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Pretoria
View from the Union Buildings
Flag Seal
Motto: Præstantia Prævaleat Prætoria (May Pretoria Be Pre-eminent In Excellence)
Pretoria Location of Pretoria
Coordinates: 25°44′46″S 28°11′17″E / 25.74611°S 28.18806°E / -25.74611; 28.18806Coordinates: 25°44′46″S 28°11′17″E / 25.74611°S 28.18806°E / -25.74611; 28.18806
Country	South Africa
Province	Gauteng
Municipality	City of Tshwane
Established	1855
Area[1]
• Total	513.84 km2 (198.39 sq mi)
Elevation	1,271 m (4,170 ft)
Population (2001)[1]
• Total	525,387
• Density	1,000/km2 (2,600/sq mi)
Racial makeup (2001)[1]
• Black African	24.5%
• Coloured	6.2%
• Indian/Asian	1.6%
• White	67.7%
First languages (2001)[1]
• Afrikaans	61.2%
• English	15.0%
• Northern Sotho	5.5%
• Tswana	4.3%
• Other	14%
Time zone	SAST (UTC+2)
Area code(s)	012

Pretoria is a city located in the northern part of Gauteng Province, South Africa. It is one of the country's three capital cities, serving as the executive (administrative) and de facto national capital; the others are Cape Town, the legislative capital, and Bloemfontein, the judicial capital. Pretoria is contained within the City of Tshwane Metropolitan Municipality as one of several constituent former administrations (among which also Centurion and Soshanguve). Pretoria itself is sometimes referred to as "Tshwane" due to a long-running and controversial proposed change of name, which has yet to decided as of 2012.

The city's original name was Pretoria Philadelphia ("Pretoria of brotherly love").^[2] It gave its name to the Pax Praetoriana, referring to the country's relative stability.

Pretoria in South Africa is popularly known as The Jacaranda City due to the thousands of Jacaranda trees planted in its streets, parks and gardens.^[3]

History[link]

The Union Buildings, seat of South Africa's government

Statue of Andries Wilhelmus Jacobus Pretorius (27 November 1798 – 23 July 1853) in Pretoria

The Southern Transvaal Ndebele occupied the river valley, which was to become the location of the city of Pretoria, by around 1600.^[4]

During the difaqane in Natal, another band of refugees arrived in this area under the leadership of Mzilikazi. However, they were forced to abandon their villages in their flight from a regiment of Zulu raiders in 1832.

Pretoria itself was founded in 1855 by Marthinus Pretorius, a leader of the Voortrekkers, who named it after his father Andries Pretorius. The elder Pretorius had become a national hero of the Voortrekkers after his victory over the Zulus in the Battle of Blood River. Andries Pretorius also negotiated the Sand River Convention (1852), in which Britain acknowledged the independence of the Transvaal. It became the capital of the South African Republic (ZAR) on 1 May 1860. The founding of Pretoria as the capital of the South African Republic can be seen as marking the end of the Boers' settlement movements of the Great Trek.

Boer Wars[link]

During the First Boer War, the city was besieged by Republican forces in December 1880 and March 1881. The peace treaty which ended the war was signed in Pretoria on 3 August 1881 at the Pretoria Convention.

The Second Boer War (1899 to 1902) resulted in the end of the Transvaal Republic and start of British hegemony in South Africa. During the war, Winston Churchill was imprisoned in the Staats Model School in Pretoria but escaped to Mozambique. The city surrendered to British forces under Frederick Roberts on 5 June 1900 and the conflict was ended in Pretoria with the signing of the Peace of Vereeniging on 31 May 1902.

A number of forts were built for the defence of the city just prior to the Second Boer War, though some are today in ruins, a number of them have been preserved as national monuments.

Union of South Africa[link]

The Boer Republics of the ZAR and the Orange Free State were united with the Cape Colony and Natal Colony in 1910 to become the Union of South Africa. Pretoria then became the administrative capital of the whole of South Africa, with Cape Town the legislative capital. Between 1860 and 1994, the city was also the capital of the province of Transvaal, superseding Potchefstroom in that role.

On 14 October 1931, Pretoria achieved official city status. When South Africa became a republic in 1961, Pretoria remained its administrative capital.

After apartheid[link]

This unreferenced section requires citations to ensure verifiability.

After the creation of new municipal structures across South Africa in 2000, the name Tshwane was adopted for the Metropolitan Municipality that includes Pretoria and surrounding towns.

Pretoria is "the capital of Apartheid South Africa". However, Pretoria's political reputation was changed with the inauguration of Nelson Mandela on the 10th May 1994 as the country's first non-apartheid President at the Union Buildings close to Pretoria CBD.

Beginning in 2005, portions of the African National Congress wished to change the name of the city to match the name of the Tshwane municipality, however this met with stiff opposition, particularly from Afrikaner civil rights groups and political parties since it denies the history of the city as founded by Pretorius.

In 1994 Peter Holmes Maluleka was elected as transitional mayor of Pretoria, until the first democratic election held later that year, making him the first black mayor of this capital of South Africa. Maluleka later became the chairman of the Greater Pretoria Metropolitan City Council (later City of Tshwane Metropolitan Municipality), then was elected Speaker of the Tshwane Metro Council and in 2004 was chosen to be a member of the South African Parliament for the Soshanguve constituency.

Geography[link]

Pretoria is situated approximately 50 km (31 mi) north of Johannesburg in the north-east of South Africa, in a transitional belt between the plateau of the Highveld to the south and the lower-lying Bushveld to the north. It lies at an altitude of about 1,350 m (4,500 ft) above sea level, in a warm, sheltered, fertile valley, surrounded by the hills of the Magaliesberg range.

Climate[link]

The city has a moderately dry subtropical climate, specifically a humid subtropical climate (Köppen climate classification: Cwa), with long hot and rainy summers and short cool and dry winters. The average annual temperature is 18.7 °C (65.7 °F).^[6] This is rather high considering its relatively high altitude of about 1350 metres and is due mainly to its sheltered valley position, which acts as a heat trap and cuts it off from cool southerly and south-easterly air masses for much of the year. Rain is chiefly concentrated in the summer months, with drought conditions prevailing over the winter months, when frosts may be sharp. Snowfall is an extremely rare event, snowflakes were spotted in 1959 and 1968 in the city center, but the city has never experienced an accumulation in its history. During a countrywide heatwave in November 2011, Pretoria experienced temperatures that reached 39 °C (102 °F), extraordinarily unusual for that time of the year.

Central Business District[link]

The Central Business District (CBD) of Pretoria has been the traditional centre of government and commerce, although today many corporate offices, small businesses, shops and government departments are situated in the sprawling suburbs of the city rather than the CBD. However to bring service delivery back to the people, various Government departments are returning to the CBD. National Departments with their Head Office in the CBD include: Department of Health, Basic Education, Transport, Higher Education and Training, Sport and Recreation, Justice and Constitutional Development, Water and Environmental Affairs and the National Treasury.

Demographics[link]

Depending on the extent of the area understood to constitute "Pretoria", the population ranges from 500,000^[8] to 2.5 million.^[9] The main languages spoken in the Tshwane municipality are Pedi, Afrikaans, Tswana, Tsonga, Zulu and English. Ndebele and Sotho are also widely spoken. The whole Tshwane Metropolitan Municipality had a population of 1,985,997 at the 2001 census. The city of Pretoria has the largest white population of anywhere on the African continent. Since its founding it has been a major Afrikaner population centre, and currently there are roughly 400,000 Afrikaners living in or around the city.

Even since the end of Apartheid, Pretoria itself still has a white majority, albeit an ever increasing black middle-class. However in the townships of Soshanguve and Atteridgeville blacks make up close to all of the population. The largest white ethnic group are the Afrikaners and the largest black ethnic group are the Northern Sothos.

If one considers the lower estimate for the population of Pretoria, this includes largely former-white designated areas and there is therefore a white majority. However if one includes the geographically separate townships, this increases Pretoria's population beyond a million and makes whites a minority.

Pretoria's Indians mostly live in the Indian township of Laudium and surrounding areas, or in white suburbs.

Cityscape[link]

Architecture[link]

Media related to Buildings in Pretoria at Wikimedia Commons

Pretoria has over the years had very diverse cultural influences and this is reflected in the architectural styles that can be found in the city. It ranges from British Colonial Architecture to Art Deco with a good mix of uniquely South African style mixed in.

Some of the notable structures in Pretoria include the Union Buildings, Voortrekker Monument, the main campus of the University of South Africa, Mahlamba Ndlopfu (the President's House), Reserve Bank of South Africa (Office Tower) and the Telkom Lukas Rand Transmission Tower. Other known structures and buildings include the Loftus Versfeld Stadium, The South African State Theatre, University of Pretoria, and Head Quarters of the Department of International Relations and Co-Operation (modern architecture).

• 

  Union Buildings

• 

  National Botanical Gardens

• 

  Pretoria CBD viewed from the southeast

Parks and gardens[link]

Pretoria is home to the National Zoological Gardens of South Africa as well as the Pretoria National Botanical Garden, one of the National Botanical Gardens in South Africa.^[10] There are also a number of smaller parks and gardens located throughout the city, including the Austin Roberts Bird Sanctuary..

Transport[link]

Streetsigns in Pretoria

Railway[link]

Commuter rail services around Pretoria are operated by Metrorail. The routes, originating from the city centre, extend south to Germiston and Johannesburg, west to Atteridgeville, northwest to Ga-Rankuwa, north to Soshanguve and east to Mamelodi.

The Gautrain high-speed railway line runs from the eastern suburb of Hatfield to Pretoria Station and then southwards to Centurion, Sandton, OR Tambo International Airport and Johannesburg.

Pretoria Station is a departure point for the Blue Train luxury train. Rovos Rail,^[11] a luxury mainline train safari service operates from the colonial-style railway station at Capital Park.^[12] The South African Friends of the Rail have recently moved their vintage train trip operations from the Capital Park station to the Hercules station.^[13]

Buses[link]

Various bus companies exist in Pretoria, of which Putco is one of the oldest and most recognised. Tshwane(Pretoria) municipality provides for the rest of the bus transport and to view the time table please visit them at Tshwane Bus Booklet.^[14]

Road[link]

The N1 is the major freeway that runs through Pretoria. The N1 Eastern Bypass bisects the large expanse of the eastern suburbs, routing traffic from Johannesburg to Polokwane and the north of the country. The N4 Platinum Highway forms the Northern Bypass and routes traffic from Witbank to Rustenburg. The N4 runs east-west through South Africa, connecting Maputo to Gaborone. Other major freeways include the N14 which links Pretoria with Johannesburg's West Rand, and the R21 which links the city with OR Tambo International Airport.

Airports[link]

For scheduled air services, Pretoria is served by Johannesburg's airports: OR Tambo International, 45 kilometres (28 mi) south of central Pretoria; and Lanseria, 35 kilometres (22 mi) south-west of the city. Wonderboom Airport in the suburb of Wonderboom in the north of Pretoria services light commercial and private aircraft. There are two military air bases to the south of the city, Swartkop and Waterkloof.

Society and culture[link]

Media[link]

Since Pretoria forms part the Tshwane Metropolitan Municipality, most radio, television and paper media is the same as what can be found in the rest of the metro area.

Museums[link]

The Voortrekker Monument

• African Window
• Freedom Park
• Kruger House (Residence of the president of the ZAR, Paul Kruger).
• Mapungubwe Museum
• Melrose House (The Treaty of Vereeniging which ended the Anglo-Boer War was signed here in 1902)
• Pretoria Forts
• Transvaal Museum
• Van Wouw Museum
• Voortrekker Monument

Music[link]

A number of popular South African bands and musicians are originally from Pretoria. These include Desmond and the Tutus, Seether, Zebra & Giraffe, popular mostwako rapper JR, and DJ Mujava who was raised in the town of Attridgeville.

The song "Marching to Pretoria" refers to this city. The opening line of The Beatles' song I Am the Walrus, "I am he as you are he as you are me and we are all together", is based on the song "Marching to Pretoria", which contains the lyric "I'm with you and you're with me and we are all together".^{[citation needed]}

Sport[link]

One of the most popular sports in Pretoria is rugby union. Loftus Versfeld is home to the Blue Bulls, who compete in the domestic Currie Cup, and also to the Bulls franchise in the international Super Rugby competition. The Bulls Super Rugby team, which is operated by the Blue Bulls, won the competition in 2007, 2009 and 2010. Loftus Versfeld also hosts the soccer side Mamelodi Sundowns.

Pretoria also hosted matches during the 1995 Rugby World Cup. Loftus Versfeld was used for matches of soccer in the 2010 FIFA World Cup. There are two soccer teams in the city campaigning in the Premier Soccer League. They are Mamelodi Sundowns and Supersport United. Supersport United were the 2008–09 PSL Champions.

Following the 2011/2012 season the University of Pretoria F.C. will gain promotion to the South African Premier Soccer League (PSL), the top domestic league.^[15][16]

Cricket is also popular game in the city. As there is no international cricket stadium in the city, it does not host any major cricket tournament, although the nearby situated Centurion has Supersport Park which is an international cricket stadium and has hosted many important tournaments such as 2003 Cricket World Cup, 2007 ICC World Twenty20, 2009 IPL and 2009 ICC Champions Trophy.

Stadiums[link]

• Loftus Versfeld

Churches[link]

• Anglican Diocese of Pretoria
• Apostolic Faith Mission of South Africa
• Central Baptist Church
• Evangelical Lutheran Church in Southern Africa
• Hatfield Christian Church
• Methodist Church of Southern Africa
• Nederduits Gereformeerde Kerk
• Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Pretoria
• Seventh-day Adventist Church
• The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
• Praise Tabernacle

Commerce and industry[link]

As the national administrative (executive) capital of South Africa, Pretoria is the seat of government and houses the headquarters of the main government departments and ministries. As the de facto capital city, it also hosts the foreign embassies and diplomatic missions. The city is a major commercial centre and an important industrial centre. Its main industries are iron and steel works, copper casting, and the manufacture of automobiles, railway carriages and heavy machinery.

Pretoria has a number of industrial areas, business districts and small home businesses. A number of chambers of commerce exist for Pretoria and it's business community including Pretoriaweb a business networking group that meets once a month to discuss the issues of doing business in Pretoria. The members of Pretoriaweb also discuss issues in various social media environments and on the website.

Education[link]

Tertiary education[link]

University of Pretoria's Old Arts Building

The front part of the Theo van Wyk Building on the Main Campus of UNISA

Tshwane University of Technology

Pretoria is one of South Africa's leading academic cities, it is home to both the largest residential university in the country,^[17] the Tshwane University of Technology and the largest distance education university (the University of South Africa, more commonly known by its acronym, UNISA). The University of Pretoria (colloquially known as Tuks or Tukkies), one of South Africa's leading research and teaching universities, and the South African Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) are also located in the city.

Private tertiary education[link]

• The Open WIndow School of Visual Communication

Secondary education[link]

Change of name[link]

On 26 May 2005 the South African Geographical Names Council (SAGNC), which is linked to the Directorate of Heritage in the Department of Arts and Culture, approved changing the name of Pretoria to Tshwane, which is already the name of the Metropolitan Municipality^[18] in which Pretoria, and a number of surrounding towns are located. Although the name change was approved by the SAGNC, it has not yet been approved by the Minister of Arts and Culture. The matter is currently under consideration while he has requested further research on the matter. Should the Minister approve the name change, the name will be published in the Government Gazette, giving the public opportunity to comment on the matter. The Minister can then refer that public response back to the SAGNC, before presenting his recommendation before parliament, who will vote on the change. Various public interest groups have warned that the name change will be challenged in court, should the minister approve the renaming. The long process involved made it unlikely the name would change anytime soon, if ever, even assuming the Minister had approved the change in early 2006.

The Tshwane Metro Council has advertised Tshwane as "Africa's leading capital city" since the name change was approved by the SAGNC in 2005. This has led to further controversy, however, as the name of the city had not yet been changed officially, and the council was, at best, acting prematurely. Following a complaint lodged with the Advertising Standards Authority (ASA), it was ruled that such advertisements are deliberately misleading and should be withdrawn from all media.^[19] Despite the rulings of the ASA, Tshwane Metro Council failed to discontinue their "City of Tshwane" advertisements. As a result, the ASA requested that Tshwane Metro pay for advertisements in which it admits that it has misled the public. Refusing to abide by the ASA's request, the Metro Council was banned consequently from placing any advertisements in the South African media that refer to Tshwane as the capital. ASA may still place additional sanctions on the Metro Council that would prevent it from placing any advertisements in the South African media, including council notices and employment vacancies.^[20][21]

After the ruling, the Metro Council continued to place Tshwane advertisements, but placed them on council-owned advertising boards and busstops throughout the municipal area. In August 2007, an internal memo was leaked to the media in which the Tshwane mayor sought advice from the premier of Gauteng on whether the municipality could be called the "City of Tshwane" instead of just "Tshwane".^[22] This could increase confusion about the distinction between the city of Pretoria and the municipality of Tshwane.

In early 2010 it was again rumoured that the South African government would make a decision regarding the name, however, a media briefing regarding name changes, where it may have been discussed, was cancelled shortly before taking place.^[23] Rumours of the name change provoked outrage from Afrikaner civil rights and political groups.^[24] It later emerged that the registration of the municipality as a geographic place had been published in the government gazette as it had been too late to withdraw the name from the publication,^[25] but it was announced that the name had been withdrawn, pending "further work" by officials.^[26][27] The following week, the registration of "Tshwane" was officially withdrawn in the Government Gazette.,^[28][29] The retraction had reportedly been ordered at the behest of the Deputy President of South Africa Kgalema Motlanthe, acting on behalf of President Jacob Zuma, as minister of Arts and Culture Lulu Xingwana had acted contrary to the position of the ANC, which is that Pretoria, and the municipality are separate entities, which was subsequently articulated by ANC secretary general Gwede Mantashe.^[30]

In March 2010, the "Tshwane Royal House Committee", claiming to be descendents of Chief Tshwane, called for the name to be changed, and for the descendents of Chief Tshwane to be recognised, and to be made part of the administration of the municipality.^[31]

According to comments made by Mayor Kgosientso Ramokgopa in late 2011, the change will occur in 2012.^[32][33] However there remained considerable uncertainty about the issue.[1]

International relations[link]

Twin towns and sister cities[link]

Pretoria is twinned with:

Shopping malls[link]

Note: Malls marked with an asterisk are malls with at least a 4-screen cinema complex. Kolonnade Centre is the only mall in the city with a public ice-skating rink.

Places of interest[link]

The Union Buildings

• Pretoria National Botanical Garden
• The National Zoological Gardens of South Africa
• Church Square
• Union Buildings
• Marabastad
• Menlyn Park
• Voortrekker Monument
• Hatfield Square

Nature reserves[link]

• Groenkloof Nature Reserve
• Rietvlei Nature Reserve
• Moreletaspruit Nature Reserve
• Faerie Glen Nature Reserve
• Wonderboom Nature Reserve

See also[link]

South Africa portal

• List of Pretoria suburbs
• Ptawug Pretoria Wireless Users Group—a free, non-profit, community wireless network in Pretoria
• Symbolism of the Voortrekker Monument

References[link]

External links[link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Pretoria

• City of Tshwane Metropolitan Municipality official website
• Visit Pretoria Travel Guide to Pretoria
• Pretoria travel guide from Wikitravel

Hillary Rodham Clinton
67th United States Secretary of State
Incumbent
Assumed office January 21, 2009
President	Barack Obama
Deputy	William Burns (2011-present) James Steinberg (2009-2011)
Preceded by	Condoleezza Rice
United States Senator from New York
In office January 3, 2001 – January 21, 2009
Preceded by	Daniel Patrick Moynihan
Succeeded by	Kirsten Gillibrand
First Lady of the United States
In office January 20, 1993 – January 20, 2001
Preceded by	Barbara Bush
Succeeded by	Laura Bush
First Lady of Arkansas
In office January 11, 1983 – December 12, 1992
Preceded by	Gay Daniels White
Succeeded by	Betty Tucker
In office January 9, 1979 – January 19, 1981
Preceded by	Barbara Pryor
Succeeded by	Gay Daniels White
Personal details
Born	Hillary Diane Rodham (1947-10-26) October 26, 1947 (age 64) Chicago, Illinois, U.S.
Political party	Democratic Party (1968–present)
Other political affiliations	Republican Party (before 1968)
Spouse(s)	Bill Clinton
Children	Chelsea Clinton
Residence	Chappaqua, New York
Alma mater	Wellesley College Yale Law School
Profession	Lawyer
Religion	Methodist
Signature
Website	Official website

Hillary Diane Rodham Clinton ( /ˈhɪləri daɪˈæn ˈrɒdəm ˈklɪntən/; born October 26, 1947) is the 67th United States Secretary of State, serving in the administration of President Barack Obama. She was a United States Senator for New York from 2001 to 2009. As the wife of the 42nd President of the United States, Bill Clinton, she was the First Lady of the United States from 1993 to 2001. In the 2008 election, Clinton was a leading candidate for the Democratic presidential nomination.

A native of Illinois, Hillary Rodham first attracted national attention in 1969 for her remarks as the first student commencement speaker at Wellesley College. She embarked on a career in law after graduating from Yale Law School in 1973. Following a stint as a Congressional legal counsel, she moved to Arkansas in 1974 and married Bill Clinton in 1975. Rodham cofounded the Arkansas Advocates for Children and Families in 1977 and became the first female chair of the Legal Services Corporation in 1978. Named the first female partner at Rose Law Firm in 1979, she was twice listed as one of the 100 most influential lawyers in America. First Lady of Arkansas from 1979 to 1981 and 1983 to 1992 with husband Bill as Governor, she successfully led a task force to reform Arkansas's education system. She sat on the board of directors of Wal-Mart Stores and several other corporations.

In 1994, as First Lady of the United States, her major initiative, the Clinton health care plan, failed to gain approval from the U.S. Congress. However, in 1997 and 1999, Clinton played a role in advocating the creation of the State Children's Health Insurance Program, the Adoption and Safe Families Act, and the Foster Care Independence Act. Her years as First Lady drew a polarized response from the American public. The only First Lady to have been subpoenaed, she testified before a federal grand jury in 1996 due to the Whitewater controversy, but was never charged with wrongdoing in this or several other investigations during her husband's administration. The state of her marriage was the subject of considerable speculation following the Lewinsky scandal in 1998.

After moving to the state of New York, Clinton was elected as a U.S. Senator in 2000. That election marked the first time an American First Lady had run for public office; Clinton was also the first female senator to represent the state. In the Senate, she initially supported the Bush administration on some foreign policy issues, including a vote for the Iraq War Resolution. She subsequently opposed the administration on its conduct of the war in Iraq and on most domestic issues. Senator Clinton was reelected by a wide margin in 2006. In the 2008 presidential nomination race, Hillary Clinton won more primaries and delegates than any other female candidate in American history, but narrowly lost to Illinois Senator Barack Obama.

Obama went on to win the election and appoint Clinton as Secretary of State; Clinton became the first former First Lady to serve in a president's cabinet. She has put into place institutional changes seeking to maximize departmental effectiveness and promote the empowerment of women worldwide, and has set records for most-traveled secretary for time in office. She has been at the forefront of the U.S. response to the Arab Spring, including advocating for the military intervention in Libya. She has used "smart power" as the strategy for asserting U.S. leadership and values in the world and has championed the use of social media in getting the U.S. message out.

Early life and education[link]

Early life[link]

Hillary Diane Rodham^{[nb 1]} was born at Edgewater Hospital in Chicago, Illinois.^[1][2] She was raised in a United Methodist family, first in Chicago and then, from the age of three, in suburban Park Ridge, Illinois.^[3] Her father, Hugh Ellsworth Rodham (1911–1993), was the son of Welsh and English immigrants;^[4] he managed a successful small business in the textile industry.^[5] Her mother, Dorothy Emma Howell (1919–2011), was a homemaker of English, Scottish, French, French Canadian, and Welsh descent.^[4][6] Hillary grew up with two younger brothers, Hugh and Tony.

As a child, Hillary Rodham was a teacher's favorite at her public schools in Park Ridge.^[7][8] She participated in swimming, baseball, and other sports.^[7][8] She also earned numerous awards as a Brownie and Girl Scout.^[8] She attended Maine East High School, where she participated in student council, the school newspaper, and was selected for National Honor Society.^[1][9] For her senior year, she was redistricted to Maine South High School, where she was a National Merit Finalist and graduated in the top five percent of her class of 1965.^[9][10] Her mother wanted her to have an independent, professional career,^[6] and her father, otherwise a traditionalist, was of the opinion that his daughter's abilities and opportunities should not be limited by gender.^[11]

Raised in a politically conservative household,^[6] at age thirteen Rodham helped canvass South Side Chicago following the very close 1960 U.S. presidential election, where she found evidence of electoral fraud against Republican candidate Richard Nixon.^[12] She then volunteered to campaign for Republican candidate Barry Goldwater in the U.S. presidential election of 1964.^[13] Rodham's early political development was shaped most by her high school history teacher (like her father, a fervent anticommunist), who introduced her to Goldwater's classic The Conscience of a Conservative,^[14] and by her Methodist youth minister (like her mother, concerned with issues of social justice), with whom she saw and met civil rights leader Martin Luther King, Jr., in Chicago in 1962.^[15]

Wellesley College years[link]

In 1965, Rodham enrolled at Wellesley College, where she majored in political science.^[16] During her freshman year, she served as president of the Wellesley Young Republicans;^[17][18] with this Rockefeller Republican-oriented group,^[19] she supported the elections of John Lindsay and Edward Brooke.^[20] She later stepped down from this position, as her views changed regarding the American Civil Rights Movement and the Vietnam War.^[17] In a letter to her youth minister at this time, she described herself as "a mind conservative and a heart liberal."^[21] In contrast to the 1960s current that advocated radical actions against the political system, she sought to work for change within it.^[22] In her junior year, Rodham became a supporter of the antiwar presidential nomination campaign of Democrat Eugene McCarthy.^[23] Following the assassination of Martin Luther King, Jr., Rodham organized a two-day student strike and worked with Wellesley's black students to recruit more black students and faculty.^[23] In early 1968, she was elected president of the Wellesley College Government Association and served through early 1969;^[22][24] she was instrumental in keeping Wellesley from being embroiled in the student disruptions common to other colleges.^[22] A number of her fellow students thought she might some day become the first woman President of the United States.^[22] So she could better understand her changing political views, Professor Alan Schechter assigned Rodham to intern at the House Republican Conference, and she attended the "Wellesley in Washington" summer program.^[23] Rodham was invited by moderate New York Republican Representative Charles Goodell to help Governor Nelson Rockefeller's late-entry campaign for the Republican nomination.^[23] Rodham attended the 1968 Republican National Convention in Miami. However, she was upset by how Richard Nixon's campaign portrayed Rockefeller and by what she perceived as the convention's "veiled" racist messages, and left the Republican Party for good.^[23]

Rodham wrote her senior thesis, a critique of the tactics of radical community organizer Saul Alinsky, under Professor Schechter.^[25] (Years later, while she was First Lady, access to the thesis was restricted at the request of the White House and it became the subject of some speculation.)^[25]

In 1969, she graduated with a Bachelor of Arts,^[26] with departmental honors in political science.^[25] Following pressure from some fellow students,^[27] she became the first student in Wellesley College history to deliver its commencement address.^[24] Her speech received a standing ovation lasting seven minutes.^[22][28][29] She was featured in an article published in Life magazine,^[30] due to the response to a part of her speech that criticized Senator Edward Brooke, who had spoken before her at the commencement.^[27] She also appeared on Irv Kupcinet's nationally syndicated television talk show as well as in Illinois and New England newspapers.^[31] That summer, she worked her way across Alaska, washing dishes in Mount McKinley National Park and sliming salmon in a fish processing cannery in Valdez (which fired her and shut down overnight when she complained about unhealthy conditions).^[32]

Yale Law School and postgraduate studies[link]

Rodham then entered Yale Law School, where she served on the editorial board of the Yale Review of Law and Social Action.^[33] During her second year, she worked at the Yale Child Study Center,^[34] learning about new research on early childhood brain development and working as a research assistant on the seminal work, Beyond the Best Interests of the Child (1973).^[35][36] She also took on cases of child abuse at Yale-New Haven Hospital^[35] and volunteered at New Haven Legal Services to provide free legal advice for the poor.^[34] In the summer of 1970, she was awarded a grant to work at Marian Wright Edelman's Washington Research Project, where she was assigned to Senator Walter Mondale's Subcommittee on Migratory Labor. There she researched migrant workers' problems in housing, sanitation, health and education.^[37] Edelman later became a significant mentor.^[38] Rodham was recruited by political advisor Anne Wexler to work on the 1970 campaign of Connecticut U.S. Senate candidate Joseph Duffey, with Rodham later crediting Wexler with providing her first job in politics.^[39]

In the late spring of 1971, she began dating Bill Clinton, also a law student at Yale. That summer, she interned at the Oakland, California, law firm of Treuhaft, Walker and Burnstein.^[40] The firm was well known for its support of constitutional rights, civil liberties, and radical causes (two of its four partners were current or former Communist Party members);^[40] Rodham worked on child custody and other cases.^{[nb 2]} Clinton canceled his original summer plans, in order to live with her in California;^[41] the couple continued living together in New Haven when they returned to law school.^[42] The following summer, Rodham and Clinton campaigned in Texas for unsuccessful 1972 Democratic presidential candidate George McGovern.^[43] She received a Juris Doctor degree from Yale in 1973,^[26] having stayed on an extra year to be with Clinton.^[44] Clinton first proposed marriage to her following graduation, but she declined.^[44]

Rodham began a year of postgraduate study on children and medicine at the Yale Child Study Center.^[45] Her first scholarly article, "Children Under the Law", was published in the Harvard Educational Review in late 1973.^[46] Discussing the new children's rights movement, it stated that "child citizens" were "powerless individuals"^[47] and argued that children should not be considered equally incompetent from birth to attaining legal age, but that instead courts should presume competence except when there is evidence otherwise, on a case-by-case basis.^[48] The article became frequently cited in the field.^[49]

Marriage and family, law career and First Lady of Arkansas[link]

From the East Coast to Arkansas[link]

During her postgraduate study, Rodham served as staff attorney for Edelman's newly founded Children's Defense Fund in Cambridge, Massachusetts,^[50] and as a consultant to the Carnegie Council on Children.^[51] In 1974 she was a member of the impeachment inquiry staff in Washington, D.C., advising the House Committee on the Judiciary during the Watergate scandal.^[52] Under the guidance of Chief Counsel John Doar and senior member Bernard Nussbaum,^[35] Rodham helped research procedures of impeachment and the historical grounds and standards for impeachment.^[52] The committee's work culminated in the resignation of President Richard Nixon in August 1974.^[52]

By then, Rodham was viewed as someone with a bright political future; Democratic political organizer and consultant Betsey Wright had moved from Texas to Washington the previous year to help guide her career;^[53] Wright thought Rodham had the potential to become a future senator or president.^[54] Meanwhile, Clinton had repeatedly asked her to marry him, and she continued to demur.^[55] However, after failing the District of Columbia bar exam^[56] and passing the Arkansas exam, Rodham came to a key decision. As she later wrote, "I chose to follow my heart instead of my head".^[57] She thus followed Bill Clinton to Arkansas, rather than staying in Washington where career prospects were brighter. He was then teaching law and running for a seat in the U.S. House of Representatives in his home state. In August 1974, Rodham moved to Fayetteville, Arkansas, and became one of only two female faculty members in the School of Law at the University of Arkansas, Fayetteville.^[58][59] She gave classes in criminal law, where she was considered a rigorous teacher and tough grader, and was the first director of the school's legal aid clinic.^[60] She still harbored doubts about marriage, concerned that her separate identity would be lost and that her accomplishments would be viewed in the light of someone else's.^[61]

Early Arkansas years[link]

Hillary Rodham and Bill Clinton bought a house in Fayetteville in the summer of 1975, and Hillary finally agreed to marry.^[63] Their wedding took place on October 11, 1975, in a Methodist ceremony in their living room.^[64] She announced she was keeping the name Hillary Rodham,^[64] to keep their professional lives separate and avoid apparent conflicts of interest and because "it showed that I was still me,"^[65] although her decision upset their mothers.^[66] Bill Clinton had lost the congressional race in 1974, but in November 1976 was elected Arkansas Attorney General, and so the couple moved to the state capital of Little Rock.^[67] There, in February 1977, Rodham joined the venerable Rose Law Firm, a bastion of Arkansan political and economic influence.^[68] She specialized in patent infringement and intellectual property law^[33] while also working pro bono in child advocacy;^[69] she rarely performed litigation work in court.^[70]