movement for independence from Great Britain; colonists here had long had uneasy relations with the British monarchy, including open rebellion under the Dominion of New England in the 1680s.^[51] Protests against British attempts to tax the colonies after the French and Indian War ended in 1763 led to the Boston Massacre in 1770, and the 1773 Boston Tea Party escalated tensions to the breaking point.^[54] Anti-Parliamentary activity by men such as Samuel Adams and John Hancock, followed by reprisals by the British government, were a primary reason for the unity of the Thirteen Colonies and the outbreak of the American Revolution.^[55] The Battles of Lexington and Concord initiated the American Revolutionary War and were fought in the Massachusetts towns of Concord and Lexington.^[56] Future President George Washington took over what would become the Continental Army after the battle. His first victory was the Siege of Boston in the winter of 1775–6, after which the British were forced to evacuate the city.^[57] The event is still celebrated in Suffolk County as Evacuation Day.^[58]

Federal period [link]

Bostonian John Adams, known as the "Atlas of Independence", was an important figure in both the struggle for independence as well as the formation of the new United States.^[59] Adams was highly involved in the push for separation from Britain and the writing of the Massachusetts Constitution in 1780 (which, in the Elizabeth Freeman and Quock Walker cases, effectively made Massachusetts the first state to have a constitution that declared universal rights and, as interpreted by Supreme Judicial Court Chief Justice William Cushing, abolished slavery).^[59]^[60] Later, Adams was active in early American foreign affairs and succeeded Washington as US President.^[59] His son, John Quincy Adams, would go on to become the sixth US President.^[59]

After independence and during the formative years of independent American government, Shays' Rebellion was an armed uprising in the western half of the state from 1786 to 1787. The rebels were mostly small farmers angered by crushing war debt and taxes. The rebellion was one of the major factors in the decision to draft a stronger national constitution to replace the Articles of Confederation.^[61] On February 6, 1788, Massachusetts became the sixth state to ratify the U.S. Constitution.^[62]

19th century [link]

In 1820, Maine separated from Massachusetts, of which it had been first a contiguous and then a non-contiguous part, and entered the Union as the 23rd state as a result of the ratification of the Missouri Compromise.^[63]

Textile mills such as the Boott Mills in Lowell made Massachusetts a leader in the US industrial revolution.

During the 19th century, Massachusetts became a national leader in the American Industrial Revolution, with factories around Boston producing textiles and shoes, and factories around Springfield producing precision manufacturing tools and paper.^[64]^[65] The economy transformed from one based primarily on agriculture to an industrial one, initially making use of waterpower and later the steam engine to power factories, and canals and later railroads for transporting goods and materials.^[66] At first, the new industries drew labor from Yankees on nearby subsistence farms, and later relied upon immigrant labor from Europe and Canada.^[67]^[68]

In the years leading up to the Civil War, Massachusetts was a center of social progressivism, Transcendentalism, and abolitionist activity. Horace Mann made the state system of schools the national model.^[69] Henry David Thoreau and Ralph Waldo Emerson made major contributions to American thought.^[70] Members of the Transcendentalism movement, they emphasized the importance of the natural world and emotion to humanity.^[70] Although significant opposition to abolitionism existed early on in Massachusetts, resulting in anti-abolitionist riots between 1835 and 1837,^[71] opposition to slavery gradually increased in the next few decades.^[72]^[73] The works of abolitionists contributed to subsequent actions of the state during the Civil War. Massachusetts was the first state to recruit, train, and arm a Black regiment with White officers, the 54th Massachusetts Volunteer Infantry.^[74] The Robert Gould Shaw Memorial in Boston Common contains a relief depicting the 54th regiment.^[75]

20th century [link]

Part of the "Big Dig" construction project; this portion is over the Charles River.

The industrial economy began a decline in the early 20th century with the exodus of many manufacturing companies. By the 1920s competition from the South and Midwest, followed by the Great Depression, led to the collapse of the three main industries in Massachusetts: textiles, shoemaking, and mechanized transportation.^[76] This decline would continue into the latter half of the century; between 1950 and 1979, the number of Bay Staters involved in textile manufacturing declined from 264,000 to 63,000.^[77] This spurred an exodus of high-paying jobs from Western Massachusetts, which suffered greatly as it de-industrialized during the last 40 years of the 20th century.^[78] In Eastern Massachusetts, following World War II, the economy was transformed from one based on heavy industry into a service and high-tech based economy.^[79] Government contracts, private investment, and research facilities led to a new and improved industrial climate, with reduced unemployment and increased per capita income. Suburbanization flourished, and by the 1970s, the Route 128 corridor was dotted with high-technology companies who recruited graduates of the area's many elite institutions of higher education.^[80]

The Kennedy family was prominent in Massachusetts politics in the 20th century. Children of businessman and ambassador Joseph P. Kennedy Sr. included John F. Kennedy, who was a senator and US president before his assassination in 1963, Robert F. Kennedy, who was a senator, US attorney general and presidential candidate before his assassination in 1968, Ted Kennedy, a senator from 1962 until his death in 2009,^[81] and Eunice Kennedy Shriver, a co-founder of the Special Olympics.^[82] The famous Kennedy Compound is located at Hyannisport on Cape Cod.^[83]

Recent history [link]

In 1987, the state received federal funding for the Central Artery/Tunnel Project. Commonly known as "the Big Dig", it was at the time the biggest federal highway project ever approved.^[84] The project included making the Central Artery a tunnel under downtown Boston, in addition to the re-routing of several other major highways.^[85] Often controversial, with numerous claims of graft and mismanagement, and with its initial price tag of $2.5 billion increasing to a final tally of over $15 billion, the Big Dig has nonetheless changed the face of Downtown Boston.^[84] It has connected areas that were once divided by elevated highway, (much of the raised old Central Artery was replaced with the Rose Fitzgerald Kennedy Greenway) and improved traffic conditions along a number of routes.^[84]^[85]

Demographics [link]

Main article: Demographics of Massachusetts

Massachusetts population density map

Historical populations
Census	Pop.	%±
1790	378,787	—
1800	422,845	11.6%
1810	472,040	11.6%
1820	523,287	10.9%
1830	610,408	16.6%
1840	737,699	20.9%
1850	994,514	34.8%
1860	1,231,066	23.8%
1870	1,457,351	18.4%
1880	1,783,085	22.4%
1890	2,238,947	25.6%
1900	2,805,346	25.3%
1910	3,366,416	20.0%
1920	3,852,356	14.4%
1930	4,249,614	10.3%
1940	4,316,721	1.6%
1950	4,690,514	8.7%
1960	5,148,578	9.8%
1970	5,689,170	10.5%
1980	5,737,037	0.8%
1990	6,016,425	4.9%
2000	6,349,097	5.5%
2010	6,547,629	3.1%
Sources:^[86]^[87]^[88]^[89]

The United States Census Bureau estimates that the population of Massachusetts was 6,587,536 on July 1, 2011, a 0.61% increase since the 2010 United States Census.^[7]

Massachusetts had an estimated 2009 population of 6,593,587.^[86] As of 2000, Massachusetts was estimated to be the third most densely populated U.S. state, with 809.8 per square mile, behind New Jersey and Rhode Island.^[6] Massachusetts in 2008 included 919,771 foreign-born residents.^[90] Most Bay Staters live within the Boston Metropolitan Area, also known as Greater Boston, which in its most expansive sense includes New England's two largest cities, Boston and Worcester. The state's only other metropolitan area is the Springfield Metropolitan Area, also known as Greater Springfield. Centered in the Connecticut River Valley, Greater Springfield includes the revitalizing city of Springfield, and an eclectic array of college towns, (e.g. Amherst and Northampton) and rural areas to the north and west. Geographically, the center of population of Massachusetts is located in the town of Natick.^[91]

Like the rest of the northeastern United States, the population of Massachusetts has continued to grow in the past few decades, although at a slower pace than states in the South or West.^[92] The latest census estimates show that the commonwealth's population grew by 3.9% since 2000, compared with nearly 10% nationwide. In their decisions to leave Massachusetts, most former residents cited high housing costs and a high cost of living.^[93] Another factor has been the transformation from a manufacturing economy into one based on high technology, leaving limited employment options for lower-skilled workers, particularly males.^[94] Foreign immigration is more than making up for these losses, causing the state's population to continue to grow as of the 2010 Census (particularly in Massachusetts gateway cities where costs of living are lower).^[92]^[95] 40% of foreign immigrants were from Central or South America, according to a 2005 Census Bureau study. Many residents who have settled in Greater Springfield claim Puerto Rican descent.^[92] Many areas of the commonwealth showed relatively stable population trends between 2000 and 2010.^[95] Exurban Boston and coastal areas grew the most rapidly, while Berkshire County in far Western Massachusetts and Barnstable County on Cape Cod were the only counties to lose population as of the 2010 Census.^[95] Both of these counties feature many "second homes," and constitute major centers of Massachusetts tourism.

In 2005, 79% of the state population spoke English, 7% spoke Spanish, 3.5% spoke Portuguese, and 1% spoke either French or Chinese.^[96]

Race and ancestry [link]

According to the 2010 U.S. Census, the population was 6,547,629, of which 3,166,628 (48.4%) were male and 3,381,001 (51.6%) were female. In terms of age, 78.3% were over 18 years old and 13.8% were over 65 years old; the median age is 39.1 years. The median age for males is 37.7 years and 40.3 years for females.

In terms of race and ethnicity, Massachusetts was 80.4% White (76.1% Non-Hispanic Whites), 6.6% Black or African American, 0.3% American Indian and Alaska Native, 5.3% Asian (1.9% Chinese, 1.2% Asian Indian, and 0.7% Vietnamese), <0.1% Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander, 4.7% from Some Other Race, and 2.6% from Two or More Races. Hispanics and Latinos of any race made up 9.6% of the population (4.1% Puerto Rican).^[97]

As late as 1795, the population of Massachusetts was nearly 95% of British ancestry.^[98] During the early and mid 19th century, immigrant groups began arriving to the commonwealth in large numbers; first from Ireland in the 1840s,^[99] and later from Quebec as well as places in Europe such as Italy and Poland.^[100] In the early 20th century, a number of African Americans immigrated to Massachusetts, although in somewhat fewer numbers than many other Northern states.^[101] Later in the 20th century, immigration from Latin America, Africa, and East Asia increased considerably. Massachusetts has the third largest population of Haitians in the United States.^[102] Massachusetts also has a relatively large population of Portuguese descent. Many of the earliest Portuguese-speaking immigrants came from the Azores in the 19th century to work in the whaling industry in cities like New Bedford.^[103]^[104] Later, further waves of Portuguese arrived, this time often finding work in the textile mills.^[104] Lowell is home to the second largest Cambodian (Khmer) community in the nation.^[105] The Wampanoag tribe maintains reservations at Aquinnah, at Grafton, on Martha's Vineyard, and at Mashpee on Cape Cod,^[106]^[107] while the Nipmuck maintain two state-recognized reservations in the central part of the state. While Massachusetts had avoided many of the more violent forms of racial strife seen elsewhere in the US, examples such as the successful electoral showings of the nativist (mainly anti-Catholic) Know Nothings in the 1850s,^[108] the controversial Sacco and Vanzetti executions in the 1920s,^[109] and Boston's opposition to desegregation busing in the 1970s^[110] show that the ethnic history of the commonwealth was not completely harmonious.

Religion [link]

Massachusetts was founded and settled by the Puritans in 1628. The descendants of the Puritans belong to many different churches; in the direct line of inheritance are the Congregational/United Church of Christ, and congregations of Unitarian Universalist Association. Most people in Massachusetts were Christians. Some also believed in predestination. The headquarters of the Unitarian Universalist Association is located on Beacon Hill in Boston.^[111] Today Protestants make up less than 1/4 of the state's population. Roman Catholics now predominate because of massive immigration from primarily Ireland, followed by Italy, Portugal, Quebec, and Latin America. A large Jewish population came to the Boston and Springfield areas 1880–1920. Mary Baker Eddy made the Boston Mother Church of Christian Science the world headquarters. Buddhists, Pagans, Hindus, Seventh-day Adventists, Muslims, and Mormons also can be found. Kripalu Center in Stockbridge, the Shaolin Meditation Temple in Springfield, and the Insight Meditation Center in Barre are examples of non-western religious centers in Massachusetts. According to the Association of Religion Data Archives the largest single denominations are the Roman Catholic Church with 3,092,296; the United Church of Christ with 121,826; and the Episcopal Church with 98,963 adherents. Jewish congregations had about 275,000 members.^[112]

The religious affiliations of the people of Massachusetts, according to a 2001 survey, are shown below:^[113]

Built in 1681, the Old Ship Church in Hingham is the oldest church in America in continuous ecclesiastical use.^[114]

Christian – 69%
- Catholic – 44%
- Protestant denominations – 25%
  - Non-specific Protestant – 4%
  - Baptist – 4%
  - Congregational/United Church of Christ – 3%
  - Episcopal – 3%
  - Other denominations (2% or less each) – 11%
Jewish – 2%
Muslim – 1%
Other – 7%
No Religion – 16%
Refused to answer – 7%

Economy [link]

The United States Bureau of Economic Analysis estimates that the Massachusetts gross state product in 2008 was US$365 billion.^[115] The per capita personal income in 2008 was $50,735, making it the third highest state in the nation.^[116] 13 Fortune 500 companies are located in the commonwealth, the largest of which are the Liberty Mutual Insurance Group of Boston and MassMutual Financial Services of Springfield.^[117] CNBC's list of "Top States for Business for 2010" has recognized Massachusetts as the fifth best state in the nation.^[118] Sectors vital to the Massachusetts economy include higher education, biotechnology, finance, health care, and tourism. Route 128 was a major center for the development of minicomputers and electronics.^[80] High technology remains an important sector, though few of the largest technology companies are based there. In recent years tourism has played an ever-important role in the state's economy, with Boston and Cape Cod being the leading destinations. Other popular tourist destinations include Salem, Plymouth and the Berkshires. As of March 2012, the state's unemployment rate was 6.5%,^[119] well below the national level of 8.2%.

Cape Cod Bay, a leading tourist destination in Massachusetts. Tourism is of growing importance to the state's economy.

As of 2005, there were 7,700 farms in Massachusetts encompassing a total of 520,000 acres (2,100 km²), averaging 68 acres (0.28 km²) apiece.^[120] Almost 2,300 of the state's 6,100 farms grossed under $2,500 in 2007.^[120] Particular agricultural products of note include tobacco, livestock, and fruits, tree nuts, and berries, for which the state is nationally ranked 11th, 17th, and 16th, respectively.^[120] Massachusetts is the second largest cranberry producing state in the union (after Wisconsin).^[121]

The overall state and local tax burden in Massachusetts ranks 11th highest in the United States.^[122] Massachusetts has a flat-rate personal income tax of 5.25%,^[123] after a 2002 voter referendum to eventually lower the rate to 5.0%.^[124] There is an exemption for income below a threshold that varies from year to year. The corporate income tax rate is 8.8%,^[122] and the short-term capital gains tax rate is 12%.^[125] The state imposes a 6.25% sales tax^[122] on retail sales of tangible personal property—except for groceries, clothing (up to $175.00), and periodicals.^[126] The sales tax is charged on clothing that costs more than $175.00.^[126] All real and tangible personal property located within the Commonwealth of Massachusetts is taxable unless specifically exempted by statute. Property taxes in the state were the eighth highest in the nation.^[122] There is no inheritance tax and limited Massachusetts estate tax related to federal estate tax collection.^[125]

Energy [link]

The state's electricity generation market was made competitive in 1998, enabling retail customers to change suppliers without changing utility companies.^[127] Though most residential customers remain with incumbent generators, most of the 4.3 billion kilowatt-hours consumed in the state in July 2011 were generated competitively.^[128] In 2011, Massachusetts was ranked as the most energy efficient state in America.^[129]

Transportation [link]

The Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority, serving Greater Boston.

Massachusetts has 10 regional metropolitan planning organizations and three non-metropolitan planning organizations covering the remainder of the state; statewide planning is handled by the Massachusetts Department of Transportation.

Rail service [link]

Amtrak operates inter-city rail, including the high-speed Acela service to cities such as Providence, New Haven, New York City, Washington, D.C. and Charlotte, NC.^[130]

Regional services [link]

The Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority (MBTA) operates public transportation in the form of subway,^[131] bus^[132] and ferry^[133] systems in the Metro Boston area. It also operates longer distance commuter rail services throughout the larger Greater Boston area, including service to Worcester and Providence, Rhode Island.^[134]

Fifteen other regional transit authorities provide public transportation in the form of bus services in their local communities.^[135] Two heritage railways are in operation: the Cape Cod Central Railroad and the Berkshire Scenic Railway.^[136]^[137]

As of 2006, a number of freight railroads were operating in Massachusetts, with CSX being the largest carrier. Massachusetts has a total of 1,079 miles (1,736 km) of freight trackage in operation.^[138] The Woods Hole, Martha's Vineyard and Nantucket Steamship Authority regulates freight and passenger ferry service to the islands and operates some of those lines.^[139]

Air service [link]

The major airport in the state is Logan International Airport. The airport served over 28 million passengers in 2007 and is used by around 50 airlines.^[140] Logan, Hanscom Field in Bedford, and Worcester Regional Airport are operated by Massport, an independent state transportation agency.^[140] Massachusetts has approximately 42 public-use airfields, and over 200 private landing spots.^[141] Some airports receive funding from the Aeronautics Division of the Massachusetts Department of Transportation and the Federal Aviation Administration; FAA is also the primary regulator.

Further information: List of airports in Massachusetts

Road [link]

There are a total of 31,300 miles (50,400 km) of interstates and highways in Massachusetts.^[142] Interstate 90, also known as the Massachusetts Turnpike, is the longest interstate in the commonwealth. The route runs 136 mi (219 km) generally west to east from the New York state line near the town of West Stockbridge and passes just north of Springfield, just south of Worcester and through Framingham before terminating near Logan International Airport in Boston. Other major interstates include Interstate 91, which runs generally north and south along the Connecticut River, Interstate 93, which runs north and south through central Boston, then passes Methuen and Lawrence before entering New Hampshire. Interstate 95, which follows most of the US Atlantic coastline, connects Providence, Rhode Island with Greater Boston, forming a loop around the more urbanized areas (for some distance cosigned with Route 128) before continuing north along the coast. Interstate 495 forms a wide loop around the outer edge of Greater Boston. Other major interstates in the commonwealth include I-291, I-391, I-84, I-195, I-395, I-290, and I-190. Major non-interstate highways in Massachusetts include U.S. Routes 1, 3, 6, and 20, and state routes 2, 3, 24 and 128. A great majority of interstates in Massachusetts were constructed during the mid 20th century, and at times were controversial, particularly the routing of I-95 through central Boston. Opposition to continued construction grew, and in 1970 Governor Francis W. Sargent issued a general prohibition on most further freeway construction within the I-95/Route 128 loop in the Boston area.^[143] A massive undertaking to depress I-93 in downtown Boston, called the Big Dig, has brought the city's highway system under public scrutiny over the last decade.^[84]

Government and politics [link]

Massachusetts State House facing Boston Common

The government of Massachusetts is divided into three branches: executive, legislative, and judicial. The commonwealth has a long political history; earlier political structures included the Mayflower Compact of 1620, the separate Massachusetts Bay and Plymouth colonies, and the combined colonial Province of Massachusetts. The Massachusetts Constitution was ratified in 1780 while the Revolutionary War was in progress, four years after the Articles of Confederation was drafted, and eight years before the present United States Constitution was ratified on June 21, 1788. Drafted by John Adams, the Commonwealth's constitution is one of the oldest functioning written constitutions in continuous effect in the world.^[144] In recent decades, Massachusetts politics have been generally dominated by the Democratic Party, and the state has a reputation for being one of the most liberal in the country. In 1974, Elaine Noble became the first openly lesbian or gay candidate elected to a state legislature in US history.^[145] The state housed the first openly gay member of the United States House of Representatives, Gerry Studds.

Government [link]

Main article: Government of Massachusetts

The Government of Massachusetts is divided into three branches: Executive, Legislative, and Judicial. The governor of Massachusetts heads the executive branch; duties of the governor include signing or vetoing legislation, filling judicial and agency appointments, granting pardons, preparing an annual budget, and commanding the Massachusetts National Guard.^[146] Massachusetts governors, unlike those of most other states, are addressed as His/Her Excellency.^[146] The current governor is Deval Patrick, a Democrat from Milton. The executive branch also includes the Executive Council, which is made up of eight elected councilors and the Lieutenant Governor.^[146] Abilities of the Council include confirming gubanatorial appointments and certifying elections.^[146] The Massachusetts House of Representatives and Massachusetts Senate comprise the legislature of the commonwealth, known as the Massachusetts General Court.^[146] The House consists of 160 members while the Senate has 40 members.^[146] Leaders of the House and Senate are chosen by the members of those bodies; the leader of the House is known as the Speaker while the leader of the Senate is known as the President.^[146] Each branch consists of several committees.^[146] Members of both bodies are elected to two-year terms. The Judicial branch is headed by the Supreme Judicial Court, which serves over a number of lower courts.^[146] The Supreme Judicial Court is made up of a chief justice and six associate justices.^[146] Judicial appointments are made by the governor and confirmed by the executive council.^[146]

The Congressional delegation from Massachusetts is almost entirely Democratic.^[147]^[148] Currently, the U.S. senators are Democrat John Kerry and Republican Scott Brown. The ten members of the state's delegation to the U.S. House of Representatives (all Democrats) are John Olver, Richard Neal, Jim McGovern, Barney Frank, Niki Tsongas, John F. Tierney, Ed Markey, Mike Capuano, Stephen Lynch, and Bill Keating.^[148] Federal court cases are heard in the United States District Court for the District of Massachusetts, and appeals are heard by the United States Court of Appeals for the First Circuit.^[149] In US presidential elections, Massachusetts is allotted 12 votes in the electoral college, out of a total of 538.^[150] Like most states, the commonwealth's electoral votes are granted in a winner-take-all system.^[151]

Politics [link]

Main article: Politics of Massachusetts

**Presidential elections results**
Year	Republican	Democratic
2008	36% 1,105,908	62% 1,894,067
2004	37% 1,070,109	62% 1,803,801
2000	33% 878,502	60% 1,616,487
1996	28% 718,107	62% 1,571,763
1992	29% 805,049	48% 1,318,662
1988	46% 1,194,635	53% 1,401,416

Throughout the mid 20th century, Massachusetts has gradually shifted from a Republican-leaning state to one largely dominated by Democrats; the 1952 victory of John F. Kennedy over incumbent Senator Henry Cabot Lodge, Jr. is seen as a watershed moment in this transformation. His younger brother Edward M. Kennedy held that seat until his death from a brain tumor in 2009.^[152] Massachusetts has since gained a reputation as being a politically liberal state and is often used as an archetype of modern liberalism, hence the usage of the phrase "Massachusetts liberal".^[153] Massachusetts routinely votes for the Democratic Party, with the core concentrations in the Boston metro area, the Cape and Islands, and Western Massachusetts. Pockets of Republican strength are in the central areas along the I-495 crescent, and low-income communities on the south and north shores.^[154] As of the 2006 election, the Republican party holds less than 13% of the seats in both legislative houses of the General Court: in the House, the balance is 141 Democratic to 19 Republican, and in the Senate, 35–5.^[155] Although Republicans held the governor's office continuously from 1991 to 2007, they have been among the more socially liberal Republican leaders in the nation.^[156]^[157] In the 2004 election, Massachusetts gave native son John Kerry 61.9% of the vote, his best showing in any state.^[158] In 2008, President Barack Obama carried the state with 61.8% of the vote.^[159] In a recent statewide election, a special election in 2010 for the U.S. Senate, saw Republican Scott Brown defeat Democrat Martha Coakley in an upset, by a 52% to 47% margin.^[160]

A number of contemporary national political issues have been influenced by events in the commonwealth, such as the 2003 state Supreme Court decision allowing same-sex marriage^[161] and a 2006 bill which mandated health insurance for all Bay Staters.^[162] In 2008, Massachusetts voters passed an initiative decriminalizing possession of small amounts of marijuana.^[163]

Further information: Political party strength in Massachusetts

Cities, towns, and counties [link]

Boston, the capital and largest city of Massachusetts.

Main article: Local Government

There are 50 cities and 301 towns in Massachusetts, grouped into 14 counties.^[164] The fourteen counties, moving roughly from west to east, are Berkshire, Franklin, Hampshire, Hampden, Worcester, Middlesex, Essex, Suffolk, Norfolk, Bristol, Plymouth, Barnstable, Dukes, and Nantucket. Eleven communities which call themselves "towns" are, by law, cities since they have traded the town meeting form of government for a mayor-council or manager-council form.^[165]

Boston is the state capital and largest city in Massachusetts. The population of the city proper is 609,023,^[166] and Greater Boston, with a population of 4,522,858, is the 10th largest metropolitan area in the nation.^[167] Other cities with a population over 100,000 include Worcester, Springfield, Lowell, and Cambridge.^[168] Plymouth is the largest municipality in the state by land area.^[164]

Massachusetts, along with the five other New England states, features the local governmental structure known as the New England town.^[169] In this structure, incorporated towns—as opposed to townships or counties—hold many of the responsibilities and powers of local government.^[169] Some of the county governments were abolished by the commonwealth in 1997, and elect only a sheriff and registrar of deed who are part of the state government.^[170] Others have been reorganized, and a few still retain county councils.^[170]

Education [link]

Harvard University and MIT are both widely regarded as in the top handful of universities worldwide for academic research in a myriad of disciplines.

Massachusetts was the first state to require municipalities to appoint a teacher or establish a grammar school with the passage of the Massachusetts Education Law of 1647,^[171] and 19th century reforms pushed by Horace Mann, founder of Westfield State University, laid much of the groundwork for contemporary universal public education.^[172]^[173] Massachusetts is home to the country's oldest public elementary school (The Mather School, founded in 1639), oldest high school (Boston Latin School, founded in 1635),^[174] oldest boarding school (The Governor's Academy, founded in 1763), oldest college (Harvard University, founded in 1636)^[175] and oldest women's college (Mount Holyoke College, founded in 1837).^[176] In 1852, Massachusetts became the first state to pass compulsory school attendance laws.^[177] The per-student public expenditure for elementary and secondary schools (kindergarten through grade 12) was fifth in the nation in 2004, at $11,681.^[178] In 2007, Massachusetts scored highest of all the states in math on the National Assessments of Educational Progress.^[179]

Massachusetts is home to 121 institutions of higher education.^[180] Harvard University and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, both located in Cambridge, consistently rank among the world's best universities.^[181]^[182]^[183] In addition to Harvard and MIT, several other Massachusetts universities consistently rank in the top 40 at the national level in the widely cited rankings of U.S. News and World Report: Tufts University (#29 for 2012), Boston College (#31), and Brandeis University (also #31). Among liberal arts colleges, three of the top handful in the nation are within the state of Massachusetts: Amherst College (#1 in the liberal arts ranking of USNWR), Williams College (#2), and Wellesley College (#6). Others regularly placing in the top 40 are Smith College (#19), College of the Holy Cross (#29), and Mount Holyoke College (also #29). According to this "granddaddy of the college rankings", roughly five (12.5%) of the top 40 research universities and six (15%) of the top 40 liberal arts colleges reside in this state that contains only 2% of the U.S. population.

The public University of Massachusetts Amherst (nicknamed UMass) features five campuses in the state, with its flagship campus in Amherst that enrolls over 25,000 students.^[184]^[185]

Further information: List of colleges and universities in Massachusetts, List of engineering schools in Massachusetts, and List of high schools in Massachusetts

Arts and culture [link]

Site of Henry David Thoreau's cabin at Walden Pond near Concord

Massachusetts has contributed much to American arts and culture. Drawing from its Native American and Yankee roots, along with later immigrant groups, the commonwealth has produced a number of writers, artists, and musicians. A number of major museums and important historical sites are also located there, and events and festivals throughout the year celebrate the state's history and heritage.

Massachusetts was an early center of the Transcendentalist movement, which emphasized intuition, emotion, human individuality and a deeper connection with nature.^[70] Ralph Waldo Emerson, who was from Boston but spent much of his later life in Concord, largely created the philosophy with his 1836 work Nature, and continued to be a key figure in the movement for the remainder of his life. Emerson's friend, Henry David Thoreau, who was also involved in Transcendentalism, recorded his year spent alone in a small cabin at nearby Walden Pond in the 1854 work Walden; or, Life in the Woods.^[186] Other famous authors and poets born or strongly associated with Massachusetts include Nathaniel Hawthorne, John Updike, Emily Dickinson, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, E.E. Cummings, Sylvia Plath, and Theodor Seuss Geisel, better known as "Dr. Seuss".^[187]^[188]^[189] Famous painters from Massachusetts include Winslow Homer and Norman Rockwell;^[189] many of the latter's works are on display at the Norman Rockwell Museum in Stockbridge.^[190]

File:InsideOutStage.jpg

An outdoor dance performance at Jacob's Pillow in Becket

The commonwealth is also an important center for the performing arts. Both the Boston Symphony Orchestra and Boston Pops Orchestra are based in Massachusetts.^[191] Other orchestras in the commonwealth include the Cape Cod Symphony Orchestra in Barnstable and the Springfield Symphony Orchestra.^[192]^[193] Tanglewood, in western Massachusetts, is a music venue that is home to both the Tanglewood Music Festival and Tanglewood Jazz Festival, as well as the summer host for the Boston Symphony Orchestra.^[194]^[195] Jacob's Pillow in the Berkshires hosts a number of traditional and contemporary musical and dance events.^[196] Other performing arts and theater organizations in Massachusetts include the Boston Ballet,^[197] the Boston Lyric Opera,^[191] and the Lenox-based Shakespeare & Company.^[198] In addition to classical and folk music, Massachusetts has produced musicians and bands spanning a number of contemporary genres, such as the classic rock band Aerosmith, the New Wave band The Cars, and the alternative rock band Pixies.^[199] Film events in the state include the Boston Film Festival, the Boston International Film Festival, and a number of smaller film festivals in various cities throughout the commonwealth.^[200]

USS Constitution fires a salute during its annual Fourth of July turnaround cruise

Massachusetts is home to a large number of museums and historical sites. The Boston Museum of Fine Arts, the Institute of Contemporary Art and the DeCordova contemporary art and sculpture museum in Lincoln are all located within the commonwealth,^[201]^[202] and the Maria Mitchell Association in Nantucket includes several observatories, museums, and an aquarium.^[203] Historically themed museums and sites such as the Springfield Armory National Historic Site in Springfield,^[19] Boston's Freedom Trail and nearby Minute Man National Historical Park, both of which preserve a number of sites important during the American Revolution,^[19]^[204] the Lowell National Historical Park, which focuses on some of the earliest mills and canals of the industrial revolution in the US,^[19] the Black Heritage Trail in Boston, which includes important African-American and abolitionist sites in Boston,^[205] and the New Bedford Whaling National Historical Park^[19] all showcase various periods of the commonwealth's history. Plimoth Plantation and Old Sturbridge Village are two open-air or "living" museums in Massachusetts, recreating life as it was in the 17th and early 19th centuries, respectively.^[206]^[207] Boston's annual St. Patrick's Day parade and "Harborfest", a week-long Fourth of July celebration featuring a fireworks display and concert by the Boston Pops as well as a turnaround cruise in Boston Harbor by USS Constitution,^[208] are popular events. The New England Summer Nationals, an auto show in Worcester, draws tens of thousands of attendees every year.^[209]

Media [link]

There are two major television media markets located in Massachusetts. The Boston/Manchester market is the fifth largest in the United States.^[210] All major networks are represented. The other market surrounds the Springfield area. WGBH-TV in Boston is a major public television station and produces national programs such as Nova, Frontline, and American Experience.^[211]^[212] The Boston Globe, Boston Herald, Springfield Republican and the Worcester Telegram & Gazette are the commonwealth's largest daily newspapers.^[213] In addition, there are many community dailies and weeklies. There are a number of major AM and FM stations which serve Massachusetts,^[214] along with many more regional and community-based stations. Some colleges and universities also operate campus television and radio stations, and print their own newspapers.^[215]^[216]^[217]^[218]^[219]

Health [link]

Massachusetts generally ranks highly among states in most health and disease prevention categories. In 2009, the United Health Foundation ranked the state as third healthiest overall.^[220] However, the study also pointed to several areas in which Massachusetts ranked below average, such as the state's rate of binge drinking, which was the 11th highest in the country.^[220] Massachusetts has the most doctors per 100,000 residents,^[221] the second lowest infant mortality rate,^[222] and the lowest percentage of uninsured residents (for both children as well as the total population).^[223] According to Businessweek, commonwealth residents have an average life expectancy of 78.4 years, the fifth longest in the country.^[224] 37.2% of the population is overweight and 21.7% is obese,^[225] and Massachusetts ranks sixth highest in the percentage of residents who are considered neither obese nor overweight (41.1%).^[225]

The nation's first Marine Hospital was erected by federal order in Boston in 1799.^[226]^[227] The Massachusetts Board of Registration in Medicine lists a total of 132 hospitals in the state.^[228] According to rankings by US News & World Report, Massachusetts General Hospital in Boston is the third best overall hospital in the nation;^[229] the hospital also ranked first in psychiatry.^[230] Massachusetts General was founded in 1811 and serves as the largest teaching hospital for nearby Harvard University.^[231] Other teaching and medical institutions affiliated with Harvard include Brigham and Women's Hospital, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center and Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, among others.^[232] Boston is also the location of New England Baptist Hospital, Tufts Medical Center and Boston Medical Center, the latter of which is the primary teaching hospital for Boston University.^[233] The University of Massachusetts Medical School is located in Worcester.^[234] The Massachusetts College of Pharmacy and Health Sciences has campuses in both Boston and Worcester.^[235]

Sports and recreation [link]

Organized sports [link]

TD Garden in Boston is home to the Boston Celtics of the NBA.

The Olympic sports of basketball and volleyball were invented in Western Massachusetts, (in Springfield and Holyoke, respectively.) The Basketball Hall of Fame, a shrine to the sport's history, is a major tourist destination in the City of Springfield. The Volleyball Hall of Fame is located in Holyoke.^[236]

Massachusetts has a long history with amateur athletics and professional teams. Most of the major professional teams have won multiple championships in their respective leagues. Massachusetts teams have won six Stanley Cups (Boston Bruins),^[237] seventeen NBA Championships (Boston Celtics),^[238] three Super Bowls (New England Patriots),^[239] and eight World Series (seven for the Boston Red Sox, one for the Boston Braves).^[240] The American Hockey League, (AHL,) the NHL's development league, is headquartered in Springfield. Other professional sports teams in Massachusetts include the Springfield Falcons AHL team, the Worcester Sharks AHL team, and the Springfield Armor NBA Development League team.

Massachusetts is also the home of the Cape Cod Baseball League, rowing events such as the Eastern Sprints on Lake Quinsigamond in Worcester and the Head of the Charles Regatta,^[241]^[242] and the Boston Marathon.^[243] A number of major golf events have taken place in Massachusetts, including nine U.S. Opens and two Ryder Cups, among others.^[244]^[245]^[246] The New England Revolution is the Major League Soccer team in Massachusetts,^[247] and the Boston Cannons are the Major League Lacrosse team.^[248] The Boston Breakers are the Women's Professional Soccer in Massachusetts.

A gymnastics center called Brestyan's American Gymnastics has also become well known in the last ten years for producing several internationally successful gymnasts like Olympic silver medalist and vault world champion Alicia Sacramone, 2011 world champion Alexandra Raisman and Canadian National Team member Talia Chiarelli. Both Sacramone and Raisman have become professional athletes thus foregoing their college gymnastics eligibility, which is rather rare in gymnastics. Sacramone competed for the Brown University before deciding to go pro whereas Raisman was expected to join the Florida Gators but instead decided to accept endorsement money and aim for the Olympics 2012.

Several universities in Massachusetts are notable for their college athletics. Boston College fields teams in the nationally televised Atlantic Coast Conference, while Harvard University competes in the famed Ivy League. Boston University, Northeastern University, College of the Holy Cross, and UMass also participate in Division I athletics.^[249]^[250] Many other Massachusetts colleges compete in lower divisions such as Division III, where MIT, Amherst College, Williams College, and others field teams.

Outdoor recreation [link]

Long-distance hiking trails in Massachusetts include the Appalachian Trail, the New England National Scenic Trail, the Metacomet-Monadnock Trail, the Midstate Trail, and the Bay Circuit Trail.^[251]^[252] Other outdoor recreational activities in the commonwealth include sailing and yachting, freshwater and deep-sea fishing,^[253] whale watching,^[254] downhill and cross-country skiing,^[255] and hunting.

References [link]

Notes [link]

^ http://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1499&dat=19361018&id=A65QAAAAIBAJ&sjid=ASIEAAAAIBAJ&pg=7015,741245
^ "Massachusetts General Laws, Chapter 2, Section 35: Designation of citizens of commonwealth". The Commonwealth of Massachusetts. http://www.mass.gov/legis/laws/mgl/2-35.htm. Retrieved February 29, 2008.
^ _____, page 435. Collections, Massachusetts Historical Society. MHS, Boston; 1877. Additional on-line source: Google Books.
^ Jones, Thomas, page 465. History of New York During the Revolutionary War, New York Historical Society. Edward Floyd DeLancey, Ed., New York; 1879. Additional on-line source: Google Books
^ http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Massachusettsian
^ ^a ^b ^c "Population, Housing Units, Area, and Density (geographically ranked by total population): 2000". United States Census Bureau. http://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/GCTTable?_bm=n&_lang=en&mt_name=DEC_2000_SF1_U_GCTPH1R_US9S&format=US-9S&_box_head_nbr=GCT-PH1-R&ds_name=DEC_2000_SF1_U&geo_id=01000US. Retrieved May 30, 2010.
^ ^a ^b "Annual Estimates of the Resident Population for the United States, Regions, States, and Puerto Rico: April 1, 2010 to July 1, 2011" (CSV). 2011 Population Estimates. United States Census Bureau, Population Division. December 2011. http://www.census.gov/popest/data/state/totals/2011/tables/NST-EST2011-01.csv. Retrieved December 21, 2011.
^ "Greylock RM 1 Reset". NGS data sheet. U.S. National Geodetic Survey. http://www.ngs.noaa.gov/cgi-bin/ds_mark.prl?PidBox=MZ1957.
^ ^a ^b "Elevations and Distances in the United States". United States Geological Survey. 2001. http://egsc.usgs.gov/isb/pubs/booklets/elvadist/elvadist.html. Retrieved October 21, 2011.
^ Elevation adjusted to North American Vertical Datum of 1988.
^ Michael Levenson (August 9, 2006). "Can you guess the state sport of Massachusetts?". Boston Globe. http://www.boston.com/news/local/articles/2006/08/09/can_you_guess_the_state_sport_of_massachusetts/. Retrieved February 14, 2012.
^ William Wallace Tooker. Algonquian Names of some Mountains and Hills. 1904.
^ Salwen, Bert, 1978. Indians of Southern New England and Long Island: Early Period. In "Northeast", ed. Bruce G. Trigger. Vol. 15 of "Handbook of North American Indians", ed. William C. Sturtevant, pp. 160–176. Washington D.C.: Smithsonian Institution. Quoted in: Campbell, Lyle. 1997. American Indian Languages: The Historical Linguistics of Native America. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pg. 401
^ Bright, William (2004). Native American Place Names of the United States. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, pg. 270
^ "East Squantum Street (Moswetuset Hummock)". Quincy, Mass. Historical and Architectural Survey. Thomas Crane Public Library. 1986. http://thomascranelibrary.org/htm/436.htm. Retrieved June 24, 2009.
^ Neal, Daniel (1747). "XIV: The Present State of New England". The history of New-England. 2 (2 ed.). London: Printed for A. Ward. p. 216. OCLC 8616817. http://books.google.com/?id=u3opAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA216. Retrieved June 24, 2009.
^ "Part One: Concise Facts – Name". Secretary of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. http://www.sec.state.ma.us/cis/cismaf/mf1a.htm. Retrieved May 22, 2010.
^ "Kentucky as a Commonwealth". Kentucky Department for Libraries and Archives. http://www.kdla.ky.gov/resources/KYCommonwealth.htm. Retrieved May 22, 2010.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f "Massachusetts". National Park Service. http://www.nps.gov/state/MA/. Retrieved May 26, 2010.
^ "Massachusetts State Parks". Massachusetts Department of Conservation and Recreation. http://www.mass.gov/dcr/listing.htm. Retrieved May 26, 2010.
^ "Trail Maps". Massachusetts Department of Conservation and Recreation. http://www.mass.gov/dcr/parks/trails.htm. Retrieved May 26, 2010.
^ "Getting Wet!". Massachusetts Department of Conservation and Recreation. http://www.mass.gov/dcr/recreate/swimming.htm. Retrieved May 26, 2010.
^ "A Short Introduction to Terrestrial Biomes". nearctica.com. http://www.nearctica.com/ecology/habitats/biointro.htm. Retrieved October 17, 2009.
^ Stocker, Carol. Old growth, grand specimens drive big-tree hunters [1] The Boston Globe. November 17, 2005. . Retrieved October 17, 2009.
^ "Current Research — Working Landscapes". The Center for Rural Massachusetts — The University of Massachusetts Amherst. http://www.umass.edu/ruralmass/currentresearch.html. Retrieved March 19, 2009.
^ "Massachusetts Forests". MassWoods Forest Conservation Program — The University of Massachusetts Amherst. http://www.masswoods.net/index.php/forests. Retrieved March 19, 2009.
^ "Northeastern Coastal Zone — Ecoregion Description". United States Geological Survey. http://landcovertrends.usgs.gov/east/eco59Report.html. Retrieved October 17, 2009.
^ ^a ^b ^c "State Mammal List". Massachusetts Division of Fisheries & Wildlife. http://www.mass.gov/dfwele/dfw/wildlife/facts/mammals/mammal_list.htm. Retrieved October 17, 2009.
^ "Peregrine Falcon". Massachusetts Division of Fisheries & Wildlife. http://www.mass.gov/dfwele/dfw/nhesp/species_info/nhfacts/falco_peregrinus.pdf. Retrieved May 26, 2010.
^ "Eastern Coyote in Massachusetts". Massachusetts Division of Fisheries & Wildlife. http://www.mass.gov/dfwele/dfw/wildlife/living/living_with_coyotes.htm. Retrieved May 26, 2010.
^ "Wild Turkey in Massachusetts". Massachusetts Division of Fisheries & Wildlife. http://www.mass.gov/dfwele/dfw/wildlife/living/pdf/living%20_with_turkeys.pdf. Retrieved May 26, 2010.
^ "Moose in Massachusetts". Massachusetts Division of Fisheries & Wildlife. http://www.mass.gov/dfwele/dfw/wildlife/living/living_with_moose.htm. Retrieved May 26, 2010.
^ "Black Bears in Massachusetts". Massachusetts Division of Fisheries & Wildlife. http://www.mass.gov/dfwele/dfw/wildlife/living/living_with_bears.htm. Retrieved May 26, 2010.
^ "Atlantic Flyway". University of Nebraska. http://www.unl.edu/nac/atlas/Map_Html/Biodiversity/National/Atlantic_flyway/Atlantic_Flyway.htm. Retrieved May 22, 2010.
^ "Common Loon". Massachusetts Division of Fisheries & Wildlife. http://www.mass.gov/dfwele/dfw/nhesp/species_info/nhfacts/gavia_immer.pdf. Retrieved May 28, 2010.
^ "Telemetry Research:Long-Tailed Ducks". Mass Audubon. http://www.massaudubon.org/Conservation_Science/Tracking/LTDUresearch.php. Retrieved May 28, 2010.
^ "Roseate Tern". Massachusetts Division of Fisheries & Wildlife. http://www.mass.gov/dfwele/dfw/nhesp/species_info/nhfacts/roseate_tern.pdf. Retrieved May 28, 2010.
^ "Coastal Waterbird Program". Mass Audubon. http://www.massaudubon.org/cwp/. Retrieved May 28, 2010.
^ "Monomoy National Wildlife Refuge – Wildlife and Habitat". United States Fish and Wildlife Service. http://www.fws.gov/northeast/monomoy/wildlife.html. Retrieved May 26, 2010.
^ "Best Bets for Fishing". Massachusetts Division of Wildlife & Fisheries. http://www.mass.gov/dfwele/dfw/recreation/fishing/best_bets/best_bets_home.htm. Retrieved May 30, 2010.
^ "Species Profiles". Massachusetts Division of Marine Fisheries. http://www.mass.gov/dfwele/dmf/recreationalfishing/species.htm. Retrieved May 30, 2010.
^ ^a ^b Brown and Tager, pp. 6–7.
^ ^a ^b "Origin & Early Mohican History". Stockbridge-Munsee Community — Band of Mohican Indians. http://mohican-nsn.gov/Departments/Library-Museum/Mohican_History/origin-and-early.htm. Retrieved October 21, 2009.
^ Brown and Tager, p. 7.
^ Hoxie, Frederick E. (1996). Encyclopedia of North American Indians. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. p. 164. ISBN 978-0-395-66921-1. OCLC 34669430. http://books.google.com/?id=o-BNU7QuJkYC&pg=PA164. Retrieved July 30, 2009. ; doi:10.3201/e0di1602.090276 Marr, JS and Cathey, JT, "New hypothesis for cause of an epidemic among Native Americans, New England, 1616–1619," Emerging Infectious Disease, 2010 Feb.
^ Koplow, p. 13.
^ Goldfield, et al., pp. 29–30.
^ Goldfield, et al., p. 30.
^ Goldfield, et al., p. 29.
^ Brown and Tager, pp. 30–32.
^ ^a ^b Goldfield, et al., p. 66.
^ Brown and Tager, p. 50
^ U.S.G.S. Historic Earthquakes: The Great Earthquake of 1755, http://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/states/events/1755_11_18_hs.php, accessed February 7, 2011; Memorandum, Boston Gazette, November 24, 1755, p. 1.
^ Brown and Tager, pp. 63–83.
^ Goldfield, et al., pp. 88–90.
^ Goldfield, et al., pp. 95–96.
^ Goldfield, et al., pp. 96–97.
^ "Massachusetts Legal Holidays". Secretary of the Commonwealth. http://www.sec.state.ma.us/cis/cishol/holidx.htm. Retrieved May 22, 2010.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d "John Adams Biography". National Park Service. http://www.nps.gov/adam/john-adams-biography.htm. Retrieved May 30, 2010.
^ "Massachusetts Constitution, Judicial Review, and Slavery – The Quock Walker Case". Massachusetts Judicial Branch. 2007. http://www.mass.gov/courts/sjc/constitution-slavery-e.html. Retrieved December 11, 2009. The Constitution of the Vermont Republic, adopted in 1777, prohibited involuntary servitude. Vermont became a state in 1791 and subsequently ratified a newer constitution in 1793. The Pennsylvania Gradual Abolition Act of 1780 [2] made Pennsylvania the first state to abolish slavery by statute.[3]
^ "Shays Rebellion". National Park Service. http://www.nps.gov/spar/historyculture/shays-rebellion.htm. Retrieved May 22, 2010.
^ "The Ratification of the U.S. Constitution in Massachusetts". Massachusetts Historical Society. http://www.masshist.org/cabinet/february2003/february2003.htm. Retrieved May 22, 2010. ^{[dead link]}
^ "Maine History (Statehood)". maine.gov. http://www.maine.gov/legis/senate/statehouse/history/hstry5.htm. Retrieved April 11, 2008.
^ Brown and Tager, p. 129.
^ Brown and Tager, p. 211.
^ Brown and Tager, p. 202.
^ Brown and Tager, pp. 133–136.
^ Brown and Tager, p. 179.
^ Goldfield, et al., p. 251.
^ ^a ^b ^c Goldfield, et al., p. 254.
^ Brown and Tager, p. 185.
^ Brown and Tager, p. 183.
^ Brown and Tager, pp. 187–193.
^ "Robert Gould Shaw and the 54th Regiment". National Park Service. http://www.nps.gov/boaf/historyculture/shaw.htm. Retrieved October 19, 2009.
^ "Augustus Saint-Gaudens". National Gallery of Art. http://www.nga.gov/education/schoolarts/gaudens.htm. Retrieved October 19, 2009.
^ Brown and Tager, p. 246.
^ Brown and Tager, p. 276.
^ "Job Loss, Shrinking Revenues, and Grinding Decline in Springfield, Massachusetts: Is A Finance Control Board the Answer
^ Brown and Tager, pp. 275–283.
^ ^a ^b Brown and Tager, p. 284.
^ "Biography: Edward Moore Kennedy". American Experience. http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/general-article/kennedys-bio-edward-kennedy/. Retrieved May 28, 2010.
^ "The Kennedys: A Family Tree". St. Petersburg Times. http://www.sptimes.com/News/111199/JFK/family-tree.shtml. Retrieved May 28, 2010.
^ "Kennedy Compound". National Park Service. http://www.nps.gov/history/history/online_books/presidents/site30.htm. Retrieved May 28, 2010.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Grunwald, Michael. Dig the Big Dig [4] The Washington Post. August 6, 2006. . Retrieved May 31, 2010.
^ ^a ^b "The Big Dig". Massachusetts Department of Transportation. http://www.massdot.state.ma.us/Highway/bigdig/projectbkg.aspx. Retrieved May 31, 2010.
^ ^a ^b "Annual Estimates of the Resident Population for the United States, Regions, States, and Puerto Rico: April 1, 2000 to July 1, 2009". United States Census Bureau. http://www.census.gov/popest/states/NST-ann-est.html. Retrieved December 23, 2009.
^ Population: 1790 to 1990PDF (35.4 KB) census.gov
^ Resident Population of the 50 States, the District of Columbia, and Puerto Rico: Census 2000 census.gov
^ 2010 Census Data. "2010 Census Data – 2010 Census". 2010.census.gov. http://2010.census.gov/2010census/data/. Retrieved February 1, 2011.
^ "Fact Sheet: Massachusetts". United States Census Bureau. http://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/ACSSAFFFacts?_event=Search&geo_id=&_geoContext=&_street=&_county=&_cityTown=&_state=04000US25&_zip=&_lang=en&_sse=on&pctxt=fph&pgsl=010. Retrieved May 30, 2010.
^ Population and Population Centers by State: 2000. United States Census Bureau, United States Deparatment of Commerce. Retrieved January 14, 2007.
^ ^a ^b ^c Mishra, Raja. State's population growth on stagnant course [5] Boston Globe. December 22, 2006. . Retrieved June 5, 2010.
^ Experts say housing costs, schools key to job creation in Massachusetts – Framingham, MA – The MetroWest Daily News
^ Levenson, Michael. Bay state's labor force diminishing [6]Boston Globe. December 10, 2006. . Retrieved June 5, 2010.
^ ^a ^b ^c Bayles, Fred. Minorities account for state population growth [7] USA Today. March 21, 2001. Retrieved June 5, 2010.
^ Most spoken languages in Massachusetts MLA Language Map Data Center. Modern Language Association. Retrieved February 23, 2007.
^ http://factfinder2.census.gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/pages/productview.xhtml?pid=DEC_10_DP_DPDP1&prodType=table
^ Brown and Tager, p. 173.
^ Brown and Tager, pp. 173–179.
^ Brown and Tager, p. 203.
^ Brown and Tager, p. 301.
^ "Imagine all the people:Haitian immigrants in Boston". Boston Development Authority. http://www.bostonredevelopmentauthority.org/pdf/ResearchPublications//Haitian%20UPDATE%20FINAL.pdf. Retrieved May 30, 2010.
^ "Whaling Industry and Portuguese Immigration Centered in New Bedford, Mass.". Library of Congress. http://www.loc.gov/rr/hispanic/portam/bedford.html. Retrieved June 1, 2010.
^ ^a ^b Brettell, pp. xii–xiv.
^ Schweitzer, Sarah. Lowell hopes to put 'Little Cambodia' on the map [8] The Boston Globe. February 15, 2010. . Retrieved May 31, 2010.
^ Associated Press. Wampanoag Tribe Receives Federal Recognition WBZ-TV, Boston Massachusetts. Retrieved February 20, 2007.
^ Weber, David. Mashpee Wampanoag Indians receive federal recognition The Boston Globe February 15, 2007. Retrieved February 20, 2007.
^ Brown and Tager, pp. 180–182.
^ Brown and Tager, pp. 257–258.
^ Brown and Tager, pp. 300–304.
^ "About Unitarian Universalism". Blue Hills Unitarian Universalist Fellowship. http://www.bluehillsuu.org/aboutuu.html. Retrieved May 30, 2010.
^ "The Association of Religion Data Archives | Maps & Reports". Thearda.com. http://www.thearda.com/mapsReports/reports/state/25_2000.asp. Retrieved February 1, 2011.
^ "American Religious Identification Survey". Exhibit 15. The Graduate Center, City University of New York. http://www.gc.cuny.edu/CUNY_GC/media/CUNY-Graduate-Center/Images/faculty%20publications/Aris/exhibit-15.jpg. Retrieved September 21, 2007.
^ Butterfield, Fox. The Perfect New England Town [9] The New York Times. May 14, 1989. . Retrieved May 30, 2010.
^ "Gross Domestic Product by State". Bureau of Economic Analysis. http://www.bea.gov/regional/gsp/. Retrieved June 1, 2010.
^ "State Personal Income 2008". Bureau of Economic Analysis. http://www.bea.gov/newsreleases/regional/spi/2009/pdf/spi0309.pdf. Retrieved June 8, 2010.
^ "Fortune 500 – States". CNN. July 27, 2010. http://money.cnn.com/magazines/fortune/fortune500/2010/states/MA.html. Retrieved July 27, 2010.
^ America's Top States for Business 2010." CNBC Special Report (2010): 1. Web. May 9, 2011. <http://www.cnbc.com/id/37516043/>.
^ "Mass. unemployment rate falls to 6.5% in March, down from 6.9% in February". Boston Globe. http://www.boston.com/Boston/business/2012/04/mass-unemployment-rate-falls-march-down-from-february/tsxfm5NUrbQufTlUNDvNRM/index.html. Retrieved May 10, 2011.
^ ^a ^b ^c "2009 State Agriculture Overview (Massachusetts)". United States Department of Agriculture. http://www.nass.usda.gov/Statistics_by_State/Ag_Overview/AgOverview_MA.pdf. Retrieved June 1, 2010.
^ "Massachusetts Cranberries". United States Department of Agriculture. January 26, 2007. http://www.nass.usda.gov/nh/jan07cran.pdf. Retrieved May 23, 2010.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d "Massachusetts". The Tax Foundation. http://www.taxfoundation.org/research/topic/35.html. Retrieved May 24, 2010.
^ "Mass. income tax rate cut by .05 percent". Yahoo. http://finance.yahoo.com/news/mass-income-tax-rate-cut-175739133.html. Retrieved May 10, 2012.
^ "Massachusetts Implements Reduction in Personal Income Tax Rates". The Tax Foundation. http://taxfoundation.org/blog/show/27852.html. Retrieved May 10, 2012.
^ ^a ^b "Tax Rates". Massachusetts Department of Revenue. http://www.mass.gov/?pageID=dorterminal&L=5&L0=Home&L1=Individuals+and+Families&L2=Personal+Income+Tax&L3=Current+Year+Tax+Information&L4=Guide+to+Personal+Income+Tax&sid=Ador&b=terminalcontent&f=dor_help_guides_abate_amend_personal_issues_ratestax&csid=Ador. Retrieved May 24, 2010.
^ ^a ^b "A Guide to Sales and Use Tax". Massachusetts Department of Revenue. http://www.mass.gov/?pageID=dorterminal&L=6&L0=Home&L1=Individuals+and+Families&L2=Personal+Income+Tax&L3=Forms+%26+Publications&L4=Publications&L5=Publications+Index&sid=Ador&b=terminalcontent&f=dor_publ_sales_use&csid=Ador. Retrieved May 24, 2010.
^ Good Energy
^ [10]^{[dead link]}
^ Andrew Shen (2011-10-25). "Massachusetts Passes California As The Most Energy Efficient State". Businessinsider.com. http://www.businessinsider.com/most-energy-efficient-states-2011-10. Retrieved 2012-01-25.
^ "Routes – Acela Express". Amtrak. http://www.amtrak.com/servlet/ContentServer/AM_Route_C/1241245664867/1237405732511. Retrieved May 22, 2010.
^ "Subway Map". Massachusetts Bay Transit Authority. http://www.mbta.com/schedules_and_maps/subway/. Retrieved May 22, 2010.
^ "Bus Schedules & Maps". Massachusetts Bay Transit Authority. http://www.mbta.com/schedules_and_maps/bus/. Retrieved May 22, 2010.
^ "Boat Map and Schedules". Massachusetts Bay Transit Authority. http://www.mbta.com/schedules_and_maps/boats/. Retrieved May 22, 2010.
^ "Commuter Rail Maps and Schedules". Massachusetts Bay Transit Authority. http://www.mbta.com/schedules_and_maps/rail/. Retrieved May 22, 2010.
^ "Your Transit Authorities". Massachusetts Association of Regional Transit Authorities. http://www.matransit.com/. Retrieved May 23, 2010.
^ "Cape Cod Central Railroad". Cape Cod Central Railroad. http://www.capetrain.com/. Retrieved May 23, 2010.
^ "2010 Scenic Train Schedule". Berkshire Scenic Railway Museum. http://berkshirescenicrailroad.org/schedules.php. Retrieved May 23, 2010.
^ "Railroad Service in Massachusetts". Association of American Railroads. http://www.aar.org/PubCommon/Documents/AboutTheIndustry/RRState_MA.pdf. Retrieved June 2, 2010.
^ "Background". The Woods Hole, Martha's Vineyard and Nantucket Steamship Authority. http://www.steamshipauthority.com/ssa/about.cfm. Retrieved May 24, 2010.
^ ^a ^b "Who We Are". Massachusetts Port Authority. http://www.massport.com/about/about.html. Retrieved May 24, 2010.
^ http://www.massaeronautics.org/default.asp?pgid=AeroAbout&sid=level2
^ "Transportation". Secretary of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. http://www.sec.state.ma.us/cis/ciswel/weltomas.htm#trans. Retrieved May 31, 2010.
^ Brown and Tager, pp. 283–284.
^ "John Adams and the Massachusetts Constitution". Massachusetts Judicial Branch, mass.gov. 2007. http://www.mass.gov/courts/sjc/john-adams-b.html. Retrieved July 18, 2009.
^ Gianoulis, Tina (2005-10-13). "Noble, Elaine". glbtq: An Encyclopedia of Gay, Lesbian, Bisexual, Transgender, and Queer Culture. http://www.glbtq.com/social-sciences/noble_e.html. Retrieved 2007-09-24.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k "Massachusetts Facts: Politics". Secretary of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. http://www.sec.state.ma.us/cis/cismaf/mf1b.htm. Retrieved June 1, 2010.
^ "Members of the 111th Congress". United States Senate. http://www.senate.gov/general/contact_information/senators_cfm.cfm. Retrieved October 18, 2009.
^ ^a ^b "Massachusetts Congressional Districts" (PDF). Massachusetts Secretary of the Commonwealth. http://www.sec.state.ma.us/cis/cispdf/ma_uscongress.pdf. Retrieved October 18, 2009.
^ "Geographic Boundaries of United States Courts of Appeals and United States District Courts" (PDF). uscourts.gov. http://www.uscourts.gov/images/CircuitMap.pdf. Retrieved October 18, 2009.
^ "U.S. Electoral College – 2008 Presidential Election". archives.gov. http://archives.gov/federal-register/electoral-college/2008/allocation.html. Retrieved June 2, 2010.
^ "U.S. Electoral College – Frequently Asked Questions". archives.gov. http://www.archives.gov/federal-register/electoral-college/faq.html. Retrieved June 2, 2010.
^ Brown and Tager, p. 310.
^ Susan Page and Jill Lawrence (July 11, 2004). "Does 'Massachusetts liberal' label still matter?". USA Today. http://www.usatoday.com/news/politicselections/nation/president/2004-07-25-mass-liberal_x.htm. Retrieved October 17, 2009.
^ http://www.r-bloggers.com/mapping-ma-election-results/ In recent elections, even Scott Brown's 2010 win, Western MA is more reliably blue (by city/town) than Eastern MA.
^ "State Vote 2006: Election Profile, Massachusetts" State Legislatures Magazine, National Conference of State Legislatures. Retrieved November 17, 2007.
^ Gordon, Meryl. Weld At Heart [11] New York. January 14, 2002. . Retrieved May 23, 2010.
^ Vennochi, Joan. Romney's liberal shadow [12] The Boston Globe. June 17, 2007. . Retrieved May 23, 2010.
^ "Federal Elections 2004 (page 22)". Federal Election Commission. http://www.fec.gov/pubrec/fe2004/federalelections2004.pdf. Retrieved October 17, 2009.
^ "2008 Presidential Popular Vote Summary". Federal Election Commission. http://www.fec.gov/pubrec/fe2008/tables2008.pdf. Retrieved October 17, 2009.
^ Bloch, Matthew; Cox, Amanda; Ericson, Matthew; Hossain, Farhana; Tse, Archie (January 19, 2010). "Interactive Map, Election Results and Analysis". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2010/01/19/us/politics/massachusetts-election-map.html. Retrieved May 22, 2010.
^ "Same-sex couples ready to make history in Massachusetts". CNN. May 17, 2004. http://www.cnn.com/2004/LAW/05/17/mass.gay.marriage/index.html. Retrieved October 18, 2009.
^ "Massachusetts Makes Health Insurance Mandatory". National Public Radio. July 3, 2007. http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=11689698. Retrieved October 18, 2009.
^ "2008 Return of Votes Complete" (PDF). Massachusetts Secretary of the Commonwealth. December 17, 2008. http://www.sec.state.ma.us/ele/elepdf/2008%20Return%20of%20Votes%20Complete.pdf. Retrieved October 18, 2009.
^ ^a ^b "Information and Historical Data on Cities, Towns, and Counties in the Commonwealth of Massachusetts". Secretary of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. http://www.sec.state.ma.us/cis/cisctlist/ctlistidx.htm. Retrieved June 8, 2010.
^ See Administrative divisions of Massachusetts#The city/town distinction.
^ "Annual Estimates of the Resident Population for Incorporated Places over 100,000, Ranked by July 1, 2008 Population : April 1, 2000 to July 1, 2008 (SUB-EST2008-01)" (CSV). United States Census Bureau, Population Division. http://www.census.gov/popest/cities/tables/SUB-EST2008-01.csv. Retrieved October 19, 2009.
^ "Annual Estimates of the Population of Metropolitan and Micropolitan Statistical Areas: April 1, 2000 to July 1, 2008" (CSV). 2008 Population Estimates. United States Census Bureau, Population Division. March 19, 2009. http://www.census.gov/popest/metro/tables/2008/CBSA-EST2008-01.csv. Retrieved October 19, 2009.
^ "Annual Estimates of the Population for all Incorporated Places in Massachusetts: 2000–2007". United States Census Bureau. http://www.census.gov/popest/cities/tables/SUB-EST2007-04-25.csv. Retrieved October 19, 2009.
^ ^a ^b Sokolow, pp. 293–6
^ ^a ^b "Massachusetts Government: County Government". League of Women Voters. http://www.lwvma.org/govcounty.shtml. Retrieved October 19, 2009.
^ Dejnozka, et al., p. 313.
^ Dejnozka, et al., p. 311.
^ Goldfield, et al. pp. 251–252.
^ Ramírez, Eddy. The First Class State [13] U.S. News & World Report. November 29, 2007. . Retrieved June 5, 2010.
^ Rimer, Sara and Finder, Alan. Harvard Plans to Name First Female President [14] The New York Times. February 10, 2007. . Retrieved June 5, 2010.
^ Mount Holyoke Admissions | StudyPoint's Guide to Admissions
^ Compulsory Education National Conference of State Legislatures.'.' Retrieved December 28, 2006.
^ Table 5. Current Expenditures ($) per Student in Public K-12 Schools, 2004–05 Source footnote: "Rankings & Estimates 2005–2006, Rankings, Table H-11." ( NEA Research, Estimates Database (2006). K–12 = "Elementary and Secondary".) National Education Association'.' Retrieved January 12, 2007.
^ "2007 NAEP Tests: Summary of Results for Massachusetts". Massachusetts Department of Elemtary & Secondary Education. http://www.doe.mass.edu/mcas/naep/results/07read_math.pdf. Retrieved May 22, 2010.
^ "A Practical Guide to Living in the State – Education". Secretary of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. http://www.sec.state.ma.us/cis/ciswel/weltomas.htm#edu. Retrieved June 2, 2010.
^ "World's Best Universities:Top 400". US News & World Report. http://www.usnews.com/articles/education/worlds-best-universities/2010/02/25/worlds-best-universities-top-400.html. Retrieved May 25, 2010.
^ "Academic Rankings of World Universities – 2009". Academic Ranking of World Universities. http://www.arwu.org/ARWU2009.jsp. Retrieved May 25, 2010.
^ "Top 200 World Universities". Times Higher Education World University Rankings. http://www.timeshighereducation.co.uk/hybrid.asp?typeCode=438. Retrieved May 25, 2010.
^ "The UMass System". University of Massachusetts Amherst. http://www.massachusetts.edu/system/about.html. Retrieved May 25, 2010.
^ "UMass – Facts 2009–2010". University of Massachusetts Amherst. http://media.umassp.edu/massedu/ir/facts2009-10.pdf. Retrieved May 25, 2010.
^ "Walden Pond State Reservation". Massachusetts Department of Conservation and Recreation. http://www.mass.gov/dcr/parks/walden/downloads/Walden_Pond.pdf. Retrieved May 29, 2010.
^ "Henry Wadsworth Longfellow". National Park Service. http://www.nps.gov/long/historyculture/henry-wadsworth-longfellow.htm. Retrieved May 30, 2010.
^ "Details – Sunday – Massachusetts". Academy of American Poets. http://www.poets.org/state.php/varState/MA. Retrieved May 29, 2010.
^ ^a ^b "Miscellaneous Massachusetts Facts". Secretary of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. http://www.sec.state.ma.us/cis/cismaf/mf4.htm. Retrieved May 30, 2010.
^ "Details – Norman Rockwell Museum". Massachusetts Department of Tourism. http://www.massvacation.com/find/detail.php?org_id=1094. Retrieved May 30, 2010.
^ ^a ^b "Music". Massachusetts Department of Tourism. http://www.massvacation.com/arts/music.php. Retrieved May 29, 2010.
^ "About the Cape Cod Symphony Orchestra". Cape Cod Symphony Orchestra. http://www.capesymphony.org/cape-symphony-orchestra-the-ccso.asp. Retrieved June 5, 2010.
^ "Our History". Springfield Symphony Orchestra. http://www.springfieldsymphony.org/about/history.shtml. Retrieved June 5, 2010.
^ "Tanglewood Jazz Festival". Boston Symphony Orchestra. http://www.bso.org/bso/mods/toc_01_gen_images.jsp?id=bcat5240121. Retrieved May 30, 2010.
^ "Arts". Massachusetts Department of Tourism. http://www.massvacation.com/westernMass/arts.php. Retrieved May 30, 2010.
^ "Details – Jacob's Pillow Dance Festival". Massachusetts Department of Tourism. http://www.massvacation.com/find/detail.php?org_id=1078. Retrieved May 29, 2010.
^ "Details – Boston Ballet". Massachusetts Department of Tourism. http://www.massvacation.com/find/detail.php?org_id=649. Retrieved May 29, 2010.
^ "Details – Shakespeare & Company". Massachusetts Department of Tourism. http://www.massvacation.com/find/detail.php?org_id=1105. Retrieved May 29, 2010.
^ Leddy, Chuck. Rocking history lesson shows city was in a class by itself[15] Boston Globe. January 10, 2008. . Retrieved May 29, 2010.
^ "Film Festivals". Massachusetts Department of Tourism. http://www.massvacation.com/arts/filmfestivals.php. Retrieved May 29, 2010.
^ "Museums". City of Boston. http://www.cityofboston.gov/visitors/museums.asp. Retrieved May 29, 2010.
^ "About the DeCordova Sculpture Park". DeCordova Sculpture Park. http://www.decordova.org/art/park/. Retrieved May 29, 2010.
^ "Art Museums". Massachusetts Department of Tourism. http://www.massvacation.com/arts/art-museums.php. Retrieved May 29, 2010.
^ "Places To Go". National Park Service. http://www.nps.gov/bost/planyourvisit/placestogo.htm. Retrieved December 30, 2009.
^ "Black Heritage Trail". Museum of African American History. http://www.afroammuseum.org/trail.htm. Retrieved May 29, 2010.
^ "About Plimoth Plantation". Plimoth Plantation. http://www.plimoth.org/about/. Retrieved May 29, 2010.
^ "Our Museum". Old Sturbridge Village. http://www.osv.org/museum/index.html. Retrieved May 29, 2010.
^ "Details – Sunday – July 4th". Boston Harborfest. http://www.bostonharborfest.com/sunday.html. Retrieved May 29, 2010.
^ Kush, Bronislaus B.. "Summer Nationals Weekend Revs Up". Worcester Telegram. http://www.telegram.com/article/20100703/NEWS/7030347/1003/NEWS03. Retrieved March 15, 2011.
^ "Nielson Media Research Local Universe Estimates (US)". Nielson Media. 2005-6. Archived from the original on May 17, 2006. http://web.archive.org/web/20060517010320/http://www.nielsenmedia.com/DMAs.html. Retrieved May 27, 2010.
^ "WGBH – About Us". WGBH-TV. http://www.wgbh.org/about/index.cfm. Retrieved May 27, 2010.
^ "American Experience". WGBH-TV. http://www.wgbh.org/programs/programDetail.cfm?programid=97. Retrieved May 27, 2010.
^ "US Newspaper – Search Results (Massachusetts)". Audit Bureau of Circulation. http://abcas3.accessabc.com/ecirc/newsform.asp. Retrieved May 25, 2010.
^ "FM Query Results (Massachusetts)". Federal Communications Commission. http://www.fcc.gov/fcc-bin/fmq?state=MA&call=&city=&arn=&serv=&vac=&freq=0.0&fre2=107.9&facid=&class=&dkt=&list=1&dist=&dlat2=&mlat2=&slat2=&NS=N&dlon2=&mlon2=&slon2=&EW=W&size=9. Retrieved May 27, 2010.
^ "About Us". UCV-TV. http://www.uvctv19.com/about-us. Retrieved May 27, 2010.
^ "About WMUA". WMUA. http://www.wmua.org/about. Retrieved May 27, 2010.
^ "General". WZBC. http://www.wzbc.org/about.html. Retrieved May 27, 2010.
^ "About". Harvard Crimson. http://www.thecrimson.com/about/. Retrieved May 27, 2010.
^ "About the BU Literary Society and Clarion". Boston University. http://www.bu.edu/clarion/about.htm. Retrieved May 27, 2010.
^ ^a ^b "America's Health Ranking – Massachusetts (2009)". United Health Foundation. http://www.americashealthrankings.org/yearcompare/2008/2009/MA.aspx. Retrieved October 24, 2010.
^ "Doctors per 100,000 Resident Population, 2007". United States Census Bureau. http://www.census.gov/compendia/statab/2010/ranks/rank18.html. Retrieved October 24, 2010.
^ "Infant Mortality Rate, 2006". United States Census Bureau. http://www.census.gov/compendia/statab/2010/ranks/rank17.html. Retrieved October 24, 2010.
^ "Persons With and Without Health Insurance Coverage by State: 2007". United States Census Bureau. http://www.census.gov/compendia/statab/2010/tables/10s0150.pdf. Retrieved October 24, 2010.
^ "U.S. States Ranked by Life Expectancy". Bloomberg Businessweek. http://www.businessweek.com/bwdaily/dnflash/content/sep2006/db20060913_099763.htm. Retrieved October 24, 2010.
^ ^a ^b "Overweight and Obesity (BMI) – 2007". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. http://apps.nccd.cdc.gov/BRFSS/list.asp?cat=OB&yr=2007&qkey=4409&state=MA. Retrieved October 24, 2010.
^ Association, American Medical; Press, Highwire (July 30, 1904). "The United States Public Health and Marine-Hospital Service". Journal of the American Medical Association 43. http://books.google.com/books?id=FlXlAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA326. Retrieved February 20, 2011.
^ "U.S. Marine Hospital". Chelsea Historical Society. http://www.olgp.net/chs/hospital/marine.htm. Retrieved February 20, 2011.
^ "Massachusetts Area Hospitals". Massachusetts Board of Registration in Medicine. http://www.massmedboard.org/links/hospital_list.shtm. Retrieved October 24, 2010.
^ "Best Hospitals 2010–11: The Honor Roll". US News & World Report. http://health.usnews.com/best-hospitals/massachusetts-general-hospital-6140430/rankings. Retrieved October 24, 2010.
^ "Massachusetts General Hospital". US News & World Report. http://health.usnews.com/best-hospitals/massachusetts-general-hospital-6140430. Retrieved October 24, 2010.
^ "Hospital Overview". Massachusetts General Hospital. http://www.massgeneral.org/about/overview.aspx. Retrieved October 24, 2010.
^ "Facts and Figures: 2009–2010". Harvard Medical School. http://hms.harvard.edu/hms/facts.asp. Retrieved October 25, 2010.
^ "About Us". Boston University School of Medicine. http://www.bumc.bu.edu/busm/BUSM-About.html. Retrieved October 25, 2010.
^ "An Introduction to UMass Medical School". University of Massachusetts Medical School. http://www.umassmed.edu/about/index.aspx. Retrieved October 25, 2010.
^ "About us". The Massachusetts College of Pharmacy and Health Sciences. http://www.mcphs.edu/about_mcphs/.
^ "Volleyball pushed as official team sport of Mass.". Boston Herald. October 4, 2009. http://news.bostonherald.com/news/politics/view.bg?articleid=1202148. Retrieved October 18, 2009.
^ "Stanley Cup Winners". Hockey Hall of Fame. http://www.legendsofhockey.net/LegendsOfHockey/jsp/SilverwareTrophyWinners.jsp?tro=STC. Retrieved October 18, 2009.
^ "Celtics History — Championship Wins". National Basketball Association. http://www.nba.com/celtics/history/ChampionshipWins.html. Retrieved October 18, 2009.
^ "Super Bowl History". National Football League. http://www.nfl.com/superbowl/history. Retrieved October 18, 2009.
^ "MLB World Series Winners". ESPN. http://espn.go.com/mlb/worldseries/history/winners. Retrieved October 18, 2009.
^ "Cornell Rowing Excels at Eastern Sprints". Cornell University. http://cornellbigred.com/news/2010/5/16/MROW_0516105419.aspx. Retrieved June 6, 2010.
^ "History of the Head of the Charles Regatta". Head of the Charles Regatta. http://www.hocr.org/about/history.asp. Retrieved June 6, 2010.
^ "114th Boston Maraton". Boston Athletic Association. http://www.bostonmarathon.org/bostonmarathon/114thmarathon.asp. Retrieved June 6, 2010.
^ "2009 U.S. Open — Past Champions". United States Golf Association. http://usga.usopen.com/2009/history/past-champions.html. Retrieved October 21, 2009.
^ "Past Results". Ryder Cup. http://www.rydercup.com/2010/usa/history/past_results.html. Retrieved October 21, 2009. ^{[dead link]}
^ "Deutsche Bank Championship". Professional Golfers' Association of America. http://www.pgatour.com/tournaments/r505/. Retrieved October 21, 2009.
^ "Stadium Information". Gillette Stadium. http://www.gillettestadium.com/stadium_information/. Retrieved October 21, 2009.
^ "MLL Standings". Major League Lacrosse. http://mll-boston.stats.pointstreak.com/standings.html?leagueid=323&seasonid=3806. Retrieved October 21, 2009.
^ "College Football Teams (FBS and FCS)". ESPN. http://espn.go.com/college-football/teams. Retrieved October 18, 2009.
^ "College Basketball Teams — Division I Teams". ESPN. http://sports.espn.go.com/ncb/teams. Retrieved October 18, 2009.
^ "Greenways and Trails". Massachusetts Department of Conservation and Recreation. http://www.mass.gov/dcr/stewardship/greenway/traillinks.htm. Retrieved June 5, 2010.
^ "Southern New England". Appalachian Mountain Club. http://www.outdoors.org/conservation/wherewework/southernnewengland/index.cfm. Retrieved June 2, 2010.
^ "Fishing & charters". Massachusetts Department of Tourism. http://www.massvacation.com/outdoor/fishing.php. Retrieved June 5, 2010.
^ "Whale watching". Massachusetts Department of Tourism. http://www.massvacation.com/outdoor/whale-watching.php. Retrieved June 5, 2010.
^ "Skiing/snowboarding". Massachusetts Department of Tourism. http://www.massvacation.com/outdoor/skiing-snowboarding.php. Retrieved June 5, 2010.

Bibliography [link]

Brebner, John Bartlet (1927). New England's outpost : Acadia before the conquest of Canada. New York, NY: Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-7812-6367-0.
Brettell, Caroline (2003). Anthropology and Migration:Essays on Transnational Ethnicity and Identity. Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira Press. ISBN 0-7591-0320-8.
Brown, Richard D.; Tager, Jack (2000). Massachusetts: A Concise History. Amherst, MA: University of Massachusetts Press. ISBN 1-55849-248-8.
Dejnozka, Edward L.; Gifford, Charles S.; Kapel, David E.; Kapel, Marilyn B.; (1982). American Educators' Encyclopedia. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. ISBN 0-313-20954-5.
Goldfield, David; Abbott, Carl; Anderson, Virginia DeJohn; Argersinger, Jo Ann E.; Argersinger, Peter H; Barney, William L.; & Weir, Robert M. (1998). The American Journey – A History of the United States. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-656562-X.
Koplow, David A. (2004). Smallpox:The Fight to Eradicate a Global Scurge. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-24220-3.
Sokolow, Alvin D. (1997). "Town and Township Government: Serving Rural and Suburban Communities". Handbook of Local Government Administration. New York, NY: Marcel Dekker Inc.. ISBN 0-8247-9782-5.

External links [link]

Find more about Massachusetts on Wikipedia's sister projects:
	Definitions and translations from Wiktionary
	Images and media from Commons
	Learning resources from Wikiversity
	News stories from Wikinews
	Quotations from Wikiquote
	Source texts from Wikisource
	Textbooks from Wikibooks

The Commonwealth of Massachusetts
Massachusetts at the Open Directory Project
Massachusetts Historical Society
Massachusetts State Guide from the Library of Congress
Energy Profile for Massachusetts- Economic, environmental, and energy data
USGS real-time, geographic, and other scientific resources of Massachusetts
Massachusetts Geological Survey
Maps of Massachusetts
1837 descriptions of Massachusetts cities, towns, mountains, lakes, and rivers, from Hayward's New England Gazetteer.
Massachusetts State Symbols
Miscellaneous Massachusetts Facts
Massachusetts State Facts from USDA
Massachusetts Constitution and Laws
Massachusetts Tourism Board
Maritime History of Massachusetts, a National Park Service Discover Our Shared Heritage Travel Itinerary
Atlases of Massachusetts. 1871-Walling&Gray, 1891-Walker, 1892-Mass., 1904-Walker. Large Images at Salemdeeds.
Geographic data related to Massachusetts at OpenStreetMap

Articles related to Massachusetts
The Bay State

v t e Commonwealth of Massachusetts

Boston (capital)

Topics	Index Administrative divisions Congressional districts Culture Demographics Economy Education Elections Geography Geology Government History Images Music People Politics Sports State symbols Transportation Villages Visitor Attractions Windmills

Regions	The Berkshires Blackstone Valley Cape Ann Cape Cod Central Massachusetts Greater Boston The Islands Merrimack Valley MetroWest Montachusett-North County North Shore Pioneer Valley Quabbin Valley Southeastern Massachusetts South Coast South County South Shore Western Massachusetts

Counties	Barnstable Berkshire Bristol Dukes Essex Franklin Hampden Hampshire Middlesex Nantucket Norfolk Plymouth Suffolk Worcester

Cities (see all municipalities)	Agawam Amesbury Attleboro Barnstable Beverly Boston Braintree Bridgewater Brockton Cambridge Chelsea Chicopee Easthampton Everett Fall River Fitchburg Franklin Gardner Gloucester Greenfield Haverhill Holyoke Lawrence Leominster Lowell Lynn Malden Marlborough Medford Melrose Methuen New Bedford Newburyport Newton North Adams Northampton Palmer Peabody Pittsfield Quincy Randolph Revere Salem Somerville Southbridge Springfield Taunton Waltham Watertown Westfield West Springfield Weymouth Winthrop Woburn Worcester Note: Municipalities not listed have a town meeting form of government. Municipalities listed in italics have a city form of government, but have retained the name prefix "Town of " as part of their official names.

v t e Government of Massachusetts

Legislative	General Court Senate (Members, President) House of Representatives (Members, Speaker)

Executive	Governor (List) Lt. Governor Office for Administration and Finance Office of Education Office of Energy and Environmental Affairs Office of Health and Human Services Office of Housing and Economic Development Office of Labor and Workforce Development Office of Public Safety and Security Department of Transportation

Judicial	District Court Superior Court Land Court Housing Court Court of Appeals (Judges) Supreme Judicial Court

Constitutional offices	Attorney General Auditor Secretary of the Commonwealth Treasurer and Receiver-General

Independent agencies	Board of Library Commissioners Commission Against Discrimination Commission on the Status of Women Disabled Persons Protection Commission Massachusetts Appellate Tax Board Massachusetts District Attorneys Massachusetts Inspector General Office of Campaign and Political Finance Office of the Comptroller Massachusetts Sheriffs State Ethics Commission

Law	Constitution of Massachusetts Elder Law Massachusetts General Law Massachusetts Code Taxation

Protected Areas of Massachusetts

Federal

National Historical Parks & Sites	Adams Boston Boston African American Frederick Law Olmsted John Fitzgerald Kennedy Longfellow House Lowell Minute Man New Bedford Whaling Salem Maritime Saugus Iron Works Springfield Armory

Other Protected Areas	Appalachian National Scenic Trail Boston Harbor Islands National Recreation Area Cape Cod National Seashore Stellwagen Bank National Marine Sanctuary Waquoit Bay National Estuarine Research Reserve West Hill Dam

National Wildlife Refuges	Assabet River Great Meadows Mashpee Massasoit Monomoy Nantucket Nomans Land Oxbow Parker River Silvio O. Conte Thacher Island

State

State Parks	Alewife Brook Ames Nowell Ashland Bash Bish Falls Blackstone River and Canal Heritage Borderland Boston Harbor Islands Bradley Palmer C. M. Gardner Callahan Castle Island State Park Chicopee Memorial City Square Clarksburg Cochituate Connecticut River Greenway Demarest Lloyd Dighton Rock Dunn Ellisville Harbor Fall River Heritage Gardner Heritage Great Brook Farm Halibut Point Hampton Ponds Holyoke Heritage Hopkinton Lake Lorraine Lake Wyola Lawrence Heritage Lowell Heritage Lynn Heritage Massasoit Maudslay Moore Mount Holyoke Range Natural Bridge Nickerson Pearl Hill Pilgrim Quinsigamond Robinson Roxbury Heritage Rutland Skinner South Cape Beach Wahconah Falls Webb Memorial Wells Western Gateway Heritage Whitehall Wompatuck

State Parks: Reservations	Beaver Brook Belle Isle Marsh Blue Hills Breakheart Charles River Chestnut Hill Cutler Dorchester Shores Elm Bank Fort Phoenix Hammond Pond Hemlock Gorge Horseneck Beach Jug End Lynn Shore Middlesex Fells Mount Everett Mount Greylock Mount Sugarloaf Mount Tom Myles Standish Mystic River Nahant Beach Nantasket Beach Nasketucket Bay Neponset River Pope John Paul II Purgatory Chasm Quincy Quarries Quincy Shore Revere Beach Rumney Marsh Salisbury Beach Sandy Point Scusset Beach Stony Brook Upper Charles River Wachusett Mountain Walden Pond Weymouth Wilson Mountain

State Parks: Other	Appalachian Trail Ashuwillticook Rail Trail Cape Cod Rail Trail Fort Revere Lake Dennison Recreation Area Lower Neponset River Trail Nashua River Rail Trail Norwottuck Rail Trail Quabbin Reservoir Southwest Corridor Park Squantum Point Park Streeter Point Recreation Area Sudbury Reservoir Wachusett Reservoir Ware River Watershed Area

State Forests	Barnstable Beartown Brimfield Chester-Blandford DAR Douglas Erving F. Gilbert Hills Federated Women's Club Freetown-Fall River Georgetown Rowley Granville Harold Parker Kenneth Dubuque Memorial Leominster Lowell-Dracut-Tyngsboro Manuel F. Correllus Mohawk Trail Monroe Mount Grace Mount Washington Myles Standish October Mountain Otter River Pittsfield Sandisfield Savoy Mountain Shawme-Crowell Spencer Tolland Upton Wendell Willard Brook Willowdale Windsor

Wildlife Management Areas	Agawam Lake Agawam Mill Pond Ashby Ashfield Hawley Attitash Ayer Game Farm Baddacook Pond Bakers Pond Bay Circuit Trail Bearse Pond Becket Bennett Birch Hill Black Brook Blackstone / West River Bolton Flats Boxboro Station Brayton Point Salt Marsh Breakneck Brook Brewer Brook Bullock Ledge Burrage Pond Canoe River Catamount Chalet Chase Garden Creek Salt Marsh Childs River Chockalog Swamp Church Homestead Clapps Pond Clinton Bluff Concord River Connecticut River Cook Pond Copicut Coy Hill Crane Pond Cummington Cusky Pond Dartmoor Farm Darwin Scott Memorial Day Mountain Deerfield River Dogfish Bar Beach Coastal Dolomite Ledges Dunstable Brook E. Kent Swift Eagle Island East Mountain Eastham Salt Marsh Elbow Meadow English Salt Marsh Eugene D. Moran Facing Rock Fairfield Brook Farmington River Fish Brook Fisherville Pond Fisk Forestdale Lot Fisk Meadows Five Mile River Flagg Swamp Flint Pond Four Chimneys Fox Den Fox Island Salt Marsh Frances A. Crane Freetown Swamp George L. Darey Housatonic Valley Glen Echo Lake Gosnold Grassy Pond (Dennis) Grassy Pond (Plymouth) Green River (Franklin County) Green River (Berkshire County) Greenfield River Halfway Pond Hamilton Hancock Harlow / Cooks Pond Haskell Swamp Hauk Swamp Hawksnest State Park Hawley Head Of The Plains Herman Covey High Ridge Hinsdale Flats Hiram H. Fox Hockomock Swamp Hog Pond Lot Honey Pot Hoosatonic River Hoosic River Hop Brook Housatonic River Hubbard Brook Hunting Hills Hyannis Ponds Ipswich River John J. Kelly Jug End Fen Jug End Kampoosa Fen Katama Plains Knops Pond Konkapot River Lackey Pond Lake Lorraine Lake Rohunta Lake Snipatuit Lake Warner Lanesboro Lawrence Brook Lawrence Pond Lot Leadmine Leyden Lilly Pond Little Alum Pond Long Sought For Pond Maple Hill Maple Springs Martha Deering Martin H. Burns Mascuppic Lake Mashpee Pine Barrens Mashpee Pond Lot Mashpee River Massachusetts Military Reservation Mckinstry Brook Meetinghouse Swamp Merrill Pond Miacomet Heath Mill River Millers River Mine Brook Montague Plains Montague Moose Brook Moose Brook Moose Hill Mossy Pond Mount Watatic Reservation Mt. Esther Mt. Toby Highlands Mt. Toby Mt. Tom Muddy Brook Muddy Pond Mulpus Brook Nashua River Natty Brook Nemasket River Nissitissit River Noquochoke Nordeen Marsh North Brookfield North Shore Salt Marsh Northboro Oakham Olivers Pond Orange Otis Packard Pond Palmer Pantry Brook Pauchaug Brook Peru Peterson Swamp Phillipston Podunk Marsh Poland Brook Popple Camp Popponesset Beach Poutwater Pond Powell Brook Prince River Provincetown Route 6 Corridor Purchade Brook Quaboag Quacumquasit Quag Pond Bog Quashnet River Quashnet Woods State Reservation Quinapoxet River Quinsigamond Marsh Quisset Raccoon Hill Rainbow Beach Red Brook Richardson Robbins Pond Rochester Rocky Gutter Rowe Salisbury Salt Marsh Salisbury Salt Marsh Sandwich Game Farm Sandy Pond Satan's Kingdom Savage Hill Savoy Sawmill River Scorton Creek Coastal SE Mass Bioreserve Sevenmile River Shattuck Brook Sheperds Island Shubael Pond Sibley Brook Sly Pond South Barrier Beach South Meadow Pond South Shore Salt Marsh South Triangle Pond Southampton Southwick Spectacle Pond Springhill Lot Sputtermill Pond Squannacook River Stafford Hill Sudbury River Sunderland Islands Taconic Mountain Taunton River Taunton River Tekoa Mountain Thad Ellis Thayer Pond Three Mile Pond Townsend Townsend Hill Trapfall Brook Triangle Pond Tully Brook Tully Mountain Tully River Wakeby Pond Wales Walnut Hill Ware River Warwick Wendell West Meadows Westboro Westfield River Westfield Weymouth Back River Whately Great Swamp Whately Ponds Whately Wilbraham Game Farm William Forward Williams River Williamsburg Winimusset Wolf Swamp

Wildlife Sanctuaries	Billingsgate Island Carr Island E. Howe Forbush Egg Rock Grace A. Robson J.C. Phillips Knight Penikese Island Ram Island (Salisbury) Ram Island (Mattapoisett) Susan B. Minns Tarpaulin Cove Watatic Mountain

Private

The Nature Conservancy	Roger and Virginia Drury Preserve Tatkon Preserve McElwain-Olsen Preserve Reed Brook Preserve Hawley Bog Preserve Stacy Mountain Preserve Greene Swamp Preserve Black Pond Bog Nature Preserve Halfway Pond Island Preserve Grassy Pond Preserve Boat Meadow Preserve Sandy Neck Preserve Hockomock Swamp David H. Smith Preserve and Fire Trail Hoft Farm Preserve Katama Plains Preserve Francis Newhall Woods Nature and Wildlife Preserve Miacomet Moors Preserve Homer-Watcha Preserve

Trustees of Reservations	Agassiz Rock Appleton Farms Appleton Farms Grass Rides Ashintully Gardens Bartholomew's Cobble Bear's Den Bear Swamp Colonel John Ashley House Francis William Bird Park Eleanor Cabot Bradley Estate Bridge Island Meadows Brooks Woodland Preserve William Cullen Bryant Homestead Cape Poge Wildlife Refuge Cedariver Castle Hill Chapel Brook Charles River Peninsula Chase Woodlands Chesterfield Gorge Coolidge Reservation Copicut Woods Cormier Woods Coskata-Coatue Wildlife Refuge Crane Beach Crane Wildlife Refuge Crowninshield Island Dexter Drumlin Dinosaur Footprints Doane's Falls Doyle Reservation Dry Hill East Over Reservation Elliott Laurel Field Farm Fork Factory Brook Glendale Falls Goose Pond Reservation Greenwood Farm Halibut Point Reservation Hamlin Reservation Holmes Reservation Governor Hutchinson's Field Jacobs Hill Little Tom Mountain Long Hill Long Point Wildlife Refuge Lowell Holly Reservation Lyman Reserve Malcolm Preserve Mashpee River Reservation McLennan Reservation Medfield Meadow Lots Medfield Rhododendrons Menemsha Hills Misery Islands Mission House Monument Mountain Moose Hill Farm Mount Ann Park Mountain Meadow Preserve Mytoi Naumkeag Noanet Woodlands Noon Hill Norris Reservation North Common Meadow Norton Point Beach Notchview Old Manse Old Town Hill Peaked Mountain Pegan Hill Peters Reservation Petticoat Hill Pierce Reservation Pine and Hemlock Knoll Powisset Farm Questing Quinebaug Woods Ravenswood Park Redemption Rock Rock House Reservation Rocky Narrows Rocky Woods Royalston Falls Shattuck Reservation Signal Hill Slocum's River Reserve Stavros Reservation The Stevens-Coolidge Place Swift River Reservation Tantiusques Tully Lake Campground Two Mile Farm Tyringham Cobble Ward Reservation Wasque Weir Hill Weir River Farm Westport Town Farm Whitney and Thayer Woods World's End

Audubon Society Wildlife Sanctuaries	Arcadia Broad Meadow Brook Broadmoor Drumlin Farm High Ledges Ipswich River North River Pleasant Valley Stony Brook Wachussett Meadow Wellfleet Bay

Other	Concord Land Conservation Trust Harvard Forest Lincoln Land Conservation Trust Lynn Woods Reservation

Executive Office of Energy and Environmental Affairs (Massachusetts)

Current Mayors of cities with populations exceeding 100,000 in Massachusetts

Thomas Menino
(Boston)

Joseph M. Petty
(Worcester)

Domenic J Sarno
(Springfield)

Patrick O. Murphy
(Lowell)

Kenneth Reeves^[a]
(Cambridge)

^[a] acting

Other states: AL; AK; AZ; AR; CA; CO; CT; DE; FL; GA; HI; ID; IL; IN; IA; KS; KY; LA; ME; MD; MA; MI; MN; MS; MO; MT; NE; NV; NH; NJ; NM; NY; NC; ND; OH; OK; OR; PA; RI; SC; SD; TN; TX; UT; VT; VA; WA; WV; WI; WY

Topics

Rail	MBTA (MA and RI) Northeast Corridor (CT, MA, and RI) Acela Express (CT, MA, and RI) Downeaster (ME, NH, and MA) Vermonter (CT, MA, and VT) Shore Line East (CT) Metro-North Railroad (CT and NY) High-speed Northern New England (proposed)

Air	Bradley International Airport (CT) Portland International Jetport (ME) Logan International Airport (MA) Manchester-Boston Regional Airport (NH) T. F. Green Airport (RI) Burlington International Airport (VT)

v t e The Thirteen Colonies of Colonial America

Connecticut Colony Delaware Colony Province of Georgia Province of Maryland Province of Massachusetts Bay Province of New Hampshire Province of New York Province of New Jersey Province of North Carolina Province of Pennsylvania Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations Province of South Carolina Colony of Virginia

v t e Colonial Colleges

Brown Columbia Dartmouth Harvard Penn Princeton Rutgers William & Mary Yale

v t e Political divisions of the United States

States	Alabama Alaska Arizona Arkansas California Colorado Connecticut Delaware Florida Georgia Hawaii Idaho Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri Montana Nebraska Nevada New Hampshire New Jersey New Mexico New York North Carolina North Dakota Ohio Oklahoma Oregon Pennsylvania Rhode Island South Carolina South Dakota Tennessee Texas Utah Vermont Virginia Washington West Virginia Wisconsin Wyoming

Federal district	Washington, D.C. (District of Columbia)

Insular areas	American Samoa Guam Northern Mariana Islands Puerto Rico U.S. Virgin Islands

Outlying islands	Bajo Nuevo Bank Baker Island Howland Island Jarvis Island Johnston Atoll Kingman Reef Midway Atoll Navassa Island Palmyra Atoll Serranilla Bank Wake Island

United States topics

History

Timeline	Pre-Columbian era Colonial era (Thirteen Colonies, Colonial American military history) American Revolution (War) Federalist Era War of 1812 Territorial acquisitions Territorial evolution Mexican–American War Civil War Reconstruction era Indian Wars Gilded Age African-American Civil Rights Movement (1896–1954) Spanish–American War Imperialism World War I Roaring Twenties Great Depression World War II (Home front) Cold War Korean War Space Race African-American Civil Rights Movement (1955–1968) Feminist Movement Vietnam War Post-Cold War (1991–present) War on Terror (War in Afghanistan, Iraq War) Timeline of modern American conservatism

Topics	Demographic Discoveries Economic (Debt Ceiling) Inventions (before 1890, 1890–1945, 1946–1991, after 1991) Military Postal Technological and industrial

Federal
government

Law	Constitution Federalism Preemption Separation of powers Bill of Rights Civil liberties Code of Federal Regulations Federal Reporter United States Code United States Reports

Legislature - Congress	Senate Vice President President pro tem House of Representatives Speaker

Judiciary - Supreme Court	Federal courts Courts of appeal District courts

Executive - President	Executive Office Cabinet / Executive departments Civil service Independent agencies Law enforcement Public policy

Intelligence	Central Intelligence Agency Defense Intelligence Agency National Security Agency Federal Bureau of Investigation

Uniformed Services	Dept. of Defense Air Force Army Marine Corps Navy National Guard Dept. of Homeland Security Coast Guard Dept. of Commerce NOAA Corps Dept. of Health & Human Services Public Health Service Corps

Politics

Geography

Cities, towns, and villages
Counties
Extreme points
Islands
Mountains
- Peaks
- Appalachian
- Rocky
National Park System
Regions
Rivers
- Colorado
- Columbia
- Mississippi
- Missouri
- Ohio
- Rio Grande
States
Territory
Water supply and sanitation

Economy

Society

Topics	Crime Demographics Education Family structure Health care Health insurance Incarceration Languages American English Spanish French Media People Public holidays Religion Sports

Social class	Affluence American Dream Educational attainment Homelessness Homeownership Household income Income inequality Middle class Personal income Poverty Professional and working class conflict Standard of living Wealth

Culture	Architecture Art Cinema Cuisine Dance Fashion Flag Folklore Literature Music Philosophy Radio Television Theater

Issues	Abortion Affirmative action Anti-Americanism Capital punishment Drug policy Energy policy Environmental movement Exceptionalism Gun politics Health care reform Human rights Immigration Illegal Immigration LGBT rights Same-sex marriage Obesity Racism Interpretation of "Separation of church and state" Terrorism

Book
Category
Portal
WikiProject

	Vermont • New Hampshire	Maine
New York		Atlantic Ocean
	Massachusetts: Outline • Index East

New Jersey	Connecticut • Rhode Island	Cape Cod Martha's Vineyard • Nantucket Island

Preceded by Connecticut	List of U.S. states by constitutional ratification date Ratified Constitution on February 6, 1788 (6th)	Succeeded by Maryland

Coordinates: 42°18′N 71°48′W / 42.3°N 71.8°W / 42.3; -71.8

http://wn.com/Massachusetts

http://de.wn.com/Massachusetts

http://es.wn.com/Massachusetts

http://ru.wn.com/Массачусетс

http://cs.wn.com/Massachusetts

http://pt.wn.com/Massachusetts

http://pl.wn.com/Massachusetts

http://hi.wn.com/मैसाचूसिट्स

http://it.wn.com/Massachusetts

http://id.wn.com/Massachusetts

http://nl.wn.com/Massachusetts

http://fr.wn.com/Massachusetts

This page contains text from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massachusetts

This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.

The pageant of the world's first technical Institute, the Berg-Schola, Selmecbánya, Hungary; today, the University of Miskolc.

File:Coat-of-arms-university-of-miskolc.png

The Coat of Arms of the University of Miskolc, est. 1735.

File:UTN.png

The emblem of the National Technological University, the main institute of technology in Argentina.

Institute of technology is a designation employed in a wide range of learning institutions awarding different types of degrees and operating often at variable levels of the educational system. It may be a world renowned institution of higher education and advanced engineering and scientific research or professional vocational education, specializing in science, engineering, and technology or different sorts of technical subjects. It may also refer to a secondary education school focused in vocational training.

The term polytechnic comes from the Greek πολύ (polú or polý) meaning "many" and τεχνικός (tekhnikós) meaning "arts". The term institute of technology, for its part, is often abbreviated IT; the term is not to be confused with information technology.

While the terms institute of technology and polytechnic are synonymous, the preference concerning which one is the preferred term varies from country to country.

1 Institutes of technology versus polytechnics
2 Argentina
3 Australia
- 3.1 1970s–1990s
- 3.2 1990s–today
4 Austria
- 4.1 Technische Universität
- 4.2 Research institutions
- 4.3 Technical faculties at universities
- 4.4 Fachhochschulen
5 Belarus
6 Belgium and the Netherlands
7 Canada
- 7.1 Affiliate Schools
- 7.2 Colleges
- 7.3 Institutes of Technology/Polytechnic Institutes
- 7.4 Universities
8 Czech Republic
- 8.1 Technical Universities
- 8.2 Research institutions
- 8.3 Technical faculties at Universities
9 Denmark
10 Egypt
11 Ethiopia
12 Finland
- 12.1 Universities of Technology
- 12.2 Polytechnics
13 French language areas
- 13.1 Instituts de technologie (grandes écoles)
- 13.2 Universités technologiques / instituts universitaires de technologie / polytechs
- 13.3 Écoles polytechniques
14 Germany
- 14.1 Fachhochschule / Hochschule
- 14.2 Technische Universität
15 Greece
16 Hong Kong
17 Hungary
18 India
- 18.1 The Indian Institutes of Technology
- 18.2 The National Institutes of Technology
19 Iran
20 Iraq
21 Ireland
22 Israel
23 Italy
24 Jamaica
25 Japan
26 Jordan
27 Malaysia
28 Mauritius
29 New Zealand
30 Pakistan
31 Philippines
32 Poland
33 Portugal
34 Russia
35 Singapore
36 Slovakia
37 South Africa
38 Sri Lanka
39 Switzerland
40 Thailand
41 Turkey
42 Ukraine
43 United Kingdom
44 United States
45 Venezuela
46 Vietnam
47 See also
48 References
49 External links

Institutes of technology versus polytechnics [link]

This article or section appears to contradict itself. Please see the talk page for more information. (February 2011)

The institutes of technology and polytechnics have been in existence since at least the 18th century, but became popular after World War II with the expansion of applied science education, associated with the new needs created by industrialization. The world's first institution of technology, the Berg-Schola (today University of Miskolc^[1]) was founded by the Court Chamber of Vienna in Selmecbánya Hungary in 1735 in order to train specialists of precious metal and copper mining according to the requirements of the industrial revolution in Hungary. The oldest German Institute of Technology is the University of Braunschweig (founded in 1745 as "Collegium Carolinum"). Another exception is the École Polytechnique, which has educated French élites since its foundation in 1794. In some cases, polytechnics or institutes of technology are engineering schools or technical colleges. However this early "Technology schools" were not parts of the Higher Education in the beginnings. The so-called BME University of Hungary (Founded as: "Institutum Geometrico-Hydrotechnicum" in 1782) is considered the oldest institution of technology in the world, which has university rank and structure. Sometimes, also institutes of technology are engineering and science research intense universities when they meet conditions necessary to be formally considered a university: autonomy to offer master's and doctoral degrees and independence as research institutions. In the USA famous examples include MIT, Caltech, NYIT, Virginia Tech, Georgia Tech, Illinois Tech, Polytechnic Institute of NYU, New Jersey Institute of Technology, Worcester Polytechnic Institute, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Rose-Hulman Institute of Technology, and Rochester Institute of Technology. In India, Indian Institutes of Technology are specific elite institutes which were based on a post WWII recommendation for industrialization.

In several countries, like Germany, the Netherlands, Switzerland and Turkey, institutes of technology and polytechnics are institutions of higher education, and have been accredited to award academic degrees and doctorates. Famous examples are the Istanbul Technical University, ETH Zurich, İYTE, Delft University of Technology and RWTH Aachen, all considered universities.

In countries like Iran, Finland, Malaysia, Portugal, Singapore or the United Kingdom, there is often a significant and confused distinction between polytechnics and universities. In the UK Polytechnics offered university equivalent degrees from bachelor's, master's and PhD that were validated by the independent UK Council for National Academic Awards. In 1992 UK Polytechnics were designated as universities. The UK's first polytechnic, the Royal Polytechnic Institution (now the University of Westminster) was founded in 1838 in Regent Street, London. In Ireland the term institute of technology is more favored synonym of a regional technical college though the latter is the legally correct term; however, Dublin Institute of Technology is a university in all but name as it can confer degrees in accordance with law, Cork Institute of Technology^[2] and another of other Institutes of Technology have delegated authority from HETAC to make awards to and including Master's degree level—Level 9 of the National Framework for Qualifications (NFQ)—for all areas of study and Doctorate level in a number of others.

In a number of countries, although being today generally considered similar institutions of higher learning across many countries, polytechnics and institutes of technology used to have a quite different statute among each other, its teaching competences and organizational history. In many cases polytechnic were a former designation for a vocational institution, before it has been granted the exclusive right to award academic degrees and can be truly called an institute of technology. A number of polytechnics providing higher education is simply a result of a formal upgrading from their original and historical role as intermediate technical education schools. In some situations, former polytechnics or other non-university institutions have emerged solely through an administrative change of statutes, which often included a name change with the introduction of new designations like institute of technology, polytechnic university, university of applied sciences, or university of technology for marketing purposes.^[3]^[4] Such emergence of so many upgraded polytechnics, former vocational education and technical schools converted into more university-like institutions has caused concern where the lack of specialized intermediate technical professionals lead to industrial skill shortages in some fields, being also associated to an increase of the graduate unemployment rate. This is mostly the case in those countries, where the education system is not controlled by the state and everybody can grant degrees. Evidence have also shown a decline in the general quality of teaching and graduate's preparation for the workplace, due to the fast-paced conversion of that technical institutions to more advanced higher level institutions.^[5]^[6]

Mentz, Kotze and Van der Merwe (2008)^[7] argues that all the tools are in place to promote the debate on the place of technology in higher education in general and in Universities of Technology specifically. The aspects of this debate can follow the following lines: • To what degree is technology defined as a concept? • What is the scope of technology discourse? • What is the place and relation of science with technology? • How useful is the Mitcham framework in thinking about technology in South Africa? • Can a measure of cooperation as opposed to competition be achieved amongst higher education institutions? • Who ultimately is responsible for vocational training and what is the role of technology in this?

Argentina [link]

In the so called Latin American docta the main higher institution advocates to the study of technology is the National Technological University which has brand ramifications through all the country geographic space in the way of Regional Faculties. The Buenos Aires Institute of Technology (ITBA) is other important recognized institute of technology with renowned and prestige in the country.

Australia [link]

1970s–1990s [link]

During the 1970s to early 1990s, the term was used to describe state owned and funded technical schools that offered both vocational and higher education. They were part of the College of Advanced Education system. In the 1990s most of these merged with existing universities, or formed new ones of their own. These new universities often took the title University of Technology, for marketing rather than legal purposes. AVCC report The most prominent such university in each state founded the Australian Technology Network a few years later.

1990s–today [link]

Since the mid 1990s, the term has been applied to some technically minded technical and further education (TAFE) institutes. These primarily offer vocational education, although some are beginning to offer higher education. This usage of the term is most prevalent in NSW and the ACT. The new terminology is apt given that this category of institution are becoming very much like the institutes of the 1970s–1990s period.

In Tasmania in 2009 the old college system and TAFE Tasmania have started a 3 year restructure to become the Tasmanian Polytechnic www.polytechnic.tas.edu.au, Tasmanian Skills Institute www.skillsinstitute.tas.edu.au and Tasmanian Academy www.academy.tas.edu.au

In the higher education sector, there are five designated Universities of Technology in Australia:

Austria [link]

The world's first technical institute the Berg-Schola was founded in the Austro-Hungarian Empire in 1735 by the Chamber of Vienna.

Technische Universität [link]

These institutions grant can grant habilitation and doctoral degrees and focus on research.

Graz University of Technology (11.000 students, founded 1811, Hochschule since 1865, doctoral degrees since 1901, University since 1975)
Vienna University of Technology (15.000 students, founded 1815, Hochschule since 1872, doctoral degrees since 1901, University since 1975)
University of Natural Resources and Applied Life Sciences Vienna focused on agriculture (8600 students, founded as Hochschule in 1872, doctoral degrees since 1906, University since 1975)
University of Leoben specialized in mining, metallurgy, and materials (2.700 students, founded 1840, Hochschule since 1904, doctoral degrees since 1906, University since 1975)

Research institutions [link]

These institutions focus only on research.

Austrian Institute of Technology (founded 1956)
Institute of Science and Technology Austria (founded 2007)

Technical faculties at universities [link]

Some Universities have a Faculty of Technology that can grant habilitation and doctoral degrees and focus on research.

Johannes Kepler University of Linz (Faculty of Engineering and Natural Sciences founded 1965, University since 1975)
University of Innsbruck (Faculty of civil engineering founded 1969)
University of Klagenfurt (Faculty of Technical Sciences founded 2007)

Fachhochschulen [link]

Fachhochschule is a German type of tertiary education institution and adopted later in Austria and Switzerland. They do not focus exclusively on technology, but may also offer courses in social science, medicine, business and design. They grant bachelor's degrees and master's degrees, and focus more on teaching than research and more on specific professions than on science.

In 2010, there were 20 Fachhochschulen in Austria^[8]

Belarus [link]

Belgium and the Netherlands [link]

Hogeschool is used in Belgium and Hogere Technische School (HTS) in the Netherlands. The hogeschool has many similarities to the Fachhochschule in the German language areas and to the ammattikorkeakoulu in Finland.

Hogeschool institutions in the Flemish Community of Belgium (such as the Erasmus Hogeschool Brussel) are currently undergoing a process of academization. They form associations with a university and integrate research into the curriculum, which will allow them to deliver academic master's degrees.

In the Netherlands, four former institutes of technology have become universities over the past decades. These are the current three Technical Universities (at Delft, Eindhoven and Enschede), plus the former agricultural institute in Wageningen. A list of all hogescholen in the Netherlands, including some which might be called polytechnics, can be found here.

Canada [link]

In Canada, there are Affiliate Schools, Colleges, Institutes of Technology/Polytechnic Institutes, and Universities that offer instruction in a variety of programs that can lead to: applied degrees, apprenticeship and trade programs, certificates, diplomas, and degrees. Affiliate Schools are polytechnic divisions belonging to a national university and offer select technical and engineering programs. Colleges, Institutes of Technology/Polytechnic Institutes, and Universities tend to be independent institutions.

Credentials are typically conferred at the undergraduate level, however university-affiliated schools like the École de technologie supérieure and the École Polytechnique de Montréal (both of which are located in Quebec), also offer graduate and postgraduate programs, in accordance with provincial higher education guidelines. Canadian higher education institutions, at all levels, undertake directed and applied research with financing allocated through public funding, private equity, or industry sources.

Some of Canada's most esteemed colleges and polytechnic institutions also partake in collaborative institute-industry projects, leading to technology commercialization, made possible through the scope of Polytechnics Canada; a national alliance of ten leading research-intensive colleges and institutes of technology.

Universities [link]

Kwantlen Polytechnic University (polytechnic university in Surrey, British Columbia)
Ryerson University (university in Toronto, Ontario) - While not a polytechnic anymore, Ryerson was one of the originators of applied education in Ontario, and Canada. It dropped the term polytechnic in 1993 when it was able to grant master degrees, using the term University instead, and changed the name of some degree designations to bring it inline with other "traditional" universities.
UOIT or University of Ontario Institute of Technology (university in Oshawa, Ontario)

Czech Republic [link]

See also Category: Universities in the Czech Republic

Technical Universities [link]

Czech Technical University in Prague (ČVUT), founded in 1707, 23.000 students, it belongs to the oldest technical universities in the world. www.cvut.cz/en
Technical University of Ostrava (VŠB TUO), founded in 1849, 22.000 students. en.vsb.cz
Brno University of Technology (VUT), founded in 1899, 24.000 students. www.vutbr.cz
Czech University of Life Sciences Prague (ČZU), founded in 1904, focused on agriculture, 18.000 students. www.czu.cz
Mendel University Brno (MENDELU), founded in 1919, focused on agriculture, 9.000 students. www.mendelu.cz
Technical University of Liberec (TUL), founded in 1953, 8.000 students. www.tul.cz
Tomáš Baťa University in Zlín (UTB), founded in 2000, 10.000 students. www.utb.cz

Research institutions [link]

Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic (AV ČR), dates back to 1784, 14.000 research staff altogether. www.avcr.cz

Technical faculties at Universities [link]

University of West Bohemia (Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Electrical Engineering; University founded in 1991)
University of Pardubice (Faculty of Chemical Technology since 1950, Jan Perner Faculty of Transportation since 1991, Institute of Electrical Engineering and Informatics since 2002)
Jan Evangelista Purkyně University in Ústí nad Labem (Faculty of Production Technology and Management, University founded in 1991)

Denmark [link]

Technical University of Denmark

Egypt [link]

Higher Technological Institute

Ethiopia [link]

Mekelle Institute of Technology

Mekelle Institute of Technology is located at Ainalem, 5 kilometers outside of Mek'ele, the capital of the Tigray Region of Ethiopia.

Mekelle Institute of Technology(MIT)'s mission is to provide high quality education, training and research in the areas of science and technology to produce qualified professionals that can apply their knowledge and skills in the country's development.

MIT raises funds from non-governmental organizations and individuals who support the mission and objectives of the Institute. Tigray Development Association, its supporters, and REST have provided the initial funds for the launching of the Institute. As a result of the unstinting efforts made by the Provisional Governing Board to obtain technical and financial assistance, the Institute has so far secured financial and material support as well as pledges of sponsorship for 50 students, covering their tuition fees, room and board up to graduation. The MIT has also been able to create linkages with some universities and colleges in the United States of America, which have provided manpower and material support to MIT. The institute is governed by a provisional governing board.

MIT graduated its first batch of 142 students 7 July 2007. Currently the campus is teaching around 300 students attending in Engineering faculty.

Finland [link]

Universities of Technology [link]

Universities of Technology are categorised as universities, are allowed to grant B.Sc. (Tech.), M.Sc. (Tech.), Lic.Sc. (Tech.), Ph.D. and D.Sc.(Tech.) degrees and roughly correspond to Instituts de technologie of French-speaking areas and Technische Universität of Germany in prestige. In addition to universities of technology, some universities, e.g. University of Oulu and Åbo Akademi University, are allowed to grant the B.Sc. (tech.), M.Sc. (tech.) and D.Sc. (Tech.) degrees.

Universities of Technology are academically similar to other (non-polytechnic) universities. Prior to Bologna process, M.Sc. (Tech.) required 180 credits, whereas M.Sc. from a normal university required 160 credits. The credits between Universities of Technology and normal universities are comparable.

Some Finnish Universities of Technology are:

Aalto University, formed from Helsinki University of Technology and other universities
Tampere University of Technology
Lappeenranta University of Technology

Polytechnics [link]

Polytechnic schools are distinct from academic universities in Finland. Ammattikorkeakoulu is the common term in Finland, as is the Swedish alternative "yrkeshögskola" – their focus is on studies leading to a degree (for instance insinööri, engineer; in international use, Bachelor of Engineering) in kind different from but in level comparable to an academic Bachelor's degree awarded by a university. After January 1, 2006, some Finnish ammattikorkeakoulus switched the English term "polytechnic" to the term "university of applied sciences" in the English translations of their legal names. The ammattikorkeakoulu has many similarities to the hogeschool in Belgium and in the Netherlands and to the Fachhochschule in the German language areas.

Some recognized Finnish polytechnics are:

a complete list may be found in List of polytechnics in Finland

French language areas [link]

Instituts de technologie (grandes écoles)[link]

Collegiate universities grouping several engineering schools or multi-site clusters of French grandes écoles provide sciences and technology curricula as autonomous higher education engineering institutes. They include :

They provide science and technology master degrees and doctoral degrees.

[edit] Universités technologiques / instituts universitaires de technologie / polytechs

France education system also includes three universities of technology:

In addition, France's education system includes many institutes of technology, embedded within most French universities. They are referred-to as institut universitaire de technologie (IUT). Instituts universitaires de technologie provide undergraduate technology curricula. 'Polytech institutes', embedded as a part of eleven French universities provide both undergraduate and graduate engineering curricula.

In the French speaking part of Switzerland exists also the term haute école specialisée for a type of institution called Fachhochschule in the German speaking part of the country. (see below).

Écoles polytechniques [link]

Higher education systems, that are influenced by the French education system set at the end of the 18th century, use a terminology derived by reference to the French École polytechnique. Such terms include Écoles Polytechniques (Algeria, Belgium, Canada, France, Switzerland, Tunisia), Escola Politécnica (Brasil, Spain), Polytechnicum (Eastern Europe).

In French language, higher education refers to écoles polytechniques, providing science and engineering curricula:

Germany [link]

Fachhochschule / Hochschule [link]

Fachhochschulen and Hochschulen were first founded in the early 1970s. They do not focus exclusively on technology, but may also offer courses in social science, medicine, business and design. They grant bachelor's degrees and master's degrees, and focus more on teaching than research and more on specific professions than on science.

In 2009/10, there existed about 200 Fachhochschulen in Germany.^[9] See the German wikipedia for a list.

Technische Universität [link]

Technische Universität (abbreviation: TU) are the common terms for universities of technology or technical university. These institutions can grant habilitation and doctoral degrees and focus on research.

The nine largest and most renowned Technische Universitäten in Germany have formed TU9 German Institutes of Technology as community of interests. Technische Universitäten normally have faculties or departements of natural sciences and often of economics but can also have units of cultural and social sciences and arts. RWTH Aachen, TU Dresden and TU München also have a faculty of medicine associated with university hospitals (Klinikum Aachen, University Hospital Dresden, Rechts der Isar Hospital).

There are 17 universities of technology in Germany with about 290,000 students enrolled. The four states of Bremen, Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, Saxony-Anhalt and Schleswig-Holstein are not operating a Technische Universität. Saxony and Lower Saxony have the highest counts of TUs, while in Saxony three out of four universities are universities of technology.

List of *Technische Universitäten* in Germany
Name	Land	Foundation	Students	Notes
Rheinisch-Westfälische Technische Hochschule (RWTH Aachen)	North Rhine-Westphalia	1870	32,943	member of TU9
Berlin Institute of Technology	Berlin	1770	29,234	member of TU9
Brandenburg Technical University	Brandenburg	1991	6,400	in Cottbus
Technische Universität Braunschweig Carolo-Wilhelmina	Lower Saxony	1745	15,500	member of TU9, oldest TU in Germany
Chemnitz University of Technology	Saxony	1836	10,317
Clausthal University of Technology	Lower Saxony	1775	3,199
Technische Universität Darmstadt	Hesse	1877	20,800	member of TU9
Technische Universität Dresden	Saxony	1824	34,993	member of TU9, largest TU in Germany by students enrolled
Dortmund University of Technology	North Rhine-Westphalia	1968	22,012
Technische Universität Bergakademie Freiberg	Saxony	1765	4,508	one of the world's oldest universities of mining
Technische Universität Hamburg-Harburg	Hamburg	1978	5,000
Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz Universität Hannover	Lower Saxony	1831	21,800	member of TU9
Technische Universität Ilmenau	Thuringia	1894	7,200
Technische Universität Kaiserslautern	Rhineland-Palatinate	1970	12,510
Karlsruhe Institute of Technology Fridericiana	Baden-Württemberg	1825	18,245	member of TU9
Technische Universität München	Bavaria	1868	21,608	member of TU9
University of Stuttgart	Baden-Württemberg	1829	19,702	member of TU9

Niedersächsische Technische Hochschule is a joint-venture of TU Clausthal, TU Braunschweig and University of Hanover. Some universities in Germany can also be seen as institutes of technology due to comprising a wide spread of technical sciences and having a history as a technical university. Examples are

University of Duisburg-Essen
Otto-von-Guericke University Magdeburg
University of Rostock with a tradition in ship building and engineering

Greece [link]

Main articles: Polytechnic (Greece) and Technological Educational Institute

In Greece, there are 2 "Polytechnics" part of the public higher education in Greece and they confer a 5-year Diplom Uni (300E.C.T.S – I.S.C.E.D. 5A), the National Technical University of Athens and the Technical University of Crete. Also, there are Greek Higher Technological Educational Institutes (Ανώτατα Τεχνολογικά Εκπαιδευτικά Ιδρύματα – Α.T.E.I). After the N.1404/1983 Higher Education Reform Act (Ν.1404/1983 - 2916/2001 - Ν. 3549/2007) the Technological Educational Institute constitute, a parallel, equivalent and complementary part of the public higher education in Greece. They confer 4-year bachelor's degree (Diplom FH) (240E.C.T.S – I.S.C.E.D. 5A).

Hong Kong [link]

The first polytechnic in Hong Kong is The Hong Kong Polytechnic, established in 1972 through upgrading the Hong Kong Technical College (Government Trade School before 1947). The second polytechnic, the City Polytechnic of Hong Kong, was founded in 1984. These polytechnics awards diplomas, higher diplomas, as well as academic degrees. Like the United Kingdom, the two polytechnics were granted university status in 1994, and renamed The Hong Kong Polytechnic University and the City University of Hong Kong respectively. The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, a university with a focus in applied science, engineering and business, was founded in 1991.

Hungary [link]

The world's first Institute of Technology the Berg-Schola established in Hungary ( today University of Miskolc, re-established in 1949 as Technical University of Heavy Industry in Miskolc). It was founded in Selmecbánya as the Royal Hungarian Academy of Mining and Forestry in 1735.
Budapest University of Technology and Economics, one of the oldest universities of technology of the world is located in Budapest (est. 1782).

India [link]

There are 16 autonomous Indian Institutes of Technology in addition to 30 National Institutes of Technology which are Government Institutions. In addition to these there are many other Universities which offer higher technical courses. The Authority over technical education in India is the AICTE.

The Indian Institutes of Technology [link]

The National Institutes of Technology [link]

Iran [link]

Tehran Polytechnic or Amirkabir University of Technology, Tehran.
Sharif University of Technology, Tehran.
Isfahan University of Technology, Isfahan.
Iran University of Science and Technology, Tehran.
K. N. Toosi University of Technology, Tehran.
Sahand University of Technology, Tabriz.
Shahrood University of Technology, Shahrood.
Faculty of Engineering (دانشکده فنی) of Tehran University, Tehran.
Faculty of Technology and Engineering of Shiraz University, Shiraz.
Faculty of Technology and Engineering of Mashhad University, Mashhad.
Faculty of Technology and Engineering of Tabriz University, Tabriz.
Faculty of Technology and Engineering of Arak University, Arak.

Iraq [link]

University of Technology, Iraq

Ireland [link]

Ireland has an "Institute of Technology" system, formerly referred to as Regional Technical College (RTCs) system – the latter term is still the correct legal term for the colleges when used generically or collectively but this term is now seldom used. The terms "IT" and "IT's" are now widely used to describe an Institute(s) of Technology. These institutions offer sub-degree, degree and post-graduate level studies. Unlike the Irish university system an Institute of Technology also offers sub-degree programmes such as 2 year Higher Certificate programme in various academic fields of study. Some institutions have "delegated authority" that allows them to make awards in their own name, after authorisation by the Higher Education & Training Awards Council.

Dublin Institute of Technology developed separately from the Regional Technical College system, and after several decades of association with the University of Dublin, Trinity College it acquired the authority to confer its own degrees.

The IOTI, is the representative body for the various Institutes of Technology in Ireland.^[10]

Israel [link]

Technion – Israel Institute of Technology in 2010 ranked 38 in the world.

Italy [link]

In Italy the term Politecnico is used to refer to a university of applied sciences. Currently there are three Politecnici in the country:

In 2003 the Italian Ministry of Education, Universities and Research and the Ministry of Economy and Finance jointly established the Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia (Italian Institute of Technology), which has an headquarter in Genoa and 10 laboratories around Italy.

Jamaica [link]

University of Technology, Jamaica, in Kingston, Jamaica.

Japan [link]

See the Tokyo Institute of Technology and the Imperial College of Engineering, forerunner of The University of Tokyo's engineering faculty. See also Kyushu Institute of Technology, Osaka Institute of Technology and Nagoya Institute of Technology.

Jordan [link]

Princess Sumaya University for Technology in Amman.
Jordan University of Science and Technology in Irbid.
New York Institute of Technology, Jordan campus.
Balqa Applied University in Salt.

Malaysia [link]

Mauritius [link]

The only technical university in Mauritius is the University of Technology, Mauritius with its main campus situated in La Tour Koenig, Pointe aux Sables. It has a specialized mission with a technology focus. It applies traditional and beyond traditional approaches to teaching, training, research and consultancy. The university has been founded with the aim to play a key role in the economic and social development of Mauritius through the development of programmes of direct relevance to the country’s needs, for example in areas like technology, sustainable development science, and public sector policy and management.

New Zealand [link]

New Zealand polytechnics are established under the Education Act 1989 as amended, and are considered state-owned tertiary institutions along with universities, colleges of education, and wānanga; there is today often much crossover in courses and qualifications offered between all these types of Tertiary Education Institutions. Some have officially taken the title 'institute of technology' which is a term recognized in government strategies equal to that of the term 'polytechnic'. One has opted for the name 'Universal College of Learning' (UCOL), and another 'Unitec New Zealand'. These are legal names but not recognized terms like 'polytechnic' or 'institute of technology'. Many if not all now grant at least bachelor-level degrees.

Since the 1990s, there has been consolidation in New Zealand's state-owned tertiary education system. In the polytechnic sector: Wellington Polytechnic amalgamated with Massey University. The Central Institute of Technology explored a merger with the Waikato Institute of Technology, which was abandoned, but later, after financial concerns, controversially amalgamated with Hutt Valley Polytechnic, which in turn became Wellington Institute of Technology. Some smaller polytechnics in the North Island, such as Waiarapa Polytechnic, amalgamated with UCOL. (The only other amalgamations have been in the colleges of education.)

The Auckland University of Technology is the only polytechnic to have been elevated to university status; while Unitec has had repeated attempts blocked by government policy and consequent decisions; Unitec has not been able to convince the courts to overturn these decisions.

Pakistan [link]

The Polytechnic institutes in Pakistan, offer a diploma spanning three years in different branches. Students are admitted to the diploma program based on their results in the 10th grade standardized exams. The main purpose of Polytechnic Institutes is to train people in various trades.

These institutes are located throughout Pakistan and have been in service since early 1950s.

After successfully completing a diploma at a polytechnic, students can gain lateral entry to engineering degree (under graduate) courses called BE, which are conducted by engineering colleges affiliated to universities.

Philippines [link]

Cebu Institute of Technology – University, a premier engineering school located in Cebu City, Philippines in the Visayas region. The University is known to have high selectivity in admissions as well as excellence in engineering research and education.
Cebu Technological University
Far Eastern University - East Asia College, an engineering school operating under the Far Eastern University system. The college consistently tops various board exams for engineering students in the Philippines.
Mapúa Institute of Technology, an engineering school in the Philippines
Polytechnic University of the Philippines, a state university in the Philippines that is also referred to as the National Comprehensive University of the Philippines.
Rizal Technological University, the only university that offers degree courses in astronomy.
Technological University of the Philippines
Technological Institute of the Philippines
Mindanao State University - Iligan Institute of Technology, the premier state university in the southern Philippines, and the science and technology flagship campus of the Mindanao State University System (the second biggest university system in the Philippines next to the University of the Philippines).
Bicol University-center in teaching excellence,offers IT Courses and a well known university.

Poland [link]

Politechnika (translated as a "technical university" or "university of technology") is a main kind of technical university name in Poland. There are some biggest Polytechnic in Poland:

Other polytechnical universities:

Portugal [link]

Main article: Polytechnic (Portugal)

The designation "Institute of Technology" is not applied at all, being meaningless in Portugal. However, there are higher education educational institutions in Portugal since the 1980s, which are called polytechnics. After 1998 they were upgraded to institutions which are allowed to confer bachelor's degrees (the Portuguese licenciatura). Before then, they only awarded short-cycle degrees which were known as bacharelatos and did not provide further education. After the Bologna Process in 2007, they have been allowed to offer 2nd cycle (master's) degrees to its students. The polytechnical higher education system provides a more practical training and is profession-oriented, while the university higher education system has a strong theoretical basis and is highly research-oriented.

Russia [link]

Singapore [link]

Slovakia [link]

Slovak University of Technology in Bratislava

South Africa [link]

Cape Peninsula University of Technology

Tshwane University of Technology

South Africa has completed a process of transforming its "higher education landscape". Historically a division in South Africa between Universities and Technikons (polytechnics) as well between institutions servicing particular racial and language groupings. In 1993 Technikons were afforded the power to award certain technology degrees. Beginning in 2004 former Technikons have either been merged with traditional Universities to form Comprehensive Universities or have become Universities of Technology, however the Universities of Technology have not to date acquired all of the traditional rights and privileges of a University (such as the ability to confer a wide range of degrees).

In an article by Jan Mentz, Paula Kotze and Alta van der Merwe (2008) ^[12] the authors looks at the role of Universities of Technologies after the merger.

Sri Lanka [link]

Main article: Technical College (Sri Lanka)

Switzerland [link]

Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule Zürich (ETH Zurich)
École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL)

Thailand [link]

Turkey [link]

Ukraine [link]

Donbas State Technical University

Donetsk National Technical University

Kyiv Polytechnic Institute

Kharkiv Polytechnic Institute

Lviv Polytechnic National University

United Kingdom [link]

Main article: Polytechnic (United Kingdom)

Polytechnics were tertiary education teaching institutions in England, Wales and Northern Ireland. Polytechnics offered university equivalent degrees (bachelor's, master's, PhD) validated by the UK Council for National Academic Awards CNAA. They particularly excelled in engineering and applied science degree courses similar to technological universities in the USA and continental Europe . The comparable institutions in Scotland were collectively referred to as Central Institutions. Britain's first Polytechnic, the Royal Polytechnic Institution later known as the Polytechnic of Central London (now the University of Westminster) was established in 1838 at Regent Street in London and its goal was to popularize engineering and science knowledge in Victorian Britain.

In 1956, some colleges of technology received the designation College of Advanced Technology. They became universities in the 1960s. The designation "Institute of Technology" was occasionally used by polytechnics (Bolton), Central Institutions (Dundee, Robert Gordon's), and postgraduate universities, (Cranfield and Wessex), most of which later adopted the designation University, and there were two "Institutes of Science and Technology": UMIST and UWIST of the University of Wales. Loughborough University was called Loughborough University of Technology from 1966 to 1996, the only institution in the UK to have had such a designation.

United States [link]

Main article: Institute of Technology (United States)

Polytechnic Institutes are elite technological universities many dating back to the mid 19th century. A handful of American universities include the phrases "Institute of Technology", "Polytechnic Institute", "Polytechnic University", or similar phrasing in their names; these are generally research-intensive universities with a focus on engineering, science and technology. Conversely, schools dubbed "technical colleges" or "technical institutes" generally provide post-secondary training in technical and mechanical fields focusing on training vocational skills primarily at a community college level—parallel and sometimes equivalent to the first two years at a bachelor's-granting institution.

Venezuela [link]

Institutes of technology in Venezuela were developed in the 1950s as an option for post-Secondary education in technical and scientific courses, after the polytechnic French concepts. At that time, technical education was considered essential for the development of a sound middle class economy.

Nowadays, most of the Institutos de Tecnología are privately run businesses, with varying degrees of quality.

Most of these institutes award diplomas after three or three and a half years of education. The Institute of technology implementation(IUT from Instituto universitario de tecnologia on Spanish) began with the Creation of the first IUT at Caracas, capital city of Venezuela, called IUT. Dr Federico Rivero Palacio adopting the French "Institut Universitaire de Technologie"s system, using French personnel and study system based on 3 year periods, with research and engineering facilities with same level than the main national universities to obtain French equivalent degrees. this IUT is the first and the only one on Venezuela having French equivalent degrees accepted, implementing this system and observing the high level degrees some other IUT's were created on Venezuela, regardlees of this the term IUT was not used apropiately resulting on some institutions with a medium quiality and no equivalent degree on France. after this some private institutions created are using the IUT abbreviation on their names but they are no regulated by the original French system and give lower quality degrees.

Vietnam [link]

After the communists took control of Hanoi in 1954, with support from Soviet Union, many new universities were built:

Hanoi University of Technology the first technical university in Vietnam (were built in 1956)
Le Quy Don Technical University,
Water Resources University (Vietnam)
Ho Chi Minh City University of Technology
Da Nang University of Technology
Vietnam Maritime University

References [link]

^ Berg-Schola, a School of Mining and Metallurgy
^ Report of the Delegated Authority Evaluation Group on the Cork Institute of Technology
^ Heita, Desie (14 January 2005). "Status of Polytechnic still pending". Namibia Economist. http://www.economist.com.na/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=15285:status-of-polytechnic-still-pending&catid=555:archives.
^ Name change on the cards for APU, 2006 Anglia Ruskin University, United Kingdom. Retrieved June 2006.
^ "Producing New Workers: quality, equality and employability in higher education – Quality in Higher Education, Vol. 7, No. 2, 2001", Louise Morley, University of London Institute of Education. Retrieved June 2006.
^ First destination graduate employment as key performance indicator: outcomes assessment perspectives, Prof. Johan Bruwer, unit for institutional planning and research, Cape Technikon, South Africa, November 1998. Retrieved June 2006.
^ Mentz, J., Kotzé, P., Van der Merwe, A. (2008). Searching for the Technology in University of Technology. South African Computer Journal, Vol 42, December 2008, pp. 29–37.
^ http://www.bmwf.gv.at/startseite/hochschulen/fachhochschulen/
^ http://www.destatis.de/jetspeed/portal/cms/Sites/destatis/Internet/DE/Content/Statistiken/BildungForschungKultur/Hochschulen/AktuellZusatz,templateId=renderPrint.psml#Fussnote1
^ http://www.ioti.ie/ Institutes of Technology Ireland
^ http://www.straitstimes.com/BreakingNews/Singapore/Story/STIStory_500237.html 'The Straits Times : Degrees for poly grads '
^ Mentz, J., Kotzé, P., Van der Merwe, A. (2008). Searching for the Technology in University of Technology. South African Computer Journal, Vol 42, December 2008, pp. 29–37. http://www.sabinet.co.za/abstracts/comp/comp_v42_a10.html

External links [link]

School types

by educational stage

Early childhood

Preschool · Pre-K · Kindergarten · Nursery school

Primary education

Elementary school · Primary school

Secondary education

Adult high school · Comprehensive school · Grammar school · Gymnasium · High school · Lyceum · Middle school · Secondary school · Sixth form college · University-preparatory school · Upper school

Tertiary education

Higher education	Academy · College · Community college · Graduate school · Institute of technology · Junior college · University · Upper division college · Vocational university

Continuing education · Further education · Vocational school

by funding / eligibility

Academy (England) · Charter school · Comprehensive school · For-profit education · Free education · Free school (England) · Independent school · Independent school (United Kingdom) (Preparatory school (United Kingdom) · Public school (United Kingdom)) · Private school · Selective school · Separate school · State or public school · University Technical College

by style of education

Adult education · Alternative school · Boarding school · Day school · Folk high school · Free skool · Homeschool · International school · K-12 · Madrasah · Magnet school · Montessori school · Parochial school · Virtual school

by scope

College preparatory · Compulsory education · Democratic education · Gifted education · Remedial education · Vocational education

http://wn.com/Institute_of_technology

http://fr.wn.com/Institut de technologie

http://nl.wn.com/Technische universiteit

http://pt.wn.com/Escola politécnica

http://de.wn.com/Polytechnikum

http://it.wn.com/Politecnico

http://cs.wn.com/Polytechnika

http://id.wn.com/Politeknik

http://pl.wn.com/Politechnika

This page contains text from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_of_technology

This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.

Walter H.G. Lewin
A 2003 photo of Lewin
Born	(1936-01-29) January 29, 1936 (age 76) Netherlands
Residence	Netherlands, United States
Nationality	Dutch
Fields	Astrophysics
Institutions	MIT
Alma mater	Delft University of Technology
Notable awards	NASA Award for Exceptional Scientific Achievement (1978) Alexander von Humboldt Award (1984 and 1991) Guggenheim Fellowship (1984) MIT Science Council Prize for Excellence in Undergraduate Teaching (1984), W. Buechner Teaching Prize (1988) Everett Moore Baker Memorial Award for Excellence in Undergraduate Teaching (2003)

Walter H. G. Lewin (born January 29, 1936), PhD, is a Dutch American astrophysicist and professor emeritus of physics at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT).

1 Education and career
2 Lectures
3 Selected publications
4 Selected books
5 See also
6 References
7 Further reading
8 External links

Education and career [link]

He earned his Ph.D. degree in nuclear physics in 1965 at the Delft University of Technology in the Netherlands.

Walter Lewin went to MIT in January 1966 as a post-doctoral associate, and became an assistant professor later that year.^[1] He joined an X-ray astronomy group at MIT and conducted all-sky balloon surveys with George W. Clark. Through the late seventies, there were about twenty successful balloon flights. These balloon surveys led to the discovery of five new X-ray sources, which doubled the number known at the time. Furthermore, some of these X-ray sources were found to be varying, and some were X-ray flares. The rockets used by other researchers could not have discovered that the X-ray sources varied because they were only in the air for a few minutes, whereas the balloons could be in the air for many hours. The surveys also resulted in the discovery of GX 1+4, which was the first slowly rotating X-ray pulsar found.

Walter Lewin received the "2003 Everett Moore Baker Memorial Award for Excellence in Undergraduate Teaching" award. Some of his lectures are available online in video format.

Lewin is also an art enthusiast and collector. He has given one lecture in art history for MIT World.^[2]

Lectures [link]

Many of the Walter Lewin Lectures on Physics at MIT have been shown for over six years on UWTV in Seattle, reaching an audience of about four million people. Lewin personally responded to hundreds of e-mail requests that he received per year from UWTV viewers. For fifteen years he was on MIT Cable TV, with programs aired 24 hours per day helping freshmen with their weekly homework assignments. Videos of Lewin's lectures on Newtonian Mechanics, Electricity and Magnetism, and Vibrations and Waves, among others, can be viewed from the MIT OpenCourseWare web site, and easily viewed as video podcasts on The Internet Archive.

A video of Lewin drawing dashed lines on chalkboards during lectures has become a viral video.^[3]

Selected publications [link]

Lewin, Walter H.G.; Jan van Paradijs, Ronald E. Taam (204-10-27). "X-ray Bursts". Space Science Reviews 62 (3-4): 223–389. Bibcode 1993SSRv...62..223L. DOI:10.1007/BF00196124.

D. Pooley, W.H.G. Lewin, S.F. Anderson, H. Baumgardt, A.V. Filippenko, B.M. Gaensler, L. Homer, P. Hut, V.M. Kaspi, B. Margon, S. McMillan, S. Portegies Zwart, M. van der Klis, & F. Verbunt (2003). "Dynamical Formation of Close Binary Systems in Globular Clusters". Astrophysical Journal 591 (2): L131–L134. arXiv:astro-ph/0305003. Bibcode 2003ApJ...591L.131P. DOI:10.1086/377074.

J. Miller, A. Fabian, R. Wijnands, R. Remillard, P. Wojdowski, N. Schulz, T. Di Matteo, H. Marshall, C. Canizares, & W. Lewin (2002). "Resolving the Composite Fe K-alpha Emission Line in the Galactic Black Hole Cygnus X-1 with Chandra". Astrophysical Journal 578: 348–356. arXiv:astro-ph/0202083. Bibcode 2002ApJ...578..348M. DOI:10.1086/342466.

D. Pooley, W. Lewin, L. Homer, S. Anderson, B. Gaensler, B. Margon, F. Verbunt, J. Miller, D. Fox, V. Kaspi & M. v.d. Klis (2002). "Optical Identifications of Multiple Faint X-ray Sources in the Globular Cluster NGC~6752: Evidence for Numerous Cataclysmic Variables". Astrophysical Journal 569: 405. arXiv:astro-ph/0110192. Bibcode 2002ApJ...569..405P. DOI:10.1086/339210.

C. Kouveliotou, J. van Paradijs, G. J. Fishman, M. S. Briggs, J. Kommers, B. A. Harmon, C. A. Meegan, W. H. G. Lewin (1996). "Discovery of a New Type of Burster from the Galactic Center Region". Nature 379 (6568): 799. Bibcode 1996Natur.379..799K. DOI:10.1038/379799a0.

M. v.d. Klis, J. Swank, W. Zhang, K. Jahoda, E. Morgan, W. Lewin, B. Vaughan, & J. van Paradijs (1996). "Discovery of Sub millisecond Quasi-periodic Oscillations in the X-ray Flux of Scorpius X-1". Astrophysical Journal 469: L1. arXiv:astro-ph/9607047. Bibcode 1996ApJ...469L...1V. DOI:10.1086/310251.

W.H.G. Lewin, G.W. Clark and W.B. Smith (1968). "Observation of an X-Ray Flare from Sco X-1". Astrophysical Journal (Letters) 152: L55. Bibcode 1968ApJ...152L..55L. DOI:10.1086/180177.

Selected books [link]

Lewin, Walter; Goldstein, Warren, For the Love of Physics: From the End of the Rainbow to the Edge of Time - A Journey Through the Wonders of Physics, Simon and Schuster, 2011. ISBN 978-1-4391-0827-7
Lewin, Walter; van der Klis, Michiel (editors), Compact stellar X-ray sources, Cambridge ; New York : Cambridge University Press, 2006. ISBN 978-0-521-82659-4
Lewin, Walter H.G.; van Paradijs, Jan; van den Heuvel, Edward P.J., (editors), X-ray binaries, Cambridge ; New York : Cambridge University Press, 1995. ISBN 0-521-41684-1
Truemper, J.; Lewin, W.H.G.; Brinkmann, W., (editors), The evolution of galactic X-ray binaries, Dordrecht, Holland ; Boston : D. Reidel Pub. Co.; Hingham, MA : Sold and distributed in the U.S.A. and Canada by Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1986. ISBN 90-277-2184-X

References [link]

^ Instructor Profile: Walter Lewin at MIT OpenCourseWare (archived 2009)
^ "Looking at 20th Century Art through the Eyes of a Physicist - Walter Lewin (video)", MIT World, January 14, 2004
^ http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=l789l6np-qA&feature=related

External links [link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Walter Lewin

Walter Lewin's page at MIT
MIT Physics Department website
Walter Lewin's Physics I Course Page with Video Lectures
Walter Lewin's Physics II Course Page with Video Lectures
Walter Lewin's Physics III Course Page with Video Lectures
WalterLewin's Physics I Course on iTunes U (needs iTunes)
WalterLewin's Physics II Course on iTunesU (needs iTunes)
WalterLewin's Physics III Course on iTunesU (needs iTunes)
The Elegant Universe PBS Video featuring Walter Lewin
Walter Lewin Playlist Appearance on WMBR's Dinnertime Sampler radio show February 4, 2004

http://wn.com/Walter_Lewin

http://nl.wn.com/Walter Lewin

http://pt.wn.com/Walter Lewin

http://de.wn.com/Walter Lewin

http://it.wn.com/Walter Lewin

http://es.wn.com/Walter Lewin

This page contains text from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_Lewin

This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.

"Barack" and "Obama" redirect here. For other uses, see Barak (disambiguation) and Obama (disambiguation). For President Obama's father, the Kenyan economist, see Barack Obama, Sr.

Barack Obama

44th President of the United States
Incumbent
Assumed office January 20, 2009
Vice President	Joe Biden
Preceded by	George W. Bush
United States Senator from Illinois
In office January 3, 2005 – November 16, 2008
Preceded by	Peter Fitzgerald
Succeeded by	Roland Burris
Member of the Illinois Senate from the 13th District
In office January 8, 1997 – November 4, 2004
Preceded by	Alice Palmer
Succeeded by	Kwame Raoul
Personal details
Born	Barack Hussein Obama II (1961-08-04) August 4, 1961 (age 50)^[1] Honolulu, Hawaii, U.S.^[2]
Political party	Democratic
Spouse(s)	Michelle Robinson (1992–present)
Children	Malia (born 1998) Sasha (born 2001)
Residence	White House (Official) Chicago, Illinois (Private)
Alma mater	Occidental College Columbia University (B.A.) Harvard Law School (J.D.)
Profession	Community organizer Lawyer Constitutional law professor Author
Religion	Christianity^[3]
Awards	Nobel Peace Prize
Signature
Website	barackobama.com

	This article is part of a series on Barack Obama
Background Illinois Senate US Senate Political positions Public image Family 2008 primaries Obama–Biden campaign Transition Inauguration Electoral history Presidency Timeline '09 '10 '11 '12 First 100 days Nobel Peace Prize Re-election campaign

Barack Hussein Obama II (ⁱ/bəˈrɑːk huːˈseɪn oʊˈbɑːmə/; born August 4, 1961) is the 44th and current President of the United States. He is the first African American to hold the office. In January 2005, Obama was sworn in as a U.S. Senator in the state of Illinois. He would hold this office until November 2008, when he resigned following his victory in the 2008 presidential election.

Born in Honolulu, Hawaii, Obama is a graduate of Columbia University and Harvard Law School, where he was the president of the Harvard Law Review. He was a community organizer in Chicago before earning his law degree. He worked as a civil rights attorney in Chicago and taught constitutional law at the University of Chicago Law School from 1992 to 2004. He served three terms representing the 13th District in the Illinois Senate from 1997 to 2004.

Following an unsuccessful bid against the Democratic incumbent for a seat in the United States House of Representatives in 2000, Obama ran for the United States Senate in 2004. Several events brought him to national attention during the campaign, including his victory in the March 2004 Illinois Democratic primary for the Senate election and his keynote address at the Democratic National Convention in July 2004. He won election to the U.S. Senate in Illinois in November 2004. His presidential campaign began in February 2007, and after a close campaign in the 2008 Democratic Party presidential primaries against Hillary Rodham Clinton, he won his party's nomination. In the 2008 presidential election, he defeated Republican nominee John McCain, and was inaugurated as president on January 20, 2009. Nine months later, Obama was named the 2009 Nobel Peace Prize laureate. In April 2011, he announced that he would be running for re-election in 2012.

As president, Obama signed economic stimulus legislation in the form of the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 and the Tax Relief, Unemployment Insurance Reauthorization, and Job Creation Act of 2010. Other domestic policy initiatives include the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act, the Dodd–Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act, the Don't Ask, Don't Tell Repeal Act of 2010, and the Budget Control Act of 2011. In May 2012, he became the first sitting U.S. president to openly support legalizing same-sex marriage. In foreign policy, he ended the war in Iraq, increased troop levels in Afghanistan, signed the New START arms control treaty with Russia, ordered U.S. involvement in the 2011 Libya military intervention, and ordered the military operation that resulted in the death of Osama bin Laden.

Early life and career [link]

Main article: Early life and career of Barack Obama

Obama was born on August 4, 1961, at Kapiʻolani Maternity & Gynecological Hospital (now Kapiʻolani Medical Center for Women and Children) in Honolulu, Hawaii,^[2]^[4]^[5] and is the first President to have been born in Hawaii.^[6] His mother, Stanley Ann Dunham, was born in Wichita, Kansas, and was of mostly English ancestry,^[7] along with Scottish, Irish, German, and Swiss.^[8]^[9]^[10]^[11]^[12] His father, Barack Obama, Sr., was a Luo from Nyang’oma Kogelo, Nyanza Province, Kenya. Obama's parents met in 1960 in a Russian class at the University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa, where his father was a foreign student on scholarship.^[13]^[14] The couple married on February 2, 1961,^[15] separated when Obama Sr. went to Harvard University on scholarship, and divorced in 1964.^[13] Obama Sr. remarried and returned to Kenya, visiting Barack in Hawaii only once, in 1971. He died in an automobile accident in 1982.^[16]

After her divorce, Dunham married Indonesian Lolo Soetoro, who was attending college in Hawaii. When Suharto, a military leader in Soetoro's home country, came to power in 1967, all Indonesian students studying abroad were recalled, and the family moved to the Menteng neighborhood of Jakarta.^[4]^[17] From ages six to ten, Obama attended local schools in Jakarta, including Besuki Public School and St. Francis of Assisi School.^[18]

File:Ann Dunham with father and children.jpg

Barack Obama with his half-sister Maya Soetoro-Ng, mother Ann Dunham and grandfather Stanley Dunham, in Hawaii

In 1971, Obama returned to Honolulu to live with his maternal grandparents, Madelyn and Stanley Armour Dunham, and with the aid of a scholarship attended Punahou School, a private college preparatory school, from fifth grade until his graduation from high school in 1979.^[19] Obama's mother returned to Hawaii in 1972, remaining there until 1977 when she went back to Indonesia to work as an anthropological field worker. She finally returned to Hawaii in 1994 and lived there for one year before dying of ovarian cancer.^[15]^[20]

Of his early childhood, Obama recalled, "That my father looked nothing like the people around me—that he was black as pitch, my mother white as milk—barely registered in my mind."^[14] He described his struggles as a young adult to reconcile social perceptions of his multiracial heritage.^[21] Reflecting later on his years in Honolulu, Obama wrote: "The opportunity that Hawaii offered—to experience a variety of cultures in a climate of mutual respect—became an integral part of my world view, and a basis for the values that I hold most dear."^[22] Obama has also written and talked about using alcohol, marijuana, and cocaine during his teenage years to "push questions of who I was out of my mind."^[23] At the 2008 Civil Forum on the Presidency, Obama described his high-school drug use as a great moral failure.^[24]

Following high school, Obama moved to Los Angeles in 1979 to attend Occidental College. In February 1981, he made his first public speech, calling for Occidental to divest from South Africa in response to its policy of apartheid.^[25] In mid-1981, Obama traveled to Indonesia to visit his mother and sister Maya, and visited the families of college friends in Pakistan and India for three weeks.^[25] Later in 1981, he transferred to Columbia University in New York City, where he majored in political science with a specialty in international relations^[26] and graduated with a Bachelor of Arts in 1983. He worked for a year at the Business International Corporation,^[27] then at the New York Public Interest Research Group.^[28]^[29]

Chicago community organizer and Harvard Law School [link]

Two years after graduating, Obama was hired in Chicago as director of the Developing Communities Project (DCP), a church-based community organization originally comprising eight Catholic parishes in Roseland, West Pullman, and Riverdale on Chicago's South Side. He worked there as a community organizer from June 1985 to May 1988.^[29]^[30] He helped set up a job training program, a college preparatory tutoring program, and a tenants' rights organization in Altgeld Gardens.^[31] Obama also worked as a consultant and instructor for the Gamaliel Foundation, a community organizing institute.^[32] In mid-1988, he traveled for the first time in Europe for three weeks and then for five weeks in Kenya, where he met many of his paternal relatives for the first time.^[33] He returned to Kenya in August 2006 for a visit to his father's birthplace, a village near Kisumu in rural western Kenya.^[34]

In late 1988, Obama entered Harvard Law School. He was selected as an editor of the Harvard Law Review at the end of his first year,^[35] and president of the journal in his second year.^[31]^[36] During his summers, he returned to Chicago, where he worked as an associate at the law firms of Sidley Austin in 1989 and Hopkins & Sutter in 1990.^[37] After graduating with a J.D. magna cum laude^[38] from Harvard in 1991, he returned to Chicago.^[35] Obama's election as the first black president of the Harvard Law Review gained national media attention^[31]^[36] and led to a publishing contract and advance for a book about race relations,^[39] which evolved into a personal memoir. The manuscript was published in mid-1995 as Dreams from My Father.^[39]

University of Chicago Law School and civil rights attorney [link]

In 1991, Obama accepted a two-year position as Visiting Law and Government Fellow at the University of Chicago Law School to work on his first book.^[39]^[40] He then taught at the University of Chicago Law School for twelve years—as a Lecturer from 1992 to 1996, and as a Senior Lecturer from 1996 to 2004—teaching constitutional law.^[41]

From April to October 1992, Obama directed Illinois's Project Vote, a voter registration campaign with ten staffers and seven hundred volunteer registrars; it achieved its goal of registering 150,000 of 400,000 unregistered African Americans in the state, leading Crain's Chicago Business to name Obama to its 1993 list of "40 under Forty" powers to be.^[42] In 1993, he joined Davis, Miner, Barnhill & Galland, a 13-attorney law firm specializing in civil rights litigation and neighborhood economic development, where he was an associate for three years from 1993 to 1996, then of counsel from 1996 to 2004. His law license became inactive in 2002.^[43]

From 1994 to 2002, Obama served on the boards of directors of the Woods Fund of Chicago, which in 1985 had been the first foundation to fund the Developing Communities Project; and of the Joyce Foundation.^[29] He served on the board of directors of the Chicago Annenberg Challenge from 1995 to 2002, as founding president and chairman of the board of directors from 1995 to 1999.^[29]

Legislative career: 1997–2008 [link]

State Senator: 1997–2004 [link]

Main article: Illinois Senate career of Barack Obama

Obama was elected to the Illinois Senate in 1996, succeeding State Senator Alice Palmer as Senator from Illinois's 13th District, which at that time spanned Chicago South Side neighborhoods from Hyde Park – Kenwood south to South Shore and west to Chicago Lawn.^[44] Once elected, Obama gained bipartisan support for legislation that reformed ethics and health care laws.^[45] He sponsored a law that increased tax credits for low-income workers, negotiated welfare reform, and promoted increased subsidies for childcare.^[46] In 2001, as co-chairman of the bipartisan Joint Committee on Administrative Rules, Obama supported Republican Governor Ryan's payday loan regulations and predatory mortgage lending regulations aimed at averting home foreclosures.^[47]

Obama was reelected to the Illinois Senate in 1998, defeating Republican Yesse Yehudah in the general election, and was reelected again in 2002.^[48] In 2000, he lost a Democratic primary run for the U.S. House of Representatives to four-term incumbent Bobby Rush by a margin of two to one.^[49]

In January 2003, Obama became chairman of the Illinois Senate's Health and Human Services Committee when Democrats, after a decade in the minority, regained a majority.^[50] He sponsored and led unanimous, bipartisan passage of legislation to monitor racial profiling by requiring police to record the race of drivers they detained, and legislation making Illinois the first state to mandate videotaping of homicide interrogations.^[46]^[51] During his 2004 general election campaign for U.S. Senate, police representatives credited Obama for his active engagement with police organizations in enacting death penalty reforms.^[52] Obama resigned from the Illinois Senate in November 2004 following his election to the U.S. Senate.^[53]

U.S. Senate campaign [link]

County results of the 2004 U.S. Senate race in Illinois. Counties in blue were won by Obama.

In May 2002, Obama commissioned a poll to assess his prospects in a 2004 U.S. Senate race; he created a campaign committee, began raising funds, and lined up political media consultant David Axelrod by August 2002. Obama formally announced his candidacy in January 2003.^[54]

Obama was an early opponent of the George W. Bush administration's 2003 invasion of Iraq.^[55] On October 2, 2002, the day President Bush and Congress agreed on the joint resolution authorizing the Iraq War,^[56] Obama addressed the first high-profile Chicago anti-Iraq War rally,^[57] and spoke out against the war.^[58] He addressed another anti-war rally in March 2003 and told the crowd that "it's not too late" to stop the war.^[59]

Decisions by Republican incumbent Peter Fitzgerald and his Democratic predecessor Carol Moseley Braun to not participate in the election resulted in wide-open Democratic and Republican primary contests involving fifteen candidates.^[60] In the March 2004 primary election, Obama won in an unexpected landslide—which overnight made him a rising star within the national Democratic Party, started speculation about a presidential future, and led to the reissue of his memoir, Dreams from My Father.^[61] In July 2004, Obama delivered the keynote address at the 2004 Democratic National Convention,^[62] seen by 9.1 million viewers. His speech was well received and elevated his status within the Democratic Party.^[63]

Obama's expected opponent in the general election, Republican primary winner Jack Ryan, withdrew from the race in June 2004.^[64] Six weeks later, Alan Keyes accepted the Republican nomination to replace Ryan.^[65] In the November 2004 general election, Obama won with 70 percent of the vote.^[66]

U.S. Senator: 2005–2008 [link]

Main article: United States Senate career of Barack Obama

Obama was sworn in as a senator on January 3, 2005,^[67] becoming the only Senate member of the Congressional Black Caucus.^[68] CQ Weekly characterized him as a "loyal Democrat" based on analysis of all Senate votes in 2005–2007. Obama announced on November 13, 2008, that he would resign his Senate seat on November 16, 2008, before the start of the lame-duck session, to focus on his transition period for the presidency.^[69]

Legislation [link]

Obama cosponsored the Secure America and Orderly Immigration Act.^[70] He introduced two initiatives that bore his name: Lugar–Obama, which expanded the Nunn–Lugar cooperative threat reduction concept to conventional weapons;^[71] and the Federal Funding Accountability and Transparency Act of 2006, which authorized the establishment of USAspending.gov, a web search engine on federal spending.^[72] On June 3, 2008, Senator Obama—along with Senators Tom Carper, Tom Coburn, and John McCain—introduced follow-up legislation: Strengthening Transparency and Accountability in Federal Spending Act of 2008.^[73]

Obama sponsored legislation that would have required nuclear plant owners to notify state and local authorities of radioactive leaks, but the bill failed to pass in the full Senate after being heavily modified in committee.^[74] Regarding tort reform, Obama voted for the Class Action Fairness Act of 2005 and the FISA Amendments Act of 2008, which grants immunity from civil liability to telecommunications companies complicit with NSA warrantless wiretapping operations.^[75]

Gray-haired man and Obama stand, wearing casual polo shirts. Obama wears sunglasses and holds something slung over his right shoulder.

Obama and U.S. Sen. Richard Lugar (R-IN) visit a Russian facility for dismantling mobile-missiles (August 2005).^[76]

In December 2006, President Bush signed into law the Democratic Republic of the Congo Relief, Security, and Democracy Promotion Act, marking the first federal legislation to be enacted with Obama as its primary sponsor.^[77] In January 2007, Obama and Senator Feingold introduced a corporate jet provision to the Honest Leadership and Open Government Act, which was signed into law in September 2007.^[78] Obama also introduced Deceptive Practices and Voter Intimidation Prevention Act, a bill to criminalize deceptive practices in federal elections,^[79] and the Iraq War De-Escalation Act of 2007,^[80] neither of which was signed into law.

Later in 2007, Obama sponsored an amendment to the Defense Authorization Act to add safeguards for personality-disorder military discharges.^[81] This amendment passed the full Senate in the spring of 2008.^[82] He sponsored the Iran Sanctions Enabling Act supporting divestment of state pension funds from Iran's oil and gas industry, which has not passed committee; and co-sponsored legislation to reduce risks of nuclear terrorism.^[83] Obama also sponsored a Senate amendment to the State Children's Health Insurance Program, providing one year of job protection for family members caring for soldiers with combat-related injuries.^[84]

Committees [link]

Obama held assignments on the Senate Committees for Foreign Relations, Environment and Public Works, and Veterans' Affairs through December 2006.^[85] In January 2007, he left the Environment and Public Works committee and took additional assignments with Health, Education, Labor, and Pensions and Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs.^[86] He also became Chairman of the Senate's subcommittee on European Affairs.^[87] As a member of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee, Obama made official trips to Eastern Europe, the Middle East, Central Asia and Africa. He met with Mahmoud Abbas before Abbas became President of the Palestinian National Authority, and gave a speech at the University of Nairobi in which he condemned corruption within the Kenyan government.^[88]

Presidential campaigns [link]

2008 presidential campaign [link]

Main articles: United States presidential election, 2008, Barack Obama presidential primary campaign, 2008, and Barack Obama presidential campaign, 2008

Obama stands on stage with his family. They wave.

Obama stands on stage with his wife and daughters just before announcing his presidential candidacy in Springfield, Illinois, February 10, 2007.

Two men sit at a distance in front of a desk with their legs crossed and their backs on an angle toward the camera. They sit at right angles to each other.

President George W. Bush meets with President-elect Obama in the Oval Office on November 10, 2008.

On February 10, 2007, Obama announced his candidacy for President of the United States in front of the Old State Capitol building in Springfield, Illinois.^[89]^[90] The choice of the announcement site was viewed as symbolic because it was also where Abraham Lincoln delivered his historic "House Divided" speech in 1858.^[89]^[91] Obama emphasized issues of rapidly ending the Iraq War, increasing energy independence, and providing universal health care,^[92] in a campaign that projected themes of "hope" and "change".^[93]

A large number of candidates entered the Democratic Party presidential primaries. The field narrowed to a duel between Obama and Senator Hillary Rodham Clinton after early contests, with the race remaining close throughout the primary process but with Obama gaining a steady lead in pledged delegates due to better long-range planning, superior fundraising, dominant organizing in caucus states, and better exploitation of delegate allocation rules.^[94] On June 7, 2008, Clinton ended her campaign and endorsed Obama.^[95]

On August 23, Obama announced his selection of Delaware Senator Joe Biden as his vice presidential running mate.^[96] Biden was selected from a field speculated to include former Indiana Governor and Senator Evan Bayh and Virginia Governor Tim Kaine.^[97] At the Democratic National Convention in Denver, Colorado, Hillary Clinton called for her supporters to endorse Obama, and she and Bill Clinton gave convention speeches in his support.^[98] Obama delivered his acceptance speech, not at the center where the Democratic National Convention was held, but at Invesco Field at Mile High to a crowd of over 75,000; the speech was viewed by over 38 million people worldwide.^[99]^[100]

During both the primary process and the general election, Obama's campaign set numerous fundraising records, particularly in the quantity of small donations.^[101] On June 19, 2008, Obama became the first major-party presidential candidate to turn down public financing in the general election since the system was created in 1976.^[102]

McCain was nominated as the Republican candidate and the two engaged in three presidential debates in September and October 2008.^[103] On November 4, Obama won the presidency with 365 electoral votes to 173 received by McCain.^[104] Obama won 52.9 percent of the popular vote to McCain's 45.7 percent.^[105] He became the first African American to be elected president.^[106] Obama delivered his victory speech before hundreds of thousands of supporters in Chicago's Grant Park.^[107]

2012 presidential campaign [link]

Main articles: United States presidential election, 2012 and Barack Obama presidential campaign, 2012

On April 4, 2011, Obama announced his re-election campaign for 2012 in a video titled "It Begins with Us" that he posted on his website and filed election papers with the Federal Election Commission.^[108]^[109]^[110] As the incumbent president he ran almost unopposed in the Democratic Party presidential primaries,^[111] and on April 3, 2012, Obama had secured the 2778 convention delegates needed to win the Democratic nomination.^[112]

Presidency [link]

Main article: Presidency of Barack Obama

First days [link]

Barack Obama takes the oath of office as President of the United States.

The inauguration of Barack Obama as the 44th President, and Joe Biden as Vice President, took place on January 20, 2009. In his first few days in office, Obama issued executive orders and presidential memoranda directing the U.S. military to develop plans to withdraw troops from Iraq.^[113] He ordered the closing of the Guantanamo Bay detention camp,^[114] but Congress prevented the closure by refusing to appropriate the required funds.^[115]^[116]^[117] Obama reduced the secrecy given to presidential records,^[118] and changed procedures to promote disclosure under the Freedom of Information Act.^[119] He also reversed George W. Bush's ban on federal funding to foreign establishments that allow abortions.^[120]

Domestic policy [link]

The first bill signed into law by Obama was the Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Act of 2009, relaxing the statute of limitations for equal-pay lawsuits.^[121] Five days later, he signed the reauthorization of the State Children's Health Insurance Program (SCHIP) to cover an additional 4 million uninsured children.^[122] In March 2009, Obama reversed a Bush-era policy which had limited funding of embryonic stem cell research and pledged to develop "strict guidelines" on the research.^[123]

Barack Obama speaking at Joint session of Congress with Vice President Joe Biden and House Speaker Nancy Pelosi on February 24, 2009

Obama appointed two women to serve on the Supreme Court in the first two years of his Presidency. Sonia Sotomayor, nominated by Obama on May 26, 2009, to replace retiring Associate Justice David Souter, was confirmed on August 6, 2009,^[124] becoming the first Hispanic to be a Supreme Court Justice.^[125] Elena Kagan, nominated by Obama on May 10, 2010, to replace retiring Associate Justice John Paul Stevens, was confirmed on August 5, 2010, bringing the number of women sitting simultaneously on the Court to three, for the first time in American history.^[126]

On September 30, 2009, the Obama administration proposed new regulations on power plants, factories and oil refineries in an attempt to limit greenhouse gas emissions and to curb global warming.^[127]^[128]

On October 8, 2009, Obama signed the Matthew Shepard and James Byrd, Jr. Hate Crimes Prevention Act, a measure that expands the 1969 United States federal hate-crime law to include crimes motivated by a victim's actual or perceived gender, sexual orientation, gender identity, or disability.^[129]^[130]

On March 30, 2010, Obama signed the Health Care and Education Reconciliation Act, a reconciliation bill which ends the process of the federal government giving subsidies to private banks to give out federally insured loans, increases the Pell Grant scholarship award, and makes changes to the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act.^[131]^[132]

In a major space policy speech in April 2010, Obama announced a planned change in direction at NASA, the U.S. space agency. He ended plans for a return of human spaceflight to the moon and development of the Ares I rocket, Ares V rocket and Constellation program, in favor of funding Earth science projects, a new rocket type, and research and development for an eventual manned mission to Mars, and ongoing missions to the International Space Station.^[133]

On December 22, 2010, Obama signed the Don't Ask, Don't Tell Repeal Act of 2010, fulfilling a key promise made in the 2008 presidential campaign^[134]^[135] to end the Don't ask, don't tell policy of 1993 that had prevented gay and lesbian people from serving openly in the United States Armed Forces.^[136]

President Obama's 2011 State of the Union Address focused on themes of education and innovation, stressing the importance of innovation economics to make the United States more competitive globally. He spoke of a five-year freeze in domestic spending, eliminating tax breaks for oil companies and reversing tax cuts for wealthy Americans, banning congressional earmarks, and reducing healthcare costs. He promised that the United States would have one million electric vehicles on the road by 2015 and would be 80% reliant on "clean" electricity.^[137]^[138]

As a candidate for the Illinois state senate Obama had said in 1996 that he favored legalizing same-sex marriage;^[139] but by the time of his run for the U.S. senate in 2004, he said that while he supported civil unions and domestic partnerships for same-sex partners, for strategic reasons he opposed same-sex marriages.^[140] On May 9, 2012, shortly after the official launch of his campaign for re-election as president, Obama said his views had evolved, and he publicly affirmed his personal support for the legalization of same-sex marriage, becoming the first sitting U.S. president to do so.^[141]^[142]

Economic policy [link]

Main article: Economic policy of Barack Obama

Obama presents his first weekly address as President of the United States on January 24, 2009, discussing the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009.

On February 17, 2009, Obama signed the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009, a $787 billion economic stimulus package aimed at helping the economy recover from the deepening worldwide recession.^[143] The act includes increased federal spending for health care, infrastructure, education, various tax breaks and incentives, and direct assistance to individuals,^[144] which is being distributed over the course of several years.

In March, Obama's Treasury Secretary, Timothy Geithner, took further steps to manage the financial crisis, including introducing the Public-Private Investment Program for Legacy Assets, which contains provisions for buying up to $2 trillion in depreciated real estate assets.^[145] Obama intervened in the troubled automotive industry^[146] in March 2009, renewing loans for General Motors and Chrysler to continue operations while reorganizing. Over the following months the White House set terms for both firms' bankruptcies, including the sale of Chrysler to Italian automaker Fiat^[147] and a reorganization of GM giving the U.S. government a temporary 60 percent equity stake in the company, with the Canadian government shouldering a 12 percent stake.^[148] In June 2009, dissatisfied with the pace of economic stimulus, Obama called on his cabinet to accelerate the investment.^[149] He signed into law the Car Allowance Rebate System, known colloquially as "Cash for Clunkers", that temporarily boosted the economy.^[150]^[151]^[152]

Although spending and loan guarantees from the Federal Reserve and the Treasury Department authorized by the Bush and Obama administrations totaled about $11.5 trillion, only $3 trillion had been spent by the end of November 2009.^[153] However, Obama and the Congressional Budget Office predicted that the 2010 budget deficit will be $1.5 trillion or 10.6 percent of the nation's gross domestic product (GDP) compared to the 2009 deficit of $1.4 trillion or 9.9 percent of GDP.^[154]^[155] For 2011, the administration predicted the deficit will slightly shrink to $1.34 trillion, while the 10-year deficit will increase to $8.53 trillion or 90 percent of GDP.^[156] The most recent increase in the U.S. debt ceiling to $16.4 trillion was signed into law on January 26, 2012.^[157] On August 2, 2011, after a lengthy congressional debate over whether to raise the nation's debt limit, Obama signed the bipartisan Budget Control Act of 2011. The legislation enforces limits on discretionary spending until 2021, establishes a procedure to increase the debt limit, creates a Congressional Joint Select Committee on Deficit Reduction to propose further deficit reduction with a stated goal of achieving at least $1.5 trillion in budgetary savings over 10 years, and establishes automatic procedures for reducing spending by as much as $1.2 trillion if legislation originating with the new joint select committee does not achieve such savings.^[158] By passing the legislation, Congress was able to prevent an unprecedented U.S. government default on its obligations.^[159]

Employment statistics (changes in unemployment rate and net jobs per month) during Obama's tenure as U.S. President^[160]^[161]

The unemployment rate rose in 2009, reaching a peak in October at 10.1 percent and averaging 10.0 percent in the fourth quarter. Following a decrease to 9.7 percent in the first quarter of 2010, the unemployment rate fell to 9.6 percent in the second quarter, where it remained for the rest of the year.^[162] Between February and December 2010, employment rose by 0.8 percent, which was less than the average of 1.9 percent experienced during comparable periods in the past four employment recoveries.^[163] GDP growth returned in the third quarter of 2009, expanding at a rate of 1.6 percent, followed by a 5.0 percent increase in the fourth quarter.^[164] Growth continued in 2010, posting an increase of 3.7 percent in the first quarter, with lesser gains throughout the rest of the year.^[164] In July 2010, the Federal Reserve expressed that although economic activity continued to increase, its pace had slowed, and Chairman Ben Bernanke stated that the economic outlook was "unusually uncertain."^[165] Overall, the economy expanded at a rate of 2.9 percent in 2010.^[166]

The Congressional Budget Office and a broad range of economists credit Obama's stimulus plan for economic growth.^[167]^[168] The CBO released a report stating that the stimulus bill increased employment by 1–2.1 million,^[168]^[169]^[170]^[171] while conceding that "It is impossible to determine how many of the reported jobs would have existed in the absence of the stimulus package."^[167] Although an April 2010 survey of members of the National Association for Business Economics showed an increase in job creation (over a similar January survey) for the first time in two years, 73 percent of 68 respondents believed that the stimulus bill has had no impact on employment.^[172]

Within a month of the 2010 midterm elections, Obama announced a compromise deal with the Congressional Republican leadership that included a temporary, two-year extension of the 2001 and 2003 income tax rates, a one-year payroll tax reduction, continuation of unemployment benefits, and a new rate and exemption amount for estate taxes.^[173] The compromise overcame opposition from some in both parties, and the resulting $858 billion Tax Relief, Unemployment Insurance Reauthorization, and Job Creation Act of 2010 passed with bipartisan majorities in both houses of Congress before Obama signed it on December 17, 2010.^[174]

Health care reform [link]

Main article: Health care reform in the United States

Obama signs bill at desk while others look on.

Barack Obama signs the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act at the White House, March 23, 2010

Obama called for Congress to pass legislation reforming health care in the United States, a key campaign promise and a top legislative goal.^[175] He proposed an expansion of health insurance coverage to cover the uninsured, to cap premium increases, and to allow people to retain their coverage when they leave or change jobs. His proposal was to spend $900 billion over 10 years and include a government insurance plan, also known as the public option, to compete with the corporate insurance sector as a main component to lowering costs and improving quality of health care. It would also make it illegal for insurers to drop sick people or deny them coverage for pre-existing conditions, and require every American carry health coverage. The plan also includes medical spending cuts and taxes on insurance companies that offer expensive plans.^[176]^[177]

On July 14, 2009, House Democratic leaders introduced a 1,017-page plan for overhauling the U.S. health care system, which Obama wanted Congress to approve by the end of 2009.^[175] After much public debate during the Congressional summer recess of 2009, Obama delivered a speech to a joint session of Congress on September 9 where he addressed concerns over the proposals.^[178] In March 2009, Obama lifted a ban on stem cell research.^[179]

File:PPACA Premium Chart.jpg

Maximum Out-of-Pocket Premium as Percentage of Family Income and federal poverty level, under Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act, starting in 2014. (Source: CRS)

On November 7, 2009, a health care bill featuring the public option was passed in the House.^[180]^[181] On December 24, 2009, the Senate passed its own bill—without a public option—on a party-line vote of 60–39.^[182] On March 21, 2010, the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act passed by the Senate in December was passed in the House by a vote of 219 to 212.^[183] Obama signed the bill into law on March 23, 2010.^[184]

The Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act includes health-related provisions to take effect over four years, including expanding Medicaid eligibility for people making up to 133 percent of the federal poverty level (FPL) starting in 2014,^[185] subsidizing insurance premiums for people making up to 400 percent of the FPL ($88,000 for family of four in 2010) so their maximum "out-of-pocket" payment for annual premiums will be from 2 to 9.5 percent of income,^[186]^[187] providing incentives for businesses to provide health care benefits, prohibiting denial of coverage and denial of claims based on pre-existing conditions, establishing health insurance exchanges, prohibiting annual coverage caps, and support for medical research. According to White House and Congressional Budget Office figures, the maximum share of income that enrollees would have to pay would vary depending on their income relative to the federal poverty level.^[186]^[188]

The costs of these provisions are offset by taxes, fees, and cost-saving measures, such as new Medicare taxes for those in high-income brackets, taxes on indoor tanning, cuts to the Medicare Advantage program in favor of traditional Medicare, and fees on medical devices and pharmaceutical companies;^[189] there is also a tax penalty for those who do not obtain health insurance, unless they are exempt due to low income or other reasons.^[190] In March, 2010, the Congressional Budget Office estimated that the net effect of both laws will be a reduction in the federal deficit by $143 billion over the first decade.^[191]

In March 2012, the Supreme Court heard arguments by a coalition of 26 states maintaining that it is unconstitutional to force individuals to buy health insurance.^[192]

Gulf of Mexico oil spill [link]

On April 20, 2010, an explosion destroyed an offshore drilling rig at the Macondo Prospect in the Gulf of Mexico, causing a major sustained oil leak. The well's operator, BP, initiated a containment and cleanup plan, and began drilling two relief wells intended to stop the flow. Obama visited the Gulf on May 2 among visits by members of his cabinet, and again on May 28 and June 4. On May 22, he announced a federal investigation and formed a bipartisan commission to recommend new safety standards, after a review by Secretary of the Interior Ken Salazar and concurrent Congressional hearings. On May 27, he announced a 6-month moratorium on new deepwater drilling permits and leases, pending regulatory review.^[193] As multiple efforts by BP failed, some in the media and public expressed confusion and criticism over various aspects of the incident, and stated a desire for more involvement by Obama and the federal government.^[194]

Foreign policy [link]

Main articles: Foreign policy of the Barack Obama administration and Barack Obama foreign policy

Barack Obama speaking on "A New Beginning" at Cairo University on June 4, 2009

In February and March, Vice President Joe Biden and Secretary of State Hillary Rodham Clinton made separate overseas trips to announce a "new era" in U.S. foreign relations with Russia and Europe, using the terms "break" and "reset" to signal major changes from the policies of the preceding administration.^[195] Obama attempted to reach out to Arab leaders by granting his first interview to an Arab cable TV network, Al Arabiya.^[196]

On March 19, Obama continued his outreach to the Muslim world, releasing a New Year's video message to the people and government of Iran.^[197] This attempt at outreach was rebuffed by the Iranian leadership.^[198] In April, Obama gave a speech in Ankara, Turkey, which was well received by many Arab governments.^[199] On June 4, 2009, Obama delivered a speech at Cairo University in Egypt calling for "a new beginning" in relations between the Islamic world and the United States and promoting Middle East peace.^[200]

On June 26, 2009, in response to the Iranian government's actions towards protesters following Iran's 2009 presidential election, Obama said: "The violence perpetrated against them is outrageous. We see it and we condemn it."^[201] On July 7, while in Moscow, he responded to a Vice President Biden comment on a possible Israeli military strike on Iran by saying: "We have said directly to the Israelis that it is important to try and resolve this in an international setting in a way that does not create major conflict in the Middle East."^[202]

British Prime Minister David Cameron and Barack Obama, during the 2010 G-20 Toronto summit.

On September 24, 2009, Obama became the first sitting U.S. president to preside over a meeting of the United Nations Security Council.^[203]

In March 2010, Obama took a public stance against plans by the government of Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu to continue building Jewish housing projects in predominantly Arab neighborhoods of East Jerusalem.^[204]^[205] During the same month, an agreement was reached with the administration of Russian President Dmitry Medvedev to replace the 1991 Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty with a new pact reducing the number of long-range nuclear weapons in the arsenals of both countries by about one-third.^[206] The New START treaty was signed by Obama and Medvedev in April 2010, and was ratified by the U.S. Senate in December 2010.^[207]

On December 6, 2011, he instructed agencies to consider LGBT rights when issuing financial aid to foreign countries.^[208]

Iraq War [link]

On February 27, 2009, Obama declared that combat operations in Iraq would end within 18 months. His remarks were made to a group of Marines preparing for deployment to Afghanistan. Obama said, "Let me say this as plainly as I can: By August 31, 2010, our combat mission in Iraq will end."^[209] The Obama administration scheduled the withdrawal of combat troops to be completed by August 2010, decreasing troops levels from 142,000 while leaving a transitional force of 35,000 to 50,000 in Iraq until the end of 2011. On August 19, 2010, the last United States combat brigade exited Iraq. The plan is to transition the mission of the remaining troops from combat operations to counter-terrorism and the training, equipping, and advising of Iraqi security forces.^[210]^[211] On August 31, 2010, Obama announced that the United States combat mission in Iraq was over.^[212] On October 21, 2011 President Obama announced that all U.S. troops would leave Iraq in time to be, "home for the holidays".^[213]

War in Afghanistan [link]

Main article: War in Afghanistan (2001–present)

Early in his presidency, Obama moved to bolster U.S. troop strength in Afghanistan.^[214] He announced an increase to U.S. troop levels of 17,000 in February 2009 to "stabilize a deteriorating situation in Afghanistan", an area he said had not received the "strategic attention, direction and resources it urgently requires".^[215] He replaced the military commander in Afghanistan, General David D. McKiernan, with former Special Forces commander Lt. Gen. Stanley A. McChrystal in May 2009, indicating that McChrystal's Special Forces experience would facilitate the use of counterinsurgency tactics in the war.^[216] On December 1, 2009, Obama announced the deployment of an additional 30,000 military personnel to Afghanistan.^[217] He also proposed to begin troop withdrawals 18 months from that date.^[218]^[219] McChrystal was replaced by David Petraeus in June 2010, after McChrystal's staff criticized White House personnel in a magazine article.^[220]

Israel [link]

Obama meeting with Israeli President Shimon Peres, 2009

During the initial years of the Obama administration, the U.S. increased military cooperation with Israel, including a record number of U.S. troops participating in military exercises in the country, increased military aid, the re-establishment of the U.S.-Israeli Joint Political Military Group and the Defense Policy Advisory Group, and an increase in visits among high-level military officials of both countries, including Ehud Barak and Admiral Mike Mullen.^[221]

In 2011, the United States vetoed a Security Council resolution condemning Israeli settlements, with the United States being the only nation to do so.^[222] Obama supports the two-state solution to the Arab–Israeli conflict based on the 1967 borders with land swaps.^[223]

War in Libya [link]

Main article: 2011 military intervention in Libya

In March 2011, as forces loyal to Muammar Gaddafi advanced on rebels across Libya, calls for a no-fly zone came from around the world, including Europe, the Arab League, and a resolution^[224] passed unanimously by the U.S. Senate.^[225] In response to the unanimous passage of United Nations Security Council Resolution 1973 on March 17, Gaddafi who had previously vowed to "show no mercy" to the citizens of Benghazi^[226]—announced an immediate cessation of military activities,^[227] yet reports came in that his forces continued shelling Misrata. The next day, on Obama's orders, the U.S. military took a lead role in air strikes to destroy the Libyan government's air defense capabilities in order to protect civilians and enforce a no-fly-zone,^[228] including the use of Tomahawk missiles, B-2 Spirits, and fighter jets.^[229]^[230]^[231] Six days later, on March 25, by unanimous vote of all of its 28 members, NATO took over leadership of the effort, dubbed Operation Unified Protector.^[232] Some Representatives^[233] questioned whether Obama had the constitutional authority to order military action in addition to questioning its cost, structure and aftermath.^[234]^[235]

Osama bin Laden [link]

Obama and the U.S. national security team gathered in the Situation Room to monitor the military operation resulting in the death of Osama bin Laden on May 1, 2011.

Main article: Death of Osama bin Laden

Starting with information received in July 2010, intelligence developed by the CIA over the next several months determined what they believed to be the location of Osama bin Laden in a large compound in Abbottabad, Pakistan, a suburban area 35 miles from Islamabad.^[236] CIA head Leon Panetta reported this intelligence to President Obama in March 2011.^[236] Meeting with his national security advisers over the course of the next six weeks, Obama rejected a plan to bomb the compound, and authorized a "surgical raid" to be conducted by United States Navy SEALs.^[236] The operation took place on May 1, 2011, resulting in the death of bin Laden and the seizure of papers and computer drives and disks from the compound.^[237]^[238] Bin Laden's body was identified through DNA testing,^[239] and buried at sea several hours later.^[240] Within minutes of the President's announcement from Washington, DC, late in the evening on May 1, there were spontaneous celebrations around the country as crowds gathered outside the White House, and at New York City's Ground Zero and Times Square.^[237]^[241] Reaction to the announcement was positive across party lines, including from former Presidents Bill Clinton and George W. Bush,^[242] and from many countries around the world.^[243]

2010 midterm election [link]

Obama called the November 2, 2010 election, where the Democratic Party lost 63 seats in, and control of, the House of Representatives,^[244] "humbling" and a "shellacking".^[245] He said that the results came because not enough Americans had felt the effects of the economic recovery.^[246]

Cultural and political image [link]

Main article: Public image of Barack Obama

Obama conducting the first completely virtual interview from the White House in 2012^[247]

Obama's family history, upbringing, and Ivy League education differ markedly from those of African American politicians who launched their careers in the 1960s through participation in the civil rights movement.^[248] Obama is also not a descendant of American slaves.^[249] Expressing puzzlement over questions about whether he is "black enough", Obama told an August 2007 meeting of the National Association of Black Journalists that "we're still locked in this notion that if you appeal to white folks then there must be something wrong".^[250] Obama acknowledged his youthful image in an October 2007 campaign speech, saying: "I wouldn't be here if, time and again, the torch had not been passed to a new generation."^[251]

Obama is frequently referred to as an exceptional orator.^[252] During his pre-inauguration transition period and continuing into his presidency, Obama has delivered a series of weekly Internet video addresses.^[253]

According to the Gallup Organization, Obama began his presidency with a 68 percent approval rating^[254] before gradually declining for the rest of the year, and eventually bottoming out at 41 percent in August 2010,^[255] a trend similar to Ronald Reagan's and Bill Clinton's first years in office.^[256] He experienced a small poll bounce shortly after the death of Osama bin Laden, which lasted until around June 2011, when his approval numbers dropped back to where they were prior to the operation.^[257]^[258]^[259] Polls show strong support for Obama in other countries,^[260] and before being elected President he has met with prominent foreign figures including then-British Prime Minister Tony Blair,^[261] Italy's Democratic Party leader and then Mayor of Rome Walter Veltroni,^[262] and French President Nicolas Sarkozy.^[263]

Obama talks with pub-goers as the First Lady draws a pint of stout at the Ollie Hayes pub in Moneygall, Ireland, in 2011

In a February 2009 poll conducted by Harris Interactive for France 24 and the International Herald Tribune, Obama was rated as the most respected world leader, as well as the most powerful.^[264] In a similar poll conducted by Harris in May 2009, Obama was rated as the most popular world leader, as well as the one figure most people would pin their hopes on for pulling the world out of the economic downturn.^[265]^[266]

Obama won Best Spoken Word Album Grammy Awards for abridged audiobook versions of Dreams from My Father in February 2006 and for The Audacity of Hope in February 2008.^[267] His concession speech after the New Hampshire primary was set to music by independent artists as the music video "Yes We Can", which was viewed 10 million times on YouTube in its first month^[268] and received a Daytime Emmy Award.^[269] In December 2008, Time magazine named Obama as its Person of the Year for his historic candidacy and election, which it described as "the steady march of seemingly impossible accomplishments".^[270]

On October 9, 2009, the Norwegian Nobel Committee announced that Obama had won the 2009 Nobel Peace Prize "for his extraordinary efforts to strengthen international diplomacy and cooperation between peoples".^[271] Obama accepted this award in Oslo, Norway on December 10, 2009, with "deep gratitude and great humility."^[272] The award drew a mixture of praise and criticism from world leaders and media figures.^[273]^[274] Obama is the fourth U.S. president to be awarded the Nobel Peace Prize and the third to become a Nobel laureate while in office.

Family and personal life [link]

Main article: Family of Barack Obama

Barack Obama posing in the White House with wife Michelle and daughters Sasha and Malia in 2009

In a 2006 interview, Obama highlighted the diversity of his extended family: "It's like a little mini-United Nations", he said. "I've got relatives who look like Bernie Mac, and I've got relatives who look like Margaret Thatcher."^[275] Obama has a half-sister with whom he was raised, Maya Soetoro-Ng, the daughter of his mother and her Indonesian second husband and seven half-siblings from his Kenyan father's family – six of them living.^[276] Obama's mother was survived by her Kansas-born mother, Madelyn Dunham,^[277] until her death on November 2, 2008,^[278] two days before his election to the Presidency. Obama also has roots in Ireland; he met with his Irish cousins in Moneygall in May 2011.^[279] In Dreams from My Father, Obama ties his mother's family history to possible Native American ancestors and distant relatives of Jefferson Davis, President of the Confederate States of America during the American Civil War.^[280]

Obama was known as "Barry" in his youth, but asked to be addressed with his given name during his college years.^[281] Besides his native English, Obama speaks Indonesian at the conversational level, having learned the language during his four childhood years in Jakarta.^[282] He plays basketball, a sport he participated in as a member of his high school's varsity team.^[283]

Obama about to take a shot while three other players look at him. One of those players is holding is arms up in an attempt to block Obama.

Obama taking a shot during a game on the White House basketball court, 2009

Obama is a well known supporter of the Chicago White Sox, and threw out the first pitch at the 2005 ALCS when he was still a senator.^[284] In 2009, he threw out the ceremonial first pitch at the all star game while wearing a White Sox jacket.^[285] He is also primarily a Chicago Bears fan in the NFL, but in his childhood and adolescence was a fan of the Pittsburgh Steelers, and recently rooted for them ahead of their victory in Super Bowl XLIII 12 days after Obama took office as President.^[286] In 2011, Obama invited the 1985 Bears to the White House; in 1986, the team did not attend due to the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster.^[287]

In June 1989, Obama met Michelle Robinson when he was employed as a summer associate at the Chicago law firm of Sidley Austin.^[288] Assigned for three months as Obama's adviser at the firm, Robinson joined him at group social functions, but declined his initial requests to date.^[289] They began dating later that summer, became engaged in 1991, and were married on October 3, 1992.^[290] The couple's first daughter, Malia Ann, was born on July 4, 1998,^[291] followed by a second daughter, Natasha ("Sasha"), on June 10, 2001.^[292] The Obama daughters attended the private University of Chicago Laboratory Schools. When they moved to Washington, D.C., in January 2009, the girls started at the private Sidwell Friends School.^[293] The Obamas have a Portuguese Water Dog named Bo, a gift from Senator Ted Kennedy.^[294]

Applying the proceeds of a book deal, the family moved in 2005 from a Hyde Park, Chicago condominium to a $1.6 million house in neighboring Kenwood, Chicago.^[295] The purchase of an adjacent lot—and sale of part of it to Obama by the wife of developer, campaign donor and friend Tony Rezko—attracted media attention because of Rezko's subsequent indictment and conviction on political corruption charges that were unrelated to Obama.^[296]

In December 2007, Money magazine estimated the Obama family's net worth at $1.3 million.^[297] Their 2009 tax return showed a household income of $5.5 million—up from about $4.2 million in 2007 and $1.6 million in 2005—mostly from sales of his books.^[298]^[299] On his 2010 income of $1.7 million, he gave 14 percent to non-profit organizations, including $131,000 to Fisher House Foundation, a charity assisting wounded veterans' families, allowing them to reside near where the veteran is receiving medical treatments.^[300]^[301]

As per the latest financial disclosure, Obama may be worth as much as $10 million.^[302]

Obama tried to quit smoking several times, sometimes using nicotine replacement therapy, and, in early 2010, Michelle Obama said that he had successfully quit smoking.^[303]^[304]

Religious views [link]

Obama is a Christian whose religious views developed in his adult life. He wrote in The Audacity of Hope that he "was not raised in a religious household". He described his mother, raised by non-religious parents (whom Obama has specified elsewhere as "non-practicing Methodists and Baptists"), to be detached from religion, yet "in many ways the most spiritually awakened person that I have ever known". He described his father as "raised a Muslim", but a "confirmed atheist" by the time his parents met, and his stepfather as "a man who saw religion as not particularly useful". Obama explained how, through working with black churches as a community organizer while in his twenties, he came to understand "the power of the African-American religious tradition to spur social change".^[305]

In an interview with the evangelical periodical Christianity Today, Obama stated: "I am a Christian, and I am a devout Christian. I believe in the redemptive death and resurrection of Jesus Christ. I believe that that faith gives me a path to be cleansed of sin and have eternal life."^[306]

On September 27, 2010, Obama released a statement commenting on his religious views saying "I'm a Christian by choice. My family didn't—frankly, they weren't folks who went to church every week. And my mother was one of the most spiritual people I knew, but she didn't raise me in the church. So I came to my Christian faith later in life, and it was because the precepts of Jesus Christ spoke to me in terms of the kind of life that I would want to lead—being my brothers' and sisters' keeper, treating others as they would treat me."^[307]^[308]

Obama was baptized at the Trinity United Church of Christ, a black liberation church, in 1988, and was an active member there for two decades.^[309] Obama resigned from Trinity during the Presidential campaign after controversial statements made by Rev. Jeremiah Wright became public.^[310] After a prolonged effort to find a church to attend regularly in Washington, Obama announced in June 2009 that his primary place of worship would be the Evergreen Chapel at Camp David.^[311]

Notes [link]

^ "President Barack Obama". Washington, D.C.: The White House. 2008. http://www.whitehouse.gov/administration/president-obama. Retrieved December 12, 2008.
^ ^a ^b "Certificate of Live Birth: Barack Hussein Obama II, August 4, 1961, 7:24 pm, Honolulu". Department of Health, State of Hawaii. The White House. April 27, 2011. http://www.whitehouse.gov/sites/default/files/rss_viewer/birth-certificate-long-form.pdf. Retrieved April 27, 2011.
^ "American President: Barack Obama". Charlottesville, VA: Miller Center of Public Affairs, University of Virginia. 2009. http://millercenter.org/academic/americanpresident/obama. Retrieved January 23, 2009. "Religion: Christian"
- "The Truth about Barack's Faith". Obama for America. http://www.fightthesmears.com/file_download/2/baracksfaith.pdf. Retrieved April 8, 2011.
- Miller, Lisa (July 18, 2008). "Finding his faith". Newsweek. http://www.newsweek.com/id/145971. Retrieved February 4, 2010. "He is now a Christian, having been baptized in the early 1990s at Trinity United Church of Christ in Chicago."
- Barakat, Matthew (November 17, 2008). "Obama's church choice likely to be scrutinized; D.C. churches have started extending invitations to Obama and his family". Associated Press. MSNBC. http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/27775757. Retrieved January 20, 2009. "The United Church of Christ, the denomination from which Obama resigned when he left Wright's church, issued a written invitation to join a UCC denomination in Washington and resume his connections to the church." .
- "Barack Obama, long time UCC member, inaugurated forty-fourth U.S. President". News. United Church of Christ. January 20, 2009. http://www.ucc.org/news/obama-inauguration.html. Retrieved January 21, 2009. "Barack Obama, who spent more than 20 years as a UCC member, is the forty-fourth President of the United States."
- Sullivan, Amy (June 29, 2009). "The Obama's find a church home—away from home". Time. http://www.time.com/time/nation/article/0,8599,1907610,00.html. Retrieved February 5, 2010. "instead of joining a congregation in Washington, D.C., he will follow in George W. Bush's footsteps and make his primary place of worship Evergreen Chapel, the nondenominational church at Camp David." .
- Kornblut, Anne E. (February 4, 2010). "Obama's spirituality is largely private, but it's influential, advisers say". The Washington Post: p. A6. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2010/02/03/AR2010020303619.html. Retrieved February 5, 2010. "Obama prays privately ... And when he takes his family to Camp David on the weekends, a Navy chaplain ministers to them, with the daughters attending a form of Sunday school there."
^ ^a ^b Maraniss, David (August 24, 2008). "Though Obama had to leave to find himself, it is Hawaii that made his rise possible". The Washington Post: p. A22. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/08/23/AR2008082301620.html. Retrieved October 28, 2008.
^ Nakaso, Dan (December 22, 2008). "Twin sisters, Obama on parallel paths for years". The Honolulu Advertiser: p. B1. http://the.honoluluadvertiser.com/article/2008/Dec/22/ln/hawaii812220320.html. Retrieved January 22, 2011.
^ Rudin, Ken (December 23, 2009). "Today's Junkie segment On TOTN: a political review Of 2009". Talk of the Nation (Political Junkie blog). NPR. http://www.npr.org/blogs/politicaljunkie/2009/12/todays_junkie_segment_on_totn_5.html. Retrieved April 18, 2010. "We began with the historic inauguration on January 20—yes, the first president ever born in Hawaii"
^ for Stanley Ann's first name, see Obama (1995, 2004), p. 19.
^ Ewen MacAskill in Washington and Nicholas Watt (May 20, 2011). "Obama looks forward to rediscovering his Irish roots on European tour". The Guardian (London). http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2011/may/20/obama-irish-roots-european-tour. Retrieved August 3, 2011.
^ Mason, Jeff (May 23, 2011). "Obama visits family roots in Ireland". Reuters. http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/05/23/us-obama-ireland-idUSTRE74M09F20110523. Retrieved August 3, 2011.
^ "Obama urged to create own tartan". BBC News. January 20, 2009. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/7838208.stm. Retrieved April 9, 2012.
^ "Researchers: Obama has German roots". USA Today. June 4, 2009. http://www.usatoday.com/news/washington/2009-06-04-obama-roots_N.htm. Retrieved April 9, 2012.
^ "Honorary citizenship papers sent to Obama". Swissinfo.ch. July 14, 2010. http://www.swissinfo.ch/eng/swiss_news/Honorary_citizenship_papers_sent_to_Obama.html?cid=17963746. Retrieved April 9, 2012.
^ ^a ^b Jones, Tim (March 27, 2007). "Barack Obama: Mother not just a girl from Kansas; Stanley Ann Dunham shaped a future senator". Chicago Tribune: p. 1 (Tempo). Archived from the original on February 21, 2009. http://www.chicagotribune.com/news/politics/obama/chi-0703270151mar27-archive,0,5853572,full.story. Retrieved May 18, 2012.
^ ^a ^b Obama (1995, 2004), pp. 9–10.
^ ^a ^b Ripley, Amanda (April 9, 2008). "The story of Barack Obama's mother". Time. http://www.time.com/time/nation/article/0,8599,1729524,00.html. Retrieved April 9, 2007.
^ Ochieng, Philip (November 1, 2004). "From home squared to the US Senate: how Barack Obama was lost and found". The EastAfrican. Archived from the original on September 27, 2007. http://web.archive.org/web/20070927223905/http://www.nationmedia.com/EastAfrican/01112004/Features/PA2-11.html. Retrieved June 25, 2008.
- Merida, Kevin (December 14, 2007). "The ghost of a father". The Washington Post: p. A12. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/story/2007/12/13/ST2007121301893.html. Retrieved June 25, 2008.
^ Karana, Kinanti Pinta (December 9, 2009). "Statue of a young Obama to watch over Indonesian capital". Jakarta Globe. http://thejakartaglobe.com/home/statue-of-us-president-barack-obama-to-be-unveiled-in-jakarta-park/346178. Retrieved December 8, 2009.
- Obama (1995, 2004), pp. 44–45.
^ Pickler, Nedra (January 24, 2007). "Obama debunks claim about Islamic school". The Washington Post. Associated Press. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/01/24/AR2007012400371_pf.html. Retrieved December 31, 2009.
- "Statue of boy Obama erected in Jakarta". Xinhua News Agency. December 10, 2009. http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2009-12/10/content_12624443.htm. Retrieved December 31, 2009.
^ Serafin, Peter (March 21, 2004). "Punahou grad stirs up Illinois politics". Honolulu Star-Bulletin. http://archives.starbulletin.com/2004/03/21/news/story4.html. Retrieved March 20, 2008.
- Scott, Janny (March 14, 2008). "A free-spirited wanderer who set Obama's path". The New York Times: p. A1. http://www.nytimes.com/2008/03/14/us/politics/14obama.html?pagewanted=all. Retrieved November 18, 2011.
- Obama (1995, 2004), Chapters 3 and 4.
^ Suryakusuma, Julia (November 29, 2006). "Obama for President... of Indonesia". The Jakarta Post. http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2006/11/29/obama-president-indonesia.html. Retrieved June 25, 2008.
^ Serrano, Richard A. (March 11, 2007). "Obama's peers didn't see his angst". Los Angeles Times: p. A20. http://www.latimes.com/news/politics/la-na-obamahawaii11-2007mar11,0,199085,full.story. Retrieved March 13, 2007.
- Obama (1995, 2004), Chapters 4 and 5.
^ Reyes, B.J. (February 8, 2007). "Punahou left lasting impression on Obama". Honolulu Star-Bulletin. http://archives.starbulletin.com/2007/02/08/news/story02.html. Retrieved February 10, 2007. "As a teenager, Obama went to parties and sometimes sought out gatherings on military bases or at the University of Hawaii that were mostly attended by blacks."
^ Elliott, Philip (November 21, 2007). "Obama gets blunt with N.H. students". The Boston Globe. Associated Press: p. 8A. http://articles.boston.com/2007-11-21/news/29233371_1_barack-obama-education-plan-campaign-trail. Retrieved May 18, 2012.
- Obama (1995, 2004), pp. 93–94.
- for analysis of the political impact of the quote and Obama's more recent admission that he smoked marijuana as a teenager ("When I was a kid, I inhaled"), see:
- Seelye, Katharine Q. (October 24, 2006). "Obama offers more variations from the norm". The New York Times: p. A21. http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9D07E2DB173FF937A15753C1A9609C8B63. Retrieved October 29, 2006.
- Romano, Lois (January 3, 2007). "Effect of Obama's candor remains to be seen". The Washington Post: p. A1. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/01/02/AR2007010201359.html. Retrieved January 14, 2007.
^ Hornick, Ed (August 17, 2008). "Obama, McCain talk issues at pastor's forum". CNN. http://www.cnn.com/2008/POLITICS/08/16/warren.forum/. Retrieved May 18, 2012.
^ ^a ^b Gordon, Larry (January 29, 2007). "Occidental recalls 'Barry' Obama". Los Angeles Times: p. B1. http://articles.latimes.com/2007/jan/29/local/me-oxy29. Retrieved May 12, 2010.
- Possley, Maurice (March 30, 2007). "Activism blossomed in college". Chicago Tribune: p. 20. http://www.chicagotribune.com/news/nationworld/chi-0703291042mar30-archive,0,1533921.story. Retrieved May 12, 2010.
- Kovaleski, Serge F. (February 9, 2008). "Old friends say drugs played bit part in Obama's young life". The New York Times: p. A1. http://www.nytimes.com/2008/02/09/us/politics/09obama.html?pagewanted=all. Retrieved May 12, 2010.
- Rohter, Larry (April 10, 2008). "Obama says real-life experience trumps rivals' foreign policy credits". The New York Times: p. A18. http://www.nytimes.com/2008/04/10/us/politics/10obama.html. Retrieved May 12, 2010.
- Goldman, Adam; Tanner, Robert (May 15, 2008). "Old friends recall Obama's years in LA, NYC". USA Today. Associated Press. http://www.usatoday.com/news/politics/2008-05-15-3144401415_x.htm. Retrieved May 12, 2010.
- Helman, Scott (August 25, 2008). "Small college awakened future senator to service". The Boston Globe: p. 1A. http://www.boston.com/news/politics/2008/articles/2008/08/25/small_college_awakened_future_senator_to_service/?page=full. Retrieved May 12, 2010.
- Jackson, Brooks (June 5, 2009). "More 'birther' nonsense: Obama's 1981 Pakistan trip". FactCheck.org. http://www.factcheck.org/2009/06/more-birther-nonsense-obamas-1981-pakistan-trip. Retrieved May 12, 2010.
- Remnick, David (2010). The Bridge: The Life and Rise of Barack Obama. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. pp. 98–112. ISBN 978-1-4000-4360-6.
- Obama (1995, 2004), pp. 92–112.
- Mendell (2007), pp. 55–62.
^ Boss-Bicak, Shira (January 2005). "Barack Obama '83". Columbia College Today. ISSN 0572-7820. http://www.college.columbia.edu/cct_archive/jan05/cover.php. Retrieved October 1, 2006.
^ Obama, Barack (1998). "Curriculum vitae". The University of Chicago Law School. Archived from the original on May 9, 2001. http://web.archive.org/web/20010509024017/http://www.law.uchicago.edu/faculty/obama/cv.html. Retrieved October 1, 2006.
- Issenberg, Sasha (August 6, 2008). "Obama shows hints of his year in global finance; Tied markets to social aid". The Boston Globe: p. 1A. http://www.boston.com/news/nation/articles/2008/08/06/obama_shows_hints_of_his_year_in_global_finance/?page=1. Retrieved August 6, 2008.
^ Scott, Janny (July 30, 2007). "Obama's account of New York often differs from what others say". The New York Times: p. B1. http://www.nytimes.com/2007/10/30/us/politics/30obama.html?pagewanted=all. Retrieved July 31, 2007.
- Obama (1995, 2004), pp. 133–140.
- Mendell (2007), pp. 62–63.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Chassie, Karen, ed. (2007). Who's Who in America, 2008. New Providence, NJ: Marquis Who's Who. p. 3468. ISBN 978-0-8379-7011-0.
^ Lizza, Ryan (March 19, 2007). "The agitator: Barack Obama's unlikely political education". The New Republic 236 (12): 22–26, 28–29. ISSN 0028-6583. http://www.tnr.com/article/the-agitator-barack-obamas-unlikely-political-education. Retrieved August 21, 2007.
- Secter, Bob; McCormick, John (March 30, 2007). "Portrait of a pragmatist". Chicago Tribune: p. 1. Archived from the original on December 14, 2009. http://web.archive.org/web/20091214172131/http://www.chicagotribune.com/news/nationworld/chi-0703300121mar30-archive,0,2491692,full.story. Retrieved May 18, 2012.
- Obama (1995, 2004), pp. 140–295.
- Mendell (2007), pp. 63–83.
^ ^a ^b ^c Matchan, Linda (February 15, 1990). "A Law Review breakthrough". The Boston Globe: p. 29. http://www.boston.com/news/politics/2008/articles/1990/02/15/a_law_review_breakthrough. Retrieved June 15, 2008.
- Corr, John (February 27, 1990). "From mean streets to hallowed halls" (paid archive). The Philadelphia Inquirer: p. C01. http://nl.newsbank.com/nl-search/we/Archives?p_multi=PI%7CDN%7C&p_product=PHNP&p_theme=phnp&p_action=search&p_maxdocs=200&s_trackval=PHNP&s_dispstring=Author%28John%20Corr%29%20AND%20date%2802/27/1990%20to%2002/27/1990%29%20AND%20date%28all%29&p_field_advanced-0=Author&p_text_advanced-0=%28John%20Corr%29&p_bool_advanced-1=AND&p_params_advanced-1=date:B,E&p_field_advanced-1=YMD_date&p_text_advanced-1=%2802/27/1990%20to%2002/27/1990%29&xcal_numdocs=20&p_perpage=10&p_sort=YMD_date:D&xcal_useweights=no. Retrieved June 6, 2008.
^ Obama, Barack (August–September 1988). "Why organize? Problems and promise in the inner city". Illinois Issues 14 (8–9): 40–42. ISSN 0738-9663. reprinted in:
Knoepfle, Peg, ed. (1990). After Alinsky: community organizing in Illinois. Springfield, IL: Sangamon State University. pp. 35–40. ISBN 0-9620873-3-5. "He has also been a consultant and instructor for the Gamaliel Foundation, an organizing institute working throughout the Midwest."
^ Obama (1995, 2004), pp. 299–437.
^ Gnecchi, Nico (February 27, 2006). "Obama receives hero's welcome at his family's ancestral village in Kenya". Voice of America. Archived from the original on March 21, 2008. http://web.archive.org/web/20080321161040/http://www.voanews.com/english/archive/2006-08/2006-08-27-voa17.cfm. Retrieved June 25, 2008.
^ ^a ^b Levenson, Michael; Saltzman, Jonathan (January 28, 2007). "At Harvard Law, a unifying voice". The Boston Globe: p. 1A. http://www.boston.com/news/local/articles/2007/01/28/at_harvard_law_a_unifying_voice/?page=full. Retrieved June 15, 2008.
- Kantor, Jodi (January 28, 2007). "In law school, Obama found political voice". The New York Times: p. A1. http://www.nytimes.com/2007/01/28/us/politics/28obama.html?pagewanted=all. Retrieved June 15, 2008.
- Mundy, Liza (August 12, 2007). "A series of fortunate events". The Washington Post: p. W10. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/08/08/AR2007080802038_pf.html. Retrieved June 15, 2008.
- Mendell (2007), pp. 80–92.
^ ^a ^b Butterfield, Fox (February 6, 1990). "First black elected to head Harvard's Law Review". The New York Times: p. A20. http://www.nytimes.com/1990/02/06/us/first-black-elected-to-head-harvard-s-law-review.html. Retrieved June 15, 2008.
- Ybarra, Michael J (February 7, 1990). "Activist in Chicago now heads Harvard Law Review". Chicago Tribune: p. 3. http://articles.chicagotribune.com/1990-02-07/news/9001110408_1_ann-dunham-chicago-housing-authority-barack-obama. Retrieved October 29, 2011.
- Drummond, Tammerlin (March 12, 1990). "Barack Obama's law; Harvard Law Review's first black president plans a life of public service" (paid archive). Los Angeles Times: p. E1. http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/latimes/access/60017156.html?dids=60017156:60017156&FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:FT. Retrieved June 15, 2008.
- Evans, Gaynelle (March 15, 1990). "Opening another door: The saga of Harvard's Barack H. Obama". Black Issues in Higher Education 7 (1): 5. ISSN 0742-0277. http://diverseeducation.com/article/11791/. Retrieved May 18, 2012.
- Pugh, Allison J. (April 18, 1990). "Law Review's first black president aims to help poor". The Miami Herald. Associated Press: p. C01. http://nl.newsbank.com/nl-search/we/Archives?p_multi=MH%7C&p_product=MH&p_theme=realcities2&p_action=search&p_maxdocs=200&s_site=miami&s_trackval=MH&s_search_type=keyword&s_dispstring=Law%20Review%27s%20first%20black%20president%20aims%20to%20help%20poor%20AND%20date%28all%29&p_field_advanced-0=&p_text_advanced-0=%28Law%20Review%27s%20first%20black%20president%20aims%20to%20help%20poor%29&xcal_numdocs=20&p_perpage=10&p_sort=YMD_date:D&xcal_useweights=no. Retrieved June 15, 2008.
^ Aguilar, Louis (July 11, 1990). "Survey: Law firms slow to add minority partners". Chicago Tribune: p. 1 (Business). http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/chicagotribune/access/28774085.html?dids=28774085:28774085&FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:FT. Retrieved June 15, 2008.
^ Adams, Richard (May 9, 2007). "Barack Obama". The Guardian (London). http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2007/may/09/barackobama.uselections20081. Retrieved October 26, 2008.
- Barack Obama at Encyclopædia Britannica
^ ^a ^b ^c Scott, Janny (May 18, 2008). "The story of Obama, written by Obama". The New York Times: p. A1. http://www.nytimes.com/2008/05/18/us/politics/18memoirs.html?pagewanted=all. Retrieved June 15, 2008.
- Obama (1995, 2004), pp. xiii–xvii.
^ Merriner, James L. (June 2008). "The friends of O". Chicago 57 (6): 74–79, 97–99. ISSN 0362-4595. http://www.chicagomag.com/Chicago-Magazine/June-2008/Obamas-Chicago-Posse/The-Friends-of-O/index.php?cp=2&si=1. Retrieved January 30, 2010.
- Zengerle, Jason (July 30, 2008). "Con law; What the University of Chicago right thinks of Obama". The New Republic 239 (1): 7–8. ISSN 0028-6583. http://www.tnr.com/article/con-law?id=86dd0277-c6ee-4e3c-83e9-0bb468c5c40d&p=1. Retrieved January 30, 2010.
- Kantor, Jodi (July 30, 2008). "Teaching law, testing ideas, Obama stood slightly apart". The New York Times: p. A1. http://www.nytimes.com/2008/07/30/us/politics/30law.html?pagewanted=all. Retrieved January 30, 2010.
- Gray, Steven (September 10, 2008). "Taking professor Obama's class". Time. http://www.time.com/time/politics/article/0,8599,1835238-2,00.html. Retrieved January 30, 2010.
- Starr, Alexandra (September 21, 2008). "Case study". The New York Times Magazine: p. 76. http://www.nytimes.com/2008/09/21/magazine/21obama-t.html?pagewanted=all. Retrieved January 30, 2010.
- Hundley, Tom (March 22, 2009). "Ivory tower of power". Chicago Tribune Magazine: p. 6. http://www.chicagotribune.com/features/chi-mxa0322magazineobamapg6mar22,0,4802888,full.story. Retrieved January 30, 2010.
^ "Statement regarding Barack Obama". University of Chicago Law School. March 27, 2008. http://www.law.uchicago.edu/media/index.html. Retrieved June 5, 2008.
- Miller, Joe (March 28, 2008). "Was Barack Obama really a constitutional law professor?". FactCheck.org. http://factcheck.org/2008/03/obama-a-constitutional-law-professor/. Retrieved May 18, 2012.
- Holan, Angie Drobnic (March 7, 2008). "Obama's 20 years of experience". PolitiFact.com. http://www.politifact.com/truth-o-meter/article/2008/mar/07/obamas-20-years-experience. Retrieved June 10, 2008.
^ White, Jesse, ed. (2000). Illinois Blue Book, 2000, Millennium ed.. Springfield, IL: Illinois Secretary of State. p. 83. OCLC 43923973. Archived from the original on April 16, 2004. http://web.archive.org/web/20040416120057/www.sos.state.il.us/bb/sec4_71_132.pdf. Retrieved June 6, 2008.
- Jarrett, Vernon (August 11, 1992). "'Project Vote' brings power to the people" (paid archive). Chicago Sun-Times: p. 23. http://nl.newsbank.com/nl-search/we/Archives?p_product=CSTB&p_theme=cstb&p_action=search&p_maxdocs=200&s_dispstring=(Vernon%20Jarrett)%20AND%20date(8/11/1992%20to%208/11/1992)&p_field_date-0=YMD_date&p_params_date-0=date:B,E&p_text_date-0=8/11/1992%20to%208/11/1992)&p_field_advanced-0=&p_text_advanced-0=(Vernon%20Jarrett)&xcal_numdocs=20&p_perpage=10&p_sort=YMD_date:D&xcal_useweights=no. Retrieved June 6, 2008.
- Reynolds, Gretchen (January 1993). "Vote of confidence". Chicago 42 (1): 53–54. ISSN 0362-4595. http://www.chicagomag.com/Chicago-Magazine/January-1993/Vote-of-Confidence. Retrieved June 6, 2008.
- Anderson, Veronica (September 27 – October 3 1993). "40 under Forty: Barack Obama, Director, Illinois Project Vote". Crain's Chicago Business 16 (39): 43. ISSN 0149-6956.
^ Robinson, Mike (February 20, 2007). "Obama got start in civil rights practice". The Boston Globe. Associated Press. http://www.boston.com/news/education/higher/articles/2007/02/20/obama_got_start_in_civil_rights_practice. Retrieved June 15, 2008.
- Pallasch, Abdon M. (December 17, 2007). "As lawyer, Obama was strong, silent type; He was 'smart, innovative, relentless,' and he mostly let other lawyers do the talking" (paid archive). Chicago Sun-Times: p. 4. http://nl.newsbank.com/nl-search/we/Archives?p_product=CSTB&p_theme=cstb&p_action=search&p_maxdocs=200&s_dispstring=(Pallasch)_AND_date(12/17/2007_to_12/17/2007)&p_field_date-0=YMD_date&p_params_date-0=date:B,E&p_text_date-0=December_17,_2007_to_12/17/2007)&p_field_advanced-0=&p_text_advanced-0=(Pallasch)&xcal_numdocs=20&p_perpage=10&p_sort=YMD_date:D&xcal_useweights=no. Retrieved June 15, 2008.
- Morain, Dan (April 6, 2008). "Obama's law days effective but brief". Los Angeles Times: p. A14. http://articles.latimes.com/2008/apr/06/nation/na-obamalegal6. Retrieved February 14, 2010.
- "People" (paid archive). Chicago Tribune: p. 9 (Business). June 27, 1993. http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/chicagotribune/access/24302659.html?dids=24302659:24302659&FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:FT. Retrieved June 15, 2008.
- "Business appointments" (paid archive). Chicago-Sun-Times: p. 40. July 5, 1993. http://nl.newsbank.com/nl-search/we/Archives?p_product=CSTB&p_theme=cstb&p_action=search&p_maxdocs=200&s_dispstring=(Business%20appointments)%20AND%20date(7/5/1993%20to%207/5/1993)&p_field_date-0=YMD_date&p_params_date-0=date:B,E&p_text_date-0=7/5/1993%20to%207/5/1993)&p_field_advanced-0=&p_text_advanced-0=(Business%20appointments)&xcal_numdocs=20&p_perpage=10&p_sort=YMD_date:D&xcal_useweights=no. Retrieved June 15, 2008.
- Ripley, Amanda (November 3, 2004). "Obama's ascent". Time. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,750742,00.html. Retrieved February 13, 2010.
- "About us". Miner, Barnhill & Galland – Chicago, Illinois. 2008. http://www.lawmbg.com/index.cfm/PageID/2711. Retrieved June 15, 2008.
- Reardon, Patrick T. (June 25, 2008). "Obama's Chicago". Chicago Tribune: p. 1 (Tempo). http://www.chicagotribune.com/travel/chi-obama-chicago-htmlstory,0,506256.htmlstory. Retrieved February 13, 2010.
- Obama (1995, 2004), pp. 438–439.
- Mendell (2007), pp. 104–106.
^ Jackson, David; Ray Long (April 3, 2007). "Obama Knows His Way Around a Ballot". Chicago Tribune. Archived from the original on October 11, 2008. http://web.archive.org/web/20081011054057/http://www.chicagotribune.com/news/politics/obama/chi-070403obama-ballot-archive,0,5693903.story. Retrieved May 18, 2012.
- White, Jesse (2001). "Legislative Districts of Cook County, 1991 Reapportionment". Illinois Blue Book 2001–2002. Springfield: Illinois Secretary of State. p. 65. http://web.archive.org/web/20080226221919/http://www.sos.state.il.us/publications/02bluebook/legislative_branch/legdistrictmaps.pdf. Retrieved July 16, 2011. State Sen. District 13 = State Rep. Districts 25 & 26.
^ Slevin, Peter (February 9, 2007). "Obama Forged Political Mettle in Illinois Capitol". The Washington Post. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/02/08/AR2007020802262.html. Retrieved April 20, 2008. Helman, Scott (September 23, 2007). "In Illinois, Obama dealt with Lobbyists". The Boston Globe. http://www.boston.com/news/nation/articles/2007/09/23/in_illinois_obama_dealt_with_lobbyists/. Retrieved April 20, 2008. See also:"Obama Record May Be Gold Mine for Critics". CBS News. Associated Press. January 17, 2007. http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2007/01/17/politics/main2369157.shtml. Retrieved April 20, 2008.
^ ^a ^b Scott, Janny (July 30, 2007). "In Illinois, Obama Proved Pragmatic and Shrewd". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2007/07/30/us/politics/30obama.html. Retrieved April 20, 2008.
^ Allison, Melissa (December 15, 2000). "State takes on predatory lending; Rules would halt single-premium life insurance financing" (paid archive). Chicago Tribune: p. 1 (Business). http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/chicagotribune/access/65214450.html?dids=65214450:65214450&FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:FT. Retrieved June 1, 2008. Long, Ray; Allison, Melissa (April 18, 2001). "Illinois OKs predatory loan curbs; State aims to avert home foreclosures." (paid archive). Chicago Tribune: p. 1. http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/chicagotribune/access/71459393.html?dids=71459393:71459393&FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:FT. Retrieved June 1, 2008.
^ "13th District: Barack Obama". Illinois State Senate Democrats. August 24, 2000. Archived from the original on April 12, 2000. http://web.archive.org/web/20000824102110/http://www.senatedem.state.il.us/obama/index.html. Retrieved April 20, 2008. "13th District: Barack Obama". Illinois State Senate Democrats. October 9, 2004. Archived from the original on August 2, 2004. http://web.archive.org/web/20040802233730/http://www.senatedem.state.il.us/obama/index.html. Retrieved April 20, 2008.
^ "Federal Elections 2000: U.S. House Results – Illinois". Federal Election Commission. http://www.fec.gov/pubrec/fe2000/ilh.htm. Retrieved April 24, 2008.
- Gonyea, Dan (September 19, 2007). "Obama's Loss May Have Aided White House Bid". http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=14502364. Retrieved January 30, 2011.
- Scott, Janny (September 9, 2007). "A Streetwise Veteran Schooled Young Obama". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2007/09/09/us/politics/09obama.html. Retrieved April 20, 2008.
- McClelland, Edward (February 12, 2007). "How Obama Learned to Be a Natural". Salon. http://www.salon.com/news/feature/2007/02/12/obama_natural/. Retrieved April 20, 2008.
- Wolffe, Richard; Daren Briscoe (July 16, 2007). "Across the Divide". Newsweek. http://www.newsweek.com/id/33156. Retrieved April 20, 2008.
- Helman, Scott (October 12, 2007). "Early Defeat Launched a Rapid Political Climb". The Boston Globe. http://www.boston.com/news/nation/articles/2007/10/12/early_defeat_launched_a_rapid_political_climb/. Retrieved April 20, 2008.
- Wills, Christopher (October 24, 2007). "Obama learned from failed Congress run". USA Today. http://www.usatoday.com/news/politics/2007-10-24-3157940059_x.htm. Retrieved November 15, 2010.
^ Calmes, Jackie (February 23, 2007). "Statehouse Yields Clues to Obama". Wall Street Journal. http://online.wsj.com/public/article/SB117219748197216894-Sn6oV_4KLQHp_xz7CjYLuyjv3Jg_20070324.html. Retrieved April 20, 2008.
^ Tavella, Anne Marie (April 14, 2003). "Profiling, taping plans pass Senate" (paid archive). Daily Herald: p. 17. http://nl.newsbank.com/nl-search/we/Archives?p_product=ADHB&p_theme=adhb&p_action=search&p_maxdocs=200&p_text_search-0=Profiling,%20AND%20taping%20AND%20plans%20AND%20pass%20AND%20Senate&s_dispstring=Profiling,%20taping%20plans%20pass%20Senate%20AND%20date(April_4,_2003%20to%204/4/2003)&p_field_date-0=YMD_date&p_params_date-0=date:B,E&p_text_date-0=4_April_2003%20to%204/4/2003)&xcal_numdocs=20&p_perpage=10&p_sort=YMD_date:D&xcal_useweights=no. Retrieved June 1, 2008. Haynes, V. Dion (June 29, 2003). "Fight racial profiling at local level, lawmaker says; U.S. guidelines get mixed review" (paid archive). Chicago Tribune: p. 8. http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/chicagotribune/access/352884461.html?dids=352884461:352884461&FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:FT. Retrieved June 1, 2008. Pearson, Rick (July 17, 2003). "Taped confessions to be law; State will be 1st to pass legislation" (paid archive). Chicago Tribune: p. 1 (Metro). http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/chicagotribune/access/370136121.html?dids=370136121:370136121&FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:FT. Retrieved June 1, 2008.
^ Youngman, Sam; Aaron Blake (March 14, 2007). "Obama's Crime Votes Are Fodder for Rivals". The Hill. http://thehill.com/homenews/news/11316-obamas-crime-votes-are-fodder-for-rivals. Retrieved May 18, 2012. See also:"US Presidential Candidate Obama Cites Work on State Death Penalty Reforms". International Herald Tribune. Associated Press. November 12, 2007. Archived from the original on June 7, 2008. http://web.archive.org/web/20080607111231/http://www.iht.com/articles/ap/2007/11/12/america/NA-POL-US-Obama-Death-Penalty.php. Retrieved May 18, 2012.
^ Coffee, Melanie (November 6, 2004). "Attorney Chosen to Fill Obama's State Senate Seat". Associated Press. HPKCC. http://www.hydepark.org/hpkccnews/raoul.htm#ap. Retrieved April 20, 2008.
^ Helman, Scott (October 12, 2007). "Early defeat launched a rapid political climb". The Boston Globe: p. 1A. http://www.boston.com/news/nation/articles/2007/10/12/early_defeat_launched_a_rapid_political_climb. Retrieved April 13, 2008.
^ Strausberg, Chinta (September 26, 2002). "Opposition to war mounts" (paid archive). Chicago Defender: p. 1. http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P3-220062931.html. Retrieved February 3, 2008.
^ Office of the Press Secretary (October 2, 2002). "President, House leadership agree on Iraq resolution". The White House. http://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2002/10/20021002-7.html. Retrieved February 18, 2008.
- Tackett, Michael (October 3, 2002). "Bush, House OK Iraq deal; Congress marches with Bush" (paid archive). Chicago Tribune: p. 1. http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/chicagotribune/access/203569641.html?dids=203569641:203569641&FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:FT. Retrieved February 3, 2008.
^ Glauber, Bill (October 3, 2003). "War protesters gentler, but passion still burns" (paid archive). Chicago Tribune: p. 1. http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/chicagotribune/access/203569621.html?dids=203569621:203569621&FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:FT. Retrieved February 3, 2008.
- Strausberg, Chinta (October 3, 2002). "War with Iraq undermines U.N". Chicago Defender: p. 1. http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P3-220379051.html. Retrieved October 28, 2008. "Photo caption: Left Photo: Sen. Barack Obama along with Rev. Jesse Jackson spoke to nearly 3,000 anti-war protestors (below) during a rally at Federal Plaza Wednesday."
- Katz, Marilyn (October 2, 2007). "Five years since our first action". Chicagoans Against War & Injustice. Archived from the original on July 21, 2011. http://web.archive.org/web/20110721192331/http://www.noiraqwar-chicago.org/?p=127. Retrieved February 18, 2008.
- Bryant, Greg; Vaughn, Jane B. (October 3, 2002). "300 attend rally against Iraq war" (paid archive). Daily Herald (Arlington Heights): p. 8. http://nl.newsbank.com/nl-search/we/Archives?p_product=ADHB&p_theme=adhb&p_action=search&p_maxdocs=200&p_text_search-0=300%20AND%20attend%20AND%20rally%20AND%20against%20AND%20Iraq%20AND%20war&s_dispstring=300%20attend%20rally%20against%20Iraq%20war%20AND%20date(10/3/2002%20to%2010/3/2002)&p_field_date-0=YMD_date&p_params_date-0=date:B,E&p_text_date-0=10/3/2002%20to%2010/3/2002)&xcal_numdocs=20&p_perpage=10&p_sort=YMD_date:D&xcal_useweights=no. Retrieved October 28, 2008.
- Mendell (2007), pp. 172–177.
^ Obama, Barack (October 2, 2002). "Remarks of Illinois State Sen. Barack Obama against going to war with Iraq". BarackObama.com. Archived from the original on January 30, 2008. http://web.archive.org/web/20080130204029/http://www.barackobama.com/2002/10/02/remarks_of_illinois_state_sen.php. Retrieved February 3, 2008.
- McCormick, John (October 3, 2007). "Obama marks '02 war speech; Contender highlights his early opposition in effort to distinguish him from his rivals" (paid archive). Chicago Tribune: p. 7. http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/chicagotribune/access/1351610621.html?dids=1351610621:1351610621&FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:FT. Retrieved October 28, 2008. "The top strategist for Sen. Barack Obama has just 14 seconds of video of what is one of the most pivotal moments of the presidential candidate's political career. The video, obtained from a Chicago TV station, is of Obama's 2002 speech in opposition to the impending Iraq invasion."
- Pallasch, Abdon M. (October 3, 2007). "Obama touts anti-war cred; Kicks off tour 5 years after speech critical of going to Iraq" (paid archive). Chicago Sun-Times: p. 26. http://nl.newsbank.com/nl-search/we/Archives?p_product=CSTB&p_theme=cstb&p_action=search&p_maxdocs=200&s_dispstring=headline(Obama%20touts%20anti-war%20cred)%20AND%20date(all)&p_field_advanced-0=title&p_text_advanced-0=(Obama%20touts%20anti-war%20cred)&xcal_numdocs=20&p_perpage=10&p_sort=YMD_date:D&xcal_useweights=no. Retrieved October 28, 2008.
^ Ritter, Jim (March 17, 2003). "Anti-war rally here draws thousands" (paid archive). Chicago Sun-Times: p. 3. http://nl.newsbank.com/nl-search/we/Archives?p_product=CSTB&p_theme=cstb&p_action=search&p_maxdocs=200&s_dispstring=headline(Anti-war%20rally%20here%20draws%20thousands)%20AND%20date(all)&p_field_advanced-0=title&p_text_advanced-0=(Anti-war%20rally%20here%20draws%20thousands)&xcal_numdocs=20&p_perpage=10&p_sort=YMD_date:D&xcal_useweights=no. Retrieved February 3, 2008.
- Office of the Press Secretary (March 16, 2003). "President Bush: Monday 'moment of truth' for world on Iraq". The White House. http://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2003/03/20030316-3.html. Retrieved February 18, 2008.
^ Davey, Monica (March 7, 2004). "Closely watched Illinois Senate race attracts 7 candidates in millionaire range". The New York Times: p. 19. Archived from the original on May 14, 2006. http://web.archive.org/web/20060514152430/http://www.nytimes.com/2004/03/07/politics/campaign/07ILLI.html. Retrieved April 13, 2008.
^ Mendell, David (March 17, 2004). "Obama routs Democratic foes; Ryan tops crowded GOP field; Hynes, Hull fall far short across state". Chicago Tribune: p. 1. http://www.chicagotribune.com/technology/chi-0403170332mar17,0,6048572.story. Retrieved March 1, 2009.
- Davey, Monica (March 18, 2004). "As quickly as overnight, a Democratic star is born". The New York Times: p. A20. http://www.nytimes.com/2004/03/18/us/as-quickly-as-overnight-a-democratic-star-is-born.html?pagewanted=all. Retrieved March 1, 2009.
- Howlett, Debbie (March 19, 2004). "Dems see a rising star in Illinois Senate candidate". USA Today: p. A04. http://www.usatoday.com/news/politicselections/nation/2004-03-18-obama-usat_x.htm. Retrieved March 1, 2009.
- Scheiber, Noam (May 31, 2004). "Race against history. Barack Obama's miraculous campaign". The New Republic 230 (20): 21–22, 24–26 (cover story). http://www.tnr.com/article/race-against-history-0. Retrieved March 24, 2009.
- Finnegan, William (May 31, 2004). "The Candidate. How far can Barack Obama go?". The New Yorker 20 (14): 32–38. http://www.newyorker.com/archive/2004/05/31/040531fa_fact1?currentPage=all. Retrieved March 24, 2009.
- Dionne Jr., E.J. (June 25, 2004). "In Illinois, a star prepares". The Washington Post: p. A29. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A4062-2004Jun24.html. Retrieved March 24, 2009.
- Scott, Janny (May 18, 2008). "The story of Obama, written by Obama". The New York Times: p. A1. http://www.nytimes.com/2008/05/18/us/politics/18memoirs.html?pagewanted=all. Retrieved January 9, 2010.
- Mendell (2007), pp. 235–259.
^ Bernstein, David (June 2007). "The Speech". Chicago Magazine. http://www.chicagomag.com/Chicago-Magazine/June-2007/The-Speech. Retrieved April 13, 2008.
^ "Star Power. Showtime: Some are on the rise; others have long been fixtures in the firmament. A galaxy of bright Democratic lights". Newsweek: pp. 48–51. August 2, 2004. http://www.newsweek.com/id/54728/output/print. Retrieved November 15, 2008.
- Samuel, Terence (August 2, 2004). "A shining star named Obama. How a most unlikely politician became a darling of the Democrats". U.S. News & World Report: p. 25. http://www.usnews.com/usnews/news/articles/040802/2obama.htm. Retrieved November 15, 2008.
- Lizza, Ryan (September 2004). "Why is Barack Obama generating more excitement among Democrats than John Kerry?". The Atlantic Monthly: pp. 30, 33. http://www.theatlantic.com/doc/200409/lizza. Retrieved November 15, 2008.
- Davey, Monica (July 26, 2004). "A surprise Senate contender reaches his biggest stage yet". The New York Times: p. A1. http://www.nytimes.com/2004/07/26/us/the-speaker-a-surprise-senate-contender-reaches-his-biggest-stage-yet.html. Retrieved November 25, 2010.
- Leibovich, Mark (July 27, 2004). "The other man of the hour". The Washington Post: p. C1. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A16606-2004Jul26.html. Retrieved November 15, 2008.
- Milligan, Susan (July 27, 2004). "In Obama, Democrats see their future". The Boston Globe: p. B8. http://www.boston.com/news/local/articles/2004/07/27/in_obama_democrats_see_their_future/. Retrieved November 15, 2008.
- Seelye, Katharine Q. (July 28, 2004). "Illinois Senate nominee speaks of encompassing unity". The New York Times: p. A1. Archived from the original on June 24, 2006. http://web.archive.org/web/20060624052131/http://www.nytimes.com/2004/07/28/politics/campaign/28blacks.html. Retrieved November 15, 2008.
- Broder, David S. (July 28, 2004). "Democrats focus on healing divisions; Addressing convention, newcomers set themes". The Washington Post: p. A1. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A17865-2004Jul27.html. Retrieved November 15, 2008.
- Bing, Jonathan; McClintock, Pamela (July 29, 2004). "Auds resist charms of Dem stars". Daily Variety: p. 1. http://www.variety.com/article/VR1117908388.html?categoryid=1077&cs=1. Retrieved November 15, 2008.
- Mendell (2007), pp. 272–285.
^ "Ryan drops out of Senate race in Illinois". CNN. June 25, 2004. http://www.cnn.com/2004/ALLPOLITICS/06/25/il.ryan/. Retrieved May 18, 2012.
- Mendell (2007), pp. 260–271.
^ Lannan, Maura Kelly (August 9, 2004). "Alan Keyes enters U.S. Senate race in Illinois against rising Democratic star". Union-Tribune. Associated Press (San Diego). http://legacy.signonsandiego.com/news/politics/20040809-0849-illinoissenate.html. Retrieved April 13, 2008.
^ "America Votes 2004: U.S. Senate / Illinois". CNN. 2005. http://www.cnn.com/ELECTION/2004/pages/results/states/IL/S/01/index.html. Retrieved April 13, 2008.
- Slevin, Peter (November 13, 2007). "For Obama, a handsome payoff in political gambles". The Washington Post: p. A3. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/11/12/AR2007111201945.html. Retrieved April 13, 2008.
- Chase, John; Mendell, David (November 3, 2004). "Obama scores a record landslide". Chicago Tribune: p. 1. http://www.noticiasdot.com/publicaciones/2004/1104/0311/noticias031104/presidenciales-usa/images/usa/chicago_tribune/chicago_tribune_031104.pdf. Retrieved April 3, 2009.
- Fornek, Scott (November 3, 2004). "Obama takes Senate seat in a landslide". Chicago Sun-Times: p. 6. http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P2-1553596.html. Retrieved April 3, 2009.
^ Barack Obama at the Biographical Directory of the United States Congress. Retrieved October 12, 2011
^ "Member Info". Congressional Black Caucus. Archived from the original on July 9, 2008. http://web.archive.org/web/20080709114659/http://www.house.gov/kilpatrick/cbc/member_info.html. Retrieved June 25, 2008.
^ Mason, Jeff (November 16, 2008). "Obama resigns Senate seat, thanks Illinois". Reuters. http://www.reuters.com/article/politicsNews/idUSTRE4AF1MJ20081116. Retrieved March 10, 2009.
- Sidoti, Liz (November 13, 2008). "Obama to Resign Senate Seat on Sunday". Time (Time Inc.). http://www.time.com/time/nation/article/0,8599,1859020,00.html. Retrieved November 22, 2008.
^ U.S. Senate, 109th Congress, 1st Session (May 12, 2005). "S. 1033, Secure America and Orderly Immigration Act". Thomas. http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/bdquery/z?d109:SN01033:. Retrieved April 27, 2008.
^ "Lugar–Obama Nonproliferation Legislation Signed into Law by the President". Richard Lugar U.S. Senate Office. January 11, 2007. Archived from the original on December 18, 2008. http://web.archive.org/web/20081218154746/http://obama.senate.gov/press/070111-lugar-obama_non/. Retrieved April 27, 2008. See also:Lugar, Richard G.; Barack Obama (December 3, 2005). "Junkyard Dogs of War". The Washington Post. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/12/02/AR2005120201509.html. Retrieved April 27, 2008.
^ McCormack, John (December 21, 2007). "Google Government Gone Viral". Weekly Standard. http://www.weeklystandard.com/Content/Public/Articles/000/000/014/502njiqx.asp. Retrieved April 27, 2008. See also:"President Bush Signs Coburn–Obama Transparency Act". Tom Coburn U.S. Senate Office. September 26, 2006. Archived from the original on May 1, 2008. http://web.archive.org/web/20080501233103/http://coburn.senate.gov/ffm/index.cfm?FuseAction=LegislativeFloorAction.Home&ContentRecord_id=eb582f19-802a-23ad-41db-7a7cb464cfdb. Retrieved April 27, 2008. and USAspending.gov
^ "S. 3077: Strengthening Transparency and Accountability in Federal Spending Act of 2008: 2007–2008 (110th Congress)". Govtrack.us. June 3, 2008. http://www.govtrack.us/congress/bills/110/s3077. Retrieved May 18, 2012.
^ McIntire, Mike (February 3, 2008). "Nuclear Leaks and Response Tested Obama in Senate". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2008/02/03/us/politics/03exelon.html. Retrieved April 27, 2008.
^ Fisher, Daniel (August 11, 2008). "November Election A Lawyer's Delight". Forbes. http://www.forbes.com/2008/08/08/obama-mccain-torts-biz-beltway-cz_df_0811torts.html. Retrieved January 11, 2009.
^ "Nunn–Lugar Report" (PDF). Richard Lugar U.S. Senate Office. August 2005. Archived from the original on May 1, 2008. http://web.archive.org/web/20080501002134/http://lugar.senate.gov/nunnlugar/pdf/trip_report_2005.pdf. Retrieved April 30, 2008.
^ "Democratic Republic of the Congo". United States Conference of Catholic Bishops. April 2006. Archived from the original on January 8, 2011. http://web.archive.org/web/20110108193726/http://www.usccb.org/sdwp/international/drc0406.shtml. Retrieved January 26, 2012. "The IRC Welcomes New U.S. Law on Congo". International Rescue Committee. January 5, 2007. http://www.theirc.org/news/the-irc-welcomes-new-us-law.html. Retrieved April 27, 2008.
^ Weixel, Nathaniel (November 15, 2007). "Feingold, Obama Go After Corporate Jet Travel". The Hill. http://thehill.com/leading-the-news/feingold-obama-go-after-corporate-jet-travel-2007-11-15.html. Retrieved April 27, 2008. Weixel, Nathaniel (December 5, 2007). "Lawmakers Press FEC on Bundling Regulation". The Hill. http://thehill.com/leading-the-news/lawmakers-press-fec-on-bundling-regulation-2007-12-05.html. Retrieved April 27, 2008. See also:"Federal Election Commission Announces Plans to Issue New Regulations to Implement the Honest Leadership and Open Government Act of 2007". Federal Election Commission. September 24, 2007. http://www.fec.gov/press/press2007/20070924travel.shtml. Retrieved April 27, 2008.
^ Stern, Seth (January 31, 2007). "Obama–Schumer Bill Proposal Would Criminalize Voter Intimidation". CQPolitics.com. http://www.nytimes.com/cq/2007/01/31/cq_2213.html. Retrieved April 27, 2008. U.S. Senate, 110th Congress, 1st Session (January 31, 2007). "S. 453, Deceptive Practices and Voter Intimidation Prevention Act of 2007". Thomas. http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/bdquery/z?d110:SN00453:. Retrieved April 27, 2008. See also:"Honesty in Elections" (editorial). The New York Times. January 31, 2007. http://www.nytimes.com/2007/01/31/opinion/31wed1.html. Retrieved April 27, 2008.
^ Krystin, E. Kasak (February 7, 2007). "Obama Introduces Measure to Bring Troops Home". Medill News Service. http://www.nwitimes.com/news/local/article_c7147a5d-31bc-5497-abdd-a99c0cd6c189.html. Retrieved April 27, 2008.
^ "Obama, Bond Hail New Safeguards on Military Personality Disorder Discharges, Urge Further Action". Kit Bond U.S. Senate Office. October 1, 2007. Archived from the original on December 5, 2010. http://web.archive.org/web/20101205075008/http://bond.senate.gov/public/index.cfm?FuseAction=PressRoom.NewsReleases&ContentRecord_id=5C1EBFEB-1321-0E36-BA7D-04630AEFAD31. Retrieved April 27, 2008.
^ "Obama, Bond Applaud Senate Passage of Amendment to Expedite the Review of Personality Disorder Discharge Cases". March 14, 2008. Archived from the original on December 18, 2008. http://web.archive.org/web/20081218154824/http://obama.senate.gov/press/080314-obama_bond_appl/.
^ "Obama, Schiff Provision to Create Nuclear Threat Reduction Plan Approved". Barack Obama U.S. Senate Office. December 20, 2007. Archived from the original on December 18, 2008. http://web.archive.org/web/20081218154751/http://obama.senate.gov/press/071220-obama_schiff_pr/. Retrieved April 27, 2008.
^ "Senate Passes Obama, McCaskill Legislation to Provide Safety Net for Families of Wounded Service Members". Barack Obama U.S. Senate Office. August 2, 2007. Archived from the original on December 18, 2008. http://web.archive.org/web/20081218154819/http://obama.senate.gov/press/070802-senate_passes_o_1/. Retrieved April 27, 2008.
^ "Committee Assignments". Barack Obama U.S. Senate Office. December 9, 2006. Archived from the original on December 9, 2006. http://web.archive.org/web/20061209190827/obama.senate.gov/committees/. Retrieved April 27, 2008.
^ "Obama Gets New Committee Assignments". Associated Press. Barack Obama U.S. Senate Office. November 15, 2006. Archived from the original on December 18, 2008. http://web.archive.org/web/20081218154741/http://obama.senate.gov/news/061115-obama_gets_new/. Retrieved April 27, 2008.
^ Baldwin, Tom (December 21, 2007). "Stay-At-Home Barack Obama Comes Under Fire for a Lack of Foreign Experience". Sunday Times (UK). http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/us_and_americas/article3080794.ece. Retrieved April 27, 2008.
^ Larson, Christina (September 2006). "Hoosier Daddy: What Rising Democratic Star Barack Obama Can Learn from an Old Lion of the GOP". Washington Monthly. http://www.washingtonmonthly.com/features/2006/0609.larson.html. Retrieved April 27, 2008.
- Goudie, Chuck (January 12, 2006). "Obama Meets with Arafat's Successor". WLS-TV. http://abclocal.go.com/wls/story?section=news/local&id=3806933. Retrieved April 27, 2008.
- "Obama Slates Kenya for Fraud". News24.com. August 28, 2006. Archived from the original on June 5, 2008. http://web.archive.org/web/20080605213213/http://www.news24.com/News24/Africa/News/0,,2-11-1447_1989646,00.html. Retrieved April 27, 2008.
- Wamalwa, Chris (September 2, 2006). "Envoy Hits at Obama Over Graft Remark". The Standard (Nairobi). Archived from the original on October 10, 2007. http://web.archive.org/web/20071010050740/http://www.eastandard.net/archives/cl/hm_news/news.php?articleid=1143957666. Retrieved April 27, 2008.
- Moracha, Vincent; Mangoa Mosota (September 4, 2006). "Leaders Support Obama on Graft Claims". The Standard (Nairobi). Archived from the original on October 7, 2007. http://web.archive.org/web/20071007115436/http://www.eastandard.net/archives/cl/hm_news/news.php?articleid=1143957752. Retrieved April 27, 2008.
^ ^a ^b Pearson, Rick; Long, Ray (February 10, 2007). "Obama: I'm running for president". Chicago Tribune. http://www.chicagotribune.com/news/politics/chi-070210obama-pearson1-story,0,3768114.story. Retrieved September 20, 2008.
^ "Obama Launches Presidential Bid". BBC News. February 10, 2007. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/6349081.stm. Retrieved January 14, 2008.
^ Parsons, Christi (February 10, 2007). "Obama's launch site: Symbolic Springfield: Announcement venue evokes Lincoln legacy". Chicago Tribune. http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-159132539.html. Retrieved June 12, 2009.
^ "Barack Obama on the Issues: What Would Be Your Top Three Overall Priorities If Elected?". The Washington Post. http://projects.washingtonpost.com/2008-presidential-candidates/issues/candidates/barack-obama/#top-priorities. Retrieved April 14, 2008. See also:
- Thomas, Evan (2009). A Long Time Coming. New York: PublicAffairs. p. 74. ISBN 978-1-58648-607-5.
- Falcone, Michael (December 21, 2007). "Obama's 'One Thing'". The New York Times. http://thecaucus.blogs.nytimes.com/2007/12/21/obamas-one-thing/. Retrieved April 14, 2008.
^ "The Obama promise of hope and change". The Independent (London). November 1, 2008. Archived from the original on May 15, 2011. http://web.archive.org/web/20110515091856/http://www.independent.co.uk/opinion/leading-articles/leading-article-the-obama-promise-of-hope-and-change-981761.html. Retrieved December 22, 2010.
^ Tumulty, Karen (May 8, 2008). "The Five Mistakes Clinton Made". Time. http://www.time.com/time/politics/article/0,8599,1738331,00.html. Retrieved November 11, 2008.
- Baker, Peter and Rutenberg, Jim (June 8, 2008). "The Long Road to a Clinton Exit". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2008/06/08/us/politics/08recon.html. Retrieved November 29, 2008.
^ Nagourney, Adam; Zeleny, Jeff (June 5, 2008). "Clinton to End Bid and Endorse Obama". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2008/06/05/us/politics/04cnd-campaign.html. Retrieved November 20, 2010.
^ Nagourney, Adam; Zeleny, Jeff (August 23, 2008). "Obama Chooses Biden as Running Mate". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2008/08/24/us/politics/24biden.html. Retrieved September 20, 2008.
^ "Sources: High court selection process down to finalists". CNN. May 13, 2009. http://articles.cnn.com/2008-08-21/politics/obama.vice.president_1_obama-selection-process-joe-biden?_s=PM:POLITICS.
^ Tom Baldwin (August 27, 2008). "Hillary Clinton: 'Barack is my candidate'". The Times (London). http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/us_and_americas/us_elections/article4616719.ece. Retrieved August 27, 2008.
- Nagourney, Adam (August 27, 2008). "Obama Wins Nomination as Biden and Bill Clinton Rally the Party". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2008/08/28/us/politics/28DEMSDAY.html?pagewanted=all. Retrieved August 27, 2008.
^ Liasson, Mara; Norris, Michele (July 7, 2008). "Obama To Accept Nomination At Mile High Stadium". NPR. http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=92301409. Retrieved December 22, 2010.
^ "Obama accepts Democrat nomination". BBC News. August 29, 2008. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/7586375.stm. Retrieved August 29, 2008.
- Marks, Alexandra (August 29, 2008). "Soaring speech from Obama, plus some specifics". The Christian Science Monitor. Archived from the original on March 14, 2010. http://web.archive.org/web/20100314121702/http://www.csmonitor.com/USA/Politics/2008/0829/soaring-speech-from-obama-plus-some-specifics. Retrieved September 20, 2008.
^ Malone, Jim (July 2, 2007). "Obama Fundraising Suggests Close Race for Party Nomination". Voice of America. Archived from the original on September 14, 2007. http://web.archive.org/web/20070914032004/http://voanews.com/english/archive/2007-07/2007-07-02-voa52.cfm. Retrieved January 14, 2008.
- Cummings, Jeanne (September 26, 2007). "Small Donors Rewrite Fundraising Handbook". Politico. http://dyn.politico.com/printstory.cfm?uuid=3ECB3515-3048-5C12-004D622CB6F4E214. Retrieved January 14, 2008.
- Cadei, Emily (February 21, 2008). "Obama Outshines Other Candidates in January Fundraising". CQ Politics. Archived from the original on June 13, 2008. http://web.archive.org/web/20080613213513/http://www.cqpolitics.com/wmspage.cfm?docID=news-000002674309. Retrieved February 24, 2008.
^ Salant, Jonathan D. (June 19, 2008). "Obama Won't Accept Public Money in Election Campaign". Bloomberg. http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=20601070&sid=aNi.G0PhWnFw. Retrieved June 19, 2008.
^ "Commission on Presidential Debates Announces Sites, Dates, Formats and Candidate Selection Criteria for 2008 General Election". Commission on Presidential Debates. November 19, 2007. Archived from the original on July 6, 2008. http://web.archive.org/web/20080706070658/http://www.debates.org/pages/news_111907.html. Retrieved July 6, 2008.
- "Gun Ruling Reverberates". Hartford Courant. June 27, 2008. http://www.courant.com/topic/. Retrieved July 6, 2008.
^ Johnson, Alex (November 4, 2008). "Barack Obama elected 44th president". MSNBC. http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/27531033/. Retrieved February 20, 2009.
- "CNN Electoral Map Calculator—Election Center 2008". CNN. 2008. http://www.cnn.com/ELECTION/2008/results/president/. Retrieved December 14, 2008.
^ "General Election: McCain vs. Obama". Real Clear Politics. http://www.realclearpolitics.com/epolls/2008/president/us/general_election_mccain_vs_obama-225.html. Retrieved February 20, 2009.
^ "Obama wins historic US election". BBC. November 5, 2008. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/us_elections_2008/7709978.stm. Retrieved November 5, 2008.
- Nagourney, Adam (November 4, 2008). "Obama Elected President as Racial Barrier Falls". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2008/11/05/us/politics/05elect.html?pagewanted=all. Retrieved November 5, 2008.
- "Obama: 'This is your victory'". CNN. November 5, 2008. http://www.cnn.com/2008/POLITICS/11/04/election.president/index.html. Retrieved November 5, 2008.
^ Johnson, Wesley (November 5, 2008). "Change has come, says President-elect Obama". The Independent (UK). http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/americas/change-has-come-says-presidentelect-obama-992930.html. Retrieved November 5, 2008.
^ Shear, Michael D. (April 4, 2011), "Obama Begins Re-Election Facing New Political Challenges", The New York Times, http://thecaucus.blogs.nytimes.com/2011/04/04/obama-launches-re-election-facing-new-political-challenges/, retrieved April 5, 2011.
^ "Obama announces re-election bid", United Press International, April 4, 2011, http://www.upi.com/Top_News/US/2011/04/04/Obama-announces-re-election-bid/UPI-95081301905800/?dailybrief, retrieved April 5, 2011.
^ Zeleny, Jeff; Calmes, Jackie (April 4, 2011), "Obama Opens 2012 Campaign, With Eye on Money and Independent Voters", The New York Times, http://www.nytimes.com/2011/04/05/us/politics/05obama.html?scp=1&sq=obama%202012&st=cse, retrieved April 5, 2011.
^ Yoon, Robert (April 3, 2012). "Leading presidential candidate to clinch nomination Tuesday". CNN. http://politicalticker.blogs.cnn.com/2012/04/03/leading-presidential-candidate-to-clinch-nomination-tuesday/. Retrieved May 2, 2012.
^ "Obama clinches Democratic nomination". CNN. April 3, 2012. http://politicalticker.blogs.cnn.com/2012/04/03/breaking-obama-clinches-democratic-nomination/. Retrieved April 3, 2012.
^ "Obama asks Pentagon for responsible Iraq drawdown". China Daily. January 23, 2009. http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2009-01/23/content_7423535.htm. Retrieved September 4, 2009.
^ Glaberson, William (January 21, 2009). "Obama Orders Halt to Prosecutions at Guantánamo". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2009/01/22/washington/22gitmo.html. Retrieved February 3, 2009.
^ "Senate blocks transfer of Gitmo detainees", Associated Press, MSNBC, May 20, 2009, http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/30826649/ns/politics-capitol_hill/, retrieved March 22, 2011.
^ Obama, Barack (December 15, 2009), "Presidential Memorandum—Closure of Detention Facilities at the Guantanamo Bay Naval Base", whitehouse.gov, http://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/presidential-memorandum-closure-dentention-facilities-guantanamo-bay-naval-base, retrieved March 22, 2011.
^ Serbu, Jared (January 7, 2011), "Obama signs Defense authorization bill", Federal News Radio, http://federalnewsradio.com/?sid=2226350&nid=35, retrieved March 22, 2011.
^ "Executive Order—Presidential Records". http://www.whitehouse.gov/the_press_office/ExecutiveOrderPresidentialRecords/. Retrieved January 22, 2009.
^ Doyle, Michael (January 23, 2009). "Obama restores some of the 'Freedom' to FOIA". McClatchy Newspapers. http://www.mcclatchydc.com/251/story/60661.html. Retrieved January 24, 2009.
^ Gerstein, Josh (January 24, 2009). "Obama: End Abortion 'Politicization'". Politico. http://www.politico.com/news/stories/0109/17898.html.
^ "Obama Signs Equal-Pay Legislation". The New York Times. January 30, 2009. http://www.nytimes.com/2009/01/30/us/politics/30ledbetter-web.html. Retrieved June 15, 2009.
^ Levey, Noam N.. "Obama signs into law expansion of SCHIP health care program for children". Chicago Tribune. http://www.chicagotribune.com/news/nationworld/chi-kids-health-care_thufeb05,0,30310.story. Retrieved June 15, 2009.
^ "Obama overturns Bush policy on stem cells". CNN. March 9, 2009. http://www.cnn.com/2009/POLITICS/03/09/obama.stem.cells/index.html. Retrieved April 18, 2010.
^ "Senate confirms Sotomayor for Supreme Court". CNN. August 6, 2009. http://www.cnn.com/2009/POLITICS/08/06/sonia.sotomayor/. Retrieved August 6, 2009.
^ Obama nominates Sotomayor to Supreme Court, CNN, Retrieved May 26, 2009.
^ Sherman, Mark (October 4, 2010). "New Era Begins on High Court: Kagan Takes Place as Third Woman". Associated Press. http://www.theledger.com/article/20101004/news/10045042. Retrieved November 13, 2010.
^ Broder, John M. (October 1, 2009). "E.P.A. Moves to Curtail Greenhouse Gas Emissions". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2009/10/01/science/earth/01epa.html.
^ "US moves to limit industrial greenhouse gas emissions". Google News. Agence France-Presse. October 1, 2009. http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5ip53lrBGDBrm5QYg-npRkHn4ggRA. Retrieved April 18, 2010.
^ "President Barack Obama signs hate crimes legislation into law". Bay Windows. October 28, 2009. Archived from the original on July 22, 2011. http://web.archive.org/web/20110722003600/http://www.baywindows.com/index.php?ch=news&sc=glbt&sc2=news&sc3=&id=98285. Retrieved October 12, 2011.
^ "Obama signs hate crimes bill into law". CNN. October 28, 2009. http://articles.cnn.com/2009-10-28/politics/hate.crimes_1_crimes-gay-rights-human-rights-campaign?_s=PM:POLITICS. Retrieved October 12, 2011.
^ Parsons, Christi (March 30, 2010). "Obama signs student loan reforms into law". Los Angeles Times. http://articles.latimes.com/2010/mar/30/nation/la-na-obama-college31-2010mar31. Retrieved April 18, 2010.
^ Branigin, William. "Obama signs higher-education measure into law". The Washington Post. http://voices.washingtonpost.com/44/2010/03/obama-signs-higher-education-m.html. Retrieved April 12, 2010.
^ Robert Block and Mark K. Matthews (January 27, 2010). "White House won't fund NASA moon program". LA Times. http://articles.latimes.com/2010/jan/27/nation/la-na-nasa-budget27-2010jan27. Retrieved January 30, 2011. "President Obama's budget proposal includes no money for the Ares I and Ares V rocket or Constellation program. Instead, NASA would be asked to monitor climate change and develop a new rocket"
^ "'Don't ask, don't tell' repealed as Obama signs landmark law". The Guardian (London). December 22, 2010. http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2010/dec/22/obama-repeals-dont-ask-dont-tell. Retrieved December 22, 2010.
^ "Obama to delay 'don't ask, don't tell' repeal". Washington Times. November 21, 2008. http://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2008/nov/21/obama-to-delay-repeal-of-dont-ask-dont-tell/. Retrieved December 22, 2010.
^ Jesse Lee. "The President Signs Repeal of "Don't Ask Don't Tell": "Out of Many, We Are One"". Whitehouse.gov. http://www.whitehouse.gov/blog/2010/12/22/president-signs-repeal-dont-ask-dont-tell-out-many-we-are-one. Retrieved December 22, 2010.
^ Albanesius, Chloe (January 25, 2011). "Obama Pushes Innovation in Tech-Heavy State of the Union". PCMag.com. http://www.pcmag.com/article2/0,2817,2376242,00.asp. Retrieved May 17, 2011.
^ Kornblut, Anne E.; Wilson, Scott (January 26, 2011). "State of the Union 2011: 'Win the future,' Obama says". The Washington Post. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2011/01/25/AR2011012504068.html. Retrieved May 18, 2011.
^ Baim, Tracy (January 14, 2009). "Windy City Times exclusive: Obama's Marriage Views Changed. WCT Examines His Step Back". Windy City Times. http://www.windycitymediagroup.com/lgbt/Windy-City-Times-exclusive-Obamas-Marriage-Views-Changed-WCT-Examines-His-Step-Back/20524.html. Retrieved May 10, 2012.
^ Baim, Tracy (February 4, 2004). "Obama Seeks U.S. Senate seat". Windy City Times. http://www.windycitymediagroup.com/gay/lesbian/news/ARTICLE.php?AID=3931. Retrieved May 10, 2012.
^ "Obama backs same-sex marriage". CBS News. May 9, 2012. http://www.cbsnews.com/8301-503544_162-57431122-503544/obama-backs-same-sex-marriage/. Retrieved May 9, 2012.
^ Sam Stein (May 9, 2012). "Obama Backs Gay Marriage". The Huffington Post. http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2012/05/09/obama-gay-marriage_n_1503245.html.
^ "Stimulus package en route to Obama's desk". CNN. February 14, 2009. http://www.cnn.com/2009/POLITICS/02/13/stimulus/index.html. Retrieved March 29, 2009.
^ "Committee for a Responsible Federal Budget, Stimulus Watch". http://stimulus.org/. Retrieved April 9, 2011.
- "Obama's remarks on signing the stimulus plan". CNN. February 17, 2009. http://www.cnn.com/2009/POLITICS/02/17/obama.stimulus.remarks/. Retrieved February 17, 2009.
^ Andrews, Edmund L.; Dash, Eric (March 23, 2009). "U.S. Expands Plan to Buy Banks' Troubled Assets". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2009/03/24/business/economy/24bailout.html. Retrieved April 12, 2010.
- "Wall Street soars 7% on bank plan debut". REUTERS. March 23, 2009. http://www.reuters.com/article/businessNews/idUSTRE52H2FA20090323?feedType=RSS&feedName=businessNews.
^ "White House questions viability of GM, Chrysler". The Huffington Post. March 30, 2009. http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2009/03/30/obama-denies-bailout-fund_n_180563.html.
^ Bunkley, Nick; Vlasic, Bill (April 27, 2009). "Chrysler and Union Agree to Deal Before Federal Deadline". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2009/04/27/business/27chrysler.html. Retrieved April 12, 2010.
^ John Hughes, Caroline Salas, Jeff Green, and Bob Van Voris (June 1, 2009). "GM Begins Bankruptcy Process With Filing for Affiliate". Bloomberg. http://bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=20601087&sid=aw4F_L7E4xYg.
^ Conkey, Christopher; Radnofsky, Louise (June 9, 2009). "Obama Presses Cabinet to Speed Stimulus Spending". The Wall Street Journal. http://online.wsj.com/article/SB124445867883193821.html.
^ Dana Hedgpeth (August 21, 2009). "U.S. Says 'Cash for Clunkers' Program Will End on Monday". The Washington Post. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/20/AR2009082002699.html. Retrieved March 26, 2010.
^ Joseph R. Szczesny (August 26, 2009). "Was Cash for Clunkers a Success?". Time. http://www.time.com/time/business/article/0,8599,1918692,00.html. Retrieved March 26, 2010.
^ Mian, Atif R.; Sufi, Amir (September 1, 2010). "The Effects of Fiscal Stimulus: Evidence from the 2009 'Cash for Clunkers' Program". SSRN Electronic Journal (SSRN). DOI:10.2139/ssrn.1670759. http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1670759. Retrieved September 9, 2010.
^ Goldman, David (April 6, 2009). "CNNMoney.com's bailout tracker". Bailout tracker 06: 20. http://money.cnn.com/news/storysupplement/economy/bailouttracker/. Retrieved March 26, 2010.
^ Montgomery, Lori (July 24, 2010). "Federal budget deficit to exceed $1.4 trillion in 2010 and 2011". The Washington Post. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2010/07/23/AR2010072304101.html. Retrieved July 29, 2010.
^ Bull, Alister; Mason, Jeff (February 1, 2010). "Obama's 2010 budget: deficit soars amid job spending". Reuters. http://www.reuters.com/article/idUSTRE60U00220100201. Retrieved July 29, 2010.
^ Dickson, David M. (March 26, 2010). "CBO report: Debt will rise to 90% of GDP". Washington Times. Associated Press. http://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2010/mar/26/cbos-2020-vision-debt-will-rise-to-90-of-gdp/?page=1. Retrieved July 29, 2010.
^ "Senate Vote Approves Rise in Debt Limit" (January 26, 2012). Reuters. Retrieved April 25, 2012.
^ By NBC's Sylvie Stein. "First Read — A breakdown of the debt-limit legislation". MSNBC. http://firstread.msnbc.msn.com/_news/2011/08/02/7231805-a-breakdown-of-the-debt-limit-legislation. Retrieved August 3, 2011.
^ "House passes debt ceiling bill". MSNBC. March 8, 2011. http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/43967924/ns/politics-capitol_hill/. Retrieved August 3, 2011.
^ "Unemployment Rate". Bureau of Labor Statistics. http://data.bls.gov/timeseries/LNS14000000. Retrieved February 6, 2012.
^ "Unemployment Rate". Bureau of Labor Statistics. http://data.bls.gov/timeseries/CES0000000001?output_view=net_1mth. Retrieved February 16, 2012.
^ Theodossiou, Eleni; Hipple, Steven F. (2011). "Unemployment Remains High in 2010". Monthly Labor Review (Bureau of Labor Statistics) 134 (3): 3–22. http://www.bls.gov/opub/mlr/2011/03/art1full.pdf. Retrieved April 7, 2011.
^ Eddlemon, John P. (2011). "Payroll Employment Turns the Corner in 2010". Monthly Labor Review (Bureau of Labor Statistics) 134 (3): 23–32. http://www.bls.gov/opub/mlr/2011/03/art2full.pdf. Retrieved April 7, 2011.
^ ^a ^b "Percent Change in Real Gross Domestic Product (Quarterly)". National Income and Product Accounts Table. Bureau of Economic Analysis. http://bea.gov/national/nipaweb/TableView.asp?SelectedTable=1&ViewSeries=NO&Java=no&Request3Place=N&3Place=N&FromView=YES&Freq=Qtr&FirstYear=2009&LastYear=2010&3Place=N&Update=Update&JavaBox=no#Mid. Retrieved April 7, 2011.
^ Harding, Robin (July 28, 2010). "Beige Book survey reports signs of slowdown". Financial Times. http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/dac3245a-9a7b-11df-87fd-00144feab49a.html. Retrieved July 29, 2010.
^ "Percent Change in Real Gross Domestic Product (Annual)". National Income and Product Accounts Table. Bureau of Economic Analysis. http://bea.gov/national/nipaweb/TableView.asp?SelectedTable=1&ViewSeries=NO&Java=no&Request3Place=N&3Place=N&FromView=YES&Freq=Year&FirstYear=2009&LastYear=2010&3Place=N&Update=Update&JavaBox=no#Mid. Retrieved April 7, 2011.
^ ^a ^b "Estimated Impact of the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act on Employment and Economic Output". Congressional Budget Office. http://www.cbo.gov/publication/42715. Retrieved February 21, 2012.
^ ^a ^b Calmes, Jackie; Cooper, Michael (November 20, 2009). "New Consensus Sees Stimulus Package as Worthy Step". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2009/11/21/business/economy/21stimulus.html. Retrieved December 21, 2010.
^ "CBO: Stimulus created as many as 2.1 million jobs". February 23, 2010. http://thehill.com/blogs/blog-briefing-room/news/83253-cbo-stimulus-created-as-many-as-21-million-jobs. Retrieved April 25, 2010.
^ Krugman, Paul (November 2, 2009). "Too Little of a Good Thing". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2009/11/02/opinion/02krugman.html. Retrieved December 22, 2010.
^ Isidore, Chris (January 29, 2010). "Best economic growth in six years". CNN. http://money.cnn.com/2010/01/29/news/economy/gdp/index.htm. Retrieved April 18, 2010.
^ "New NABE Survey Shows Business Recovery Gaining Momentum, with More Jobs Ahead". http://www.nabe.com/publib/indsum.html. Retrieved April 26, 2010.
^ Herszenhorn, David M.; Stolberg, Sheryl Gay (December 7, 2010). "Democrats Skeptical of Obama on New Tax Plan". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2010/12/08/us/politics/08cong.html.
^ "Obama signs tax deal into law". CNN. December 17, 2010. http://www.cnn.com/2010/POLITICS/12/17/tax.deal/index.html. Retrieved December 17, 2010.
^ ^a ^b Sweet, Lynn, "Obama July 22, 2009 press conference. Transcript", Chicago Sun-Times, July 22, 2009
^ Stolberg, Sheryl Gay; Zeleny, Jeff (September 9, 2009). "Obama, Armed With Details, Says Health Plan Is Necessary". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2009/09/10/us/politics/10obama.html.
^ "Obama will hedge on public option". Politico. http://www.politico.com/news/stories/0909/26907.html. Retrieved September 9, 2009.
^ "Obama calls for Congress to face health care challenge". CNN. September 9, 2009. http://www.cnn.com/2009/POLITICS/09/09/obama.speech/index.html. Retrieved September 9, 2009.
^ "Stem cell". The Guardian, Retrieved March 19, 2011
^ Hulse, Carl; Robert Pear (November 7, 2009). "Sweeping Health Care Plan Passes House". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2009/11/08/health/policy/08health.html. Retrieved November 8, 2009.
^ Herszenhorn, David M.; Jackie Calmes (December 7, 2009). "Abortion Was at Heart of Wrangling". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2009/11/08/health/policy/08scene.html. Retrieved December 6, 2009.
^ Hensley, Scott (December 24, 2009). "Senate Says Yes To Landmark Health Bill". NPR. http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=121854289. Retrieved December 24, 2009.
^ "Health Care Reform, at Last". The New York Times. March 21, 2010. http://www.nytimes.com/2010/03/22/opinion/22mon5.html. Retrieved March 22, 2010.
^ Gay Stolberg, Sheryl (March 23, 2010). "Obama Signs Landmark Health Care Bill". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2010/03/24/health/policy/24health.html. Retrieved March 23, 2010.
^ "5 key things to remember about health care reform". CNN. March 25, 2010. http://www.cnn.com/2010/HEALTH/03/25/health.care.law.basics/index.html.
^ ^a ^b "Policies to Improve Affordability and Accountability". The White House. http://www.whitehouse.gov/health-care-meeting/proposal/whatsnew/affordability.
^ "Health Care Reform Bill 101". The Christian Science Monitor. http://www.csmonitor.com/USA/Politics/2010/0320/Health-care-reform-bill-101-Who-gets-subsidized-insurance.
^ "An Analysis of Health Insurance Premiums Under the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act" (PDF). http://www.cbo.gov/sites/default/files/cbofiles/ftpdocs/107xx/doc10781/11-30-premiums.pdf. Retrieved April 9, 2012.
^ Peter Grier, Health care reform bill 101: Who will pay for reform?, Christian Science Monitor (March 21, 2010).
^ Grier, Peter (March 19, 2010). "Health care reform bill 101: Who must buy insurance?". The Christian Science Monitor (Washington, D.C.). http://www.csmonitor.com/USA/Politics/2010/0319/Health-care-reform-bill-101-Who-must-buy-insurance. Retrieved April 7, 2010.
^ Congressional Budget Office, Cost Estimates for H.R. 4872, Reconciliation Act of 2010 (Final Health Care Legislation) (March 20, 2010).
^ Mears, Bill (March 27, 2012). "Supreme Court divided over Health Care Mandate". http://www.cnn.com/2012/03/27/justice/scotus-health-care/index.html. Retrieved May 15, 2012.
^ "Obama Halts Drilling Projects, Defends Actions". National Public Radio. May 27, 2010. http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=127205462&ps=rs.
^ Jonsson, Patrik (May 29, 2010). "Gulf oil spill: Obama's big political test". The Christian Science Monitor. http://www.csmonitor.com/USA/Politics/2010/0529/Gulf-oil-spill-Obama-s-big-political-test. Retrieved June 6, 2010.
^ "Biden vows break with Bush era foreign policy". http://www.canada.com/news/unveils+changes+foreign+policy/1265065/story.html. Retrieved June 15, 2009.
- Ghattas, Kim (March 8, 2009). "Clinton's gaffes and gains on tour". BBC News. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/7931699.stm. Retrieved June 15, 2009.
^ "Obama reaches out to Muslim world on TV". MSNBC. http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/28869185/. Retrieved June 15, 2009.
^ DeYoung, Karen (April 9, 2009). "Nation U.S. to Join Talks on Iran's Nuclear Program". The Washington Post. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/04/08/AR2009040802254.html. Retrieved June 15, 2009.
^ "Iranian Leaders Ignore Obama's Outstretched Hand". Fox News Channel. March 20, 2009. http://www.foxnews.com/politics/2009/03/20/iranian-leaders-ignore-obamas-outstretched-hand/. Retrieved June 15, 2009.
^ "Obama speech draws praise in Mideast". The Guardian (London). January 23, 2008. http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/feedarticle/8443248. Retrieved June 15, 2009.
^ "Obama in Egypt reaches out to Muslim world". CNN. June 4, 2009. http://www.cnn.com/2009/POLITICS/06/04/egypt.obama.speech. Retrieved January 30, 2011.
^ "Obama dismisses Ahmadinejad apology request". The Washington Times. June 26, 2009. http://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2009/jun/26/obama-dismisses-ahmadinejad-apology-request/.
^ Obama: No green light for Israel to attack Iran, CNN, July 7, 2009
^ Chidanand Rajghatta, "Barack 'No Bomb' Obama pushes for world without nukes", The Times of India, September 24, 2009.
^ Robert Berger, "Israel Refuses to Halt Construction in East Jerusalem", Voice of America, March 26, 2010.
^ Kershner, Isabel (March 24, 2010). "Israel Confirms New Building in East Jerusalem". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2010/03/25/world/middleeast/25jerusalem.html. Retrieved April 26, 2010.
^ Peter Baker, "Obama Seals Arms Control Deal With Russia", The New York Times, March 26, 2010.
^ Baker, Peter (December 22, 2010). "Senate Passes Arms Control Treaty With Russia, 71–26". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2010/12/23/world/europe/23treaty.html.
^ "Gay rights must be criterion for US aid allocations, instructs Obama" The Guardian (London). December 6, 2011. Retrieved May 20, 2012.
^ Feller, Ben (February 27, 2009). "Obama sets firm withdrawal timetable for Iraq". The Detroit News. Associated Press. http://www.detnews.com/article/20090228/POLITICS/902280332/Obama+sets+firm+Iraq+withdrawal. Retrieved March 3, 2009.
^ Athena Johnes Obama announces Iraq plan. February 27, 2009. msnbc.com.
^ BBC News: "Last US combat brigade exits Iraq", August 19, 2010 Last updated at 17:56 GMT.
^ MacAskill, Ewen (September 1, 2010). "Barack Obama ends the war in Iraq. 'Now it's time to turn the page'". The Guardian (London). http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2010/sep/01/obama-formally-ends-iraq-war.
^ All U.S. troops out of Iraq by end of year, msnbc.com, October 21, 2011
^ "Obama Calls for U.S. Military to Renew Focus on Afghanistan". NewsHour with Jim Lehrer. PBS. July 15, 2008. http://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/politics/july-dec08/obama_07-15.html. Retrieved April 18, 2010.
^ Hodge, Amanda (February 19, 2009). "Obama launches Afghanistan Surge". The Australian. http://www.theaustralian.news.com.au/story/0,25197,25074581-2703,00.html.
^ "Top U.S. Commander in Afghanistan Is Fired". The Washington Post. May 12, 2009. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/05/11/AR2009051101864.html.
- "New U.S. Commander Brings Counterinsurgency Experience to Afghanistan". Fox News Channel. May 13, 2009. http://www.foxnews.com/politics/2009/05/13/new-commander-brings-counterinsurgency-experience-afghanistan/.
^ "Obama to announce war strategy" Associated Press. msnbc.com. December 1, 2009.
^ Associated Press. (December 1, 2009). "Obama details Afghan war plan, troop increases" msnbc.com.
^ President Obama's Afghanistan Speech pt.1, December 1, 2009 on YouTube
^ "Gates says he agrees with Obama decision on McChrystal". CNN. June 24, 2010. http://www.cnn.com/2010/POLITICS/06/24/mcchrystal.gates.support/. Retrieved September 18, 2010.
^ "U.S., Israel Build Military Cooperation", Charles Levinson. Wall Street Journal. August 14, 2010. Accessed March 1, 2011
^ "United States vetoes Security Council resolution on Israeli settlements", United Nations News Centre. February 18, 2011. Accessed March 1, 2011
^ Levy, Elior. "PA challenges Netanyahu to accept 1967 lines." Ynetnews. May 22, 2011. May 22, 2011.
^ "Floor Statement by Senator McCain Introducing the Senate Resolution Calling for a No-Fly Zone in Libya". Senate.gov. March 14, 2011. http://mccain.senate.gov/public/index.cfm?FuseAction=PressOffice.FloorStatements&ContentRecord_id=b63b7b6f-a466-ba23-dea8-7bc024f54655. Retrieved March 28, 2011.
^ "Senate Passes Resolution Calling for No-Fly Zone Over Libya". National Journal. March 1, 2011. http://nationaljournal.com/congress/senate-passes-resolution-calling-for-no-fly-zone-over-libya-20110301?page=1. Retrieved March 28, 2011.
^ Winnett, Robert (March 17, 2011). "Libya: UN approves no-fly zone as British troops prepare for action". The Daily Telegraph (London). http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/libya/8389565/Libya-UN-approves-no-fly-zone-as-British-troops-prepare-for-action.html. Retrieved April 7, 2011.
^ "Libya declares ceasefire". New Statesman. UK. http://www.newstatesman.com/blogs/the-staggers/2011/03/fly-zone-ceasefire-libya. Retrieved July 16, 2011.
^ "Obama: US to Transfer Lead Role in Libya". RTT Newswire. http://www.rttnews.com/Content/GeneralNews.aspx?Id=1580433&SM=1. Retrieved March 22, 2011.
^ "Obama says US efforts in Libya have saved lives, control of operation can be turned over soon". Ventura County Star. Associated Press. http://www.vcstar.com/news/2011/mar/23/ap-news-in-brief/. Retrieved March 22, 2011.
^ Ian Pannell (March 21, 2011). "Gaddafi 'not targeted' by allied strikes". BBC. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-12813757. Retrieved July 3, 2011.
^ Jones, Sam (March 22, 2011). "F-15 fighter jet crashes in Libya". The Guardian (London). http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2011/mar/22/f15-fighter-crash-libya. Retrieved March 23, 2011.
^ "NATO No-Fly Zone over Libya Operation UNIFIED PROTECTOR". NATO. March 25, 2011. http://www.nato.int/nato_static/assets/pdf/pdf_2011_03/20110325_110325-unified-protector-no-fly-zone.pdf.
^ Montopoli, Brian (March 22, 2011). "Is Obama's Libya offensive constitutional?". CBS News. http://www.cbsnews.com/8301-503544_162-20045927-503544.html. Retrieved March 22, 2011.
^ Stein, Sam (March 21, 2011). "Obama's Libya Policy Makes Strange Bedfellows Of Congressional Critics". The Huffington Post. http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/03/20/obama-libya_n_838219.html. Retrieved March 26, 2011.
^ "Obama juggles Libya promises, realities". CNN. March 25, 2011. http://www.cnn.com/2011/POLITICS/03/25/obama.libya/index.html?hpt=T1. Retrieved March 26, 2011.
^ ^a ^b ^c Mazzetti, Mark; Helene Cooper, Peter Baker (May 3, 2011). "Clues Gradually Led to the Location of Osama bin Laden". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2011/05/03/world/asia/03intel.html?hp=&pagewanted=all. Retrieved May 4, 2011.
^ ^a ^b "Osama bin Laden is killed by U.S. forces in Pakistan" – washingtonpost.com Retrieved May 2, 2011
^ "Official offers details of bin Laden raid" – newsday.com Retrieved May 2, 2011
^ Schabner, Dean; Karen Travers (May 1, 2011). "Osama bin Laden Killed by U.S. Forces in Pakistan". ABC News. http://abcnews.go.com/Blotter/osama-bin-laden-killed/story?id=13505703. Retrieved May 3, 2011.
^ Baker, Peter; Helene Cooper, Mark Mazzetti (May 2, 2011). "Bin Laden Is Dead, Obama Says". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2011/05/02/world/asia/osama-bin-laden-is-killed.html. Retrieved May 3, 2011.
^ Walsh, Declan; Richard Adams and Ewen MacAskill (May 2, 2011). "Osama bin Laden is dead, Obama announces". The Guardian (London). http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2011/may/02/osama-bin-laden-dead-obama. Retrieved May 3, 2011.
^ Dorning, Mike (May 2, 2011). "Death of Bin Laden May Strengthen Obama's Hand in Domestic, Foreign Policy". Bloomberg News. http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2011-05-02/death-of-bin-laden-may-strengthen-obama-s-hand-in-domestic-foreign-policy.html. Retrieved May 4, 2011.
^ "World Reaction To Osama Bin Laden's Death". NPR. May 2, 2011. http://www.npr.org/2011/05/02/135919728/world-reaction-to-osama-bin-ladens-death. Retrieved May 4, 2011.
^ Paul Harris in Oakland and Ewen MacAskill in Washington (November 3, 2010). "US midterm election results herald new political era as Republicans take House". The Guardian (London). http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2010/nov/03/us-midterm-election-results-tea-party. Retrieved December 22, 2010.
^ "Obama calls midterm elections a 'shellacking' for Democrats". The Christian Science Monitor. November 4, 2010. http://www.csmonitor.com/USA/Elections/Vox-News/2010/1104/Obama-calls-midterm-elections-a-shellacking-for-Democrats. Retrieved December 22, 2010.
^ "See Obama's first paragraph of his transcript". All Things Considered. NPR. November 3, 2010. http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=131048554. Retrieved December 22, 2010.
^ "President Obama Hangs Out With America", The White House, January 30, 2012.
^ Wallace-Wells, Benjamin (November 2004). "The Great Black Hope: What's Riding on Barack Obama?". Washington Monthly. http://www.washingtonmonthly.com/features/2004/0411.wallace-wells.html. Retrieved April 7, 2008. See also:Scott, Janny (December 28, 2007). "A Member of a New Generation, Obama Walks a Fine Line". International Herald Tribune. http://www.iht.com/articles/2007/12/28/america/obama.php. Retrieved April 7, 2008.
^ Harris, Paul (March 4, 2007). "Obama told of family's slave-owning history in deep South". The Observer (London). http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2007/mar/04/uselections2008.barackobama. Retrieved April 18, 2010.
^ Payne, Les (August 19, 2007). "In One Country, a Dual Audience" (paid archive). Newsday (New York). http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/newsday/access/1322008241.html?dids=1322008241:1322008241&FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:FT. Retrieved April 7, 2008.
^ Dorning, Mike (October 4, 2007). "Obama Reaches Across Decades to JFK" (paid archive). Chicago Tribune. http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/chicagotribune/access/1353513781.html?dids=1353513781:1353513781&FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:FT&type=current&date=Oct+4%2C+2007&author=Mike+Dorning. Retrieved April 7, 2008. See also:Harnden, Toby (October 15, 2007). "Barack Obama is JFK Heir, Says Kennedy Aide". The Daily Telegraph (London). http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/1565992/Barack-Obama-is-JFK-heir%2C-says-Kennedy-aide.html. Retrieved April 7, 2008.
^ Holmes, Stephanie (November 30, 2008). "Obama: Oratory and originality". The Age (Melbourne). http://www.theage.com.au/world/a-classic-orator-obama-learnt-from-the-masters-20081129-6nf1.html. Retrieved December 11, 2008.
- Gallo, Carmine (March 3, 2008). "How to Inspire People Like Obama Does". BusinessWeek. http://www.businessweek.com/smallbiz/content/mar2008/sb2008033_156351.htm. Retrieved February 21, 2009.
- Zlomislic, Diana (December 11, 2008). "New emotion dubbed 'elevation". Toronto Star. http://www.thestar.com/living/article/551538. Retrieved December 11, 2008.
- Greene, Richard (January 25, 2011). "Obama Is America's Third Greatest Presidential Orator in Modern Era". The Huffington Post. http://www.huffingtonpost.com/richard-greene/obama-is-americas-3rd-gre_b_813868.html. Retrieved July 2, 2011.
^ "YouTube – ChangeDotGov's Channel". Youtube. http://www.youtube.com/user/ChangeDotGov. Retrieved April 18, 2010.
^ "Obama Starts With 68% Job Approval". Gallup.com. January 24, 2009. http://www.gallup.com/poll/113962/obama-starts-job-approval.aspx. Retrieved June 19, 2011.
^ "Obama hits low point in Gallup Poll – 41%". USA Today. April 15, 2011. http://content.usatoday.com/communities/theoval/post/2011/04/obama-hits-low-point-in-gallup-poll/1. Retrieved June 19, 2011.
^ Jon Terbush (December 9, 2010). "Approval By Numbers: How Obama Compares To Past Presidents". Tpmdc.talkingpointsmemo.com. http://tpmdc.talkingpointsmemo.com/2010/12/approval-by-numbers-how-obama-compares-to-past-presidents.php. Retrieved June 19, 2011.
^ Oliphant, James (May 11, 2011). "Bin Laden bounce? New poll shows jump in Obama approval", Los Angeles Times. Accessed June 7, 2011
^ Balz, Dan; Cohen, John (June 6, 2011). "Obama loses bin Laden bounce; Romney on the move among GOP contenders", The Washington Post. Accessed June 7, 2011
^ Henningsen, Patrick (May 23, 2011). "Washington Still Working Hard to Plug Gaps in The Bin Laden Story", 21st Century Wire. Accessed June 7, 2011
^ "World wants Obama as president: poll". Reuters. ABC News. September 9, 2008. http://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2008/09/09/2360240.htm.
^ "Obama to visit nuclear, biological weapons destruction facilities in former Soviet Union" (Press release). Obama.senate.gov. August 24, 2005. Archived from the original on December 18, 2008. http://web.archive.org/web/20081218122125/http://obama.senate.gov/press/050823-obama_to_visit/. Retrieved October 12, 2011.
^ Scherer, Steve (September 12, 2007). "Rome Mayor's Leadership Bid May Lead to Early Italian Elections". Bloomberg. http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=20601085&sid=aea6jJJwShpQ&refer=europe. Retrieved May 21, 2011.
^ Pedder, Sophie (February 20, 2008). "Sarkozy, Obama and McCain". The Economist. http://www.economist.com/blogs/certainideasofeurope/2008/02/sarkozy_obama_and_mccain.cfm. Retrieved November 20, 2008.
^ Freed, John C. (February 6, 20009). "Poll shows Obama atop list of most respected". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2009/02/06/world/americas/06iht-poll.4.19983290.html. Retrieved January 22, 2012.
^ "Obama Most Popular Leader, Poll Finds". The New York Times. May 29, 2009. http://www.nytimes.com/2009/05/29/world/europe/29iht-poll.html. Retrieved January 22, 2012.
^ "Obama remains a popular symbol of hope". France 24. June 2, 2009. Archived from the original on May 13, 2011. http://web.archive.org/web/20110513050036/http://www.france24.com/en/20090529-obama-remains-popular-symbol-hope-harris-interactive-poll-world-leaders. Retrieved January 22, 2012.
^ Goodman, Dean (February 10, 2008). "Obama or Clinton? Grammys go for Obama". Reuters. http://www.reuters.com/article/musicNews/idUSN0852813420080210. Retrieved November 24, 2008.
^ Strange, Hannah (March 5, 2008). "Celebrities join YouTube revolution". The Times (London). http://entertainment.timesonline.co.uk/tol/arts_and_entertainment/film/article3491460.ece. Retrieved December 18, 2008.
^ Wappler, Margaret (June 20, 2008). "Emmys give knuckle bump to will.i.am; more videos on the way". Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on May 16, 2011. http://web.archive.org/web/20110516090327/http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/soundboard/2008/06/emmys-give-knuc.html. Retrieved January 26, 2012.
^ Von Drehle, David (December 16, 2008). "Why History Can't Wait". Time. http://www.time.com/time/specials/2008/personoftheyear/article/0,31682,1861543_1865068,00.html. Retrieved December 17, 2008.
^ "The Nobel Peace Prize 2009". Nobel Foundation. http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/peace/laureates/2009/. Retrieved October 9, 2009.
^ "Obama: 'Peace requires responsibility'". CNN. December 10, 2009. http://www.cnn.com/2009/POLITICS/12/10/obama.transcript/index.html. Retrieved May 21, 2011.
^ Philp, Catherine (October 10, 2009). "Barack Obama's peace prize starts a fight". The Times (London). http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/us_and_americas/article6868905.ece. Retrieved October 10, 2009.
^ Samuelsohn, Darren (October 9, 2009). "Obama Wins Nobel Prize in Part for Confronting 'Great Climatic Challenges'". The New York Times. Greenwire. http://www.nytimes.com/gwire/2009/10/09/09greenwire-obama-wins-nobel-prize-in-part-for-confronting-55250.html. Retrieved April 18, 2010.
^ "Keeping Hope Alive: Barack Obama Puts Family First". The Oprah Winfrey Show. October 18, 2006. http://www.oprah.com/slideshow/oprahshow/oprahshow1_ss_20061018/10. Retrieved June 24, 2008.
^ Fornek, Scott (September 9, 2007). "Half Siblings: 'A Complicated Family'". Chicago Sun-Times. Archived from the original on January 18, 2010. http://www.webcitation.org/5msGZ6sKn. Retrieved June 24, 2008. See also:"Interactive Family Tree". Chicago Sun-Times. September 9, 2007. Archived from the original on July 3, 2008. http://web.archive.org/web/20080703042659/http://www.suntimes.com/images/cds/special/family_tree.html. Retrieved June 24, 2008.
^ Fornek, Scott (September 9, 2007). "Madelyn Payne Dunham: 'A Trailblazer'". Chicago Sun-Times. Archived from the original on May 14, 2009. http://www.webcitation.org/5gm7oJqn9. Retrieved June 24, 2008.
^ "Obama's grandmother dies after battle with cancer". CNN. November 3, 2008. http://www.cnn.com/2008/POLITICS/11/03/obama.grandma/index.html. Retrieved November 4, 2008.
^ Smolenyak, Megan (May 9, 2011). "Tracing Barack Obama's Roots to Moneygall". The Huffington Post. http://www.huffingtonpost.com/megan-smolenyak-smolenyak/tracing-barack-obamas-roo_b_859151.html.
^ Obama (1995, 2004), p. 13. For reports on Obama's maternal genealogy, including slave owners, Irish connections, and common ancestors with George W. Bush, Dick Cheney, and Harry Truman, see:Nitkin, David; Harry Merritt (March 2, 2007). "A New Twist to an Intriguing Family History". Baltimore Sun. Archived from the original on September 30, 2007. http://web.archive.org/web/20070930033339/http://www.baltimoresun.com/news/nationworld/politics/bal-te.obama02mar02,0,3453027.story. Retrieved June 24, 2008. Jordan, Mary (May 13, 2007). "Tiny Irish Village Is Latest Place to Claim Obama as Its Own". The Washington Post. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/05/12/AR2007051201551.html. Retrieved June 24, 2008. "Obama's Family Tree Has a Few Surprises". CBS 2 (Chicago). Associated Press. September 8, 2007. Archived from the original on June 2, 2008. http://web.archive.org/web/20080602215833/http://cbs2chicago.com/topstories/Barack.Obama.family.2.339709.html. Retrieved June 24, 2008.
^ "When Barry Became Barack". Newsweek. March 31, 2008. http://www.newsweek.com/id/128633. Retrieved November 6, 2008.
^ Zimmer, Benjamin (2009). "Obama's Indonesian Redux". Language Log. http://languagelog.ldc.upenn.edu/nll/?p=1025. Retrieved March 12, 2009.
- Obama: Saya Kangen Nasi Goreng, Bakso, dan Rambutan
^ Kantor, Jodi (June 1, 2007). "One Place Where Obama Goes Elbow to Elbow". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2007/06/01/us/politics/01hoops.html. Retrieved April 28, 2008. See also: "The Love of the Game" (video). Real Sports with Bryant Gumbel (HBO). April 15, 2008. http://www.hbo.com/real-sports-with-bryant-gumbel/episodes#/real-sports-with-bryant-gumbel/episodes/0/133-april-15-2008/index.html. Retrieved October 12, 2011.
^ "Barack Obama: White Sox 'serious' ball". The Swamp. August 25, 2008. http://www.swamppolitics.com/news/politics/blog/2008/08/barack_obama_white_sox_serious.html. Retrieved December 6, 2009.
^ "Barack Obama Explains White Sox Jacket, Talks Nats in All-Star Booth Visit". MLB Fanhouse. July 14, 2009. http://mlb.fanhouse.com/2009/07/14/barack-obama-explains-white-sox-jacket-talks-nats-in-all-star-b/. Retrieved December 6, 2009.
^ Branigin, William (January 30, 2009). "Steelers Win Obama's Approval". The Washington Post. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/01/29/AR2009012903196.html. "But other than the Bears, the Steelers are probably the team that's closest to my heart."
^ "1985 Bears honored by President Obama". Chicagobears.com. 2011-10-07. http://www.chicagobears.com/news/NewsStory.asp?story_id=8232. Retrieved 2012-05-29.
^ Obama (2006), pp. 327–332. See also:Brown, Sarah (December 7, 2005). "Obama '85 masters balancing act". The Daily Princetonian. http://www.dailyprincetonian.com/2005/12/07/14049. Retrieved February 9, 2009.
^ Obama (2006), p. 329.
^ Fornek, Scott (October 3, 2007). "Michelle Obama: 'He Swept Me Off My Feet'". Chicago Sun-Times. Archived from the original on January 18, 2010. http://www.webcitation.org/5msGZDbMO. Retrieved April 28, 2008.
^ Martin, Jonathan (July 4, 2008). "Born on the 4th of July". Politico. http://www.politico.com/blogs/jonathanmartin/0708/Born_on_the_4th_of_July.html. Retrieved July 10, 2008.
^ Obama (1995, 2004), p. 440, and Obama (2006), pp. 339–340. See also:"Election 2008 Information Center: Barack Obama". Gannett News Service. http://www.gannettnewsservice.com/?cat=153. Retrieved April 28, 2008.
^ "Obamas choose private Sidwell Friends School", International Herald Tribune, November 22, 2008
^ Cooper, Helene (April 13, 2009). "One Obama Search Ends With a Puppy Named Bo". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2009/04/13/us/politics/13obama.html. Retrieved December 22, 2010.
^ Zeleny, Jeff (December 24, 2005). "The first time around: Sen. Obama's freshman year". Chicago Tribune. http://www.chicagotribune.com/news/local/chi-051224obama,0,1779783,full.story. Retrieved April 28, 2008.
^ Slevin, Peter (December 17, 2006). "Obama says he regrets land deal with fundraiser". The Washington Post. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/12/16/AR2006121600729.html. Retrieved June 10, 2008.
- Robinson, Mike (June 4, 2008). "Rezko found guilty in corruption case". Associated Press. MSNBC. http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/24973282/. Retrieved June 24, 2008.
^ Harris, Marlys (December 7, 2007). "Obama's Money". CNNMoney.com. http://money.cnn.com/galleries/2007/moneymag/0712/gallery.candidates.moneymag/5.html. Retrieved April 28, 2008.
See also:Goldfarb, Zachary A (March 24, 2007). "Measuring Wealth of the '08 Candidates". The Washington Post. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/03/24/AR2007032400305.html. Retrieved April 28, 2008.
^ Zeleny, Jeff (April 17, 2008). "Book Sales Lifted Obamas' Income in 2007 to a Total of $4.2 Million". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2008/04/17/us/politics/17obama.html. Retrieved April 28, 2008.
^ Shear, Michael D.; Hilzenrath, David S. (April 16, 2010). "Obamas report $5.5 million in income on 2009 tax return". The Washington Post. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2010/04/15/AR2010041504485.html. Retrieved December 22, 2010.
^ Solman, Paul (April 18, 2011). "How Much Did President Obama Make in 2010?". PBS NewsHour. http://www.pbs.org/newshour/businessdesk/2011/04/how-much-did-president-obama-m.html. Retrieved January 27, 2012.
^ Solman, Paul (April 27, 2011). "The Obamas Gave $131,000 to Fisher House Foundation in 2010; What Is It?". PBS NewsHour. http://www.pbs.org/newshour/rundown/2011/04/the-obamas-gave-131000-to-the-fisher-house-foundation-last-year-what-is-it.html. Retrieved January 27, 2012.
^ Jackson, David (May 15, 2012). "Obama worth as much as $10 million". USA Today. Retrieved May 15, 2012.
^ Elsner, Alan (December 7, 2008). Obama says he won't be smoking in White House". Reuters. Retrieved February 28, 2010.
^ Zengerle, Patricia (February 8, 2011). "Yes, he did: first lady says Obama quit smoking". Reuters. Retrieved May 9, 2011.
^ Obama (2006), pp. 202–208. Portions excerpted in:Obama, Barack (October 16, 2006). "My Spiritual Journey". Time. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1546579,00.html. Retrieved April 28, 2008.
- Obama, Barack (June 28, 2006). "'Call to Renewal' Keynote Address". Barack Obama: U.S. Senator for Illinois. Archived from the original on January 4, 2009. http://web.archive.org/web/20090104231501/http://obama.senate.gov/speech/060628-call_to_renewal/. Retrieved June 16, 2008.
^ Christianity Today: "Q&A: Barack Obama" Interview by Sarah Pulliam and Ted Olsen, January 23, 2008
^ Obama 'Christian By Choice': President Responds To Questioner by Charles Babington and Darlene Superville, Associated Press, September 28, 2010
^ Video – President Obama: "I am a Christian By Choice" by ABC News, September 29, 2010.
^ Kantor, Jodi (April 30, 2007). "Barack Obama's search for faith". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2007/04/30/world/americas/30iht-30obama.5501905.html. Retrieved April 30, 2007.
^ "Obama's church choice likely to be scrutinized". Associated Press. MSNBC. November 17, 2008. Retrieved January 20, 2009.
^ Sullivan, Amy (June 29, 2009.) "The Obamas Find a Church Home—Away from Home". Time. Retrieved December 14, 2009.

References [link]

Mendell, David (2007). Obama: From Promise to Power. New York: Amistad/HarperCollins. ISBN 0-06-085820-6.
Obama, Barack (1995, 2004). Dreams from My Father: A Story of Race and Inheritance. New York: Three Rivers Press. ISBN 1-4000-8277-3.
Obama, Barack (2006). The Audacity of Hope: Thoughts on Reclaiming the American Dream. New York: Crown Publishing Group. ISBN 0-307-23769-9.

External links [link]

Listen to this article (info/dl)

200px

This audio file was created from a revision of the "Barack Obama" article dated 2012-04-24, and does not reflect subsequent edits to the article. (Audio help)

More spoken articles

	Barack Obama portal
	Biography portal
	Government of the United States portal
	Illinois portal

Find more about Barack Obama on Wikipedia's sister projects:
	Images and media from Commons
	News stories from Wikinews
	Quotations from Wikiquote
	Source texts from Wikisource

Official

President Barack Obama White House official website
BarackObama.com (official re-election campaign website)

Other

Biography at WhoRunsGov.com at The Washington Post
Biography at the Biographical Directory of the United States Congress
Voting record maintained by The Washington Post
Biography, voting record, and interest group ratings at Project Vote Smart
Congressional profile at GovTrack
Issue positions and quotes at On the Issues
Financial information at OpenSecrets.org
Staff salaries, trips and personal finance at LegiStorm.com
Campaign finance reports and data at the Federal Election Commission
Campaign contributions at the National Institute for Money in State Politics
Appearances on C-SPAN programs
Appearances on Charlie Rose
Appearances at the Internet Movie Database
Collected news and commentary at The New York Times
Collected news and commentary at The Wall Street Journal
Collected news and commentary at The Guardian
Works by or about Barack Obama in libraries (WorldCat catalog)
Collected news and commentary at the Chicago Tribune
Barack Obama at the Open Directory Project

Offices and distinctions

Illinois Senate
Preceded by Alice Palmer	Illinois State Senator from the 13th district 1997–2004	Succeeded by Kwame Raoul
Party political offices
Preceded by Carol Moseley Braun	Democratic nominee for Senator from Illinois (Class 3) 2004	Succeeded by Alexi Giannoulias
Preceded by Harold Ford	Keynote Speaker of the Democratic National Convention 2004	Succeeded by Mark Warner
Preceded by John Kerry	Democratic nominee for President of the United States 2008	Most recent
United States Senate
Preceded by Peter Fitzgerald	United States Senator (Class 3) from Illinois 2005–2008 Served alongside: Dick Durbin	Succeeded by Roland Burris
Preceded by George Allen	Chairperson of the Senate Foreign Relations Subcommittee on European Affairs 2007–2008	Succeeded by Jeanne Shaheen
Political offices
Preceded by George W. Bush	President of the United States 2009–present	Incumbent
Awards and achievements
Preceded by Martti Ahtisaari	Nobel Peace Prize Laureate 2009	Succeeded by Liu Xiaobo

Barack Obama

August 4, 1961

Life and politics	Early life and career Illinois Senate elections Illinois Senate career Illinois-1st elections, 2000 2004 Democratic National Convention U.S. Senate election in Illinois, 2004 U.S. Senate career 2008 presidential primary campaign Obama–Biden 2008 Electoral history Political positions Economic Social Energy Foreign/Administration foreign policy Nobel Peace Prize 2012 presidential re-election campaign West Wing Week

Presidency	Transition Inauguration Timeline 2009 2010 2011 2012 Judiciary Supreme Court candidates Foreign policy Obama Doctrine First 100 days Health care reform Presidential trips 2009 2010 2011 2012 People pardoned Death of Osama bin Laden

Books	Dreams from My Father The Audacity of Hope Of Thee I Sing

Speeches	"The Audacity of Hope" (2004) "A More Perfect Union" (2008) "Change Has Come to America" (2008) "A New Birth of Freedom" (2009) Joint session of Congress (February 2009) "A New Beginning" (2009) Joint session of Congress (health care reform) (September 2009) State of the Union address: 2010, 2011, 2012 Barack Obama Tucson memorial speech (2011) Joint session of Congress (jobs) (2011)

Family	Michelle LaVaughn Robinson Obama (spouse) Stanley Ann Dunham (mother) Barack Hussein Obama, Sr. (father) Lolo Soetoro (step-father) Maya Soetoro-Ng (half-sister) Stanley Armour Dunham (grandfather) Madelyn Payne Dunham (grandmother) Marian Shields Robinson (mother-in-law) Craig Robinson (brother-in-law) Bo (family dog)

Public image

News and political events	Oprah Winfrey's endorsement Citizenship conspiracy theories litigation legislation Religion conspiracy theories Bill Ayers controversy Jeremiah Wright controversy Republican and conservative support (2008) Barack Obama assassination threats 2008 assassination scare in Denver 2008 assassination scare in Tennessee Inauguration invitations Inaugural Celebration at the Lincoln Memorial Citizen's Briefing Book Tea Party protests New Energy for America Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Act of 2009 American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 Gates-Crowley Rose Garden meeting Resignation of Shirley Sherrod

Books about	Self-authored Dreams from My Father The Audacity of Hope Obama: From Promise to Power Barack Obama – Der schwarze Kennedy The Case Against Barack Obama The Obama Nation Culture of Corruption Catastrophe Barack and Michelle The Speech The Obama Story Game Change

Music	Obama Girl "I Got a Crush... on Obama" "Barack the Magic Negro" will.i.am "Yes We Can" "We Are the Ones" "There's No One as Irish as Barack O'Bama" "Sí Se Puede Cambiar" "My President" "Deadheads for Obama" "Air and Simple Gifts" Change Is Now Hope! – Das Obama Musical

Other media	@BarackObama Artists for Obama "Hope" poster "Joker" poster The Situation Room (photograph) Obama logo In comics

Miscellaneous	Places named after Obama Obama Day (Kenya)

Book Category Portal

v t e Presidents of the United States

	George Washington John Adams Thomas Jefferson James Madison James Monroe John Quincy Adams Andrew Jackson Martin Van Buren William Henry Harrison John Tyler James K. Polk Zachary Taylor Millard Fillmore Franklin Pierce James Buchanan Abraham Lincoln Andrew Johnson Ulysses S. Grant Rutherford B. Hayes James A. Garfield Chester A. Arthur Grover Cleveland Benjamin Harrison Grover Cleveland William McKinley Theodore Roosevelt William Howard Taft Woodrow Wilson Warren G. Harding Calvin Coolidge Herbert Hoover Franklin D. Roosevelt Harry S. Truman Dwight D. Eisenhower John F. Kennedy Lyndon B. Johnson Richard Nixon Gerald Ford Jimmy Carter Ronald Reagan George H. W. Bush Bill Clinton George W. Bush Barack Obama

United States presidential election, 2008

Democratic Party

Democratic candidates

Nominee: Barack Obama
(campaign
positions)

VP nominee: Joe Biden
(positions)

Republican Party

Republican candidates

Nominee: John McCain
(campaign
positions)

VP nominee: Sarah Palin
(positions)

Draft movements

Democratic Party:
Al Gore
Mark Warner (movement)

Republican Party:
Newt Gingrich
Condoleezza Rice (movement)

Independent:
Michael Bloomberg (movement)

Third party and independent candidates

Constitution Party: Convention	Nominee: Chuck Baldwin (campaign) VP nominee: Darrell Castle Candidates: Daniel Imperato Alan Keyes (campaign)

Green Party: Convention	Nominee: Cynthia McKinney (campaign positions) VP nominee: Rosa Clemente Candidates: Elaine Brown Jesse Johnson Kent Mesplay Kat Swift

Libertarian Party: Convention	Nominee: Bob Barr (campaign positions) VP nominee: Wayne Allyn Root Candidates: Mike Gravel (campaign) Daniel Imperato Michael Jingozian Steve Kubby Wayne Allyn Root Mary Ruwart Doug Stanhope

American Party	Nominee: Diane Beall Templin

America's Independent Party	Nominee: Alan Keyes (campaign) VP nominee: Brian Rohrbough

Boston Tea Party	Nominee: Charles Jay

New American Independent Party	Nominee: Frank McEnulty

Objectivist Party	Nominee: Tom Stevens

Peace and Freedom Party	Nominee: Ralph Nader (campaign) VP nominee: Matt Gonzalez Candidates: Gloria LaRiva Cynthia McKinney (campaign) Brian Moore (campaign)

Prohibition Party	Nominee: Gene Amondson

Reform Party	Nominee: Ted Weill VP nominee: Frank McEnulty

Socialism and Liberation Party	Nominee: Gloria La Riva VP nominee: Eugene Puryear

Socialist Party	Nominee: Brian Moore (campaign) VP nominee: Stewart Alexander Candidates: Eric Chester

Socialist Workers Party	Nominee: Róger Calero Alternate nominee: James Harris VP nominee: Alyson Kennedy

Independent / Other	Earl Dodge Bradford Lyttle Frank Moore Joe Schriner Jonathon Sharkey

Other 2008 elections:
House
Senate
Gubernatorial

United States presidential election, 2012

Democratic Party

Incumbent and presumptive nominee: Barack Obama (campaign) Incumbent and presumptive VP nominee: Joe Biden

Challengers: Bob Ely Keith Russell Judd Warren Mosler Darcy Richardson Jim Rogers Vermin Supreme Randall Terry John Wolfe

Republican Party

Presumptive nominee: Mitt Romney (campaign)

Candidates: Michele Bachmann (campaign)
Herman Cain (campaign)
Jack Fellure
Newt Gingrich (campaign)
Stewart Greenleaf
Jon Huntsman (campaign)
Gary Johnson (campaign)
Fred Karger
Andy Martin
Thaddeus McCotter (campaign)
Jimmy McMillan
Roy Moore
Ron Paul (campaign)
Tim Pawlenty (campaign)
Rick Perry (campaign)
Buddy Roemer (campaign)
Rick Santorum (campaign)
Jonathon Sharkey

Libertarian Party
Convention

Nominee: Gary Johnson (campaign)
VP Nominee: Jim Gray

Green Party
Convention


Candidates: Stewart Alexander Roseanne Barr Kent Mesplay Jill Stein

Other Third party and independent candidates

American Third Position Party	Nominee: Merlin Miller VP Nominee: Virginia Abernethy

America's Party	Nominee: Tom Hoefling

Boston Tea Party	Nominee: Jim Duensing

Constitution Party	Nominee: Virgil Goode VP Nominee: Jim Clymer Candidates: Darrell Castle Laurie Roth Robby Wells

Freedom Socialist Party	Nominee: Stephen Durham

Justice Party	Nominee: Rocky Anderson

Objectivist Party	Nominee: Tom Stevens

Party for Socialism and Liberation	Nominee: Peta Lindsay

Peace and Freedom Party	Candidates: Stewart Alexander Rocky Anderson Stephen Durham Peta Lindsay

Prohibition Party	Nominee: Jack Fellure Candidates: James Hedges

Reform Party USA	Candidates: Andre Barnett Laurence Kotlikoff Buddy Roemer (campaign) Robert David Steele Robby Wells

Socialist Equality Party	Nominee: Jerry White

Socialist Party USA	Nominee: Stewart Alexander (campaign) VP Nominee: Alejandro Mendoza

Independents	Candidates: Lee Abramson Randy Blythe Robert Burck Terry Jones Joe Schriner

Draft movements	Michael Bloomberg (movement)

Authority control: PND: 132522136 | LCCN: n94112934 | VIAF: 52010985 | WorldCat

This page contains text from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barack_Obama

This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.

Persondata
Name	Lewin, Walter H.G.
Alternative names
Short description	Dutch astrophysicist
Date of birth	1936-01-31
Place of birth	Netherlands
Date of death
Place of death

Persondata
Name	Obama, Barack
Alternative names
Short description	American politician, 44th President of the United States
Date of birth	August 4, 1961
Place of birth	Honolulu, Hawaii, United States
Date of death
Place of death

	Book: United States
Wikipedia books are collections of articles that can be downloaded or ordered in print.

Name	City	Foundation	Students	Notes
Istanbul Technical University (ITU)	Istanbul	1773	21000	Ranked 108th in THES QS University ranking in the field of technology
Yıldız Technical University (YTU)	Istanbul	1911
Karadeniz Technical University (KTU)	Trabzon	1955		First technical university in Turkey outside Istanbul
Middle East Technical University (ODTU)	Ankara	1956
Gebze Institute of Technology (GYTE)	Kocaeli	1992
İzmir Institute of Technology (IYTE)	Izmir	1992

Branches of Mathematics

Pure mathematics

Applied mathematics

Related Topics

Make changes yourself !

Contents

Related pages:

Contents

Related pages:

Contents

[edit] Universités technologiques / instituts universitaires de technologie / polytechs