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- 2 Timothy
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Achaemenid
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Achaemenid Empire
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Achaemenids
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Acre, Israel
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Acropolis of Athens
The Acropolis of Athens or Citadel of Athens is the best known acropolis (Gr. akros, akron, edge, extremity + polis, city, pl. acropoleis) in the world. Although there are many other acropoleis in Greece, the significance of the Acropolis of Athens is such that it is commonly known as The Acropolis without qualification. The Acropolis was formally proclaimed as the pre-eminent monument on the European Cultural Heritage list of monuments on 26 March 2007. The Acropolis is a flat-topped rock that rises above sea level in the city of Athens, with a surface area of about 3 hectares. It was also known as Cecropia, after the legendary serpent-man, Cecrops, the first Athenian king.
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Aegean Sea
The Aegean Sea (, Egeo Pelagos ; ) is an elongated embayment of the Mediterranean Sea located between the southern Balkan and Anatolian peninsulas, i.e., between the mainlands of Greece and Turkey respectively. In the north, it is connected to the Marmara Sea and Black Sea by the Dardanelles and Bosporus. The Aegean Islands are within the sea and some bound it on its southern periphery, including Crete and Rhodes. The Aegean Region consists of nine provinces in southwestern Turkey, in part bordering on the Aegean sea.
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Aegospotami
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Alabanda
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Alaca Höyük
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Alexandria
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Alexandria Troas
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Alişar Hüyük
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Altıntepe
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Amorium
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Amyzon
: Amyzon is also a genus of Catostomid fishes.
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Anatolia
Anatolia (, from Greek '; also Asia Minor, from , ') is a geographic and historical term denoting the westernmost protrusion of Asia, comprising the majority of the Republic of Turkey. The region is bounded by the Black Sea to the north, Georgia to the northeast, the Armenian Highland to the east, Mesopotamia to the southeast, the Mediterranean Sea to the south and the Aegean Sea to the west. Anatolia has been home to many civilizations throughout history, such as the Hittites, Phrygians, Lydians, Persians, Greeks, Assyrians, Armenians, Romans, Byzantines, Anatolian Seljuks and Ottomans. As a result, Anatolia is one of the archeologically richest areas in the world.
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Anazarbus
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Ani
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Antioch
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Antioch, Pisidia
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Apamea (Phrygia)
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Areopagus
:This article concerns the place where a classical judicial body met. It is also the term for the judicial body which met there. For the 16th century literary movement, see Areopagus (poetry). For the regional government during the Greek War of Independence, see Areopagus of Eastern Continental Greece. For the modern Greek Supreme Court, see Court of Cassation (Greece).
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Ariassos
Ariassos (or Ariasos) was a Pisidian city built at a height of 1050 meters in the Taurus Mountains (modern day Antalya province, Turkey).
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Arycanda
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Asia Minor
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Assos
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Attalid dynasty
The Attalid dynasty was a Hellenistic dynasty that ruled the city of Pergamon after the death of Lysimachus, a general of Alexander the Great. The Attalid kingdom was the rump state left after the collapse of the Lysimachian Empire. One of Lysimachus' officers, Philetaerus, took control of the city in 282 BC. The later Attalids were descended from his father, and they expanded the city into a kingdom. Attalus I proclaimed himself King in the 230s BC, following his victories over the Galatians. The Attalids ruled Pergamon until Attalus III bequeathed the kingdom to the Roman Republic in 133 BC to avoid a likely succession crisis.
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Aydin Province
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Aydın
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Battle of Issus
The Battle of Issus (or the Battle at Issus) occurred in southern Anatolia, in November 333 BC. The invading troops, led by the young Alexander of Macedonia, defeated the army personally led by Darius III of Achaemenid Persia in the second great battle for primacy in Asia. After Alexander's forces successfully forced a crossing of the Hellespont (the Dardanelles) and defeated the Persian satraps in a prior encounter, the Battle of the Granicus, Darius took personal charge of his army, gathered a large army from the depths of the empire, and maneuvered to cut the Greek line of supply, requiring Alexander to countermarch his forces, setting the stage for the battle near the mouth of the Pinarus River and south of the village of Issus.
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Battle of Manzikert
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Berlin
Berlin (; ) is the capital city of Germany and one of sixteen states of Germany. With a population of 3.4 million people, Berlin is Germany's largest city. It is the second most populous city proper and the eighth most populous urban area in the European Union. Located in northeastern Germany, it is the center of the Berlin-Brandenburg Metropolitan Area, comprising 5 million people from over 190 nations. Geographically embedded in the European Plains, Berlin is influenced by a temperate seasonal climate. Around one third of the city's territory is composed of forests, parks, gardens, rivers and lakes.
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Beycesultan
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Caesarea Maritima
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Cappadocia
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Chalcedon
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Classical Athens
The city of Athens during the classical period of Ancient Greece (508-322 BC) was a notable polis (city-state) of Attica, Greece, leading the Delian League in the Peloponnesian War against Sparta and the Peloponnesian League. Athenian democracy was established in 508 BC under Cleisthenes following the tyranny of Hippias. This system remained remarkably stable, and with a few brief interruptions remained in place for 180 years, until 322 BC (aftermath of Lamian War) . The peak of Athenian hegemony was achieved in the 440s to 430s BC, known as the Age of Pericles.
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Comana (Cappadocia)
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Constantinople
Constantinople (, , Turkish: Istanbul) was the imperial capital of the Roman Empire, the Byzantine/Eastern Roman Empire, the Latin Empire and the Ottoman Empire. Throughout most of the Middle Ages, Constantinople was Europe's largest and wealthiest city.
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Constanța
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Corycus
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Cremna, Pisidia
:"Cremna" redirects here. This was also a genus of metalmark butterflies, now a junior synonym of Napaea (butterfly).
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Crete
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Crimea
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Cyprus
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Dara (Mesopotamia)
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Dardanelles
The Dardanelles (, ), formerly known as the Hellespont
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Derbe
Derbe is an ancient city in today's Turkey. This city is mentioned in the biblical book of Acts - (), () and was situated near ancient Lystra.
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Didim
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Didyma
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Dioscurias
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Docimium
Docimium, Docimia or Docimeium (Greek: and ) was an ancient city of Phrygia, Asia Minor where there were famous marble quarries. It remains a Roman Catholic titular see.
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Dorylaeum
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Elaiussa Sebaste
Elaiussa Sebaste or Elaeousa Sebaste () was an ancient Roman town located from Mersin in the direction of Silifke in Cilicia on the southern coast of Anatolia (in modern-day Turkey). Elaiussa, meaning olive, was founded in the 2nd century B.C. on a tiny island attached to the mainland by a narrow isthmus in Mediterranean Sea.
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Ephesus
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Euchaita
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Faustinopolis
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Feodosiya
http://wn.com/Feodosiya -
Germany
Germany (), officially the Federal Republic of Germany (, ), is a country in Western Europe. It is bordered to the north by the North Sea, Denmark, and the Baltic Sea; to the east by Poland and the Czech Republic; to the south by Austria and Switzerland; and to the west by France, Luxembourg, Belgium, and the Netherlands. The territory of Germany covers 357.021 km2 and is influenced by a temperate seasonal climate. With 81.8 million inhabitants, it is the most populous member state of the European Union, and home to the third-largest number of international migrants worldwide.
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Hacilar
Hacilar is an early human settlement in southwestern Turkey, 25 km southwest of present day Burdur. It has been dated back 7040 BC at its earliest stage of development. Archaeological remains indicate that the site was abandoned and reoccupied on more than one occasion in its history.
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Hagia Sophia
Hagia Sophia (from the , "Holy Wisdom"; or Sancta Sapientia; ) is a former Orthodox patriarchal basilica, later a mosque, and now a museum in Istanbul, Turkey. From the date of its dedication in 360 until 1453, it served as the cathedral of Constantinople, except between 1204 and 1261, when it was the cathedral of the Latin Empire. The building was a mosque from 29 May 1453 until 1934, when it was secularized. It was opened as a museum on 1 February 1935.
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Halicarnassus
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Harran
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Hierapolis
Hierapolis (Greek: 'holy city') was the ancient Greek city on top of hot springs located in south western Turkey near Denizli.
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Histria (Sinoe)
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Hüseyindede Tepe
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Ionian Sea
The Ionian Sea is an arm of the Mediterranean Sea, south of the Adriatic Sea. It is bounded by southern Italy including Calabria, Sicily and the Salento peninsula to the west, and by southwestern Albania, including Saranda and Himara, and a large number of Greek islands, including Corfu, Zante, Kephalonia, Ithaka, and Lefkas to the east. The islands are collectively referred to as the Ionian Islands, and other islands include the Strophades, Sphagia, Schiza, Sapientza and Kythira. The sea is one of the most seismic areas in the world.
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Issus (town)
Issus is an ancient settlement on the strategic coastal plain straddling the small Pinarus river (a fast melt-water stream several meters wide) below the navigationally difficult inland mountains towering above to the east in the Turkish Province of Hatay, near the border with Syria. It is most notable for being the place of no less than three decisive ancient or medieval battles each called in their own era the Battle of Issus where:
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Kaunos
Kaunos (Carian: Kbid;
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Kayaköy
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Kechries
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Knidos
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Kültepe
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Labraunda
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Lysimachia (Thrace)
Lysimachia () was an important Hellenistic Greek town on the north-western extremity of the Thracian Chersonese (the modern Gallipoli peninsula) in what is now the European part of Turkey, not far from the bay of Melas (the modern Gulf of Saros).
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Marmara Region
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Medes
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Miletus
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Minos
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Myra
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Myriandrus
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Myus
Myus, Caria (sometimes Myous or Myos) was an ancient city-state and was one of twelve major settlements formed in the Ionian Confederation, called the Ionian League. The city was said to have been founded by Cyaretus (sometimes called Cydrelus), a son of Codrus. Myus was a small peninsula, it is now however surrounded by land (fields). These fields do still flood but it is no longer a harbour town. Myus was also synoikised with Miletus. Myus had both a temple of Athena and a temple of Herodotus and sources tell us that it was always secondary to Miletos.
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Nevalı Çori
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Nicopolis (Pontus)
Nicopolis (, "city of victory") was a Roman colony founded by Pompey in 66 BC in the Pontus.
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Olba (ancient city)
Olba is a Roman Catholic titular see in the former Roman province of Isauria (a region of Asia Minor, in present Turkey), suffragan of Seleucia Trachea.
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Parthenon
The Parthenon (Ancient Greek: ) is a temple in the Athenian Acropolis, Greece, dedicated to the Greek goddess Athena, whom the people of Athens considered their protector. Its construction began in 447 BCE and was completed in 438 BCE, although decorations of the Parthenon continued until 431 BCE. It is the most important surviving building of Classical Greece, generally considered to be the culmination of the development of the Doric order. Its decorative sculptures are considered some of the high points of Greek art. The Parthenon is regarded as an enduring symbol of Ancient Greece and of Athenian democracy and one of the world's greatest cultural monuments. The Greek Ministry of Culture is currently carrying out a programme of selective restoration and reconstruction to ensure the stability of the partially ruined structure.
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Peloponnese
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Peloponnesus
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Pepuza
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Perga
Perga ( Perge, ) was an ancient Greek city in Anatolia and the capital of Pamphylia, now in Antalya province on the southwestern Mediterranean coast of Turkey. Today it is a large site of ancient ruins east of Antalya on the coastal plain. Located there is an acropolis dating back to the Bronze Age. During the Hellenistic period, Perga was one of the richest and most beautiful cities in the ancient world, famous for its temple of Artemis. It also is notable for being the home of the renowned ancient Greek mathematician Apollonius of Perga.
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Pergamon
http://wn.com/Pergamon -
Persian Empire
http://wn.com/Persian_Empire -
Phocaea
http://wn.com/Phocaea -
Pinara
http://wn.com/Pinara -
Pitane (Aeolis)
http://wn.com/Pitane_(Aeolis) -
Pityus
http://wn.com/Pityus -
Priene
http://wn.com/Priene -
Ruhr University
http://wn.com/Ruhr_University -
Sagalassos
http://wn.com/Sagalassos -
Sakçagözü
http://wn.com/Sakçagözü -
Sam'al
http://wn.com/Sam'al -
Samos
http://wn.com/Samos -
Sapinuwa
http://wn.com/Sapinuwa -
Sardis
http://wn.com/Sardis -
Seleucia (Pamphylia)
http://wn.com/Seleucia_(Pamphylia) -
Selge, Pisidia
http://wn.com/Selge_Pisidia -
Sestos
Sestos () was an ancient Greek town of the Thracian Chersonese, the modern Gallipoli peninsula in European Turkey. Situated on the Hellespont opposite Abydos, it was the home of Hero in the legend of Hero and Leander. Sestos was an Aeolian colony, as it was founded by settlers from Lesbos. The ruins of the town are near to Eceabat.
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Side
Side ( Side, ) was an ancient Greek city in Anatolia, in the region of Pamphylia, in what is now Antalya province, on the southern Mediterranean coast of Turkey. It is now a resort town and one of the best-known classical sites in Turkey, near the villages of Manavgat and Selimiye, 75 km from Antalya) in the province of Antalya.
http://wn.com/Side -
Sigeion
http://wn.com/Sigeion -
Sinop, Turkey
http://wn.com/Sinop_Turkey -
Smyrna
Smyrna () was an ancient city located at a central and strategic point on the Aegean coast of Anatolia. Thanks to its advantageous port conditions, its ease of defence and its good inland connections, Smyrna rose to prominence. The ancient city is located at two sites within modern Izmir, Turkey. While the first site, likely to have started as a native foundation, rose to prominence during the Archaic Period as one of the principal ancient Greek settlements in western Anatolia, the second, whose foundation is associated with Alexander the Great, reached metropolitan proportions especially during the period of the Roman Empire, from which time and particularly from after a 2nd century AD earthquake, most of the present-day remains date.
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Soli, Cilicia
Soli (, Soloi) was an ancient city and port in Cilicia, in present day Turkey, a part of Mezitli municipality which in turn is a part of Greater Mersin. It was a colony of Rhodes, founded c. 700 BC. Soli was destroyed in the 1st century BC, and rebuilt by Pompey the Great. Thereafter, it was called Pompeiopolis (not to be confused with the Pompeiopolis in Paphlagonia). The word solecism is derived from Soli, since the dialect of Greek spoken there was considered by Athenians to be a corrupted form of Attic Greek.
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Sozopol
Sozopol () is an ancient town and seaside resort located 35 km south of Burgas on the southern Black Sea Coast of Bulgaria. Today the town is mostly a seaside resort known for the Apollonia art and film festival (which takes place in early September) and is named after one of Sozopol's ancient names.
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Sparta
http://wn.com/Sparta -
Sultantepe
http://wn.com/Sultantepe -
Tell Tayinat
'''Tell Ta'yinat''' is a low-lying ancient occupation mound on the east bank at the bend of the ancient Orontes river, in the Hatay province of present southeastern Turkey about 45 kilometers west of Antakya (ancient Antioch). The site lies some 800 meters from Tell Atchana, the site of the ancient city of Alalakh. It is a possible site of the city of Calneh mentioned in the Hebrew Scriptures.
http://wn.com/Tell_Tayinat -
Temnos
Temnos (also Temnus) was a small Greek city-state, on the western coast of Anatolia. The name survives as a Catholic titular see. When Temnos was a functioning diocese, its bishop was a suffragan of Ephesus.
http://wn.com/Temnos -
Temple of Hephaestus
http://wn.com/Temple_of_Hephaestus -
Temple of Zeus
The Temple of Zeus at Olympia, was an ancient Greek temple in Olympia, Greece, dedicated to the chief of the gods, Zeus. It was the very model of the fully-developed classical Greek temple of the Doric order. The temple, built between 472 and 456 BC, stood in the most famous sanctuary of Greece, which had been dedicated to local and Pan-Hellenic deities and had probably been established towards the end of the Mycenaean period. The Altis, the enclosure with its sacred grove, open-air altars and the tumulus of Pelops, was first formed during the tenth and ninth centuries BCE, when the cult of Zeus was joined the already establish cult here of Hera.
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Teos
http://wn.com/Teos -
Termessos
http://wn.com/Termessos -
Thermopylae
http://wn.com/Thermopylae -
Tlos
Tlos is known to have been one of the most important religious centers of the Lycian region in Antalya province of Turkey.
http://wn.com/Tlos -
Trapezunt
http://wn.com/Trapezunt -
Troy
http://wn.com/Troy -
Turkey
Turkey (), known officially as the Republic of Turkey (), is a Eurasian country that stretches across the Anatolian peninsula in western Asia and Thrace in the Balkan region of southeastern Europe. Turkey is one of the six independent Turkic states. Turkey is bordered by eight countries: Bulgaria to the northwest; Greece to the west; Georgia to the northeast; Armenia, Azerbaijan (the exclave of Nakhchivan) and Iran to the east; and Iraq and Syria to the southeast. The Mediterranean Sea and Cyprus are to the south; the Aegean Sea to the west; and the Black Sea is to the north. The Sea of Marmara, the Bosphorus and the Dardanelles (which together form the Turkish Straits) demarcate the boundary between Eastern Thrace and Anatolia; they also separate Europe and Asia.
http://wn.com/Turkey -
Tushhan
Tushhan was a northern Assyrian provincial capital in the upper Tigris river valley, on the south bank. It was inhabited since Mittani period, and mainly during the Neo-Assyrian period during the Iron Age.
http://wn.com/Tushhan -
Tyana
:For the genus of nolid moths, see Tyana (moth).
http://wn.com/Tyana -
Tyre, Lebanon
Tyre (Arabic: , '; Phoenician: , , '; , Tzor; Tiberian Hebrew , ; Akkadian:
http://wn.com/Tyre_Lebanon -
Varna
Varna (, pronounced ) is the largest city and seaside resort on the Bulgarian Black Sea Coast and in Northern Bulgaria, third-largest in Bulgaria after Sofia and Plovdiv, and 92nd-largest in the European Union, with a population of 358,724 (500,502 in Varna Province).
http://wn.com/Varna -
Venice
Venice ( , Venetian: Venesia) is a city in northern Italy known both for tourism and for industry, and is the capital of the region Veneto, with a population of about 272,000 (census estimate 1 January 2004). Together with Padua, the city is included in the Padua-Venice Metropolitan Area (population 1,600,000).
http://wn.com/Venice -
Xanthos
http://wn.com/Xanthos -
Yazılıkaya
http://wn.com/Yazılıkaya -
Çatalhöyük
http://wn.com/Çatalhöyük
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Aeschylus
http://wn.com/Aeschylus -
Aesop
http://wn.com/Aesop -
Alcaeus of Mytilene
http://wn.com/Alcaeus_of_Mytilene -
Alcibiades
http://wn.com/Alcibiades -
Alexander Cornelius
http://wn.com/Alexander_Cornelius -
Alexander the Great
http://wn.com/Alexander_the_Great -
Anaxagoras
Anaxagoras (, "lord of the assembly"; c. 500 BC – 428 BC) was a Pre-Socratic Greek philosopher. Born in Clazomenae in Asia Minor, Anaxagoras was the first philosopher to bring philosophy from Ionia to Athens. He attempted to give a scientific account of eclipses, meteors, rainbows, and the sun, which he described as a fiery mass larger than the Peloponnese. He was accused of contravening the established religion and was forced to flee to Lampsacus.
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Anaximander
http://wn.com/Anaximander -
Antisthenes
Antisthenes (; c. 445-c. 365 BCE) was a Greek philosopher and a pupil of Socrates. Antisthenes first learned rhetoric under Gorgias before becoming an ardent disciple of Socrates. He adopted and developed the ethical side of Socrates' teachings, advocating an ascetic life lived in accordance with virtue. Later writers regarded him as the founder of Cynic philosophy.
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Archilochus
:For the hummingbird genus, see ''Archilochus.
http://wn.com/Archilochus -
Archimedes
http://wn.com/Archimedes -
Aristagoras
Aristagoras was the leader of Miletus in the late 6th century BC and early 5th century BC.
http://wn.com/Aristagoras -
Aristophanes
http://wn.com/Aristophanes -
Aristotle
http://wn.com/Aristotle -
Aspasia
Aspasia (ca. 470 BC–ca. 400 BC, Greek: ) was a Milesian woman who was famous for her involvement with the Athenian statesman Pericles. Very little is known about the details of her life. She spent most of her adult life in Athens, and she may have influenced Pericles and Athenian politics. She is mentioned in the writings of Plato, Aristophanes, Xenophon, and other authors of the day.
http://wn.com/Aspasia -
Bacchylides
Bacchylides () (5th century BC) was an Ancient Greek lyric poet. Later Greeks included him in the canonical list of nine lyric poets which included his uncle Simonides. The elegance and polished style of his lyrics have been a commonplace of Bacchylidean scholarship since at least Longinus (De Sublimitate 33,5). Some scholars however have associated these qualities with superficial charm. He has often been compared unfavourably with his contemporary, Pindar, as "a kind of Boccherini to Pindar's Haydn", yet the differences in their styles doesn't allow for easy comparison and "to blame Bacchylides for not being Pindar is as childish a judgement as to condemn...Marvel for missing the grandeur of Milton." His career coincided with the ascendency of dramatic styles of poetry, as embodied in the works of Aeschylus or Sophocles, and he is in fact one of the last poets of major significance within the more ancient tradition of purely lyric poetry. The most notable features of his lyrics are their clarity in expression and simplicity of thought, making them an ideal introduction to the study of Greek lyric poetry in general and to Pindar's verse in particular.
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Caria
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http://wn.com/Caria -
Carians
The Carians (; Kares) were the ancient inhabitants of Caria in southwest Anatolia.
http://wn.com/Carians -
Croesus
http://wn.com/Croesus -
Cyrus the Great
Cyrus the Great (Old Persian:
http://wn.com/Cyrus_the_Great -
Democritus
http://wn.com/Democritus -
Demosthenes
http://wn.com/Demosthenes -
Diogenes of Sinope
Diogenes of Sinope ( Diogenes ho Sinopeus), was a Greek philosopher and one of the founders of Cynic philosophy. Also known as Diogenes the Cynic, he was born in Sinope (modern-day Sinop, Turkey) in 412 or 404 BCE
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Empedocles
http://wn.com/Empedocles -
Epaminondas
Epaminondas (Greek: ) (ca. 410 BC – 362 BC) or Epameinondas was a Theban general and statesman of the 4th century BC who transformed the Ancient Greek city-state of Thebes, leading it out of Spartan subjugation into a preeminent position in Greek politics. In the process he broke Spartan military power with his victory at Leuctra and liberated the Messenian helots, a group of Peloponnesian Greeks who had been enslaved under Spartan rule for some 230 years, having been defeated in the Messenian War ending in 600 BC. Epaminondas reshaped the political map of Greece, fragmented old alliances, created new ones, and supervised the construction of entire cities. He was militarily influential as well, inventing and implementing several major battlefield tactics.
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Epicurus
http://wn.com/Epicurus -
Euclid
http://wn.com/Euclid -
Euripides
http://wn.com/Euripides -
Galatia
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http://wn.com/Galatia -
Gorgias
Gorgias (, ca. 485-c.380 BCE) "the Nihilist", Greek sophist, pre-socratic philosopher and rhetorician, was a native of Leontini in Sicily. Along with Protagoras, he forms the first generation of Sophists. Several doxographers report that he was a pupil of Empedocles, although he would only have been a few years younger. "Like other Sophists he was an itinerant, practicing in various cities and giving public exhibitions of his skill at the great pan-Hellenic centers of Olympia and Delphi, and charged fees for his instruction and performances. A special feature of his displays was to invite miscellaneous questions from the audience and give impromptu replies."
http://wn.com/Gorgias -
Hayasa-Azzi
http://wn.com/Hayasa-Azzi -
Hecataeus of Miletus
Hecataeus of Miletus (c. 550–c. 476 BC), named after the Greek goddess Hecate, was an early Greek historian of a wealthy family. He flourished during the time of the Persian invasion. After having travelled extensively, he settled in his native city, where he occupied a high position, and devoted his time to the composition of geographical and historical works. When Aristagoras held a council of the leading Ionians at Miletus to organize a revolt against the Persian rule, Hecataeus in vain tried to dissuade his countrymen from the undertaking. In 494 BC, when the defeated Ionians were obliged to sue for terms, he was one of the ambassadors to the Persian satrap Artaphernes, whom he persuaded to restore the constitution of the Ionic cities. Hecataeus is the first known Greek historian, and was one of the first classical writers to mention the Celtic people.
http://wn.com/Hecataeus_of_Miletus -
Heraclitus
Heraclitus of Ephesus (Ancient Greek: — ; c. 535–c. 475 BCE) was a pre-Socratic Greek philosopher, a native of the Greek city Ephesus, Ionia, on the coast of Asia Minor. He was of distinguished parentage. Little is known about his early life and education, but he regarded himself as self-taught and a pioneer of wisdom. From the lonely life he led, and still more from the riddling nature of his philosophy and his contempt for humankind in general, he was called "The Obscure," and the "Weeping Philosopher."
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Herodotus
http://wn.com/Herodotus -
Hesiod
http://wn.com/Hesiod -
Hesychius of Miletus
Hesychius of Miletus, Greek chronicler and biographer, surnamed Illustrius, son of an advocate, flourished at Constantinople in the 6th century AD during the reign of Justinian.
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Hipparchus
http://wn.com/Hipparchus -
Hippocrates
http://wn.com/Hippocrates -
Hipponax
Hipponax of Ephesus was an Ancient Greek iambic poet.
http://wn.com/Hipponax -
Hittites
The "Hittites" were an ancient Anatolian people who spoke a language of the Anatolian branch of the Indo-European language family and established a kingdom centered at Hattusa (Hittite ) in north-central Anatolia (on the Central Anatolian plateau) ca. the 18th century BC. The Hittite empire reached its height ca. the 14th century BC, encompassing a large part of Anatolia, north-western Syria about as far south as the mouth of the Litani River (a territory known as Amqu), and eastward into upper Mesopotamia. After ca. 1180 BC, the empire disintegrated into several independent "Neo-Hittite" city-states, some surviving until as late as the 8th century BC.
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Homer
http://wn.com/Homer -
Hypatia
http://wn.com/Hypatia -
Ibycus
Ibycus (Ancient Greek: ) (6th century BC), was an Ancient Greek lyric poet. He was included in the canonical list of nine lyric poets by the scholars of Hellenistic Alexandria. The extant fragments of his work contain the earliest-known example of the triadic choral lyric and epinician poetry.
http://wn.com/Ibycus -
Ionians
http://wn.com/Ionians -
Isidore of Miletus
http://wn.com/Isidore_of_Miletus -
Kaskians
http://wn.com/Kaskians -
Kupanta-Kurunta
Kupanta-Kurunta was the first recorded king of Arzawa, in the late 15th century BC. He was defeated by an earlier Tudhaliya and his son, the future Arnuwanda I. He then attacked Arnuwanda's restive vassal Madduwatta at Zippasla. He had a daughter, who married Madduwatta.
http://wn.com/Kupanta-Kurunta -
Leonidas I
http://wn.com/Leonidas_I -
Leucippus
http://wn.com/Leucippus -
Lukka lands
The Lukka lands are often mentioned in Hittite texts from the second millennium BC. It denotes a region in the southwestern part of Anatolia. The Lukka lands were never put under permanent Hittite control and were viewed as hostile by the Hittites.
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Lycurgus of Sparta
http://wn.com/Lycurgus_of_Sparta -
Lydia
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Lydian Empire
http://wn.com/Lydian_Empire -
Lysander
http://wn.com/Lysander -
Medes
http://wn.com/Medes -
Milo of Croton
http://wn.com/Milo_of_Croton -
Mursili II
http://wn.com/Mursili_II -
Ottoman Empire
http://wn.com/Ottoman_Empire -
Ottomans
http://wn.com/Ottomans -
Parmenides
Parmenides of Elea (Greek: ; fl. early 5th century BCE) was an ancient Greek philosopher born in Elea, a Greek city on the southern coast of Italy. He was the founder of the Eleatic school of philosophy. The single known work of Parmenides is a poem which has survived only in fragmentary form. In this poem, Parmenides describes two views of reality. In The Way of Truth (a part of the poem), he explains how reality is one, change is impossible, and existence is timeless, uniform, and unchanging. In The Way of Opinion, he explains the world of appearances, which is false and deceitful. These thoughts strongly influenced Plato, and through him, the whole of Western philosophy.
http://wn.com/Parmenides -
Paul of Tarsus
http://wn.com/Paul_of_Tarsus -
Paul the Apostle
http://wn.com/Paul_the_Apostle -
Pausanias (general)
http://wn.com/Pausanias_(general) -
Periander
Periander () was the second tyrant of Corinth, Greece in the 7th century BC. He was the son of the first tyrant, Cypselus. Periander succeeded his father in 627 BC.
http://wn.com/Periander -
Pericles
http://wn.com/Pericles -
Philip II of Macedon
http://wn.com/Philip_II_of_Macedon -
Pindar
http://wn.com/Pindar -
Plato
:For other uses, see Plato (disambiguation) and Platon (disambiguation).
http://wn.com/Plato -
Pliny the Elder
http://wn.com/Pliny_the_Elder -
Plutarch
http://wn.com/Plutarch -
Polybius
http://wn.com/Polybius -
Polycrates
Polycrates (), son of Aeaces, was the tyrant of Samos from c. 538 BC to 522 BC.
http://wn.com/Polycrates -
Protagoras
Protagoras (Greek: ) (ca. 490– 420 BC) was a pre-Socratic Greek philosopher and is numbered as one of the sophists by Plato. In his dialogue Protagoras, Plato credits him with having invented the role of the professional sophist or teacher of virtue. He is also believed to have created a major controversy during ancient times through his statement that man is the measure of all things. This idea was very revolutionary for the time and contrasting to other philosophical doctrines that claimed the universe was based on something objective, outside the human influence.
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Ptolemy
http://wn.com/Ptolemy -
Pyrrhus of Epirus
Pyrrhus or Pyrrhos (, Pyrros; 319-272 BC) was a Greek general of the Hellenistic era. He was king of the Greek tribe of Molossians, of the royal Aeacid house (from ca. 297 BC), and later he became King of Epirus (306-302, 297-272 BC) and Macedon (288-284, 273-272 BC). He was one of the strongest opponents of early Rome. Some of his battles, though successful, cost him heavy losses, from which the term "Pyrrhic victory" was coined. He is the subject of one of Plutarch's Parallel Lives.
http://wn.com/Pyrrhus_of_Epirus -
Pythagoras
Pythagoras of Samos (, O Pythagoras o Samios, "Pythagoras the Samian", or simply ; c. 570-c. 495 BC) was an Ionian Greek philosopher and founder of the religious movement called Pythagoreanism. Most of our information about Pythagoras was written down centuries after he lived, thus very little reliable information is known about him. He was born on the island of Samos, and may have travelled widely in his youth, visiting Egypt and other places seeking knowledge. Around 530 BC, he moved to Croton, a Greek colony in southern Italy, and there set up a religious sect. His followers pursued the religious rites and practices developed by Pythagoras, and studied his philosophical theories. The society took an active role in the politics of Croton, but this eventually led to their downfall. The Pythagorean meeting-places were burned, and Pythagoras was forced to flee the city. He is said to have ended his days in Metapontum.
http://wn.com/Pythagoras -
Sappho
Sappho ( in English; Attic Greek ' , Aeolic Greek ' ) was an Ancient Greek poet, born on the island of Lesbos. Later Greeks included her in the list of nine lyric poets. Her birth was sometime between 630 and 612 BC, and it is said that she died around 570 BC, but little is known for certain about her life. The bulk of her poetry, which was well-known and greatly admired throughout antiquity, has been lost, but her immense reputation has endured through surviving fragments.
http://wn.com/Sappho -
Sea Peoples
The Sea Peoples is the term used for a confederacy of seafaring raiders of the second millennium BC who sailed into the eastern Mediterranean, caused political unrest, and attempted to enter or control Egyptian territory during the late 19th dynasty and especially during Year 8 of Ramesses III of the 20th Dynasty. The Egyptian Pharaoh Merneptah explicitly refers to them by the term "the foreign-countries (or 'peoples'As noted by Gardiner V.1 p.196, other texts have N25:X1*Z4 "foreign-peoples"; both terms can refer to the concept of "foreigners" as well. Zangger in the external link below expresses a commonly held view that "sea peoples" does not translate this and other expressions but is an academic innovation. The Woudhuizen dissertation and the Morris paper identify Gaston Maspero as the first to use the term "peuples de la mer" in 1881.) of the sea" (Egyptian ) in his Great Karnak Inscription. Although some scholars believe that they invaded Cyprus, Hatti and the Levant, this hypothesis is disputed.
http://wn.com/Sea_Peoples -
Seljuk Turks
http://wn.com/Seljuk_Turks -
Simonides of Ceos
http://wn.com/Simonides_of_Ceos -
Socrates
http://wn.com/Socrates -
Solon
Solon (ancient Greek: , c. 638 BC–558 BC) was an Athenian statesman, lawmaker, and poet. He is remembered particularly for his efforts to legislate against political, economic and moral decline in archaic Athens. His reforms failed in the short term yet he is often credited with having laid the foundations for Athenian democracy.
http://wn.com/Solon -
Sophocles
http://wn.com/Sophocles -
Stesichorus
Stesichorus (Ancient Greek: , circa 640 - 555 BC) was the first great poet of the Greek West. He is best known for telling epic stories in lyric metres but he is also famous for some ancient traditions about his life, such as his opposition to the tyrant Phalaris, and the blindness he is said to have incurred and cured by composing verses first insulting and then flattering to Helen of Troy. He was ranked among the nine lyric poets esteemed by the scholars of Hellenistic Alexandria and yet his work attracted relatively little interest among ancient commentators, which in turn left a disproportionate number of gaps in the modern record as one scholar observed in 1967: "Time has dealt more harshly with Stesichorus than with any other major lyric poet." Recent discoveries, recorded on Egyptian papyrus (notably and controversially, the Lille papyrus, in 1974), have enhanced modern understanding of his work, confirming his role as a link between Homer's epic narrative and the lyric narrative of poets like Pindar.
http://wn.com/Stesichorus -
Strabo
http://wn.com/Strabo -
Thales
http://wn.com/Thales -
Thales of Miletus
http://wn.com/Thales_of_Miletus -
Themistocles
Themistocles (Greek: ; "Glory of the Law"); c. 524–459 BC, was an Athenian politician and general. He was one of a new breed of politicians who rose to prominence in the early years of the Athenian democracy, along with his great rival Aristides. As a politician, Themistocles was a populist, having the support of lower class Athenians, and generally being at odds with the Athenian nobility. Elected archon in 493 BC, he took steps to increase the naval power of Athens, which would be a recurring theme in his political career. During the first Persian invasion of Greece, he fought at the Battle of Marathon, and was possibly one of the 10 Athenian strategoi (generals) in that battle.
http://wn.com/Themistocles -
Theodor Wiegand
Theodor Wiegand (October 30, 1864 – December 19, 1936) was one of the most famous German archaeologists.
http://wn.com/Theodor_Wiegand -
Thrasybulus (tyrant)
:This article is about the tyrant of Miletus. For the Athenian general, see Thrasybulus.
http://wn.com/Thrasybulus_(tyrant) -
Thucydides
http://wn.com/Thucydides -
Timocreon
Timocreon, of Ialysus in Rhodes, was a Greek lyric poet who flourished about 480 BC.
http://wn.com/Timocreon -
Trojan War
In Greek mythology, the Trojan War was waged against the city of Troy by the Achaeans (Greeks) after Paris of Troy took Helen from her husband Menelaus, the king of Sparta. The war is among the most important events in Greek mythology and was narrated in many works of Greek literature, including the Iliad and the Odyssey by Homer. "The Iliad" relates a part of the last year of the siege of Troy, while the Odyssey describes the journey home of Odysseus, one of the Achaean leaders. Other parts of the war were told in a cycle of epic poems, which has only survived in fragments. Episodes from the war provided material for Greek tragedy and other works of Greek literature, and for Roman poets like Virgil and Ovid.
http://wn.com/Trojan_War -
Trophimus
:For the 3rd century martyr of Asia Minor, see Trophimus, Sabbatius, and Dorymedon.
http://wn.com/Trophimus -
Uhha-Ziti
Uhha-Ziti was the last independent king of Arzawa, a Bronze Age kingdom of western Anatolia.
http://wn.com/Uhha-Ziti -
Xenophon
http://wn.com/Xenophon -
Zeno of Citium
http://wn.com/Zeno_of_Citium
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Miletus, Turkey
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:42
- Published: 26 Jun 2010
- Updated: 22 Feb 2012
Ancient greek city located on the western coast of Turkey.
http://wn.com/Miletus,_Turkey
Caesar 3 Walkthrough: Miletus (Part 1)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 9:56
- Published: 20 Jun 2010
- Updated: 03 Feb 2012
treeki.shacknet.nu
http://wn.com/Caesar_3_Walkthrough_Miletus_Part_1
Thales of Miletus one of the Seven Sages
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:54
- Published: 08 Nov 2009
- Updated: 10 Jul 2012
Thales of Miletus (Θαλής,Thales,Thalês (pronounced /ˈθeɪliːz/ or "THEH-leez") , ca. 624 BCca. 546 BC), was a pre-Socratic Greek philosopher from Miletus in Asia Minor, and one of the Seven Sages of Greece. Many, most notably Aristotle, regard him as the first philosopher in the Greek tradition. According to Bertrand Russell, "Western philosophy begins with Thales Thales was known for his innovative use of geometry. His understanding was theoretical as well as practical. For example, he said: Megiston topos: hapanta gar chorei (Μέγιστον τόπος· άπαντα γαρ χωρεί) Space is the greatest thing, as it contains all things Topos is in Newtonian-style space, since the verb, chorei, has the connotation of yielding before things, or spreading out to make room for them, which is extension [disambiguation needed]. Within this extension, things have a position. Points, lines, planes and solids related by distances and angles follow from this presumption. Thales understood similar triangles and right triangles, and what is more, used that knowledge in practical ways. The story is told in DL (loc. cit.) that he measured the height of the pyramids by their shadows at the moment when his own shadow was equal to his height. A right triangle with two equal legs is a 45-degree right triangle, all of which are similar. The length of the pyramids shadow measured from the center of the pyramid at that moment must have been equal to its height. This story reveals that he was familiar with the <b>...</b>
http://wn.com/Thales_of_Miletus_one_of_the_Seven_Sages
Ancient Greek Philosophers - Thales of Miletus
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:54
- Published: 27 Jul 2010
- Updated: 23 Aug 2012
Episode 1 in the Ancient Greek Philosophers Series. It is about the first recorded philosopher in Greece called Thales. For the very reason that he is the first known philosopher, he is of vital importance. This video describes his discoveries, philosophical beliefs and everything known about him. Examination of the belief that water is the essence of life and everything will come later in a video regarding the Milesian school of thought. (PS I'm afraid I pronunciate Thales wrong in the video. should be pronounciated 'Thalis')
http://wn.com/Ancient_Greek_Philosophers_Thales_of_Miletus
Lets Play Caesar III - 12 - Miletus
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 17:52
- Published: 08 Jan 2012
- Updated: 30 Jul 2012
Check out this video if you haven't already: www.youtube.com ------------- Stay tuned by following me on Twitter and on Facebook, as well subscribing! Subscribe! www.youtube.com Facebook: on.fb.me Twitter: bit.ly
http://wn.com/Lets_Play_Caesar_III_12_Miletus
Miletus Turkey
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:38
- Published: 02 Dec 2008
- Updated: 01 Jun 2012
Archaeological site
http://wn.com/Miletus_Turkey
Ancient Greek Philosophers - Thales of Miletus
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:21
- Published: 04 Oct 2010
- Updated: 17 Nov 2011
Episode 1 in the Ancient Greek Philosophers Series. It is about the first recorded philosopher in Greece called Thales. For the very reason that he is the first known philosopher, he is of vital importance. This video describes his discoveries, philosophical beliefs and everything known about him. Examination of the belief that water is the essence of life and everything will come later in a video regarding the Milesian school of thought. (PS I'm afraid I pronunciate Thales wrong in the video. should be pronounciated 'Theleeze')
http://wn.com/Ancient_Greek_Philosophers_Thales_of_Miletus
Caesar 3 Walkthrough: Miletus (Part 2)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:33
- Published: 20 Jun 2010
- Updated: 25 Nov 2011
treeki.shacknet.nu
http://wn.com/Caesar_3_Walkthrough_Miletus_Part_2
Miletus, Turkey
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:01
- Published: 28 Jun 2010
- Updated: 30 Jan 2011
Please note- The earliest archaeological evidence of Miletus is 3500 BC. The Greeks occupied the city in 1400 BC. The city was destroyed by the Persians in 499 BC and rebuilt by the Romans. The theatre was built in the 4th century BC.
http://wn.com/Miletus,_Turkey
Reading Philosophy: Thales of Miletus
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 14:14
- Published: 29 Jun 2012
- Updated: 08 Aug 2012
"The first philosopher." Follow me on Twitter: twitter.com
http://wn.com/Reading_Philosophy_Thales_of_Miletus
Caesar 3 PC Game City of Miletus
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:09
- Published: 01 Sep 2009
- Updated: 20 Apr 2012
My city of Miletus from the PC game Caesar III.
http://wn.com/Caesar_3_PC_Game_City_of_Miletus
Ephesus Miletus Priene Halicarnassus Didyma
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:59
- Published: 23 Nov 2006
- Updated: 10 Mar 2012
www.aboutturkey.com Ephesus Turkey
http://wn.com/Ephesus_Miletus_Priene_Halicarnassus_Didyma
Caesar 3 - Mission 5a Miletus Peaceful Playthrough
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 27:43
- Published: 11 Mar 2012
- Updated: 18 Aug 2012
Play time: 2h:6m Ok I really tried to cut this video shorter but it's getting hard to do. I think I will change the max length of my C3 missions to 25 minutes, at most 30 minutes. I've decided to finish games I never managed to from my childhood! Starting with Caesar III, a 1998 city-building game developed by Impressions Games and published by Sierra Entertainment, that has incredibly tough later levels. All missions will be cut shorter; I'm not trying to upload as many videos as I can. Don't like my playthrough? Check out: Rider339: www.youtube.com HomerSPC: www.youtube.com Twitter: twitter.com Facebook: www.facebook.com Bought from gog.com so it runs on Windows 7 64bit www.gog.com
http://wn.com/Caesar_3_Mission_5a_Miletus_Peaceful_Playthrough
Lets Play Caesar III - 26 - Farewell Miletus, Lugdunum Here We Go
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 38:51
- Published: 07 Feb 2012
- Updated: 24 Aug 2012
Title named by: www.youtube.com Again, you guys can name the video! This is the last in my backlog, but hopefully I'll be back making videos again soon. I want to try to make a video detailing everything soon, and I also have very big news. It'll probably all be in one super awesome mega video. Stay tuned, and thank you guys for staying with me through the past 2 weeks. ♥ ------------- Stay tuned by following me on Twitter and on Facebook, as well subscribing! Subscribe! www.youtube.com Facebook: on.fb.me Twitter: bit.ly
http://wn.com/Lets_Play_Caesar_III_26_Farewell_Miletus,_Lugdunum_Here_We_Go
Maxis Marble Drop Game: 1 Thales of Miletus
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 0:49
- Published: 26 Jul 2009
- Updated: 16 Jul 2012
Maxis Marble Drop Game: 1 Thales of Miletus Pattern: Funnel # - Marble color Solution: 1 - Yellow 1 - Red 1 - Red 1 - Red 1 - Yellow 1 - Red 2 - Yellow 2 - Blue 2 - Blue 2 - Blue 2 - Yellow 2 - Blue Score: 11590 Marble Drop FAQ v1.4 By Derek Kisman www.gamefaqs.com...
http://wn.com/Maxis_Marble_Drop_Game_1_Thales_of_Miletus
Miletus, Didyma, Aphrodisias
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 8:15
- Published: 21 Jan 2010
- Updated: 12 Apr 2012
Tuesday, January 5: Today we visit Miletus, Didyma (Temple of Apollo), and Aphrodisias.
http://wn.com/Miletus,_Didyma,_Aphrodisias
Miletus Market Gate Pergamon Museum Berlin
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:15
- Published: 27 Aug 2010
- Updated: 09 Aug 2011
This is the reconstructed market gate from the Graeco-Roman city of Miletus in Asia Minor (south-west Turkey) as displayed in the Pergamon Museum, Berlin. It dates to the mid-second century AD.
http://wn.com/Miletus_Market_Gate_Pergamon_Museum_Berlin
About Thales Of Miletus
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:43
- Published: 22 Mar 2011
- Updated: 15 Jun 2012
Lets Play Caesar III - 13 - I Fail Horribly (Miletus Redux)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 20:59
- Published: 09 Jan 2012
- Updated: 30 Jul 2012
I fail. ------------- Stay tuned by following me on Twitter and on Facebook, as well subscribing! Subscribe! www.youtube.com Facebook: on.fb.me Twitter: bit.ly
http://wn.com/Lets_Play_Caesar_III_13_I_Fail_Horribly_Miletus_Redux
Turkey - Miletus - Travel Video
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:47
- Published: 11 Nov 2011
- Updated: 23 Jan 2012
Miletus was once on the coast, but the river silted up it's harbor. It was first occupied in 1400 BC by the Minoans. Alexander the Great seized Miletus in 334BC. You can do a one day tour of Miletus, Pirene and Didyma from Selcuk. This is a great way to spend a day and explore some fantastic ruins without a crowd. Music by Kevin MacLeod To see other images of Turkey go to http:WilsonStockPhotos.com and search by key word.
http://wn.com/Turkey_Miletus_Travel_Video
Roman Theater Miletus, Turkey
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:13
- Published: 05 Jun 2011
- Updated: 26 Jul 2012
Created on June 5, 2011 using FlipShare. The song "Icarus" by Marina V may not be exactly right lyrically for Miletus, but consider these factors: 1. We had been in Athens the day before. 2. Our Turkish guide's grandparents were from Crete. 3. We were heading to Crete the next day to visit the home town of my wife's grandfather who left Crete 100 years ago as a teenager to immigrate to America, and based on how most families seem to work, probably against the well-intentioned but overly dire warnings from family about heading off into the dangers of the great unknown. 4.Miletus was first occupied in 1400 BC by the Minoans from Crete, was one of the 12 great cities of Ionia and was mentioned by Homer in the Illiad. That's all Greek to me. 5. We were in the midst of an amazing vacation which left me feeling very much like I was floating through time and space. Now, note the locales in the Greek myth, lifted from the sometimes unreliable but generally pretty close on better known topics, Wikipedia: Icarus's father, Daedalus, a talented and remarkable Athenian craftsman, attempted to escape from his exile in the palace of Knossos, Crete, where he and his son were imprisoned at the hands of King Minos, the king for whom he had built the Labyrinth to imprison the Minotaur (half man, half bull). Daedalus, the superior craftsman, was exiled because he gave Minos' daughter, Ariadne, a clew (or ball of string) in order to help Theseus, the enemy of Minos, survive the Labyrinth and <b>...</b>
http://wn.com/Roman_Theater_Miletus,_Turkey
miletus preshow
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:57
- Published: 04 Mar 2011
- Updated: 23 Mar 2012
thales van miletus
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:13
- Published: 09 May 2008
- Updated: 10 Sep 2011
Thales meet de pyramiden
http://wn.com/thales_van_miletus
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14 Sep 2012
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This article is about the ancient city of Anatolia. For other uses, see Miletus (disambiguation).
| Miletus Μίλητος |
|
|---|---|
| — Ancient Polis — | |
| Turkish transcription(s) | |
| • Modern name | Milet |
| Hittite transcription(s) | |
| • Exonym | Millawanda |
| • Exonym | Milawata |
 
 Miletus
|
|
| Country | Turkey |
| Region | Ionia |
| Founder | Neleus |
Miletus (mī lē' təs) (Ancient Greek: Μίλητος, Milētos; Latin: Miletus) was an ancient Greek city[1] on the western coast of Anatolia (in what is now Aydin Province, Turkey), near the mouth of the Maeander River in ancient Caria. Before the Persian invasion in the middle of the 6th century BC, Miletus was considered the greatest and wealthiest of Greek cities.[2][3]
Evidence of first settlement at the site has been made inaccessible by the rise of sea level and deposition of sediments from the Maeander. The first available evidence is of the Neolithic. In the early and middle Bronze age the settlement came under Minoan influence. Legend has it that an influx of Cretans occurred displacing the indigenous Leleges. The site was renamed Miletus after a place in Crete.
The Late Bronze Age, 13th century BCE, saw the arrival of Luwian language speakers from south central Anatolia calling themselves the Carians. Later in that century the first Greeks arrived. The city at that time rebelled against the Hittite Empire. After the fall of that empire the city was destroyed in the 12th century BCE and starting about 1000 BCE was resettled extensively by the Ionian Greeks. Legend offers an Ionian foundation event sponsored by a founder named Neleus from the Peloponnesus.
The Greek Dark Ages were a time of Ionian settlement and consolidation in an alliance called the Ionian League. The Archaic Period of Greece began with a sudden and brilliant flash of art and philosophy on the coast of Anatolia. In the 6th century BC, Miletus was the site of origin of the Greek philosophical (and scientific) tradition, when Thales, followed by Anaximander and Anaximenes (known collectively, to modern scholars, as the Milesian School) began to speculate about the material constitution of the world, and to propose speculative naturalistic (as opposed to traditional, supernatural) explanations for various natural phenomena.
A thousand years after birthing Western philosophy and science, Miletus served as birthplace of Hagia Sophia's legendary architect (and inventor of the flying buttress) Isidore of Miletus.
Contents |
Geography[link]
The ruins appear on satellite maps at 37°31.8'N 27°16.7'E, about 3 km north of Balat and about 3 km E of Batiköy in Aydın Province, Turkey.
In antiquity the city possessed a harbor at the southern entry of a large bay, on which two more of the traditional twelve Ionian cities stood: Priene and Myus. The harbor of Miletus was additionally protected by the nearby small island of Lade. Over the centuries the gulf silted up with alluvium carried by the Meander River. Priene and Myus had lost their harbors by the Roman era, and Miletus itself became an inland town in the early Christian era; all three were abandoned to ruin as their economies were strangled by the lack of access to the sea. There is a Great Harbour Monument where, according to the New Testament account, the apostle Paul stopped on his way back to Jerusalem by boat. He met the Ephesian Elders and then headed out to the beach to bid them farewell, recorded in the book of Acts 20:17-38.
Geology[link]
During the Pleistocene epoch the Miletus region was submerged in the Aegean Sea. It subsequently emerged slowly, the sea reaching a low level of about 130 meters (430 ft) below present level at about 18,000 BP. The site of Miletus was part of the mainland.
A gradual rise brought a level of about 1.75 meters (5 ft 9 in) below present at about 5500 BP, creating several karst block islands of limestone, the location of the first settlements at Miletus. At about 1500 BCE the karst shifted due to small crustal movements and the islands consolidated into a peninsula. Since then the sea has risen 1.75 m but the peninsula has been surrounded by sediment from the Maeander river and is now land-locked. Sedimentation of the harbor began at about 1000 BCE, and by 300 CE Lake Bafa had been created.[4]
History[link]
Neolithic[link]
The earliest available archaeological evidence indicates that the islands on which Miletus was originally placed were inhabited by a Neolithic population in the 2nd half of the 4th millennium BCE (3500–3000 BCE).[5] Pollen in core samples from Lake Bafa in the Latmus region inland of Miletus suggests that a lightly grazed climax forest prevailed in the Maeander valley, otherwise untenanted. Sparse Neolithic settlements were made at springs, numerous and sometimes geothermal in this karst, rift valley topography. The islands offshore were settled perhaps for their strategic significance at the mouth of the Maeander, a route inland protected by escarpments. The grazers in the valley may have belonged to them, but the location looked to the sea.
Bronze Age[link]
Recorded history at Miletus begins with the records of the Hittite Empire in the Late Bronze Age. The prehistoric archaeology of the Early and Middle Bronze Age portrays a city heavily influenced by society and events elsewhere in the Aegean, rather than inland.
Cretan period[link]
Beginning at about 1900 BCE artifacts of the Minoan civilization acquired by trade arrived at Miletus.[5] For some centuries the location received a strong impulse from that civilization, an archaeological fact that tends to support but not necessarily confirm the founding legend—that is, a population influx, from Crete. According to Strabo:[6]
Ephorus says: Miletus was first founded and fortified above the sea by Cretans, where the Miletus of olden times is now situated, being settled by Sarpedon, who brought colonists from the Cretan Miletus and named the city after that Miletus, the place formerly being in possession of the Leleges.
The legends recounted as history by the ancient historians and geographers are perhaps the strongest; the late mythographers have nothing historically significant to relate.[7]
Luwian and Greek period[link]
Miletus is first mentioned in the Hittite Annals of Mursili II as Millawanda. In ca. 1320 BC, Millawanda supported the rebellion of Uhha-Ziti of Arzawa. Mursili ordered his generals Mala-Ziti and Gulla to raid Millawanda, and they proceeded to burn parts of it; damage from LHIIIA found on-site has been associated with this raid.[8] In addition the town was fortified according to a Hittite plan.[9]
Millawanda is then mentioned in the "Tawagalawa letter", part of a series including the Manapa-Tarhunta letter and the Milawata letter, all of which are less securely dated. The Tawagalawa letter notes that Milawata had a governor, Atpa, who was under the jurisdiction of "Ahhiyawa" (a growing state probably in LHIIIB Mycenaean Greece); and that the town of Atriya was under Milesian jurisdiction. The Manapa-Tarhunta letter also mentions Atpa. Together the two letters tell that the adventurer Piyama-Radu had humiliated Manapa-Tarhunta before Atpa (in addition to other misadventures); a Hittite king then chased Piyama-Radu into Millawanda and, in the Tawagalawa letter, requested Piyama-Radu's extradition to Hatti.
The Milawata letter mentions a joint expedition by the Hittite king and a Luwiyan vassal (probably Kupanta-Kurunta of Mira) against Milawata (apparently its new name), and notes that Milawata (and Atriya) were now under Hittite control.
Homer records that during the time of the Trojan War, it was a Carian city.[10]
In the last stage of LHIIIB, the citadel of bronze age Pylos counted among its female slaves a mi-ra-ti-ja, Mycenaean Greek for "women from Miletus", written in Linear B syllabic script.[11]
During the collapse of Bronze Age civilisation, Miletus was burnt again, presumably by the Sea Peoples.
Dark Age[link]
Mythographers told that Neleus, a son of Codrus the last King of Athens, had come to Miletus after the "Return of the Heraclids" (so, during the Greek Dark Ages). The Ionians killed the men of Miletus and married their widows. This is the mythical commencement of the enduring alliance between Athens and Miletus, which played an important role in the subsequent Persian Wars.
Archaic period[link]
The city of Miletus became one of the twelve Ionian cities of Asia Minor.
Miletus was one of the cities involved in the Lelantine War of the 8th century BCE.
In the late 7th century BCE the tyrant Thrasybulus preserved the independence of Miletus during a 12 year war fought against the Lydian Empire.[12] Thrasybulus was an ally of the famous Corinthian tyrant Periander.
Miletus was an important center of philosophy and science, producing such men as Thales, Anaximander and Anaximenes.
By the 6th century BCE, Miletus had earned a maritime empire with many colonies, but brushed up against powerful Lydia at home, and the tyrant Polycrates of its neighbour to the west, Samos.
When Cyrus of Persia defeated Croesus of Lydia in the middle of the 6th century BCE, Miletus fell under Persian rule. In 499 BC, Miletus's tyrant Aristagoras became the leader of the Ionian Revolt against the Persians. Persia quashed this rebellion and punished Miletus in such a fashion that the whole of Greece mourned it. A year afterward, Phrynicus produced the tragedy The Capture of Miletus in Athens. The Athenians fined him for reminding them of their loss.
Classical period[link]
Its gridlike layout became the basic layout for Roman cities.
In 479 BC, the Greeks decisively defeated the Persians at the Greek mainland, and Miletus was freed of Persian rule. During this time several other cities were formed by Milesian settlers, spanning across what is now Turkey and even as far as Crimea.
The eponymous founder of the bawdy Miletian school of literature Aristides of Miletus taught here.
Alexandrian period[link]
In 334 BC, the city was liberated from Persian rule by Alexander the Great.
Roman period[link]
The New Testament mentions Miletus as the site where the Apostle Paul in 57 CE met with the elders of the church of Ephesus near the close of his Third Missionary Journey, as recorded in Acts of the Apostles (Acts 20:15–38). It is believed that Paul stopped by the Great Harbour Monument and sat on its steps. He may have met the Ephesian elders there and then bid them farewell on the nearby beach. Miletus is also the city where Paul left Trophimus, one of his travelling companions, to recover from an illness (2 Timothy 4:20). Because this cannot be the same visit as Acts 20 (in which Trophimus accompanied Paul all the way to Jerusalem, according to Acts 21:29), Paul must have made at least one additional visit to Miletus, perhaps as late as 65 or 66 CE. Paul's previous successful three-year ministry in nearby Ephesus resulted in the evangelization of the entire province of Asia (see Acts 19:10, 20; 1 Corinthians 16:9). It is safe to assume that at least by the time of the apostle's second visit to Miletus, a fledgling Christian community was established in Miletus.
Byzantine period[link]
During the Byzantine age Miletus became a residence for archbishops. The small Byzantine castle called Castro Palation located on the hill beside the city, was built at this time. From Miletus came the famous merchant family of Mauros, one of their members became judge of the Hippodrome of Constantinople. Miletus was headed by a curator.[13][14]
Turkish rule[link]
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Seljuk Turks conquered the city in the 14th century AD and used Miletus as a port to trade with Venice.
Finally, Ottomans utilized the city as a harbour during their rule in Anatolia. As the harbour became silted up, the city was abandoned. Today the ruins of city lie some Template:10 from the sea.
The Ilyas Bey Complex from 1403 with its mosque is an Europa Nostra awarded cultural heritage of Turkey in Miletus.
Archaeological excavations[link]
The first excavations in Miletus were conducted by the French archaeologist Olivier Rayet in 1873, followed by the German archaeologists Julius Hülsen [ Theodor Wiegand.[15][16][17] between 1899 and 1931. Excavations, however, were interrupted several times by wars and various other events. Carl Weickart excavated for a short season in 1938 and again between 1955 and 1957.[18][19][20] He was followed by Gerhard Kleiner and then by Wolfgang Muller-Wiener. Today, excavations are organized by the Ruhr University of Bochum, Germany.
One remarkable artifact recovered from the city during the first excavations of the 19th century, the Market Gate of Miletus, was transported piece by piece to Germany and reassembled. It is currently exhibited at the Pergamon museum in Berlin. The main collection of artifacts resides in the Miletus Museum in Didim, Aydın, serving since 1973.
Colonies of Miletus[link]
Miletus became known for the great number of colonies she founded. She was considered the greater Greek metropolis and she has founded more colonies than any other Greek city.[21] Pliny the Elder mentions 90 colonies founded by Miletus in his Natural History (5.31), among them:
- Amisos
- Apolonia
- Dioscurias
- Histria
- Odessos
- Olbia
- Panticapaeum
- Phanagoria
- Phasis
- Pityus
- Sinope
- Tanais
- Theodosia
- Tomis
- Tyras
- Trapezunt
Notable people[link]
- Thales (c. 624 BC–c. 546 BC) Pre-Socratic philosopher
- Anaximander (c. 610 BC–c. 546 BC) Pre-Socratic philosopher
- Cadmus (c.550 ) writer
- Anaximenes (c. 585 BC–c. 525 BC) Pre-Socratic philosopher
- Hippodamus (c. 498—408 BC) urban planner
- Aspasia (c. 470–400 BC) courtesan, and mistress of Pericles, was born here
- Aristides, writer
- Hecataeus, historian
- Hesychius (6th century) Greek chronicler and biographer
- Isidore (4th–5th century) Greek architect
- Aristagoras (5th–6th century) Tyrant of Miletus
- Leucippus (first half of 5th century BC) Philosopher and originator of Atomism (his association with Miletus is traditional, but disputed)
See also[link]
References and sources[link]
- References
- ^ Urban world history: an economic and geographical perspective By Luc-Normand Tellier page79 “The neighboring Greek city of Miletus, located on the Menander river was another terminal of the same route; it exerted certain hegemony over the Black sea trade and created about fifty commercial entrepôts in the Aegean sea and Black sea region...”
- ^ A Short History of Greek Philosophy By John Marshall page 11 “For several centuries prior to the great Persian inversion of Greece, perhaps the very greatest and wealthiest city of the Greek world was Miletus”
- ^ Ancient Greek civilization By David Sansone page 79 “In the seventh and sixth centuries BC the city of Miletus was among the most prosperous and powerful of Greek poleis.”
- ^ Crouch (2004) page 180.
- ^ a b Crouch (2004) page 183.
- ^ Book 14 Section 1.6.
- ^ The late fantasy fiction of Antoninus Liberalis, Metamorphoses XXX 1–2 after Nicander, can be safely disregarded as being in any way history. His entertaining tales have the imaginary character named Miletus fleeing Crete to avoid being forced to become the eromenos of King Minos. He founds the city only after slaying a giant named Asterius, son of Anax, after whom the region known as Miletus was called 'Anactoria', "place of Anax." Anax in Greek means "the king" and Asterius is "starry."
- ^ Christopher Mee, Anatolia and the Aegean in the Late Bronze Age, p. 142
- ^ Mee, Anatolia and the Aegean, p. 139
- ^ Iliad, book II
- ^ Palaeolexicon, Word study tool of ancient languages
- ^ 'Miletos, the ornament of Ionia: history of the city to 400 BCE' by Vanessa B. Gorman (University of Michigan Press) 2001 - pg 123
- ^ The Byzantine aristocracy and its military function, Volume 859 of the Variorum collected studies series, Jean-Claude Cheynet, Ashgate Pub., 2006. ISBN 978-0-7546-5902-0
- ^ Studies in Byzantine Sigillography, Volume 10, Jean-Claude Cheynet, Claudia Sode, published by Walter de Gruyter, 2010. ISBN 978-3-11-022704-8
- ^ Olivier Rayet and Thomas, Milet Et Le Golfe Latmique, Fouilles Et Explorations Archeologiques Publ, 1877 (reprint Nabu Press 2010 ISBN 1-141-62992-5
- ^ Theodor Wiegand and Julius Hülsen [Das Nymphaeum von Milet, Museen zu Berlin 1919] and Kurt Krausem, Die Milesische Landschaft, Milet II, vol. 2, Schoetz, 1929
- ^ Theodor Wiegand et al., Der Latmos, Milet III, vol. 1, G. Reimer, 1913
- ^ Carl Weickert, Grabungen in Milet 1938, Bericht über den VI internationalen Kongress für Archäologie, pp. 325-332, 1940
- ^ Carl Weickert, Die Ausgrabung beim Athena-Tempel in Milet 1955, Istanbuler Mitteilungen, Deutsche Archaeologische Institut, vol. 7, pp.102-132, 1957
- ^ Carl Weickert, Neue Ausgrabungen in Milet, Neue deutsche Ausgrabungen im Mittelmeergebiet und im Vorderen Orient, pp. 181-96, 1959
- ^ Colony and Mother City in Ancient Greece By A. J. Graham page 98 “Judged by the number of its colonies Miletus was the greatest of the Greek mother cities. For though some of the more extravagance claims made in antiquate have not been substantiated by modern investigations, her colonies were by far more numerous than those of any other Greek cities.”
- Sources
- Crouch, Dora P. (2004). Geology and Settlement: Greco-Roman Patterns. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN [[Special:BookSources/0-19-508329-5|0-19-508329-5]].
External links[link]
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Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Miletus |
- Miletus Pictures
- Ausgrabungen in Milet official site of the excavations in Miletus by Ruhr-Universität Bochum
- Ancient Coins of Miletus
- Livius Picture Archive: Miletus
- A Small Desription About Miletus
- MA in Black Sea Cultural Studies. International Hellenic University-School of Humanities.
- The Theatre at Miletus, The Ancient Theatre Archive, Theatre specifications and virtual reality tour of theatre
"Miletus". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. 1913. - Virtual Tour at Ancient Miletus
Coordinates: 37°31′49″N 27°16′42″E / 37.5302°N 27.2784°E / 37.5302; 27.2784
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For other uses, see Thales (disambiguation).
 Thales |
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| Born | ca. 620–625 BC |
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| Died | ca. 547–546 BC |
| School | Ionian, Milesian school, Naturalism |
| Main interests | Ethics, Metaphysics, Mathematics, Astronomy |
| Notable ideas | Water is the physis, Thales' theorem, intercept theorem |
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Influenced by
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Influenced
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Thales of Miletus (
/ˈθeɪliːz/; Greek: Θαλῆς, Thalēs; c. 624 BC – c. 546 BC) was a pre-Socratic Greek philosopher from Miletus in Asia Minor, and one of the Seven Sages of Greece. Many, most notably Aristotle, regard him as the first philosopher in the Greek tradition.[1] According to Bertrand Russell, "Western philosophy begins with Thales."[2] Thales attempted to explain natural phenomena without reference to mythology and was tremendously influential in this respect. Almost all of the other pre-Socratic philosophers follow him in attempting to provide an explanation of ultimate substance, change, and the existence of the world—without reference to mythology. Those philosophers were also influential, and eventually Thales' rejection of mythological explanations became an essential idea for the scientific revolution. He was also the first to define general principles and set forth hypotheses, and as a result has been dubbed the "Father of Science", though it is argued that Democritus is actually more deserving of this title.[3][4]
In mathematics, Thales used geometry to solve problems such as calculating the height of pyramids and the distance of ships from the shore. He is credited with the first use of deductive reasoning applied to geometry, by deriving four corollaries to Thales' Theorem. As a result, he has been hailed as the first true mathematician and is the first known individual to whom a mathematical discovery has been attributed. Also, Thales was the first person known to have studied electricity.[5]
Contents |
Life[link]
Thales was born in the city of Miletus around the mid 620s BC. Miletus was an ancient Greek Ionian city on the western coast of Asia Minor (in what is today Aydin Province of Turkey), near the mouth of the Maeander River.
Background[link]
The dates of Thales' life are not known. However, the time of his life is roughly established by a few dateable events mentioned in the sources and an estimate of his length of life. According to Herodotus, Thales once predicted a solar eclipse which has been determined by modern methods to have been on May 28, 585 BC.[6] Diogenes Laërtius quotes the chronicle of Apollodorus of Athens as saying that Thales died at 78 in the 58th Olympiad (548–545), and Sosicrates as reporting that he was 90 at his death.
Diogenes Laertius states that ("according to Herodotus and Douris and Democritus") Thales' parents were Examyes and Cleobuline, both Phoenician nobles. Giving another opinion, he ultimately connects Thales' family line back to Phoenician prince Cadmus. Diogenes also reports two other stories, one that he married and had a son, Cybisthus or Cybisthon, or adopted his nephew of the same name. The second is that he never married, telling his mother as a young man that it was too early to marry, and as an older man that it was too late. A much earlier source - Plutarch - tells the following story: Solon who visited Thales asked him the reason which kept him single. Thales answered that he did not like the idea of having to worry about children. Nevertheless, several years later Thales, anxious for family, adopted his nephew Cybisthus.[7]
Thales involved himself in many activities, taking the role of an innovator. Some say that he left no writings, others that he wrote "On the Solstice" and "On the Equinox". Neither has survived. Diogenes Laërtius quotes letters of Thales to Pherecydes and Solon, offering to review the book of the former on religion, and offering to keep company with the latter on his sojourn from Athens. Thales identifies the Milesians as Athenians.[8]
Business[link]
Several anecdotes suggest that Thales was not solely a thinker but was also involved in business and politics. One story recounts that he bought all the olive presses in Miletus after predicting the weather and a good harvest for a particular year. In another version of the same story, Aristotle explains that Thales reserved presses ahead of time at a discount only to rent them out at a high price when demand peaked, following his predictions of a particular good harvest. Aristotle explains that Thales' objective in doing this was not to enrich himself but to prove his fellow Milesians that philosophy could be useful, contrary to what they thought.[9]
Politics[link]
Thales’ political life had mainly to do with the involvement of the Ionians in the defense of Anatolia against the growing power of the Persians, who were then new to the region. A king had come to power in neighboring Lydia, Croesus, who was somewhat too aggressive for the size of his army. He had conquered most of the states of coastal Anatolia, including the cities of the Ionians. The story is told in Herodotus.[10]
The Lydians were at war with the Medes, a remnant of the first wave of Iranians in the region, over the issue of refuge the Lydians had given to some Scythian soldiers of fortune inimical to the Medes. The war endured for five years, but in the sixth an eclipse of the Sun (mentioned above) spontaneously halted a battle in progress (the Battle of Halys).
It seems that Thales had predicted this solar eclipse. The Seven Sages were most likely already in existence, as Croesus was also heavily influenced by Solon of Athens, another sage. Whether Thales was present at the battle is not known, nor are the exact terms of the prediction, but based on it the Lydians and Medes made peace immediately, swearing a blood oath.
The Medes were dependencies of the Persians under Cyrus. Croesus now sided with the Medes against the Persians and marched in the direction of Iran (with far fewer men than he needed). He was stopped by the river Halys, then unbridged. This time he had Thales with him, perhaps by invitation. Whatever his status, the king gave the problem to him, and he got the army across by digging a diversion upstream so as to reduce the flow, making it possible to ford the river. The channels ran around both sides of the camp.
The two armies engaged at Pteria in Cappadocia. As the battle was indecisive but paralyzing to both sides, Croesus marched home, dismissed his mercenaries and sent emissaries to his dependents and allies to ask them to dispatch fresh troops to Sardis. The issue became more pressing when the Persian army showed up at Sardis. Diogenes Laertius[11] tells us that Thales gained fame as a counsellor when he advised the Milesians not to engage in a symmachia, a “fighting together”, with the Lydians. This has sometimes been interpreted as an alliance, but a ruler does not ally with his subjects.
Croesus was defeated before the city of Sardis by Cyrus, who subsequently spared Miletus because it had taken no action. Cyrus was so impressed by Croesus’ wisdom and his connection with the sages that he spared him and took his advice on various matters.
The Ionians were now free. Herodotus says that Thales advised them to form an Ionian state; that is, a bouleuterion (“deliberative body”) to be located at Teos in the center of Ionia. The Ionian cities should be demoi, or “districts”. Miletus, however, received favorable terms from Cyrus. The others remained in an Ionian League of 12 cities (excluding Miletus now), and were subjugated by the Persians.
Sagacity[link]
Diogenes Laertius[12] tells us that the Seven Sages were created in the archonship of Damasius at Athens about 582 BC and that Thales was the first sage. The same story, however, asserts that Thales emigrated to Miletus. There is also a report that he did not become a student of nature until after his political career. Much as we would like to have a date on the seven sages, we must reject these stories and the tempting date if we are to believe that Thales was a native of Miletus, predicted the eclipse, and was with Croesus in the campaign against Cyrus.
Thales had instruction from Egyptian priests, we are told. It was fairly certain that he came from a wealthy and established family, and the wealthy customarily educated their children. Moreover, the ordinary citizen, unless he was a seafaring man or a merchant, could not afford the grand tour in Egypt, and in any case did not consort with noble lawmakers such as Solon.
He did participate in some games, most likely Panhellenic, at which he won a bowl twice. He dedicated it to Apollo at Delphi. As he was not known to have been athletic, his event was probably declamation, and it may have been victory in some specific phase of this event that led to his being designated sage.[citation needed]
Theories[link]
The Greeks often invoked idiosyncratic explanations of natural phenomena by reference to the will of anthropomorphic gods and heroes. Thales, however, aimed to explain natural phenomena via a rational explanation that referenced natural processes themselves. For example, Thales attempted to explain earthquakes by hypothesizing that the Earth floats on water, and that earthquakes occur when the Earth is rocked by waves, rather than assuming that earthquakes were the result of supernatural processes. Thales was a Hylozoist (those who think matter is alive).[13] It is unclear whether the interpretation that he treated matter as being alive might have been mistaken for his thinking the properties of nature arise directly from material processes, more consistent with modern ideas of how properties arise as emergent characteristics of complex systems involved in the processes of evolution and developmental change.
Thales, according to Aristotle, asked what was the nature (Greek Arche) of the object so that it would behave in its characteristic way. Physis (φύσις) comes from phyein (φύειν), "to grow", related to our word "be".[14] (G)natura is the way a thing is "born",[15] again with the stamp of what it is in itself.
Aristotle[16] characterizes most of the philosophers "at first" (πρῶτον) as thinking that the "principles in the form of matter were the only principles of all things", where "principle" is arche, "matter" is hyle ("wood" or "matter", "material") and "form" is eidos.
Arche is translated as "principle", but the two words do not have precisely the same meaning. A principle of something is merely prior (related to pro-) to it either chronologically or logically. An arche (from ἄρχειν, "to rule") dominates an object in some way. If the arche is taken to be an origin, then specific causality is implied; that is, B is supposed to be characteristically B just because it comes from A, which dominates it.
The archai that Aristotle had in mind in his well-known passage on the first Greek scientists are not necessarily chronologically prior to their objects, but are constituents of it. For example, in pluralism objects are composed of earth, air, fire and water, but those elements do not disappear with the production of the object. They remain as archai within it, as do the atoms of the atomists.
What Aristotle is really saying is that the first philosophers were trying to define the substance(s) of which all material objects are composed. As a matter of fact, that is exactly what modern scientists are attempting to accomplish in nuclear physics, which is a second reason why Thales is described as the first western scientist.
Water as a first principle[link]
Thales' most famous belief was his cosmological thesis, which held that the world started from water. Aristotle considered this belief roughly equivalent to the later ideas of Anaximenes, who held that everything in the world was composed of air.
The best explanation of Thales' view is the following passage from Aristotle's Metaphysics.[17] The passage contains words from the theory of matter and form that were adopted by science with quite different meanings.
- "That from which is everything that exists and from which it first becomes and into which it is rendered at last, its substance remaining under it, but transforming in qualities, that they say is the element and principle of things that are."
And again:
- "For it is necessary that there be some nature (φύσις), either one or more than one, from which become the other things of the object being saved... Thales the founder of this type of philosophy says that it is water."[18]
Aristotle's depiction of the problem of change and the definition of substance is clear. If an object changes, is it the same or different? In either case how can there be a change from one to the other? The answer is that the substance "is saved", but acquires or loses different qualities (πάθη, the things you "experience").
A deeper dip into the waters of the theory of matter and form is properly reserved to other articles. The question for this article is, how far does Aristotle reflect Thales? He was probably not far off, and Thales was probably an incipient matter-and-formist.
The essentially non-philosophic Diogenes Laertius states that Thales taught as follows:
- "Water constituted (ὑπεστήσατο, 'stood under') the principle of all things."[19]
Heraclitus Homericus[20] states that Thales drew his conclusion from seeing moist substance turn into air, slime and earth. It seems likely that Thales viewed the Earth as solidifying from the water on which it floated and which surrounded Ocean.
Beliefs in divinity[link]
Thales applied his method to objects that changed to become other objects, such as water into earth (he thought). But what about the changing itself? Thales did address the topic, approaching it through lodestone and amber, which, when electrified by rubbing together, also attracts. It is noteworthy that the first particle known to carry electric charge, the electron, is named for the Greek word for amber, ήλεκτρον (ēlektron).
How was the power to move other things without the movers changing to be explained? Thales saw a commonality with the powers of living things to act. The lodestone and the amber must be alive, and if that were so, there could be no difference between the living and the dead. When asked why he didn’t die if there was no difference, he replied “because there is no difference.”
Aristotle defined the soul as the principle of life, that which imbues the matter and makes it live, giving it the animation, or power to act. The idea did not originate with him, as the Greeks in general believed in the distinction between mind and matter, which was ultimately to lead to a distinction not only between body and soul but also between matter and energy.
If things were alive, they must have souls. This belief was no innovation, as the ordinary ancient populations of the Mediterranean did believe that natural actions were caused by divinities. Accordingly, the sources say that Thales believed that "all things were full of gods.".[21] In their zeal to make him the first in everything some said he was the first to hold the belief, which must have been widely known to be false.
However, Thales was looking for something more general, a universal substance of mind. That also was in the polytheism of the times. Zeus was the very personification of supreme mind, dominating all the subordinate manifestations. From Thales on, however, philosophers had a tendency to depersonify or objectify mind, as though it were the substance of animation per se and not actually a god like the other gods. The end result was a total removal of mind from substance, opening the door to a non-divine principle of action.
Classical thought, however, had proceeded only a little way along that path. Instead of referring to the person, Zeus, they talked about the great mind:
- "Thales", says Cicero,[22] "assures that water is the principle of all things; and that God is that Mind which shaped and created all things from water."
The universal mind appears as a Roman belief in Virgil as well:
- "In the beginning, SPIRIT within (spiritus intus) strengthens Heaven and Earth,
- The watery fields, and the lucid globe of Luna, and then --
- Titan stars; and mind (mens) infused through the limbs
- Agitates the whole mass, and mixes itself with GREAT MATTER (magno corpore)"[23]
Geometry[link]
Thales was known for his innovative use of geometry. His understanding was theoretical as well as practical. For example, he said:
- Megiston topos: hapanta gar chorei (Μέγιστον τόπος· άπαντα γαρ χωρεί)
- ”Space is the greatest thing, as it contains all things”
Topos is in Newtonian-style space, since the verb, chorei, has the connotation of yielding before things, or spreading out to make room for them, which is extension. Within this extension, things have a position. Points, lines, planes and solids related by distances and angles follow from this presumption.
Thales understood similar triangles and right triangles, and what is more, used that knowledge in practical ways. The story is told in DL (loc. cit.) that he measured the height of the pyramids by their shadows at the moment when his own shadow was equal to his height. A right triangle with two equal legs is a 45-degree right triangle, all of which are similar. The length of the pyramid’s shadow measured from the center of the pyramid at that moment must have been equal to its height.
This story indicates that he was familiar with the Egyptian seked, or seqed - the ratio of the run to the rise of a slope (cotangent). The seked is at the base of problems 56, 57, 58, 59 and 60 of the Rhind papyrus - an ancient Egyptian mathematics document.
In present day trigonometry, cotangents require the same units for run and rise (base and perpendicular), but the papyrus uses cubits for rise and palms for run, resulting in different (but still characteristic) numbers. Since there were 7 palms in a cubit, the seked was 7 times the cotangent.
To use an example often quoted in modern reference works, suppose the base of a pyramid is 140 cubits and the angle of rise 5.25 seked. The Egyptians expressed their fractions as the sum of fractions, but the decimals are sufficient for the example. What is the rise in cubits? The run is 70 cubits, 490 palms. X, the rise, is 490 divided by 5.25 or 931⁄3 cubits. These figures sufficed for the Egyptians and Thales. We would go on to calculate the cotangent as 70 divided by 931⁄3 to get 3/4 or .75 and looking that up in a table of cotangents find that the angle of rise is a few minutes over 53 degrees.
Whether the ability to use the seked, which preceded Thales by about 1000 years, means that he was the first to define trigonometry is a matter of opinion. More practically Thales used the same method to measure the distances of ships at sea, said Eudemus as reported by Proclus (“in Euclidem”). According to Kirk & Raven (reference cited below), all you need for this feat is three straight sticks pinned at one end and knowledge of your altitude. One stick goes vertically into the ground. A second is made level. With the third you sight the ship and calculate the seked from the height of the stick and its distance from the point of insertion to the line of sight.
The seked is a measure of the angle. Knowledge of two angles (the seked and a right angle) and an enclosed leg (the altitude) allows you to determine by similar triangles the second leg, which is the distance. Thales probably had his own equipment rigged and recorded his own sekeds, but that is only a guess.
Thales’ Theorem is stated in another article. (Actually there are two theorems called Theorem of Thales, one having to do with a triangle inscribed in a circle and having the circle's diameter as one leg, the other theorem being also called the intercept theorem.) In addition Eudemus attributed to him the discovery that a circle is bisected by its diameter, that the base angles of an isosceles triangle are equal and that vertical angles are equal. According to a historical Note[24], when Thales visited Egypt, he observed that whenever the Egyptians drew two intersecting lines, they would measure the vertical angles to make sure that they were equal. Thales concluded that one could prove that all vertical angles are equal if one accepted some general notions such as: all straight angles are equal, equals added to equals are equal, and equals subtracted from equals are equal. It would be hard to imagine civilization without these theorems.
It is possible, of course, to question whether Thales really did discover these principles. On the other hand, it is not possible to answer such doubts definitively. The sources are all that we have, even though they sometimes contradict each other.
Interpretations[link]
In the long sojourn of philosophy there has existed hardly a philosopher or historian of philosophy who did not mention Thales and try to characterize him in some way. He is generally recognized as having brought something new to human thought. Mathematics, astronomy and medicine already existed. Thales added something to these different collections of knowledge to produce a universality, which, as far as writing tells us, was not in tradition before, but resulted in a new field.
Ever since, interested persons have been asking what that new something is. Answers fall into (at least) two categories, the theory and the method. Once an answer has been arrived at, the next logical step is to ask how Thales compares to other philosophers, which leads to his classification (rightly or wrongly).
Theory[link]
The most natural epithets of Thales are "materialist" and "naturalist", which are based on ousia and physis. The Catholic Encyclopedia notes that Aristotle called him a physiologist, with the meaning "student of nature."[25] On the other hand, he would have qualified as an early physicist, as did Aristotle. They studied corpora, "bodies", the medieval descendants of substances.
Most agree that Thales' stamp on thought is the unity of substance, hence Bertrand Russell:[26]
- "The view that all matter is one is quite a reputable scientific hypothesis."
- "...But it is still a handsome feat to have discovered that a substance remains the same in different states of aggregation."
Russell was only reflecting an established tradition; for example: Nietzsche, in his Philosophy in the Tragic Age of the Greeks, wrote:[27]
- "Greek philosophy seems to begin with an absurd notion, with the proposition that water is the primal origin and the womb of all things. Is it really necessary for us to take serious notice of this proposition? It is, and for three reasons. First, because it tells us something about the primal origin of all things; second, because it does so in language devoid of image or fable, and finally, because contained in it, if only embryonically, is the thought, 'all things are one.'"
This sort of materialism, however, should not be confused with deterministic materialism. Thales was only trying to explain the unity observed in the free play of the qualities. The arrival of uncertainty in the modern world made possible a return to Thales; for example, John Elof Boodin writes ("God and Creation"):
- "We cannot read the universe from the past..."
Boodin defines an "emergent" materialism, in which the objects of sense emerge uncertainly from the substrate. Thales is the innovator of this sort of materialism.
The Rise of Theoretical Inquiry[link]
In the West, Thales represents a new kind of inquiring community as well. Edmund Husserl[28] attempts to capture the new movement as follows. Philosophical man is a "new cultural configuration" based in stepping back from "pregiven tradition" and taking up a rational "inquiry into what is true in itself;" that is, an ideal of truth. It begins with isolated individuals such as Thales, but they are supported and cooperated with as time goes on. Finally the ideal transforms the norms of society, leaping across national borders.
Classification[link]
The term "Pre-Socratic" derives ultimately from the philosopher Aristotle, who distinguished the early philosophers as concerning themselves with substance.
Diogenes Laertius on the other hand took a strictly geographic and ethnic approach. Philosophers were either Ionian or Italian. He used "Ionian" in a broader sense, including also the Athenian academics, who were not Pre-Socratics. From a philosophic point of view, any grouping at all would have been just as effective. There is no basis for an Ionian or Italian unity. Some scholars, however, concede to Diogenes' scheme as far as referring to an "Ionian" school. There was no such school in any sense.
The most popular approach refers to a Milesian school, which is more justifiable socially and philosophically. They sought for the substance of phenomena and may have studied with each other. Some ancient writers qualify them as Milesioi, "of Miletus."
Influence on others[link]
Thales had a profound influence on other Greek thinkers and therefore on Western history. Some believe Anaximander was a pupil of Thales. Early sources report that one of Anaximander's more famous pupils, Pythagoras, visited Thales as a young man, and that Thales advised him to travel to Egypt to further his philosophical and mathematical studies.
Many philosophers followed Thales' lead in searching for explanations in nature rather than in the supernatural; others returned to supernatural explanations, but couched them in the language of philosophy rather than of myth or of religion.
Looking specifically at Thales' influence during the pre-Socratic era, it is clear that he stood out as one of the first thinkers who thought more in the way of logos than mythos. The difference between these two more profound ways of seeing the world is that mythos is concentrated around the stories of holy origin, while logos is concentrated around the argumentation. When the mythical man wants to explain the world the way he sees it, he explains it based on gods and powers. Mythical thought does not differentiate between things and persons[citation needed] and furthermore it does not differentiate between nature and culture[citation needed]. The way a logos thinker would present a world view is radically different from the way of the mythical thinker. In its concrete form, logos is a way of thinking not only about individualism[clarification needed], but also the abstract[clarification needed]. Furthermore, it focuses on sensible and continuous argumentation. This lays the foundation of philosophy and its way of explaining the world in terms of abstract argumentation, and not in the way of gods and mythical stories[citation needed].
Sources[link]
Our sources on the Milesian philosophers (Thales, Anaximander, and Anaximenes) were either roughly contemporaneous (such as Herodotus) or lived within a few hundred years of his passing. Moreover, they were writing from a tradition that was well-known. Most modern dissension comes from trying to interpret what we know, in particular, distinguishing legend from fact.
The main secondary source concerning the details of Thales' life and career is Diogenes Laertius, "Lives of Eminent Philosophers".[29] This is primarily a biographical work, as the name indicates. Compared to Aristotle, Diogenes is not much of a philosopher. He is the one who, in the Prologue to that work, is responsible for the division of the early philosophers into "Ionian" and "Italian", but he places the Academics in the Ionian school and otherwise evidences considerable disarray and contradiction, especially in the long section on forerunners of the "Ionian School". Diogenes quotes two letters attributed to Thales, but Diogenes wrote some eight centuries after Thales' death and that his sources often contained "unreliable or even fabricated information",[30] hence the concern for separating fact from legend in accounts of Thales.
Most philosophic analyses of the philosophy of Thales come from Aristotle, a professional philosopher, tutor of Alexander the Great, who wrote 200 years after Thales death. Aristotle, judging from his surviving books, does not seem to have access to any works by Thales, although he probably had access to works of other authors about Thales, such as Herodotus, Hecataeus, Plato etc., as well as others whose work is now extinct. It was Aristotle's express goal to present Thales work not because it was significant in itself, but as a prelude to his own work in natural philosophy.[31] Geoffrey Kirk and John Raven, English compilers of the fragments of the Pre-Socratics, assert that Aristotle's "judgments are often distorted by his view of earlier philosophy as a stumbling progress toward the truth that Aristotle himself revealed in his physical doctrines."[32] There was also an extensive oral tradition. Both the oral and the written were commonly read or known by all educated men in the region.
Aristotle's philosophy had a distinct stamp: it professed the theory of matter and form, which modern scholastics have dubbed hylomorphism. Though once very widespread, it was not generally adopted by rationalist and modern science, as it mainly is useful in metaphysical analyses, but does not lend itself to the detail that is of interest to modern science. It is not clear that the theory of matter and form existed as early as Thales, and if it did, whether Thales espoused it.
See also[link]
Notes[link]
- ^ Aristotle, Metaphysics Alpha, 983b18.
- ^ Russell, Bertrand (1945). The History of Western Philosophy. New York: Simon and Schuster.
- ^ Singer, C. (2008). A Short History of Science to the 19th century. Streeter Press. p. 35.
- ^ Needham, C. W. (1978). Cerebral Logic: Solving the Problem of Mind and Brain. Loose Leaf. p. 75. ISBN 0-398-03754-X.
- ^ (Boyer 1991, "Ionia and the Pythagoreans" p. 43)
- ^ Herodotus, 1.74.2, and A. D. Godley's footnote 1; Pliny, 2.9 (12) and Bostock's footnote 2.
- ^ Plutarch (1952). "Solon". In Robert Maynard Hutchins. Lives. Great Books of the Western World. 14. Chicago: William Benton. pp. 66. http://www.amazon.com/Great-Books-Western-World-Vol/dp/B000L3QMIK.
- ^ Diogenes Laërtius, 1.43, 44.
- ^ Aristotle, Politics 1259a [1]
- ^ Book 1
- ^ 1.25
- ^ 1.22
- ^ Farrington, B., 1944 Greek Science. Pelican
- ^ English physics comes from it, but the latter is a Greek loan. In addition the quite ancient native English word be comes from the same Indo-European root.
- ^ The initial g of the archaic Latin gives the root away as *genə-, "beget."
- ^ Metaphysics 983b6
- ^ 983 b6 8-11
- ^ Lines 17-21 with gaps.
- ^ Work cited, paragraph 27.
- ^ Quaes. Hom. 22, not the same as Heraclitus of Ephesus
- ^ Aristotle, De Anima, 411a7. For other ancient sources see the discussion in Kirk and Raven, The Presocratic Philosophers, 93-7.
- ^ De natura Deorum, i.,10
- ^ Virgil:"Aeneid," vi., 724-727.
- ^ William G. Shute, William W. Shirk, George F. Porter, Plane and Solid Geometry, American Book Company (1960) pp. 25-27
- ^ Turner, Catholic Encyclopedia.
- ^ Wisdom of the West
- ^ § 3
- ^ The Vienna Lecture
- ^ Translation of his biography on Thales: Thales, classicpersuasion site; original Greek text, under ΘΑΛΗΣ, the Library of Ancient Texts Online site.
- ^ See McKirahan, Richard D., Jr. (1994). Philosophy Before Socrates. Indianapolis: Hackett. p. 5. ISBN 0-87220-176-7.
- ^ See Aristotle, Metaphysics Alpha, 983b 1-27.
- ^ Kirk and Raven, The Presocratic Philosophers, Second Edition (Cambridge University Press, 1983) 3.
References[link]
- Burnet, John (1957) [1892]. Early Greek Philosophy. The Meridian Library. (reprinted from the 4th edition, 1930; the first edition was published in 1892). An online presentation of the Third Edition can be found in the Online Books Library of the University of Pennsylvania.
- Diogenes Laërtius, Life of Thales, translated by Robert Drew Hicks (1925).
- Herodotus; Histories, A. D. Godley (translator), Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1920; ISBN 0-674-99133-8. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.
- Hans Joachim Störig: Kleine Weltgeschichte der Philosophie. Fischer, Frankfurt/M. 2004, ISBN 3-596-50832-0.
- Kirk, G.S.; Raven, J.E. (1957). The Presocratic Philosophers. Cambridge: University Press. (subsequently reprinted)
- G. E. R. Lloyd. Early Greek Science: Thales to Aristotle.
- Nahm, Milton C. (1962) [1934]. Selections from Early Greek Philosophy. Appleton-Century-Crofts, Inc.
- Pliny the Elder; The Natural History (eds. John Bostock, M.D., F.R.S. H.T. Riley, Esq., B.A.) London. Taylor and Francis, Red Lion Court, Fleet Street. (1855). Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.
- Turner, William. "Ionian School of Philosophy." The Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 8. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1910. <http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08092a.htm>.
Further reading[link]
- Morse, Sidney H.; Marvin, Joseph B., The Radical, A. Williams & Co., 1868. Cf. p. 170 and on.
External links[link]
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Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Thales |
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Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Thales |
- Thales of Miletus from The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
- Thales of Miletus from the MacTutor History of Mathematics archive
- Livius, Thales of Miletus by Jona Lendering
- Thales
- Thales' Theorem - Math Open Reference With interactive animation
- Thales biography by Charlene Douglass With extensive bibliography.
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| Name | Thales |
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Related pages:
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http://cs.wn.com/Thalés z Milétu
http://id.wn.com/Thales
http://es.wn.com/Tales de Mileto
http://ru.wn.com/Фалес Милетский
http://nl.wn.com/Thales van Milete
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http://hi.wn.com/थेल्स
http://pt.wn.com/Tales de Mileto
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