Food energy is the amount of energy obtained from food that is available through cellular respiration.

Food energy is expressed in food calories (labeling: EU kcal, U.S. Calories) or kilojoules (kJ). Food calories, or the "Calorie" units used often in nutritional contexts, measure amounts of energy 1000 times greater than the units in scientific contexts known also as calories, or gram calories ("cal"). Food calories are thereby referred to less ambiguously in some formal contexts as kilocalories (kcal) or kilogram calories. One food calorie is equal to 4.184 kilojoules. Within the European Union, both the kilocalorie (kcal) and kilojoule (kJ) appear on nutrition labels. In many countries, only one of the units is displayed.

Carbohydrates, fiber, fats, proteins, organic acids, polyols, and ethanol all release energy during respiration—this is often called 'food energy'.^[1] When nutrients react with oxygen in the cells of living things, energy is released. A small amount of energy is available through anaerobic respiration. Fats and ethanol have the greatest amount of food energy per mass, 9 and 7 kcal/g (38 and 30 kJ/g), respectively. Proteins and most carbohydrates have about 4 calories per grams (17 kJ/g) [but see below]. Carbohydrates that are not easily absorbed, such as fiber or lactose in lactose-intolerant individuals, contribute less food energy. Polyols (including sugar alcohols) and organic acids have less than 4 kcal/g.

Theoretically, food energy could be measured in different ways, such as Gibbs free energy of combustion, or the amount of ATP generated by metabolizing the food. But the convention is to use the heat of the oxidation reaction, with the water substance produced being in the liquid phase. Conventional food energy is based on heats of combustion in a bomb calorimeter and corrections that take into consideration the efficiency of digestion and absorption and the production of urea and other substances in the urine. These were worked out in the late 19th century by the American chemist Wilbur Atwater.^[2] See Atwater system for more detail. This method of estimating the food energy has several defects, the most serious of which is that protein is not oxidized in the body as in the bomb calorimeter, with the possible exception of severe starvation.^[3] In normal conditions, the protein is metabolized in processes which require energy such as protein synthesis or replacement, synthesis hormones, nucleic acids, etc.^[4] Thus, the food energy derived from proteins could be zero, if the energy saved by the body in using the proteic food components instead of synthesizing them is taken into account. However, the idea that protein contains 4 kcal/g is so ingrained, it is used universally, as in food labels. It is only approximately correct in cases of severe starvation.

Each food item has a specific metabolizable energy intake (MEI). This value can be approximated by multiplying the total amount of energy associated with a food item by 85%, which is the typical amount of energy actually obtained by a human after respiration has been completed.^{[citation needed]} In animal nutrition where energy is a critical element of the economics of meat production, a specific metabolizable energy may be determined for each component (protein, fat, etc.) of each ingredient of the feed.

Nutrition labels[link]

The nutritional information label on a pack of Basmati rice in the United Kingdom

Many governments require food manufacturers to label the energy content of their products, to help consumers control their energy intake.^[5] In the European Union, manufacturers of packaged food must label the nutritional energy of their products in both kilocalories and kilojoules, when required. In the United States, the equivalent mandatory labels display only "Calories",^[6] often as a substitute for the name of the quantity being measured, food energy; an additional kilojoules figure is optional and is rarely used. The energy content of food is usually given on labels for 100 g, for a typical serving size (according to the manufacturer), and/or for the entire pack contents. A paper published in 2011 by the American Journal of Public Health proposed to also display the time needed to burn the food energy contained in the product by running.^[7] This would indicate how much exercise would be necessary if the food would bring the person's energy intake above what is necessary for that day.

The amount of food energy associated with a particular food could be measured by completely burning the dried food in a bomb calorimeter, a method known as direct calorimetry.^[8] However, the values given on food labels are not determined in this way. The reason for this is that direct calorimetry also burns the indigestible dietary fiber, and so does not allow for fecal losses (i.e. the fact that not all food eaten is actually absorbed by the body); thus direct calorimetry would give systematic overestimates of the amount of fuel that actually enters the blood through digestion. What are used instead are standardized chemical tests or an analysis of the recipe using reference tables for common ingredients^[9] to estimate the product's digestible constituents (protein, carbohydrate, fat, etc.). These results are then converted into an equivalent energy value based on the following standardized table of energy densities.^[10][11]

All the other nutrients in food are noncaloric and are thus not counted.

Recommended daily intake[link]

Daily energy intake recommended by governments for young adult men and women is 2,700 and 2,200 kcal (11,000 and 9,200 kJ), respectively, in France^[12] and 2,500 and 2,000 kcal (10,000 and 8,400 kJ) in the USA. Children, those with sedentary lifestyles, and older people require less energy; physically active people more. According to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, the average minimum energy requirement per person per day is about 1,800 kcal (7,500 kJ).^[13]

Increased mental activity has been linked with moderately increased brain energy consumption.^[14]

Energy usage in the human body[link]

The human body uses the energy released by respiration for a wide range of purposes: about 20% of the energy is used for brain metabolism, and much of the rest is used for the basal metabolic requirements of other organs and tissues. In cold environments, metabolism may increase simply to produce heat to maintain body temperature. Among the diverse uses for energy, one is the production of mechanical energy by skeletal muscle to maintain posture and produce motion.

The conversion efficiency of energy from respiration into mechanical (physical) power depends on the type of food and on the type of physical energy usage (e.g. which muscles are used, whether the muscle is used aerobically or anaerobically). In general, the efficiency of muscles is rather low: only 18 to 26% of the energy available from respiration is converted into mechanical energy.^[15] This low efficiency is the result of about 40% efficiency of generating ATP from food energy, losses in converting energy from ATP into mechanical work inside the muscle, and mechanical losses inside the body. The latter two losses are dependent on the type of exercise and the type of muscle fibers being used (fast-twitch or slow-twitch). For an overall efficiency of 20%, one watt of mechanical power is equivalent to 4.3 kcal (18 kJ) per hour. For example, a manufacturer of rowing equipment shows calories released from 'burning' food as four times the actual mechanical work, plus 300 kcal (1,300 kJ) per hour,^[16] which amounts to about 20% efficiency at 250 watts of mechanical output. It can take up to 20 hours of little physical output (e.g. walking) to "burn off" 4,000 kcal (17,000 kJ)^[17] more than a body would otherwise consume.

The differing energy density of foods (fat, alcohols, carbohydrates and proteins) lies mainly in their varying proportions of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms.

Swings in body temperature – either hotter or cooler – increase the metabolic rate, thus burning more energy. Prolonged exposure to extremely warm or very cold environments increases the basal metabolic rate (BMR). People who live in these types of settings often have BMRs 5–20% higher than those in other climates. Physical activity also significantly increases body temperature, which in turn uses more energy from respiration.

See also[link]

• Chemical energy
• Basal metabolic rate
• Food chain
• Atwater system
• Nutrition facts label
• Heat of combustion#Heating value
• Calorie

References[link]

External links[link]

• FAO Food and Nutrition Paper 77: Food energy - methods of analysis and conversion factors
• http://www.ajcn.org/cgi/content/full/79/5/899S?ijkey=f3919ec7617632925bb12e0ffb8deeb08a678686 Is a calorie a calorie?

Jesse Miller (1800 – August 20, 1850) was a Jacksonian member of the U.S. House of Representatives from Pennsylvania.

Jesse Miller (father of William Henry Miller) was born near Landisburg, Pennsylvania. He was the first clerk to county commissioner of Perry County, Pennsylvania, from 1820 to 1823. He was sheriff of Perry County from 1823 to 1826. He was a member of the Pennsylvania House of Representatives from 1826 until February 7, 1828, when he resigned. He served in the Pennsylvania State Senate from 1828 to 1832.

Miller elected as a Jacksonian to the Twenty-third and Twenty-fourth Congresses and served until his resignation on October 30, 1836. He served as chairman of the United States House Committee on Invalid Pensions during the Twenty-third and Twenty-fourth Congresses. He was the First Auditor of the United States Department of the Treasury, by appointment of President Andrew Jackson, 1836-1842. He was canal commissioner of Pennsylvania in 1844 and 1845 and Secretary of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania from 1845 to 1848. He died in Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, in 1850. Interment in Harrisburg Cemetery.

Sources[link]

• Jesse Miller at the Biographical Directory of the United States Congress
• The Political Graveyard

External links[link]

• Jesse Miller at Find a Grave

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