Look up Oscar or Óscar in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

Oscar, The Oscar, OSCAR or Oskar may refer to:

• Academy Award or Oscar, presented by the American Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences (AMPAS) for cinematic film achievements
• OSCAR Radio, a radio station run by the pupils of Oundle School
• Oscar (given name), an Irish- and English-language name; the article includes the names Osgar, Oskar, and Oskari
• OSCAR: Near-realtime global ocean surface current data set; see Ocean current

Animals[link]

• Oscar (fish), Astronotus ocellatus
• Oscar (therapy cat), cat who can purportedly predict the deaths of hospice patients
• Oscar (bionic cat), a cat which had implants after losing both hind paws
• Unsinkable Sam, World War II ship's cat also known as Oscar
• oskar, a gene required for the development of the Drosophila embryo
• OSCAR (gene)
• Beast of Busco, a North American cryptid turtle named Oscar

Film and television[link]

• The Oscar (film), a 1966 American drama
• Oscar (1967 film), a French comedy
• Oscar (1991 film), an American film adapted from the same source as the French film, starring Sylvester Stallone
• Oscar (2013 film), an American film of 2013 and director is Mike Mitchell
• Oskar (film), a 1962 Danish film
• Oscar, a 1985 British TV drama starring Michael Gambon
• Oscar Madison, character from The Odd Couple
• Oscar the Grouch, a Sesame Street character
• Oscar (TV serial), a 1985 British TV serial
• Oskar Kokoshka, from Hey Arnold!
• Oscar from Fish Hooks
• Oscar, an Indian television program presented by Murali Menon

Military[link]

• Oscar class submarine, a Soviet/Russian submarine class
• Nakajima Ki-43, a World War II Japanese aircraft, codenamed "Oscar" by the Allies
• Oscar, the letter O in the NATO phonetic alphabet

People[link]

• Saint Ansgar (801–865)
• Oscar (footballer), José Oscar Bernardi, Brazilian footballer
• Oscar dos Santos Emboaba Junior, Brazilian national football player
• Oscar de la Renta, fashion designer
• Oscar De La Hoya, boxer
• Oscar I of Sweden (1799–1859)
• Oscar II of Sweden (1829–1907)
• Oscar Wilde (1854–1900), Irish writer and poet
• Paul Nicholas or Oscar, British actor and performer
• Oscar, manager of the professional wrestling tag team Men on a Mission

Technology and transport[link]

• OSCAR, Orbital Satellite Carrying Amateur Radio
• OScar (open source car), a project aiming to design an open source vehicle
• CityRail H set or Outer Suburban CARs (OSCARs), a type of train in Australia

Computing[link]

• OSCAR McMaster, an electronic medical record system
• OSCAR protocol, a protocol used by AOL Instant Messenger
• Open Source Cluster Application Resources (OSCAR), a Linux-based software installation

Other[link]

• Oscar (Irish mythology), the warrior son of Oisín and Niamh
• Oscar (video game), a 1993 platform game
• OSC OSCar, a synthesizer manufactured by the Oxford Synthesizer Company
• Oscar, Louisiana, U.S.A
• Oscar, Oklahoma, U.S.A
• Oscar, West Virginia, U.S.A
• Out of School Care and Recreation

This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the same title. If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article.

John Wayne
John Wayne in Rio Bravo (1959)
Born	Marion Robert Morrison (1907-05-26)May 26, 1907 Winterset, Iowa, U.S.
Died	June 11, 1979(1979-06-11) (aged 72) Los Angeles, California, U.S.
Cause of death	Stomach cancer
Other names	Marion Mitchell Morrison; "The Duke"; Duke Morrison; Marion Michael Morrison
Education	Glendale High School
Alma mater	University of Southern California
Occupation	Actor, director, producer
Years active	1926–1976
Home town	Glendale, California
Political party	Republican
Spouse	Josephine Alicia Saenz 1933–1945 (divorce) Esperanza Baur 1946–1954 (divorce) Pilar Pallete 1954–1979 (his death)
Website
http://www.johnwayne.com

Marion Mitchell Morrison (born Marion Robert Morrison; May 26, 1907 – June 11, 1979), better known by his stage name John Wayne, was an American film actor, director and producer.^[1] An Academy Award-winner, Wayne was among the top box office draws for three decades,^[2][3] and was named the all-time top money-making star.^[4] An enduring American icon, he epitomized rugged masculinity and is famous for his demeanor, including his distinctive calm voice, walk, and height.

Wayne was born in Winterset, Iowa but his family relocated to the greater Los Angeles area when he was four years old. He found work at local film studios when he lost his football scholarship to USC as a result of a bodysurfing accident.^[5] Initially working for the Fox Film Corporation, he mostly appeared in small bit parts. His acting breakthrough came in 1939 with John Ford's Stagecoach, making him an instant star. Wayne would go on to star in 142 pictures, primarily typecast in Western films.

Among his best known films are The Quiet Man (1952), which follows him as an Irish-American boxer and his love affair with a fiery spinster played by Maureen O'Hara; The Searchers (1956), in which he plays a Civil War veteran who seeks out his abducted niece; Rio Bravo (1959), playing a Sheriff with Dean Martin; True Grit (1969), playing a humorous U.S. Marshal who sets out to avenge a man's death in the role that won Wayne an Academy Award; and The Shootist (1976), his final screen performance in which he plays an aging gunslinger battling cancer.

Wayne moved to Orange County, California in the 1960s, and was a prominent Republican in Hollywood, supporting anti-communist positions.^[6] He died of stomach cancer in 1979. In June 1999, the American Film Institute named Wayne 13th among the Greatest Male Screen Legends of All Time.

Early life[link]

Wayne was born Marion Robert Morrison at 216 South Second Street in Winterset, Iowa.^[7] His middle name was soon changed from Robert to Mitchell when his parents decided to name their next son Robert.^{[6][8][9][10][11]}

The house in Winterset, Iowa in which Wayne was born in 1907

Wayne's father, Clyde Leonard Morrison (1884–1937), was the son of American Civil War veteran Marion Mitchell Morrison (1845–1915). Wayne's mother, the former Mary "Molly" Alberta Brown (1885–1970), was from Lancaster County, Nebraska. Wayne was of Scots-Irish and Scottish descent on both sides of his family, and he was brought up as a Presbyterian.^[12][13]

Wayne's family moved to Palmdale, California, and then in 1911 to Glendale, California, where his father worked as a pharmacist. A local fireman at the station on his route to school in Glendale started calling him "Little Duke" because he never went anywhere without his huge Airedale Terrier, Duke.^[14][15] He preferred "Duke" to "Marion", and the name stuck for the rest of his life.

As a teen, Wayne worked in an ice cream shop for a man who shod horses for Hollywood studios. He was also active as a member of the Order of DeMolay, a youth organization associated with the Freemasons. He attended Wilson Middle School in Glendale. He played football for the 1924 champion Glendale High School team.^[16]

Wayne applied to the U.S. Naval Academy, but was not accepted. He instead attended the University of Southern California (USC), majoring in pre-law. He was a member of the Trojan Knights and Sigma Chi fraternities.^[17] Wayne also played on the USC football team under coach Howard Jones. An injury curtailed his athletic career; Wayne later noted he was too terrified of Jones's reaction to reveal the actual cause of his injury, which was bodysurfing at the "Wedge" at the tip of the Balboa Peninsula in Newport Beach.^[18] He lost his athletic scholarship and, without funds, had to leave the university.^[19][20]

Wayne began working at the local film studios. Prolific silent western film star Tom Mix had found him a summer job in the prop department in exchange for football tickets. Wayne soon moved on to bit parts, establishing a longtime friendship with the director who provided most of those roles, John Ford. Early in this period, Wayne appeared with his USC teammates playing football in Brown of Harvard (1926), The Dropkick (1927), and Salute (1929) and Columbia's Maker of Men (filmed in 1930, released in 1931).^[21]

Film career[link]

Early career and breakthrough[link]

Born to the West (1937)

While working for Fox Film Corporation in bit roles, he was given on-screen credit as "Duke Morrison" only once, in Words and Music (1929). In 1930, director Raoul Walsh saw him moving studio furniture while working as a prop boy and cast him in his first starring role in The Big Trail (1930). For his screen name, Walsh suggested "Anthony Wayne", after Revolutionary War general "Mad Anthony" Wayne. Fox Studios chief Winfield Sheehan rejected it as sounding "too Italian". Walsh then suggested "John Wayne". Sheehan agreed, and the name was set. Wayne himself was not even present for the discussion.^[22] His pay was raised to $105 a week.

The Big Trail was to be the first big-budget outdoor spectacle of the sound era, made at a staggering cost of over $2 million, using hundreds of extras and wide vistas of the American southwest, still largely unpopulated at the time. To take advantage of the breathtaking scenery, it was filmed in two versions, a standard 35mm version and another in the new 70 mm Grandeur film process using innovative camera and lenses. Many in the audience who saw it in Grandeur stood and cheered. Unfortunately, only a handful of theaters were equipped to show the film in its widescreen process, and the effort was largely wasted. The film was considered a huge flop.^[23]

After the commercial failure of The Big Trail, Wayne was relegated to small roles in A-pictures, including Columbia's The Deceiver (1931), in which he played a corpse. He appeared in the serial The Three Musketeers (1933), an updated version of the Alexandre Dumas novel in which the protagonists were soldiers in the French Foreign Legion in then-contemporary North Africa. He appeared in many low-budget "Poverty Row" westerns, mostly at Monogram Pictures and serials for Mascot Pictures Corporation. By Wayne's own estimation, he appeared in about eighty of these horse operas from 1930 to 1939.^[24] In Riders of Destiny (1933) he became one of the first singing cowboys of film, albeit via dubbing.^[25] Wayne also appeared in some of the Three Mesquiteers westerns, whose title was a play on the Dumas classic. He was mentored by stuntmen in riding and other western skills.^[21] He and famed stuntman Yakima Canutt developed and perfected stunts still used today.^[26]

Wayne's breakthrough role came with director John Ford's classic Stagecoach (1939). Because of Wayne's non-star status and track record in low-budget westerns throughout the 1930s, Ford had difficulty getting financing for what was to be an A-budget film. After rejection by all the top studios, Ford struck a deal with independent producer Walter Wanger in which Claire Trevor — a much bigger star at the time — received top billing. Stagecoach was a huge critical and financial success, and Wayne became a star.

America's entry into World War II resulted in a deluge of support for the war effort from all sectors of society, and Hollywood was no exception. Wayne was exempted from service due to his age (34 at the time of Pearl Harbor) and family status, classified as 3-A (family deferment). He repeatedly wrote to John Ford, asking to be placed in Ford's military unit, but consistently postponed it until "after he finished one more film",^[27] Wayne did not attempt to prevent his reclassification as 1-A (draft eligible), but Republic Studios was emphatically resistant to losing him; Herbert J. Yates, President of Republic, threatened Wayne with a lawsuit if he walked away from his contract^[28] and Republic Pictures intervened in the Selective Service process, requesting Wayne's further deferment.^[29]

Wayne toured U.S. bases and hospitals in the South Pacific for three months in 1943 and 1944.^[30] By many accounts, Wayne's failure to serve in the military was the most painful experience of his life.^[31] His widow later suggested that his patriotism in later decades sprang from guilt, writing: "He would become a 'superpatriot' for the rest of his life trying to atone for staying home."^[32]

Commercial success[link]

Wake of the Red Witch (1948)

Wayne's first color film was Shepherd of the Hills (1941), in which he co-starred with his longtime friend Harry Carey. The following year, he appeared in his only film directed by Cecil B. DeMille, the Technicolor epic Reap the Wild Wind (1942), in which he co-starred with Ray Milland and Paulette Goddard; it was one of the rare times he played a character with questionable values. He would appear in more than twenty of John Ford's films throughout the next two decades, including She Wore a Yellow Ribbon (1949), The Quiet Man (1952), The Searchers (1956), The Wings of Eagles (1957), and The Man Who Shot Liberty Valance (1962).

In 1949, director Robert Rossen offered the starring role of All the King's Men to Wayne. Wayne refused, believing the script to be un-American in many ways.^[33] Broderick Crawford, who eventually got the role, won the 1949 Oscar for best male actor, ironically beating out Wayne, who had been nominated for Sands of Iwo Jima.

He lost the leading role in The Gunfighter (1950) to Gregory Peck due to his refusal to work for Columbia Pictures because its chief, Harry Cohn, had mistreated him years before when he was a young contract player. Cohn had bought the project for Wayne, but Wayne's grudge was too deep, and Cohn sold the script to Twentieth Century Fox, which cast Peck in the role Wayne badly wanted but for which he refused to bend.^[33]

One of Wayne's most popular roles was in The High and the Mighty (1954), directed by William Wellman, and based on a novel by Ernest K. Gann. His portrayal of a heroic copilot won widespread acclaim. Wayne also portrayed aviators in Flying Tigers (1942), Flying Leathernecks (1951), Island in the Sky (1953), The Wings of Eagles (1957), and Jet Pilot (1957).

The Searchers (1956) continues to be widely regarded as perhaps Wayne's finest and most complex performance. In 2006, Premiere Magazine ran an industry poll in which Wayne's portrayal of Ethan Edwards was rated the 87th greatest performance in film history. He named his youngest son Ethan after the character.

Later career[link]

John Wayne won a Best Actor Oscar for True Grit (1969). Wayne was also nominated as the producer of Best Picture for The Alamo (1960), one of two films he directed. The other was The Green Berets (1968), the only major film made during the Vietnam War to support the war.^[19] During the filming of Green Berets, the Degar or Montagnard people of Vietnam's Central Highlands, fierce fighters against communism, bestowed on Wayne a brass bracelet that he wore in the film and all subsequent films.^[33]

An interview Wayne gave in 1971 to Playboy magazine became a hot topic, as Wayne made headlines for controversial remarks about social issues and race relations in the United States.^[34] His comments about the perceived lack of leadership experience among black people and inequities of the past made headlines.^[34] In the same interview he expressed his support for the Vietnam War.

His last film was The Shootist (1976), whose main character, J. B. Books, was dying of cancer — the illness to which Wayne himself succumbed three years later. According to the Internet Movie Database, Wayne played the lead in 142 of his film appearances.

Wayne in The Challenge of Ideas (1961)

Batjac, the production company co-founded by Wayne, was named after the fictional shipping company Batjak in Wake of the Red Witch (1948), a film based on the novel by Garland Roark. (A spelling error by Wayne's secretary was allowed to stand, accounting for the variation.)^[33] Batjac (and its predecessor, Wayne-Fellows Productions) was the arm through which Wayne produced many films for himself and other stars. Its best-known non-Wayne production was the highly acclaimed Seven Men From Now (1956), which started the classic collaboration between director Budd Boetticher and star Randolph Scott.

In the Motion Picture Herald Top Ten Money-Making Western Stars poll, Wayne was listed in 1936 and 1939.^[35] He appeared in the similar Box Office poll in 1939 and 1940.^[36] While these two polls are really an indication only of the popularity of series stars, Wayne also appeared in the Top Ten Money Makers Poll of all films from 1949 to 1957 and 1958 to 1974, taking first place in 1950, 1951, 1954 and 1971. With a total of 25 years on the list, Wayne has more appearances than any other star, beating Clint Eastwood (21) into second place.^[37]

In later years, Wayne was recognized as a sort of American natural resource, and his various critics, of his performances and his politics, viewed him with more respect. Abbie Hoffman, the radical of the 1960s, paid tribute to Wayne's singularity, saying, "I like Wayne's wholeness, his style. As for his politics, well — I suppose even cavemen felt a little admiration for the dinosaurs that were trying to gobble them up."^[38] Reviewing The Cowboys (1972), Vincent Canby of the New York Times, who did not particularly care for the film, wrote: "Wayne is, of course, marvelously indestructible, and he has become an almost perfect father figure."

Personal life[link]

Wayne was married three times and divorced twice. His wives were Josephine Alicia Saenz, Esperanza Baur, and Pilar Pallete. He had four children with Josephine: Michael Wayne (November 23, 1934 – April 2, 2003), Mary Antonia "Toni" Wayne LaCava (February 25, 1936  — December 6, 2000), Patrick Wayne (born July 15, 1939), and Melinda Wayne Munoz (born December 3, 1940). He had three more children with Pilar: Aissa Wayne (born March 31, 1956), John Ethan Wayne (born February 22, 1962), and Marisa Wayne (born February 22, 1966).

Wayne with third wife Pilar Pallete at Knott's Berry Farm in 1971

Several of Wayne's children entered the film and television industry; Wayne's son Ethan was billed as John Ethan Wayne in a few films, and played one of the leads in the 1990s update of the Adam-12 television series.

His stormiest divorce was from Esperanza Baur, a former Mexican actress. She convinced herself that Wayne and co-star Gail Russell were having an affair. The night the film Angel and the Badman (1947) wrapped, there was the usual party for cast and crew, and Wayne came home very late. Esperanza was in a drunken rage by the time he arrived, and she attempted to shoot him as he walked through the front door.^[33]

Wayne had several high-profile affairs, including one with Marlene Dietrich that lasted for three years.^[39] In the years prior to his death, Wayne was romantically involved with his former secretary Pat Stacy (1941–1995).^[19] She published a biography of her life with him entitled Duke: A Love Story in 1983.^[40]

Wayne's hair began thinning in the 1940s, and he started wearing a hairpiece by the end of that decade. He was occasionally seen in public without the hairpiece (notably, according to Life magazine, at Gary Cooper's funeral).^[41] During a widely noted appearance at Harvard University, Wayne was asked by a student, "Where did you get that phony hair?" He responded, "It's not phony. It's real hair. Of course, it's not mine, but it's real."^[42]

A close friend of Wayne's, California Congressman Alphonzo Bell, wrote of him, "Duke's personality and sense of humor were very close to what the general public saw on the big screen. It is perhaps best shown in these words he had engraved on a plaque: 'Each of us is a mixture of some good and some not so good qualities. In considering one's fellow man it's important to remember the good things ... We should refrain from making judgments just because a fella happens to be a dirty, rotten SOB.'"^[43]

Wayne biographer Michael Munn chronicled Wayne's drinking habits.^[15] According to Sam O'Steen's memoir, Cut to the Chase, studio directors knew to shoot Wayne's scenes before noon, because by afternoon he "was a mean drunk".^[44] He had been a chain-smoker of cigarettes since young adulthood and was diagnosed with lung cancer in 1964. He underwent successful surgery to remove his entire left lung^[45] and four ribs. Despite efforts by his business associates to prevent him from going public with his illness for fear that it would cost him work, Wayne announced he had cancer and called on the public to get preventive examinations. Five years later, Wayne was declared cancer-free. Despite the fact that his diminished lung capacity left him incapable of prolonged exertion and frequently in need of supplemental oxygen, within a few years of his operation he chewed tobacco and began smoking cigars until the day he died.^{[citation needed]}

Wayne's height has been perennially described as at least 6'4" (193 cm).^[46] He was a Freemason, a Master Mason in Marion McDaniel Lodge #56 F&AM, in Tucson, Arizona. He became a 32nd Degree Scottish Rite Mason and later joined the Al Malaikah Shrine Temple in Los Angeles. He became a member of the York Rite.^[47] During the early 1960s, John Wayne traveled extensively to Panama, during which he purchased the island of Taborcillo off the main coast. It was sold by his estate at his death and changed hands many times before being opened as a tourist attraction.^{[citation needed]}

Wayne's yacht, the Wild Goose, was one of his favorite possessions. He kept it docked in Newport Harbor and it was listed on the U.S. National Register of Historic Places in 2011.^[48]

Politics[link]

Throughout most of his life, Wayne was a vocally prominent conservative Republican. Initially a self-described socialist during his college years, he voted for Democratic President Franklin D. Roosevelt in the 1936 presidential election and expressed admiration for Roosevelt's successor, fellow Democratic President Harry S Truman.^[49] He took part in creating the Motion Picture Alliance for the Preservation of American Ideals in February 1944 and was elected president of that organization in 1947. An ardent anti-communist and vocal supporter of the House Un-American Activities Committee, in 1952 he made Big Jim McLain to show his support for the anti-communist cause. Recently declassified Soviet documents reveal that despite being a fan of Wayne's movies, Soviet premier Joseph Stalin ordered Wayne's assassination as a result of his frequently-espoused anti-communist politics.^[50][51]

Wayne meets with President Richard Nixon and Henry Kissinger in San Clemente, California, July 1972

Wayne supported Vice President Richard Nixon in the presidential election of 1960, but expressed his vision of patriotism when John F. Kennedy won the election: "I didn't vote for him but he's my president, and I hope he does a good job."^[52] He used his iconic star power to support conservative causes, including rallying support for the Vietnam War by producing, co-directing, and starring in the critically panned The Green Berets in 1968. In a 1971 interview with Playboy magazine Wayne responded to questions about whether entitlement programs including Medicare and Social Security were good for the country:

I know all about that. In the late Twenties, when I was a sophomore at USC, I was a socialist myself — but not when I left. The average college kid idealistically wishes everybody could have ice cream and cake for every meal. But as he gets older and gives more thought to his and his fellow man's responsibilities, he finds that it can't work out that way — that some people just won't carry their load ... I believe in welfare — a welfare work program. I don't think a fella should be able to sit on his backside and receive welfare. I'd like to know why well-educated idiots keep apologizing for lazy and complaining people who think the world owes them a living. I'd like to know why they make excuses for cowards who spit in the faces of the police and then run behind the judicial sob sisters. I can't understand these people who carry placards to save the life of some criminal, yet have no thought for the innocent victim.^[34]

Due to his enormous popularity and his status as the most famous Republican star in Hollywood, wealthy Texas Republican Party backers asked Wayne to run for national office in 1968, as had his friend and fellow actor Senator George Murphy. He declined, joking that he did not believe the public would seriously consider an actor in the White House. Instead he supported his friend Ronald Reagan's runs for Governor of California in 1966 and 1970. He was asked to be the running mate for Democratic Alabama Governor George Wallace in 1968, rejecting the offer^[6] and actively campaigned for Richard Nixon;^[53] Wayne addressed the Republican National Convention on its opening day in August 1968. He was also a member of the conservative, anti-communist John Birch Society.^[54]

Wayne openly differed with the Republican Party over the issue of the Panama Canal, as he supported the Panama Canal Treaty in the mid-1970s;^[55] conservatives had wanted the U.S. to retain full control of the canal, but Wayne believed that the Panamanians had the right to the canal and sided with President Jimmy Carter and the Democrats. Mr. Wayne was a close friend of the late Panamanian leader Omar Torrijos Herrera and Wayne's first wife, Josephine, was a native of Panama.^[56]

Death[link]

Although he enrolled in a cancer vaccine study in an attempt to ward off the disease,^[45] John Wayne died of stomach cancer on June 11, 1979, at the UCLA Medical Center, and was interred in the Pacific View Memorial Park cemetery in Corona del Mar. According to his son Patrick and his grandson Matthew Muñoz, a priest in the California Diocese of Orange, he converted to Roman Catholicism shortly before his death.^[57][58] He requested his tombstone read "Feo, Fuerte y Formal", a Spanish epitaph Wayne described as meaning "ugly, strong and dignified".^[59] However, the grave, unmarked for twenty years, is now marked with a quotation from his controversial 1971 Playboy interview: "Tomorrow is the most important thing in life. Comes into us at midnight very clean. It's perfect when it arrives and it puts itself in our hands. It hopes we've learned something from yesterday."^[60][61][62]

Among the 220 or so cast and crew who filmed the 1956 film, The Conqueror, on location near St. George, Utah, 91 at various times developed some form of cancer (41%), including stars Wayne, Susan Hayward, and Agnes Moorehead, and director Dick Powell. The film was shot in southwestern Utah, east of and generally downwind from the site of recent U.S. Government nuclear weapons tests in southeastern Nevada. Although the 41% incidence of cancer in the cast and crew is very close to that of the general population,^[63] many contend radioactive fallout from these tests contaminated the film location and poisoned the film crew working there.^[64][65] Despite the suggestion that Wayne's 1964 lung cancer and his 1979 stomach cancer resulted from nuclear contamination, he himself believed his lung cancer to have been a result of his six-pack-a-day cigarette habit.^[66]

Legacy[link]

Awards, celebrations, and landmarks[link]

John Wayne's enduring status as an iconic American was formally recognized by the U.S. government by awarding him the two highest civilian decorations. He was recognized by the United States Congress on May 26, 1979, when he was awarded the Congressional Gold Medal. Hollywood figures and American leaders from across the political spectrum, including Maureen O'Hara, Elizabeth Taylor, Frank Sinatra, Mike Frankovich, Katharine Hepburn, General and Mrs. Omar Bradley, Gregory Peck, Robert Stack, James Arness, and Kirk Douglas, testified to Congress of the merit and deservedness of this award. Most notable was the testimony of Robert Aldrich, then president of the Directors Guild of America, who said:

"It is important for you to know that I am a registered Democrat and, to my knowledge, share none of the political views espoused by Duke. However, whether he is ill disposed or healthy, John Wayne is far beyond the normal political sharp shooting in this community. Because of his courage, his dignity, his integrity, and because of his talents as an actor, his strength as a leader, his warmth as a human being throughout his illustrious career, he is entitled to a unique spot in our hearts and minds. In this industry, we often judge people, sometimes unfairly, by asking whether they have paid their dues. John Wayne has paid his dues over and over, and I'm proud to consider him a friend and am very much in favor of my Government recognizing in some important fashion the contribution that Mr. Wayne has made."^{[citation needed]}

A nine-foot tall bronze statue of Wayne greets travelers at the John Wayne Airport in Orange County, California

On June 9, 1980, Wayne was posthumously awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom by President Jimmy Carter, at whose inaugural ball Wayne had appeared "as a member of the loyal opposition," as Wayne described it in his speech to the gathering.

Various public locations are named in honor of Wayne, including the John Wayne Airport in Orange County, California, where a nine-foot bronze statue of him stands at the entrance; the John Wayne Marina^[67] that Wayne bequeathed the land for, near Sequim, Washington; John Wayne Elementary School (P.S. 380) in Brooklyn, New York, which boasts a 38-foot mosaic mural commission by New York artist Knox Martin^[68] entitled "John Wayne and the American Frontier";^[69] and a 100-plus-mile trail named the "John Wayne Pioneer Trail" in Washington state's Iron Horse State Park. A larger than life-size bronze statue of Wayne atop a horse was erected at the corner of La Cienega Boulevard and Wilshire Boulevard in Beverly Hills, California at the former offices of the Great Western Savings & Loan Corporation, for whom Wayne had made a number of commercials. In the city of Maricopa, Arizona, part of Arizona State Route 347 is named John Wayne Parkway, which runs through the center of town.

In 2006, friends of Wayne's and his former Arizona business partner, Louis Johnson, inaugurated the "Louie and the Duke Classics" events benefiting the John Wayne Cancer Foundation^[70] and the American Cancer Society.^[71][72] The weekend long event each fall in Casa Grande, Arizona includes a golf tournament, an auction of John Wayne memorabilia and a team roping competition.^[71]

Several celebrations took place on May 26, 2007, the centennial of Wayne's birth. A celebration at the John Wayne birthplace in Winterset, Iowa, included chuck-wagon suppers, concerts by Michael Martin Murphey and Riders in the Sky, a Wild West Revue in the style of Buffalo Bill's Wild West show, and a Cowboy Symposium with Wayne's co-stars, producers, and costumer. Wayne's films ran repetitiously at the local theater. Ground was broken for the New John Wayne Birthplace Museum and Learning Center at a ceremony consisting of over 30 of Wayne's family members, including Melinda Wayne Munoz, Aissa, Ethan and Marisa Wayne. Later that year California Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger and First Lady Maria Shriver inducted Wayne into the California Hall of Fame, located at The California Museum for History, Women and the Arts.^[73]

Cultural image as an American icon[link]

As a special guest star, with Lucille Ball (left) in I Love Lucy, 1955

Wayne rose beyond the typical recognition for a famous actor to that of an enduring icon who symbolized and communicated American values and ideals. By the middle of his career, Wayne had developed a larger-than-life image, and as his career progressed, he selected roles that would not compromise his off-screen image. By the time of his last film The Shootist (1976), Wayne refused to allow his character to shoot a man in the back as was originally scripted,^[74] saying "I've made over 250 pictures and have never shot a guy in the back. Change it."

Wayne's rise to being the quintessential movie war hero began to take shape four years after World War II, when Sands of Iwo Jima (1949) was released. His footprints at Grauman's Chinese theater in Hollywood were laid in concrete that contained sand from Iwo Jima.^[75] His status grew so large and legendary that when Japanese Emperor Hirohito visited the United States in 1975, he asked to meet John Wayne, the symbolic representation of his country's former enemy.^[76]

Wayne was a popular visitor to the war zones in World War II, Korea, and Vietnam. By the 1950s, perhaps in large part due to the military aspect of films such as the Sands of Iwo Jima, Flying Tigers, They Were Expendable, and the Ford cavalry trilogy, Wayne had become an icon to all the branches of the United States Armed Forces, even in light of his actual lack of military service. Many veterans have said their reason for serving was in some part related to watching Wayne's movies. His name is attached to various pieces of gear, such as the P-38 "John Wayne" can opener, so named because "it can do anything", paper towels known as "John Wayne toilet paper" because "it's rough and it's tough and don't take shit off no one," and C-ration crackers are called "John Wayne crackers" because presumably only someone as tough as Wayne could eat them. A rough and rocky mountain pass used by military tanks and jeeps at Fort Irwin in San Bernardino County, California, is aptly named "John Wayne Pass".

Wayne is the only actor to appear in every edition of the annual Harris Poll of Most Popular Film Actors, and the only deceased actor to appear on the list after his death. Wayne has been in the top ten in this poll for 19 consecutive years, starting 15 years after his death in 1979.^[77]

Missed roles[link]

• John Wayne desperately wanted the role of "Jimmy Ringo" in the 1950 film The Gunfighter, directed by Henry King, but the role went to Gregory Peck instead. John Wayne's final film, The Shootist (1976), directed by Don Siegel was very similar to The Gunfighter.^[33]
• An urban legend has it that John Wayne was offered the leading role of Matt Dillon in the longtime favorite television show Gunsmoke, but he turned it down, recommending instead James Arness for the role. The only part of this story that is true is that Wayne did indeed recommend Arness for the part. Wayne introduced Arness in a prologue to the first episode of Gunsmoke.^[78]
• Wayne was approached by Mel Brooks to play the part of the Waco Kid in the film Blazing Saddles. After reading the script he said, "I can't be in this picture, it's too dirty ... but I'll be the first in line to see it."^[79]
• He reportedly had initially strongly considered taking the role of Major Reisman in The Dirty Dozen, even asking MGM to make changes to the script to accommodate him. But ultimately, he turned it down to make The Green Berets. The role went to Lee Marvin.
• Wayne had lobbied to play the lead in Dirty Harry, but Warner Bros. felt that at age 63, he was too old for the role. The role eventually went to Clint Eastwood.

Awards and nominations[link]

Academy Award[link]

Wayne was nominated for three Academy Awards, which are presented annually by the American Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences (AMPAS) to recognize excellence in the film industry, winning one of them.

Best Actor[link]

Producer[link]

Golden Globe[link]

The Golden Globe Awards are presented annually by the Hollywood Foreign Press Association (HFPA) to recognize outstanding achievements in the entertainment industry, both domestic and foreign, and to focus wide public attention upon the best in motion pictures and television. Wayne won a Golden Globe Award for his performance in "True Grit".

The Cecil B. DeMille Award for lifetime achievement in motion pictures is an annual award given by the Hollywood Foreign Press Association at the Golden Globe Award ceremonies in Hollywood, California. It was named in honor of Cecil B. DeMille (1881–1959), one of the industry's most successful filmmakers; John Wayne won this particular award in 1966.

Filmography[link]

See also[link]

Biography portal

References[link]

Further reading[link]

External links[link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: John Wayne

Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: John Wayne

• Official website
• John Wayne Cancer Foundation
• John Wayne Cancer Institute
• FBI file on John Wayne
• Birthplace of John Wayne official website
• John Wayne at the Internet Movie Database
• John Wayne at the TCM Movie Database
• John Wayne at AllRovi
• "On the Set of The Alamo": Behind-the-scenes footage from the production of the film, from the Texas Archive of the Moving Image.
• The short film STAFF FILM REPORT 66-28A (1966) is available for free download at the Internet Archive [more]

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Sir Charlie Chaplin
Chaplin as The Tramp, 1915
Birth name	Charles Spencer Chaplin
Born	(1889-04-16)16 April 1889 Walworth, London, England, United Kingdom
Died	25 December 1977(1977-12-25) (aged 88) Vevey, Switzerland
Medium	Film, music, mimicry
Nationality	British
Years active	1895–1976[1]
Genres	Slapstick, mime, visual comedy
Influenced	Benny Hill Marcel Marceau The Three Stooges Federico Fellini Milton Berle Peter Sellers Rowan Atkinson Johnny Depp Jacques Tati Woody Allen
Spouse	Mildred Harris (m. 1918–1921) «start: (1918)–end+1: (1922)»"Marriage: Mildred Harris to Charlie Chaplin" Location: (linkback:http://en-wiki.pop.wn.com/index.php/Charlie_Chaplin) 1 child Lita Grey (m. 1924–1927) «start: (1924)–end+1: (1928)»"Marriage: Lita Grey to Charlie Chaplin" Location: (linkback:http://en-wiki.pop.wn.com/index.php/Charlie_Chaplin) 2 children Paulette Goddard (m. 1936–1942) «start: (1936)–end+1: (1943)»"Marriage: Paulette Goddard to Charlie Chaplin" Location: (linkback:http://en-wiki.pop.wn.com/index.php/Charlie_Chaplin) Oona O'Neill (m. 1943–1977) «start: (1943)–end+1: (1978)»"Marriage: Oona O'Neill to Charlie Chaplin" Location: (linkback:http://en-wiki.pop.wn.com/index.php/Charlie_Chaplin) 8 children
Signature

Sir Charles Spencer "Charlie" Chaplin, KBE (16 April 1889 – 25 December 1977) was an English comic actor, film director and composer best known for his work during the silent film era.^[2] He became the most famous film star in the world before the end of World War I. Chaplin used mime, slapstick and other visual comedy routines, and continued well into the era of the talkies, though his films decreased in frequency from the end of the 1920s. His most famous role was that of The Tramp, which he first played in the Keystone comedy Kid Auto Races at Venice in 1914.^[3] From the April 1914 one-reeler Twenty Minutes of Love onwards he was writing and directing most of his films, by 1916 he was also producing them, and from 1918 he was even composing the music for them. With Mary Pickford, Douglas Fairbanks and D. W. Griffith, he co-founded United Artists in 1919.^[4]

Chaplin was one of the most creative and influential personalities of the silent-film era. He was influenced by his predecessor, the French silent film comedian Max Linder, to whom he dedicated one of his films.^[5] His working life in entertainment spanned over 75 years, from the Victorian stage and the music hall in the United Kingdom as a child performer, until close to his death at the age of 88. His high-profile public and private life encompassed both adulation and controversy. Chaplin was identified with left-wing politics during the McCarthy era and he was ultimately forced to resettle in Europe from 1952.

In 1999, the American Film Institute ranked Chaplin the 10th greatest male screen legend of all time.^[6] In 2008, Martin Sieff, in a review of the book Chaplin: A Life, wrote: "Chaplin was not just 'big', he was gigantic. In 1915, he burst onto a war-torn world bringing it the gift of comedy, laughter and relief while it was tearing itself apart through World War I. Over the next 25 years, through the Great Depression and the rise of Adolf Hitler, he stayed on the job. ... It is doubtful any individual has ever given more entertainment, pleasure and relief to so many human beings when they needed it the most".^[7] George Bernard Shaw called Chaplin "the only genius to come out of the movie industry".^[8]

Early years (1889–1913)[link]

Background and childhood hardship[link]

Charles Spencer Chaplin was born on 16 April 1889 to Hannah Chaplin (née Hannah Harriet Pedlingham Hill, 1865–1928) and Charles Chaplin Sr. (1863–1901). There is no official record of his birth, although Chaplin believed he was born at East Street, Walworth, in South London.^{[9][note 1]} His mother and father had married four years previously, at which time Chaplin Sr. became the legal carer of Hannah's illegitimate son, Sydney John (1885–1965).^{[12][note 2]} At the time of his birth, Chaplin's parents were both entertainers in the music hall tradition: Hannah, the daughter of a shoemaker,^[13] had a brief and unsuccessful career under the stage name Lily Harley,^[14] while Charles Sr., a butcher's son,^[15] worked as a popular singer.^[16] The Chaplins became estranged in around 1891;^[17] a year later, Hannah gave birth to a third son—George Wheeler Dryden—fathered by music hall entertainer Leo Dryden. The child was taken by Dryden at six months old, and did not re-enter Chaplin's life for 30 years.^[18]

Chaplin's childhood was fraught with poverty and hardship, prompting biographer David Robinson to describe his eventual trajectory as "the most dramatic of all the rags to riches stories ever told."^[19] His early years were spent with his mother and brother in the London district of Kennington; Hannah had no means of income, other than occasional nursing and dressmaking, and Chaplin Sr. provided no support for his sons.^[20] Because of this poverty, Chaplin was sent to a workhouse at seven years old. The council housed him at the Central London District School for paupers, which Chaplin remembered as "a forlorn existence".^[21] He was briefly reunited with his mother at nine years old, before Hannah was forced to readmit her family to the workhouse in July 1898. The boys were promptly sent to Norwood Schools, another charity institution.^[22]

In September 1898, Hannah Chaplin was committed to Cane Hill mental asylum—she had developed a psychosis seemingly brought on by malnutrition and an infection of syphilis.^[24] Chaplin recalled his anguish at the news: "Why had she done this? Mother, so light-hearted and gay, how could she go insane?"^[25] For the two months she was there, Chaplin and his brother were sent to live with their father, whom the young boy scarcely knew.^[26] Charles Chaplin Sr. was by then a severe alcoholic, and life with the man was bad enough to provoke a visit from the National Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children.^[27] He died two years later, at 37 years old, from cirrhosis of the liver.^[28]

Hannah Chaplin entered a period of remission, but in May 1903 became ill again. Chaplin, then 14, had the task of taking his mother to the infirmary.^[29] He lived alone for several days, searching for food and occasionally sleeping rough, until his brother Sydney returned from the navy.^[30] Hannah Chaplin was released from the asylum eight months later,^[31] but in March 1905 her madness returned, this time permanently. "There was nothing we could do but accept poor mother's fate", Chaplin later wrote, and she remained in care until her death in 1928.^[32]

Young performer[link]

Chaplin's first stage appearance came at five years old, when he took over from his mother one night in Aldershot. Hannah had been booed off stage, and the manager chose Chaplin, who was standing in the wings, to go on as her replacement. The young boy confidently entertained the crowd, and received laughter and applause.^[33] It was an isolated performance, but at nine years old Chaplin became interested in the theatre. He credited his mother, later writing "[she] imbued me with the feeling that I had some sort of talent."^[34] Through his father's connections, Chaplin became a member of The Eight Lancashire Lads clog dancing troupe.^[35] He began his professional career in this way, as the group toured English music halls from 1899 to 1902.^[36] Chaplin worked hard and the act was popular with audiences, but dancing did not satisfy the child and he dreamt of forming a comedy act.^[37]

By age 13 Chaplin had fully abandoned education.^{[39][note 3]} He supported himself with a range of jobs, but said he "never lost sight of my ultimate aim to become an actor."^[41] At 14, shortly after his mother's relapse, he registered with a theatrical agency in London's West End. The manager sensed potential in Chaplin and he was soon on the stage.^[42] His first role was a newsboy in H. A. Saintsbury's Jim, a Romance of Cockayne. It opened in July 1903 in Kingston upon Thames, but the show was unsuccessful and it closed after two weeks. Chaplin's comic performance, however, was singled out for praise in many of the reviews.^[43] From October 1903 to June 1904, Chaplin toured with Saintsbury in Charles Frohman's production of Sherlock Holmes.^[44] He repeated his performance of Billy the pageboy for two subsequent tours,^[45] and was so successful that he was called to London to play the role alongside William Gillette, the original Holmes.^{[note 4]} "It was like tidings from heaven", Chaplin recalled.^[47] Chaplin starred in the West End production at the Duke of York's Theatre from 17 October to 2 December 1905.^[48] He completed one final tour of Sherlock Holmes in early 1906, eventually leaving the play after more than two and a half years.^[49]

Vaudeville[link]

Star of the Karno comedy company, c. 1912

Chaplin quickly began work in another role, touring with his brother—who was also pursuing an acting career—in a comedy sketch called Repairs. He left the troupe in May 1906, and joined the vaudeville act Casey's Court Circus.^[50] Chaplin's specialism with the company was a burlesque of Dick Turpin and the music hall star "Dr. Bodie". It was popular with audiences and Chaplin became the star of the show. When they finished touring in July 1907, the 18-year-old was an accomplished comedian.^[51] Several months of unemployment followed, however, and Chaplin lived a solitary existence while lodging with a family in Kennington. He attempted to develop a solo comedy act, but his Jewish impersonation was poorly received and he performed it only once.^[52]

By 1908, Sydney Chaplin had become a star of Fred Karno's prestigious comedy company.^[53] In February, he managed to secure a two-week trial for his younger brother. Karno was initially wary, thinking Chaplin a "pale, puny, sullen-looking youngster" who "looked much too shy to do any good in the theatre."^[54] But the teenager made an impact on his first night at the London Coliseum, winning more laughs in his small role than the star, and he was quickly signed to a contract. His salary was £3 10s a week.^{[55][note 5]} Chaplin's most successful role with the Karno company was a drunk called the Inebriate Swell, a character recognised by Robinson as "very Chaplinesque".^[57] He took it to Paris in the autumn of 1909.^[58] In April 1910, he was given the lead role in a new sketch, Jimmy the Fearless, or The Boy 'Ero. It was a big success, and Chaplin received considerable press attention.^[59]

Karno selected his new star to join a fraction of the company that toured America; he also signed Chaplin to a new contract, which doubled his pay.^[60] The young comedian headed the show and impressed American reviewers, being described as "one of the best pantomime artists ever seen here."^[61] The tour lasted 21 months, and the troupe—which also included Stan Laurel of later Laurel and Hardy fame—returned to England in June 1912.^[62] Chaplin recalled: "I had a disquieting feeling of sinking back into a depressing commonplaceness", and was therefore "elated" when a new tour began in October.^[63]

Entering films (1914–1917)[link]

Beginning with Keystone[link]

Chaplin's second American tour with the Karno company was not particularly successful, as cast members fell sick and audiences failed to grasp the troupe's burlesque humour.^[64] They had been there six months when Chaplin's manager received a telegram, asking "Is there a man named Chaffin in your company or something like that" with the request that that this comedian contact the New York Motion Picture Company. A member of NYMPC had seen Chaplin perform (accounts of whom and where vary) and felt that he would make a good replacement for Fred Mace, outgoing star of their Keystone Studios.^[65] Chaplin thought the Keystone comedies "a crude mélange of rough and rumble", but liked the idea of working in films and justified, "Besides, it would mean a new life".^[66] He met with the company, and a contract was drawn up in July 1913. After some adjustments, Chaplin signed with Keystone on 25 September.^[67] The contract stipulated a year's work at $150 a week.^[68]

Chaplin (left) in his first film appearance, Making a Living (1914)

The Tramp débuts in Kid Auto Races at Venice (1914), Chaplin's second released film

Chaplin arrived in Los Angeles, home of the Keystone studio, in early December 1913.^[69] His boss was Mack Sennett, who initially expressed concern that the 24-year-old looked too young. Chaplin reassured him, "I can make up as old as you like."^[70] He was not used in a picture until late January, during which time the comedian attempted to learn the processes of filmmaking.^[71] Making a Living marked his film debut, released 2 February 1914. Chaplin strongly disliked the picture, but one review picked him out as "a comedian of the first water."^[72] For his second appearance in front of cameras, Chaplin selected the costume with which he became identified. He described the process in his autobiography:

"I wanted everything to be a contradiction: the pants baggy, the coat tight, the hat small and the shoes large ... I added a small moustache, which, I reasoned, would add age without hiding my expression. I had no idea of the character. But the moment I was dressed, the clothes and the makeup made me feel the person he was. I began to know him, and by the time I walked on stage he was fully born."^[73]

The film was Mabel's Strange Predicament, but "The Tramp" character, as it became known, debuted to audiences in Kid Auto Races at Venice—shot later but released two days earlier.^[74] Chaplin adopted the character permanently, and attempted to make suggestions for the films he appeared in. These ideas were dismissed by his directors.^[75] During the filming of his tenth picture he clashed with director Mabel Normand, and was almost released from his contract. Sennett kept him on, however, when a request arrived for more Chaplin films. With an insurance of $1,500 promised in case of failure, Sennett also allowed Chaplin to direct his own film.^[76]

Caught in the Rain (issued 4 May 1914), Chaplin's first directed picture, was among Keystone's most successful releases to date. Robinson writes that the comedian already demonstrated "a special mastery of telling stories in images" at this early stage in his career.^[77] Chaplin proceeded to direct every short film in which he appeared for Keystone, approximately one per week, which he remembered as the most exciting time of his career.^[78] His films introduced a slower, more expressive form of comedy than the typical Keystone farce,^[79] and he developed a large fan base.^[80] In June, Keystone issued adverts in Britain with the words: "Are you prepared for the Chaplin boom? There has never been so instantaneous a hit as that of Chas Chaplin".^[81] In November 1914, Chaplin appeared in the first feature length comedy film, Tillie's Punctured Romance, directed by Sennett. Chaplin only had a supporting role, but the movie's success meant it was pivotal in advancing his career.^[82] When Chaplin's contract came up for renewal at the end of the year, he asked for $1,000 a week. Sennett refused this amount as too large, and so the comedian waited to receive an offer from another studio.^[83]

Developing with Essanay[link]

Chaplin and Edna Purviance, his frequent leading lady, in Work (1915)

The Essanay Film Manufacturing Company sent Chaplin an offer of $1,250 a week with a signing bonus of $10,000. This large amount was irresistible to him, and in late December 1914 he travelled to Chicago to join the studio.^[84] Chaplin was unimpressed with the conditions there, and after making one film (His New Job, released 1 February 1915), moved to the company's small studio in Niles, California.^[85] There, Chaplin began to form a stock company of regular players, including Leo White, Bud Jamison, Paddy McGuire and Billy Armstrong. In San Francisco he recruited a leading lady—Edna Purviance.^[86] She went on to appear in 35 films with Chaplin over eight years.^[87] The pair also formed a romantic relationship that lasted into 1917.^[88]

Chaplin asserted a high level of control over his pictures, and started to put more time and care into each film.^[89] There was a month long wait between the release of his second production, A Night Out, to his third, The Champion.^[90] With The Tramp, issued April 1915, Chaplin began to inject greater emotion into his pictures.^[91] The use of pathos was developed further with The Bank, released four films and four months later, as Chaplin chose to have a sad ending. Robinson notes that this was an innovation in comedy films, and marked the time when serious critics began to appreciate his work.^[92] Chaplin made 14 films for Essanay, the last of which was a parody of Carmen named Burlesque on Carmen (1916). The film was re-cut and expanded by the studio without Chaplin's consent, leading the star to seek an injunction in May 1916. The court dismissed this claim since he had failed to fulfil his contract requirements,^{[note 6]} but Chaplin subsequently ensured that every contract he signed prohibited the alteration of his finished products.^[93]

During the course of 1915, Chaplin became a cultural phenomenon. Shops were stocked with Chaplin merchandise, he was featured in cartoons and comic strips, and several songs were written about the star.^[94] As his Essanay contract came to an end, and fully aware of his popularity, Chaplin requested a $150,000 signing bonus from his next studio. He received several offers, including Universal, Fox, and Vitagraph, the best of which came from the Mutual Film Corporation at $10,000 a week.^[95]

Global celebrity with Mutual[link]

Chaplin showing off some of his merchandise, c. 1918

A contract was negotiated with Mutual that amounted to $670,000 a year, making Chaplin—at 26 years old—one of the highest paid people in the world.^[96] John R. Freuler, the studio President, explained, "We can afford to pay Mr Chaplin this large sum annually because the public wants Chaplin and will pay for him." The comedian made statements to the press in which he claimed money was not his main concern, but that he was "simply making hay while the sun shines."^[97]

Mutual gave Chaplin his own Los Angeles studio to work in, which opened in March 1916.^[98] He added two key members to his stock company, Albert Austin and Eric Campbell,^[99] and embarked on a series of elaborate productions—The Floorwalker, The Fireman, The Vagabond, One A.M. and The Count.^[100] For The Pawnshop he recruited the actor Henry Bergman, who was to work with Chaplin for 30 years.^[101] Behind the Screen and The Rink finished off Chaplin's releases for 1916. The Mutual contract stipulated that Chaplin release a two-reel film every four weeks, which he had managed to meet. With the new year, however, Chaplin began to demand more time.^[102] He made only four more films for Mutual over the next ten months of 1917—Easy Street, The Cure. The Immigrant and The Adventurer.^[103] With their careful construction—and in the case of Easy Street and The Immigrant, their social commentary—these films are considered by Chaplin scholars to be among his finest work.^[104][105] Later in life, Chaplin referred to his Mutual years as "the happiest period of my career."^[106]

Chaplin was the subject of a backlash in the British media for not fighting in World War 1.^[107] He defended himself, revealing that he had registered for the draft but was not asked to fight.^[108] Despite this campaign Chaplin was a favourite with the troops,^[109] and his popularity continued to grow worldwide. The name of Charlie Chaplin was said to be "a part of the common language of almost every country", and according to Harper's Weekly his "little, baggy-trousered figure" was "universally familiar".^[110] In 1917, Chaplin imitators were widespread enough for the star to take legal action,^[111] and it was reported that nine out of ten men attended costume parties dressed as Chaplin.^[112] The same year, a study by the Boston Society for Psychical Research concluded that Chaplin was "an American obsession."^[112] The actress Minnie Maddern Fiske wrote in Harper's Weekly that "a constantly increasing body of cultured, artistic people are beginning to regard the young English buffoon, Charles Chaplin, as an extraordinary artist, as well as a comic genius."^[110]

First National (1918–1923)[link]

A Dog's Life (1918). It was around this time that Chaplin began to conceive the Tramp as "a sort of Pierrot", or sad clown.

Mutual were patient with Chaplin's decreased rate of output, and the contract ended amicably. The star's primary concern in finding a new distributor was independence; Sydney Chaplin, then his business manager, told the press: "Charlie [must] be allowed all the time he needs and all the money for producing [films] the way he wants ... It is quality, not quantity, we are after."^[113] On 17 June 1917, Chaplin signed to complete eight films for First National Exhibitors' Circuit.^[114] He chose to build a new studio, situated on five acres of land off Sunset Boulevard, with production facilities of the highest order.^[115] It was completed in January 1918,^[116] and Chaplin was given freedom over the making of his pictures.^[117]

A Dog's Life, released April 1918, was the first film under the new contract. Chaplin paid yet more concern to story construction, and began treating the Tramp as "a sort of Pierrot."^[118] The film was described by Louis Delluc as "cinema's first total work of art."^[119] Following its completion, Chaplin embarked on the Third Liberty Bond campaign, touring the Unites States for one month to raise money for the Allies of World War One.^[120] He also produced a short propaganda film, donated to the government for fund-raising, called The Bond.^[121] Chaplin's next release was war-based, placing the Tramp in the trenches for Shoulder Arms. Associates warned him against making a comedy about the war, but he recalled: "Dangerous or not, the idea excited me."^[122] It took four months to produce, eventually released in October 1918 at 45 minutes long, and was highly successful.^[123]

[edit] Mildred Harris, founding United Artists and The Kid