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An elective monarchy is a monarchy ruled by an elected monarch, in contrast to a hereditary monarchy in which the office is automatically passed down as a family inheritance. The manner of election, the nature of candidate qualifications, and the electors vary from case to case. Historically it is not uncommon for elective monarchies to transform into hereditary ones over time, or for hereditary ones to acquire at least occasional elective aspects.

Evolution of elective monarchies[link]

Arguably the world's oldest method to determine succession was for a military leader to ascend to power through some sort of election. As the kingdoms grew larger and the societies became less egalitarian, the right to vote was restricted to an ever smaller portion of the population (for example local chieftains and/or the nobility).

Many, if not most, kingdoms were officially elective historically, though the candidates were typically only from the family of the deceased monarch. Eventually, however, most elected monarchies introduced hereditary succession, guaranteeing that the title and office stayed within the royal family and specifying, more or less precisely, the order of succession. Hereditary systems probably came into being in order to ensure greater stability and continuity,^{[citation needed]} since the election and the period of interregnum associated with it had often been an opportunity for ambitious and powerful candidates to resort to violent or coercive means to achieve the throne. In fact, the problem of interregna is typical for monarchy in general, and has only been ameliorated (with a varying degree of success) by the new principle of succession.

Today, almost all monarchies are hereditary monarchies in which the monarchs come from one royal family with the office of sovereign being passed from one family member to another upon the death or abdication of the incumbent.

Historical examples[link]

The Hellenistic kings of Macedon and of Epirus were elected by the army, which was similar in composition to the ecclesia of democracies, the council of all free citizens. Military service often was linked with citizenship among the male members of the royal house.

In the ancient Kingdom of Rome, the kings were elected by the Assemblies. Once the Roman kings were overthrown, there remained an absolute prohibition for royal establishment in the Roman constitution, a prohibition which formally remained in place during imperial times, both Roman and Byzantine, although in practice the empire was an absolute monarchy. Therefore the office of Roman and Byzantine emperor remained vaguely elective (albeit with the election procedure never strictly defined, but generally understood to be a matter for the Senate) and heredity never was, and could never be, formally established in law. In order to bypass this prohibition and ensure dynastic continuity, many reigning Byzantine emperors had their heirs crowned co-emperor so that the throne could not be considered vacant at their own death and thus the need for succession by election would not arise.

The ancient Korean kingdom of Silla elected its first king by a conference of tribal and village elders in 57 BC; later, the monarchy of Silla became hereditary in nature.

The Holy Roman Empire is perhaps the best-known example of a elective monarchy (although it eventually became unofficially hereditary);^[1] after the 15th century, the emperor was elected by a small council of nobles called prince-electors from within the Hapsburg family. Most of the electoral seats were hereditary (some were held by clerics, so-called archbishop-electors). Archbishop-electors and other prince-(arch)bishops were bishops, who were usually elected by the cathedral chapters as religious leaders, but simultaneously ruled as monarch (prince) a territory of imperial immediacy, which usually comprised a part of their diocesan territory. Thus the prince-bishoprics were elective monarchies too. The same holds true for prince-abbeys, whose prince-abbesses or prince-abbots were elected by a colleges of clerics and imperially appointed as princely rulers in a pertaining territory.

The Venetian Republic employed an elaborate system whereby a Great Council, consisting of over 2000 Venetian aristocrats, elected a head of government, known as a doge, who served for life. Though Venice was nominally a Republic, high office was reserved only for the city's wealthy noble elite.

A system of elective monarchy existed in Anglo-Saxon England (see Witenagemot), the Kingdom of Hawaii, Visigothic Spain, and medieval Scandinavia and in the Principality of Transylvania. Medieval France was an elective monarchy at the time of the first Capetian kings; the kings however took the habit of, during their reign, having their son elected as successor. The election soon became a mere formality and vanished after the reign of Philip II of France.

In Africa, the Mali Empire functioned as both a constitutional and elective monarchy. The mansa (emperor) had to be approved by the Gbara or Great Assembly despite hereditary claims. The Kingdom of Kongo was a purer example of an elective monarchy, where blood claims had even less pull. Nobles elected a king's successor, and it was common for the successor to be of a different family as his predecessor. This form of elective monarchy existed in the kingdom from its inception in around 1400 until its complete disintegration in the early 20th century.

In the Mongol Empire, the Great Khan was chosen by the Kurultai.

In medieval Serbia a strong level of collective parliamentarism was being evolved, which elected the Prince. The rulers often in respect to tradition remained a member of the dynasty, even more so with the recognition as a Kingdom in 1077 and the title's restoration after loss in 1217 which strengthened the Monarch's authority, however they were elected all the way until even the Imperial period. It was only in the Byzantine-modelled later Serbian Despotate that the monarchy was de facto transferred into a hereditary monarchy.

The Republic at the Zenith of Its Power. Golden Liberty. The Royal Election of 1573, by Jan Matejko

In Poland, after the death of the last Piast in 1370, Polish kings were initially elected by a small council; gradually, this privilege was granted to all members of the szlachta (Polish nobility). Kings of Poland and Grand Princes of Lithuania during the times of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (1569–1795) were elected by gatherings of crowds of nobles at a field in Wola, today a neighbourhood of Warsaw. Since in Poland all sons of a noble were nobles, and not only the eldest, every one of an estimated 500,000 nobles could potentially have participated in such elections in person - by far the widest franchise of any European country at the time. During the election period, the function of the king was performed by an interrex (usually in person of the primate of Poland). This unique Polish election was termed the free election (wolna elekcja).

In the Islamic World Caliphs, successors to Muhammad, were originally elected by consensus of the community. The first four Caliphs were elected in this fashion as Sunni Muslims believed Muhammad had originally intended before Muawiyah, the fifth caliph, turned the Caliphate into what is known as the Umayyad Dynasty, a hereditary monarchy. In Sunni Islam, the first four elected caliphs were remembered as the Four Rightly Guided Caliphs. They were elected by a process known as Shura.

In 1800, leaders in Malta drafted a Declaration of Rights which was presented to the British Admiral Sir Alexander Ball, stating that they agreed to come "under the protection and sovereignty of the King of the free people, His Majesty the King of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland" - regarding the rule of the British King preferable to that of Napoleon's France and of the Knights of Malta, the two other choices available to them at the time. The Declaration further stated that "his Majesty has no right to cede these Islands to any power...if he chooses to withdraw his protection, and abandon his sovereignty, the right of electing another sovereign, or of the governing of these Islands, belongs to us, the inhabitants and aborigines alone, and without control."^[2]

In 1858, the central tribes of North Island elected Potatau te Wherowhero as their monarch. The Tainui tribal elders have continued this tradition and the New Zealand Maori Kingitanga movement alive to the present.

At the start of the 20th century, the first monarchs of several newly independent nations were elected by parliaments: Norway is the prime example. Previously, following precedent set in newly independent Greece, new nations without a well-established hereditary royal family, often chose their own monarchs from among the established royal families of Europe rather than elevate a member of the local power establishment, in the hope that a stable hereditary monarchy would eventually emerge from the process. The now-deposed royal families of Greece, Bulgaria, Albania (unsuccessfully) and Romania were originally appointed in this manner.

A short-lived autonomous monarchy during World War II, the Principality of Pindus and Voivodship of Macedonia also was an elective monarchy.

Other monarchs, such as the Shah of Iran, have been required to undergo a parliamentary vote of approval before being allowed to ascend to the throne.

An attempt to create an elective monarchy in the United States failed. Alexander Hamilton argued in a long speech before the Constitutional Convention of 1787 that the President of the United States should be an elective monarch, ruling for "good behavior" (i.e., for life, unless impeached) and with extensive powers. Hamilton believed that elective monarchs had sufficient power domestically to resist foreign corruption, yet there was enough domestic control over their behavior to prevent tyranny at home.^[3] His proposal was resoundingly voted down in favor of a four-year term with the possibility of reelection. In his later defense of the Constitution in the Federalist Papers, he often hints that a lifetime executive might be better, even as he praises the system with the four-year term.

The Empire of Haiti established in 1804 was also elective.

Election in hereditary monarchies[link]

In a hereditary monarchy, election may occasionally be used to fill a vacant throne. For example, the royal family may become extinct; depending on how precisely the succession to the throne is defined in law, several candidates with equally, or almost equally, strong claims could emerge, with an election being held to choose between them. This differs from a formally elective monarchy in that it is an extraordinary measure, and with the new monarch the succession again becomes hereditary.

Alternatively, the monarch may be deposed, as in a revolution. While sometimes a monarch may be forced to abdicate in favour of his or her heir, on other occasions the royal family as a whole has been rejected, the throne going to an elected candidate. Examples include:

• John of England, chosen by a council of nobles and royal advisors at the death of his brother, Richard I because the heir by strict primogeniture, Arthur of Brittany was a child at that time.
• Henry IV of England, chosen by Parliament to replace Richard II. Richard was childless, and the Earl of March, the next in line to the throne, was a young child at the time, so Parliament bypassed him in favour of Henry, who had led the revolt against Richard.
• Michael of Russia, chosen by a Zemsky Sobor (national assembly) after the extinction of the Rurikid dynasty and the end of the Time of Troubles. The resulting Romanov dynasty was an old boyar house with the close ties to the former royalty, and Michael's father, Feodor Romanov, was at the time a Patriarch of Moscow and All Russia under the monastic name of Filaret, in effect holding a position of interrex. Later, Patriarch Filaret, a skilled politician in his own right, became effectively a co-ruler and sometimes a regent for his weak and not very healthy son.
• William III and Mary II of England, chosen by Parliament to replace James II. While Mary was James' daughter, and William and Mary were succeeded by Mary's younger sister Anne, the male descendants of James II were explicitly bypassed in the orders of succession of the late 17th and early 18th centuries.
• Louis-Philippe of France, elected King during the July Revolution.

Current uses[link]

Currently, the world's only true elective monarchies are:

• Malaysia, where the Yang di-Pertuan Agong (Supreme Head of State) is elected to a five-year term. Nine hereditary rulers from the Malay States form a Council of Rulers who will determine the next Agong via a secret ballot. The position has to date, been de facto rotated through the State rulers, originally based on seniority.
  • Additionally, the Malaysian state of Negeri Sembilan is itself an elective monarchy, where the Yang di-Pertuan Besar ruler of Negeri Sembilan is selected by a council of ruling chiefs.
  • Sultan of Perak, is selected among most senior male prince from descendents of 18th Sultan of Perak, Sultan Ahmadin. The Sultan, Crown Prince (Raja Muda), Raja Di-Hilir (Deputy Crown Prince) were selected by Dewan Negara Perak. Son of incumbent Sultan cannot become the Raja Muda if there is a senior prince descendent from previous sultan, unless if the senior prince give up his right as Raja Muda.
• The Kingdom of Cambodia, in which kings are chosen for a life term by The Royal Council of the Throne from candidates of royal blood.
• The Holy See, where the Pope is elected by the College of Cardinals.

In addition, Andorra could be considered a semi-elective principality. Andorra's two heads of state are Spain's Bishop of La Seu d'Urgell and, since 1589, the king of France. As the French monarchy has long since been eliminated, the position of co-prince of Andorra falls to the democratically elected President of France. However, the Andorran authorities or people have no say in the election of the President of France, leaving Andorra in the unique position of having a monarch who is democratically elected by the citizenry of another state.

Swaziland also has a form of quasi-elective monarchy. In Swaziland, no king can appoint his successor. Instead, the royal family decides which of his wives shall be "Great wife" and "Indovukazi" (She-Elephant / Queen Mother). The son of this "Great Wife" will automatically become the next king. The eldest son is never appointed successor as he has other ceremonial roles.

In Nigeria, traditional rulers (or "royal fathers", e.g., the Adebonojo, Eze) are usually chosen by a council of kingmakers.

The succession to the throne of Saudi Arabia, while hereditary, is not determined by a succession law but rather by consensus of the House of Saud as to who will be Crown Prince of Saudi Arabia; consensus may change depending on the Crown Prince's actions. In effect, this makes the Saudi monarchy elective within the House of Saud, as the king's eldest son has not become Crown Prince since the death of King Abdul Aziz Ibn Saud in 1953.

The President of the United Arab Emirates is a de facto hereditary position belonging to the Emir of Abu Dhabi. Thus, although elected by the Supreme Council, the president is essentially hereditary - the emir of Abu Dhabi holds the position.

In New Zealand, the Maori monarch, head of the Maori King Movement, is elected by the kaumatua of various New Zealand iwi (tribes). However, every Maori monarch to date had been succeeded by a son or daughter, making the position hereditary in effect. The traditional heads of the three regions of Wallis and Futuna (territories of the French Republic) are similarly elected.

Samoa was an elective monarchy from the first day of independence in 1962. From 1962 on, Samoa had two heads of state, Tupua Tamasese Mea'ole and Malietoa Tanumafili II. Tupua Tamasese Mea'ole died in 1963, and Malietoa Tanumafili II was the sole head of state (O le Ao o le Malo) of Samoa until his death in 2007. The Samoan Constitution stipulates the successor to the two original heads of state are to be elected for five-year terms by the Fono, the parliament of Samoa. The elected successor was one of Samoa's four paramount chiefs, Tufuga Efi. However, articles 18 and 45 of the Constitution provide, respectively, that any Member of Parliament may be elected head of state, and that any Samoan citizen may be elected to Parliament^[4], and Samoa is now considered a parliamentary republic. However, the head of state is still referred to as "His Highness"^[5], and the Constitution does not outwardly declare that the form of government has been changed.

See also[link]

• Royal elections in Poland
• Papal election
• Papal conclave, 2005
• President for life
• Tanistry

References[link]

External links[link]

• Worsøe, Hans H.. "Official Denmark - The Royal House". The Royal Danish Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Archived from the original on 2009-02-27. http://web.archive.org/web/20090227145937/http://www.um.dk/publikationer/um/english/denmark/kap1/1-1.asp. Retrieved 2008-01-02. 
• "The Noble Republic, 1572-1795". Poland - The Historical Setting. Polish Academic Information Center, University at Buffalo. http://info-poland.buffalo.edu/classroom/longhist3.html. Retrieved 2008-01-02. 
• Jędruch, Jacek (1998). Constitutions, Elections and Legislatures of Poland, 1493-1993. EJJ Books. ISBN 0-7818-0637-2. http://info-poland.buffalo.edu/JJ.html. Retrieved 2008-01-02. 
• "Norway's elective monarchy". The New York Times. November 16, 1905. http://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9802EFDD143DE733A25755C1A9679D946497D6CF#. Retrieved 2008-01-03. 

This list concerns the historical monarchs of Poland, from the Middle Ages to 1795 and 19th and early 20th century claimants to the Polish throne. For presidents and other heads of state of Poland during the 20th and 21st centuries, see List of heads of state of Poland.

History of Poland
This article is part of a series
Chronology List of Polish monarchs
Prehistory and protohistory
Stone Age
Bronze and Iron Age
Antiquity
Middle Ages
Early Middle Ages
Kingdom of the Piasts (966–1385)
Kingdom of the Jagiellons (1385–1572)
Early Modern
Elective Monarchy (1572–1648)
The Deluge and Decline (1648–1764)
Three Partitions (1764–1795)
Modern
Partitions - Duchies - Kingdoms (1795–1918)
World War 1 (1914–1918)
Second Republic (1918–1939)
World War 2 (1939–1945)
People's Republic (1945–1989)
Contemporary
Third Republic (1989–present)
Poland Portal v t e

Poland, or at least its nucleus, was ruled at various times either by dukes (the 10th-14th century) or by kings (the 11th-18th century). The longest-reigning dynasties were the Piasts (ca. 960 – 1370) and Jagiellons (1386–1572). Intervening and subsequent monarchs were often rulers of foreign countries or princes recruited from foreign dynasties.

During the latter period a tradition of free election of monarchs made it a uniquely electable position in Europe (16th-18th centuries). Polish independence ended with the Third Partition of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (1795) and was restored at the end of World War I (1918) on a republican basis.

Legendary rulers[link]

Ruler		Tribe	Reign	Notes
Lech		Lechites	6th century	legendary founder of the Polish nation
Krakus		Lechites	8th century	legendary founder of Kraków
Wanda		Lechites	8th century	legendary daughter of Krakus

[edit] Semi-legendary rulers of the western Polans (Greater Poland)

Ruler		Dynasty	Reign	Notes
Popiel І		Popielids	Duke, 9th century	a semi-legendary ruler of the West Slavic ("proto-Polish") tribe of Goplans and Polans
Popiel ІІ		Popielids	Duke, 9th century	a semi-legendary ruler of the West Slavic ("proto-Polish") tribe of Goplans and Polans
Siemowit		Piast	Duke, 9th century	semi-legendary son of Piast the Wheelwright
Lestek		Piast	Duke, 9th-10th centuries	semi-legendary son of Siemowit
Siemomysł		Piast	Duke, 10th century	semi-legendary son of Lestko

[edit] Monarchs of Poland

Ruler		Dynasty	Reign	Notes
Mieszko I of Poland		Piast	Duke 960?–992	son of Siemomysł first Christian monarch Misico, dux Wandalorum
Bolesław I the Brave		Piast	Duke 992–1025 King 1025	son of Mieszko I and Dobrawa of Bohemia first to be crowned King Regnum Sclavorum, Gothorum sive Polonorum
Mieszko II Lambert		Piast	King 1025–1031	son of Bolesław I and Emnilda of Lusatia
Bezprym		Piast	Duke 1031–1032	son of Bolesław I and Judith of Hungary (disputed)
Otto Bolesławowic		Piast	Duke 1032	son of Bolesław I and Emnilda
Theodorick (Dytryk)		Piast	Duke 1032	grandson of Mieszko I and Oda of Haldensleben
Mieszko II Lambert		Piast	Duke 1032–1034	restored
Bolesław the Forgotten		Piast	Duke 1034-1039	son of Mieszko II and Richeza of Lotharingia
Casimir I the Restorer		Piast	Duke 1039–1058	son of Mieszko II and Richeza of Lotharingia
Bolesław II the Bold		Piast	Duke 1058–1076 King 1076–1079	son of Casimir I and Maria Dobroniega of Kiev
Władysław I Herman		Piast	Duke 1079–1102	son of Casimir I and Maria Dobroniega
Zbigniew		Piast	Duke 1098–1107	son of Ladislas I and Przecława, Prawdzic coat of arms (disputed) first jointly with Ladislas I 1098-1102
Bolesław III Wrymouth		Piast	Duke 1107–1138	son of Ladislas I and Judith of Bohemia first jointly with Ladislas 1098-1102 introduced senioral principle
Władysław II the Exile		Piast	High Duke 1138–1146	son of Bolesław III and Zbyslava of Kiev also Duke of Silesia exiled by his brothers
Bolesław IV the Curly		Piast	High Duke 1146–1173	son of Bolesław III and Salomea of Berg also Duke of Masovia
Mieszko III the Old		Piast	High Duke 1173–1177	son of Bolesław III and Salomea also Duke of Greater Poland
Casimir II of Poland		Piast	High Duke 1177–1190	son of Bolesław III and Salomea also Duke of Wiślica and Sandomierz
Mieszko III the Old		Piast	High Duke 1190	restored
Casimir II the Just		Piast	High Duke 1190–1194	restored
Leszek I the White		Piast	High Duke 1194–1198	son of Casimir II and Helen of Znojmo also Duke of Sandomierz
Mieszko III the Old		Piast	High Duke 1198–1199	restored
Leszek I the White		Piast	High Duke 1199	restored
Mieszko III the Old		Piast	High Duke 1199-1202	restored
Władysław III Spindleshanks		Piast	High Duke 1202	son of Mieszko III and Eudoxia of Kiev also Duke of Greater Poland
Leszek I the White		Piast	High Duke 1202–1210	restored
Mieszko IV Tanglefoot		Piast	High Duke 1210–1211	son of Ladislas II and Agnes of Babenberg also Duke of Silesia
Leszek I the White		Piast	High Duke 1211–1225	restored
Henryk I the Bearded		Piast	High Duke 1225	grandson of Ladislas II, son of Bolesław I the Tall and Krystyna also Duke of Silesia
Leszek I the White		Piast	High Duke 1225–1227	restored assassinated
Władysław III Spindleshanks		Piast	High Duke 1227–1229	restored
Konrad I of Masovia		Piast	High Duke 1229–1232	son of Casimir II and Helen of Znojmo also Duke of Masovia
Henryk I the Bearded		Piast	High Duke 1232–1238	restored
Henryk II the Pious		Piast	High Duke 1238–1241	son of Henry I and Saint Hedwig of Andechs (Saint Hedwig of Silesia) also Duke of Wroclaw and Greater Poland fell at Battle of Legnica
Bolesław II Rogatka		Piast	High Duke 1241	son of Henry II and Anne of Bohemia also Duke of Silesia
Konrad I of Masovia		Piast	High Duke 1241–1243	restored
Bolesław V the Chaste		Piast	High Duke 1243–1279	son of Leszek the White and Grzymislawa of Luck
Leszek II the Black		Piast	High Duke 1279–1288	paternal grandson of CI maternal grandson of Henry II son of Casimir I of Kuyavia and Constance of Wrocław
Bolesław II of Masovia		Piast	High Duke 1288	grandson of Konrad of Masovia Duke of Masovia
Henryk IV Probus		Piast	High Duke 1288–1289	paternal grandson of Henry II maternal grandson of Konrad I son of Henry III the White and Judyta of Masovia Duke of Lower Silesia
Bolesław II of Masovia		Piast	High Duke 1289	restored
Władysław I the Elbow-high		Piast	High Duke 1289	grandson of Konrad I of Masovia son of Casimir I of Kuyavia and Euphrosyne of Opole
Henryk IV Probus		Piast	High Duke 1289–1290	restored
Przemysł II		Piast	High Duke 1290–1291 King 1295–1296	grandson of Henry II son of Przemysł I and Elisabeth of Wrocław also Duke of Poznań, Greater Poland and Pomerania
Wenceslaus II of Bohemia (Wacław II Czeski)		Přemyslid	High Duke 1291–1300 King 1300–1305	son of Ottokar II of Bohemia and Kunigunda of Slavonia married Premyslas II's daughter Elisabeth Richeza of Poland also King of Bohemia
Wenceslaus III of Bohemia (Wacław III Czeski)		Přemyslid	King 1305–1306	son of Wenceslaus II and Judith of Habsburg uncrowned assassinated
Władysław I the Elbow-high		Piast	High Duke 1306–1320 King 1320–1333	restored re-united the Kingdom of Poland
Casimir III the Great		Piast	King 1333–1370	son of Ladislas IV/I and Hedwig of Kalisz regarded as one of the greatest Polish monarchs
Louis I of Hungary (Ludwik Węgierski)		Anjou	King 1370–1382	son of Charles I of Hungary and Elisabeth of Poland nephew of Casimir III elected King and crowned on 17 November also King of Hungary
Jadwiga of Poland		Anjou	King 1384–1399	daughter of Louis I and Elisabeth of Bosnia crowned "king", 1384 reigned jointly with her husband Władysław II Jagiełło from 1386

[edit] Kings of Poland and Grand Dukes of Lithuania

[edit] Jagiellon Dynasty

Ruler		Dynasty	Reign Began	Reign Ended	Notes
Władysław II Jagiełło (Jogaila)		Jagiellon	4 March 1386	1 June 1434	son of Algirdas of Lithuania and Uliana of Tver Grand Duke of Lithuania, 1377-1434 reigned jointly with his wife Jadwiga till 1399 the longest-reigning king of Poland
Władysław III of Varna (Władysław Warneńczyk, Vladislovas III)		Jagiellon	25 July 1434	10 November 1444	son of Władysław II Jagiełło and Sophia of Halshany also king of Hungary, as Ulászló I fell at Battle of Varna, in Bulgaria, hence called "of Varna"
Casimir IV Jagiellon (Kazimierz Jagiellończyk, Kazimieras Jogailaitis)		Jagiellon	25 June 1447	7 June 1492	son of Ladislas II and Sophia of Halshany also Grand Duke of Lithuania, 1440–92
John I Albert (Jan Olbracht, Jonas Albrechtas)		Jagiellon	23 September 1492	16 June 1501	son of Casimir IV and Elisabeth of Austria
Alexander Jagiellon (Aleksander, Aleksandras)		Jagiellon	12 December 1501	19 August 1506	son of Casimir IV and Elisabeth of Austria also Grand Duke of Lithuania 1492-1506
Sigismund I the Old (Zygmunt Stary, Žygimantas Senasis)		Jagiellon	8 December 1506	1 April 1548	son of Casimir IV and Elisabeth of Austria also Grand Duke of Lithuania forced Prussian Homage in 1525 annexed Duchy of Masovia in 1526 entered alliance with Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor
Sigismund II Augustus (Zygmunt August, Žygimantas Augustas)		Jagiellon	1 April 1548	7 July 1572	son of Sigismund I and Bona Sforza also Grand Duke of Lithuania replaced the personal union of the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania with a real union and an elective monarchy (Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth) in 1569

[edit] Kings of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth

Ruler		Dynasty	Reign Began	Reign Ended	Notes
Henryk Walezy (Henry III)		Valois	21 February 1574	12 May 1575	son of Henry II of France and Catherine de' Medici abandoned the Polish-Lithuanian throne three months after his coronation in order to become King of France
Anna		Jagiellon	King 15 December 1575	12 December 1586	daughter of Sigismund I and Bona Sforza reigned together with her husband Stephen Báthory
Stefan Batory (Stephen I Báthory)		Báthory	15 December 1575	12 December 1586	son of Stephen VIII Báthory and Catherine Telegdi Prince of Transylvania reigned together with his wife Anna regarded as one of the greatest kings of Poland
Zygmunt III (Sigismund III )		Vasa	18 September 1587	19 April 1632	grandson of Sigismund I son of John III of Sweden and Catherine Jagellon also King of Sweden 1592-1599, titular King 1599-1632
Władysław IV		Vasa	8 November 1632	20 May 1648	son of Sigismund III and Anne of Austria Titular Tsar of Russia 1610-1634, titular King of Sweden 1632-1648
Jan II Kazimierz (John II Casimir)		Vasa	20 November 1648	16 September 1668	son of Sigismund III and Constance of Austria Titular King of Sweden 1648-1660 abdicated
Michał Korybut (Michael I)		Wiśniowiecki	19 June 1669	10 November 1673	son of a successful but controversial military commander, Jeremi Wiśniowiecki, and Gryzelda Konstancja Zamoyska
Jan III (John III)		Sobieski	21 May 1674	17 June 1696	son of Jakub Sobieski and Zofia Teofillia Daniłowicz most famous for his brilliant victory over the Turks at the Battle of Vienna in 1683
August II Mocny (Augustus II the Strong)		Wettin	15 September 1697	16 February 1704 (deposed) 24 September 1706 (abdicates)	son of John George III and Anna Sophie of Denmark Elector of Saxony as Frederick Augustus I, 1694–1733
Stanisław I		Leszczyński	4 October 1705	8 August 1709	son of Rafał Leszczyński and Anna Jabłonowska yielded to Augustus II
August II Mocny (Augustus II the Strong)		Wettin	8 August 1709	1 February 1733	restored
Stanisław I		Leszczyński	12 September 1733	30 June 1734 (deposed) 27 January 1736 (abdicates)	restored defeated in War of the Polish Succession became Duke of Lorraine until his death
August III Sas (Augustus III)		Wettin	17 January 1734 (in opposition) 30 June 1734 (effectively)	5 October 1763	son of Augustus II and Christiane Eberhardine of Brandenburg-Bayreuth
Stanisław II August		Poniatowski	25 November 1764	7 January 1795	son of Stanisław Poniatowski and Konstancja Czartoryska forced to abdicate when the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (the Polish Republic since May 3, 1791) ceased to exist

[edit] Claim made by foreign states after Partitions of Poland

[edit] Kings and Tsars of the Kingdom of Poland

Ruler		Dynasty	Reign Began	Reign Ended	Notes
Alexander I (Aleksander I)		Holstein-Gottorp-Romanov	9 June 1815	1 December 1825	The Kingdom of Poland created at the Congress of Vienna and therefore dubbed "Congress Poland".
Nicholas I (Mikołaj I)		Holstein-Gottorp-Romanov	1 December 1825	2 March 1855	deposed by the Polish Parliament (Sejm) on 25 January 1831 during November Uprising (1830–1831), autonomy abolished in 1832.
Alexander II (Aleksander II)		Holstein-Gottorp-Romanov	2 March 1855	13 March 1881	The Kingdom of Poland annexed into the Russian Empire after January Uprising (1863–1864), and the name of the kingdom was changed to Vistula Land (1867–1915)
Alexander III (Aleksander III)		Holstein-Gottorp-Romanov	13 March 1881	1 November 1894
Nicholas II (Mikołaj II)		Holstein-Gottorp-Romanov	1 November 1894	15 March 1917	during World War I "Vistula Land" was looted and abandoned by the retreating Russian army in 1915; abdicated in 1917

[edit] Kings and Queens of Galicia and Lodomeria (Galicja)

Ruler		Dynasty	Reign Began	Reign Ended	Notes
Maria Theresa (Maria Teresa)		Habsburg	22 September 1772	29 November 1780	the area annexed by the Habsburg Monarchy in the First Partition of Poland (the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth); Empress Maria Theresa of Austria (who was also Queen of Hungary, Queen of Bohemia, etc.) recalled the old Hungarian claims to the Regnum Galiciæ et Lodomeriæ, and Czech claims to the Duchies of Auschwitz and Zator
Joseph II (Józef II)		Habsburg-Lorraine	29 November 1780	20 February 1790
Leopold II (Leopold II)		Habsburg-Lorraine	20 February 1790	1 March 1792
Francis II (Franciszek II)		Habsburg-Lorraine	1 March 1792	2 March 1835	the last Holy Roman Emperor, ruling from 1792 until 6 August 1806, when he abdicated and the Empire was formally dissolved. In 1804, he had founded the Austrian Empire and became Francis I, the first Emperor of Austria (Kaiser von Österreich)
Ferdinand I (Ferdynand I)		Habsburg-Lorraine	2 March 1835	2 December 1848	after the unsuccessful Cracow Uprising of 1846, the Free City of Cracow was annexed by Austria on 16 November 1846 as the Grand Duchy of Cracow; the full official name of the province was extended to Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria, and the Grand Duchy of Cracow with the Duchies of Auschwitz and Zator
Francis Joseph I (Franciszek Józef I)		Habsburg-Lorraine	2 December 1848	21 November 1916	after the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867, and the reorganization of the Empire as the Dual Monarchy, a broad autonomy was granted to Galicia and Lodomeria within Cisleithania, the Austrian part of Austria-Hungary
Charles I (Karol I)		Habsburg-Lorraine	21 November 1916	11 November 1918	renounced all participation in affairs of state but did not abdicate

[edit] Dukes of Warsaw (Warszawa)

Ruler		Dynasty	Reign Began	Reign Ended	Notes
Frederick Augustus I (Fryderyk August)		Wettin	9 July 1807	14 March 1813	grandson of Augustus III King of Saxony 1805–1827 Duchy of Warsaw established by Napoleon I in 1807 as a protectorate of the French Empire, dissolved at the Congress of Vienna and divided into the Kingdom of Poland, protectorate of the Russian Empire, and the Grand Duchy of Posen, protectorate of the Kingdom of Prussia

[edit] Dukes of Dantzig (Gdańsk)

Ruler		Dynasty	Reign Began	Reign Ended	Notes
François Joseph Lefebvre (Franciszek Józef Lefebvre)		Lefebvre	9 September 1807	2 January 1814	Free City of Danzig, a semi-independent state established by Napoleon I in 1807, dissolved at the Congress of Vienna and reincorporated into Prussia

[edit] Grand Dukes of Posen (Poznań)

Ruler		Dynasty	Reign Began	Reign Ended	Notes
Frederick William III (Fryderyk Wilhelm III)		Hohenzollern	9 June 1815	7 June 1840	The Grand Duchy of Posen created at the Congress of Vienna; represented by Duke-Governor Antoni Radziwiłł until 1831.
Frederick William IV (Fryderyk Wilhelm IV)		Hohenzollern	7 June 1840	2 January 1861	autonomy abolished on June 28, 1848; the Grand Duchy was formally replaced by the Province of Posen in the Prussian constitution of 5 December 1848.
William I (Wilhelm I)		Hohenzollern	2 January 1861	9 March 1888	The Province of Posen, within the Kingdom of Prussia, became a part of the German Empire (1871–1918)
Frederick III (Fryderyk III)		Hohenzollern	9 March 1888	15 June 1888
William II (Wilhelm II)		Hohenzollern	15 June 1888	9 November 1918	abdicated in 1918

See also[link]

• Kings of Poland family tree
• Royal coronations in Poland
• Dukes of Greater Poland
• Dukes of Masovia
• Dukes of Pomerania
• Dukes of Sieradz-Łęczyca
• Dukes of Silesia
• List of Galician rulers
• List of heads of state of Poland
• List of Prime Ministers of Poland
• List of Poles

External links[link]

• Górczyk, Wojciech, "Półksiężyc, orzeł, lew i smok. Uwagi o godłach napieczętnych Piastów" Histmag.org June 14, 2009

Thom Hartmann
Thom Hartmann on set of his television program "The Big Picture".
Born	(1951-05-07) May 7, 1951 (age 61) Grand Rapids, Michigan, U.S.
Occupation	Radio/TV host, political commentator, author, former psychotherapist, former entrepreneur
Spouse	Louise Hartmann
Website
thomhartmann.com

Thom Hartmann (born May 7, 1951) is an American radio host, author, former psychotherapist and entrepreneur, and progressive political commentator. His nationally-syndicated radio show, The Thom Hartmann Program, airs in the United States and has 2.75 million listeners a week.^[1] In 2008, 2009, and 2010, Talkers Magazine named Hartmann the tenth most important talk show host in America,^[2] and number 8 in 2011 defining him as the most important liberal host for four years in a row (the ones above Hartmann are conservatives).

Hartmann's article "Talking Back To Talk Radio" became part of the original business plan of Air America Radio. He replaced Al Franken on the network on February 19, 2007. On March 1, 2009, Hartmann moved syndication of his show from Air America to the former Jones Network, now owned by Dial Global (which also syndicates Neal Boortz, Ed Schultz, Michael Smerconish, Bill Press, Stephanie Miller, and Clark Howard). In the summer of 2009, his program began to also be offered to nonprofit stations via the Pacifica Radio network, and some community/nonprofit stations in the US are also carrying his show. The radio program is also simulcast as a TV program by Free Speech TV^[3] on Dish Network and DirecTV. Additionally, he stars in a one-hour daily TV show which his production company records at the studios of and licenses to the RT news network, The Big Picture; that TV show is also syndicated by Free Speech TV and carried on both Dish Network and local cable TV stations.

Hartmann is a lay scholar of the history and textual analysis of the United States Constitution; attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD); Thomas Jefferson; the Assassination of John F. Kennedy; the Federalist Papers; electronic voting rigging; and environmental issues like global warming. He has authored many books on political topics and ADHD. He is the inventor of the Hunter vs. farmer theory of the condition.

Early life[link]

Hartmann was born in Grand Rapids, Michigan, the son of a staunch conservative Republican, atheist father and a Christian mother,^[4] and grew up in nearby Lansing. His paternal grandparents were from Norway.^[5] Interested in politics from a young age, he campaigned for Barry Goldwater during the 1964 presidential election when he was 13.^[6] By 1968, Hartmann was studying at Michigan State University and working as a part-time news announcer at local country music station WITL while protesting the Vietnam War with Students for a Democratic Society (SDS).^[7]

Beliefs[link]

Hartmann is considered to have progressive/liberal politics (although he describes himself as part of the radical middle).^[8] He is the author of numerous books including Unequal Protection: The Rise of Corporate Dominance and the Theft of Human Rights, in which he argues that the 1886 U.S. Supreme Court decision in Santa Clara County v. Southern Pacific Railroad Company (118 U.S. 394) did not actually grant corporate personhood, and that this doctrine derives from a mistaken interpretation of a Supreme Court clerk's notes. Hartmann considers this a clear contradiction of the intent of the Founding Fathers of the United States.^[9] He has also written on the separation of church and state, drawing upon the Federalist Papers to argue that the Founding Fathers warned against the notion of the United States being a Christian nation. He contends that the 2000 American election and 2004 American election were stolen through electronic tampering, denial of the voting franchise by rigged voting lists, and limiting availability of voting machines in selected precincts. He also accuses the Bush administration of eroding democracy and individual freedoms.

Hartmann is also a vocal critic of the effects of neoliberal globalization on the U.S. economy, claiming that economic policies enacted during and since the presidency of Ronald Reagan have led, in large part, to many American industrial enterprises' being acquired by multinational firms based in overseas countries, leading in many cases to manufacturing jobs' – once considered a major foundation of the U.S. economy – being relocated to countries in Asia and other areas where the costs of labor are lower than in the U.S.; and the concurrent reversal of the United States' traditional role of a leading exporter of finished manufactured goods to that of a primary importer of finished manufactured goods (exemplified by massive trade deficits with countries such as China). Hartmann argues that this phenomenon is leading to the erosion of the American middle class, whose survival Hartmann deems critical to the survival of American democracy. This argument is expressed in Hartmann's 2006 book, Screwed: The Undeclared War Against The Middle Class and What We Can Do About It. One of the book's main arguments is that media deregulation leads to corporate media's shifting the American consensus towards the acceptance of privatization and massive corporate profits – which causes the shrinking of the middle class.

In the book Ultimate Sacrifice, he and co-author Lamar Waldron argue that President John F. Kennedy's assassination resulted from a conspiracy by two mafia godfathers (Carlos Marcello and Santo Trafficante, Jr.) who took advantage of a proposed 1963 USA-sponsored coup (against Cuba's Fidel Castro) to kill the President and then hide their tracks in the resulting cover-up of the top-secret coup plans. Gore Vidal, in his recent autobiography "Point To Point Navigation" devotes much of the final two chapters of his book to praising Hartmann's and Lamar Waldron's scholarship in "solving" the JFK case (JFK was a friend of Vidal's).

Talk radio career[link]

Thom Hartmann doing his radio show, the Thom Hartmann Program.

Hartmann started in radio as a DJ (country, rock, progressive overnight) in 1968 in Lansing, Michigan, (on WITL, WVIC, WFMK) and program director at WNBY and worked full or part-time in radio while also attending school and/or running businesses in Michigan for a decade. He returned to radio in February 2003 with a show on a local station in Vermont, then a month later picked up the noon-3 PM ET slot on the i.e. America Radio Network and Sirius Satellite Radio. In 2005, he moved from Vermont to Oregon and, in addition to continuing his national show, also co-hosted a local talk show in Portland, Oregon (with Carl Wolfson, the late Heidi Tauber, and later Christine Alexander), from 2005 until early 2007 on KPOJ, initially an affiliate of Air America Radio owned by Clear Channel Communications. The KPOJ local morning 6 – 9 AM PT is now hosted by Carl Wolfson. In late 2010 Hartmann moved his show from Portland to Washington D.C.^{[citation needed]}

Hartmann's national program, on the air since 2003 and now in the 3PM to 6PM ET daypart, was chosen by Air America to replace Al Franken on most Air America affiliates in 2007.^[10] Some stations, such as The Quake in San Francisco, had already dropped or moved Franken for Hartmann, who now is, according to Talkers Magazine, America's most important liberal talker. As of March 2012, the show was carried on 81 terrestrial radio stations in 34 states as well as on Sirius and XM satellite radio. A community radio station in Africa, Radio Builsa in Ghana, also broadcasts the show. Various local cable TV networks simulcast the program.

According to his syndicator Dial Global, more people listen to Hartmann's show on more stations than any other progressive talk show in America. The Thom Hartmann Show is estimated by industry magazine Talkers to have 2.75 million unique listers per week. In addition to Dial Global, a subsidiary of Triton Media Group, the show is now also offered via Pacifica Audioport to non-profit stations in a non-profit compliant format and is simulcast on Dish Network Channel 9415 via Free Speech TV Network.

Many guests appear on the show purporting points of view on diverse social and political topics. Some guests proffer progressive views similar to Hartmann's, but more than half are conservatives, libertarians, or Ayn Rand Institute members^[11] who espouse opposing views. A vigorous debate with the host usually ensues. There are four regular guests on the program, and they are sympathetic to Hartmann's political views. Sen. Bernie Sanders (Ind.-VT) appears every Friday during the first hour of the show titled "Brunch with Bernie". Ellen Ratner of the Talk Radio News Service provides Washington commentary daily. Victoria Jones who is the White House correspondent for Talk Radio News Service appears occasionally as does Dr. Ravi Batra an economics professor at SMU.

Like all talk radio shows, The Thom Hartmann Program takes calls from listeners. When callers asked Thom how he was, he used to reply, "I'm great, but I'll get better." But after a time callers would regularly try to elicit this response so he's stopped replying this way routinely. Hartmann ends each show with the phrase, "Activism begins with you, democracy begins with you. Get out there, get active! Tag, you're it!"

TV program[link]

Hartmann produces a one hour daily TV show, The Big Picture with Thom Hartmann, which is seen worldwide on the Russian-based RT news channel, as well as on Free Speech TV; through Free Speech TV it is also seen on selected local-origination and Public-access television cable TV channels.

Business career[link]

Hartmann began his business career in the early 1970s while in his 20s, co-founding The Woodley Herber Company. Woodley Herber sold herbal products, potpourris and teas, and operated until 1978. It was during this time that Hartmann obtained three degrees in herbology and homeopathic medicine, one of which was from a diploma mill. Thereafter Hartmann moved to New Hampshire to begin The New England Salem Children's Village,^[12] which still operates in Rumney, New Hampshire. He was Executive Director of NESCT for five years, and on its board for over 25 years. NESCT's child-care model was based on that of the German Salem International organization, and through his affiliation with that group he helped start international relief programs in Uganda, Colombia, Russia, Israel, India, Australia, and several other countries between 1979 and today.

Hartmann founded International Wholesale Travel and its retail subsidiary Sprayberry Travel in Atlanta in 1983, a business which in the intervening years^{[clarification needed]} has generated over a quarter of a billion dollars in revenue.^{[citation needed]} According to their website, Sprayberry Travel was lauded by the Wall Street Journal in 1984 for being one of the early adopters of frequent travel programs analogous to the recently initiated frequent flyer programs of the airline industry.^[13] He sold his share in the business in 1986 and retired with his family to Germany to work with the international relief organization Salem International.^[14] In the late 1970s, he had been a trainer in advertising and marketing for The American Marketing Centers (now defunct), and in 1987 after returning from Germany founded the Atlanta advertising agency Chandler, MacDonald, Stout, Schneiderman & Poe, Inc., which did business as The Newsletter Factory.^[15] He sold his interest in that company in 1996 and retired to Vermont.

Other areas of notability[link]

Hartmann is a writer who has published more than twenty books on diverse topics. The title which won the most critical acclaim is The Last Hours of Ancient Sunlight. In 1999 he was invited by the Dalai Lama to spend a week in Dharamsala after the Dalai Lama finished reading this book. Hartmann won the Project Censored Award in 2004 for Unequal Protection. As a result of a book on spirituality, The Prophet's Way, he was invited in 1998 to meet Pope John Paul II.

Trained in the 1970s in Neuro-Linguistic Programming by Richard Bandler (Hartmann is licensed by Bandler's Society of NLP as both an NLP Practitioner and an NLP Trainer, and Bandler wrote the foreword to his book "Healing ADD"), Hartmann popularized some of its concepts in Cracking the Code (2007), which argues that Newt Gingrich and Frank Luntz made use of them in the 1980s and 1990s for Republican Party causes and advocates using them to advance liberalism. His book "Healing ADD" also leans heavily on NLP techniques. His book on the JFK Assassination (written with Lamar Waldron) titled "Ultimate Sacrifice" is cited extensively in the last two chapters of Gore Vidal's recent autobiography as having "finally solved" that case.

Hartmann was one of several contributors to Air America, the Playbook, a 300 plus page collection of essays, transcripts, and interviews by liberal radio personalities. It was published shortly before the 2006 Congressional elections and was on The New York Times Best Seller list for October 8, 2006.^[16]

Leonardo DiCaprio made a web movie titled "Global Warning" that was inspired by The Last Hours of Ancient Sunlight. Hartmann appears in DiCaprio's 2007 documentary The 11th Hour, as well as the feature documentary film Dalai Lama Renaissance (with Harrison Ford), and Crude Impact.

Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder[link]

Hartmann has authored in the area of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and adult attention-deficit disorder (AADD) and is the creator (first proposed by him in 1978, first published nationally in 1992) of the now well-known hunter vs. farmer theory that ADD is an expected evolutionary adaptation to hunting lifestyles. These individuals have the ability of rapidly shifting their focus and external attention and of holding multiple trains of thought. This ability causes difficulties when they must live and work in cultures in which "farming" – well-planned, predictable, organized and repetitive behaviors – is typical. His first book on the disorder, Attention Deficit Disorder: a Different Perception was described by Scientific American as "innovative and fresh".^[17] Hartmann has established specialized schools^[quantify] for children with ADHD, such as The Hunter School in Rumney, New Hampshire,^[18] which he co-founded with his wife Louise.

He also operated the "ADD Forum" and "DeskTop Publishing Forum", along with several others, on CompuServe.^[19]

Bibliography[link]

• 2011: Rebooting the American Dream: 11 Ways to Rebuild Our Country. Berrett-Koehler. ISBN 978-1-60509-706-0. 
• 2010 (second edition): Unequal Protection: How Corporations Became "People" – And How You Can Fight Back. Berrett-Koehler. ISBN 1-60509-559-1. 
• 2009: Threshold: The Crisis of Western Culture. Viking. ISBN 0-670-02091-5. 
• 2008: Legacy of Secrecy: The Long Shadow of the JFK Assassination (by Lamar Waldron with Thom Hartmann). Counterpoint. ISBN 1-58243-535-9. 
• 2007: Cracking The Code: How to Win Hearts, Change Minds, and Restore America's Original Vision. Berrett-Koehler. ISBN 978-1-57675-458-0. 
• 2006: Screwed: The Undeclared War Against The Middle Class and What We Can Do About It. Berrett-Koehler. ISBN 1-57675-414-6. 
• 2006: Walking Your Blues Away: Practical Bilateral Therapies for Healing the Mind and Optimizing Emotional Well-Being. Park Street Press. ISBN 1-59477-144-8. 
• 2005: Ultimate Sacrifice: John and Robert Kennedy, the Plan for a Coup in Cuba, and the Murder of JFK. Carroll & Graf. ISBN 0-7867-1441-7.  by Lamar Waldron, with Thom Hartmann
• 2004: What Would Jefferson Do?. Harmony Books. ISBN 1-882109-38-4. 
• 2004: We the People: A Call to Take Back America. Coreway Media, Inc.. ISBN 1-4000-5208-4. 
• 2004 (revised ed.): Unequal Protection. Rodale Books. ISBN 1-57954-955-1. 
• 2004 (revised ed. – first ed. 1998): The Prophet's Way. Park Street Press. ISBN 0-89281-198-6. 
• 2004 (revised ed. – first ed. 1997): Last Hours of Ancient Sunlight. Three Rivers Press. ISBN 1-4000-5157-6. 
• 2003: The Edison Gene. Park Street Press. ISBN 0-89281-128-5. 
• 2000: Thom Hartmann's Complete Guide to ADHD: Help for Your Family at Home, School and Work. Underwood Books. ISBN 1-887424-52-0. 
• 2000: The Greatest Spiritual Secret of the Century. Hampton Roads. ISBN 1-57174-166-6. 
• 1998: Healing ADD. Underwood Books. ISBN 1-887424-37-7. 
• 1996: Beyond ADD. Underwood Books. ISBN 1-887424-12-1. 
• 1996: Think Fast!. Underwood Books. ISBN 1-887424-08-3.  by Thom Hartmann and Jane Bowman, with Susan Burgess
• 1995: ADD Success Stories. Underwood Books. ISBN 1-887424-03-2. 
• 1994: Focus Your Energy: Hunting for Success in Business. Pocket Books. ISBN 0-671-51689-2. 
• 1994: ADHD Secrets of Success: Coaching Yourself to Fulfillment in the Business World. Select Books. ISBN 1-59079-017-0. 
• 1992 (first edition): ADD: A Different Perception. Underwood Books. ISBN 1-887424-14-8. 

References[link]

External links[link]

• ThomHartmann.com Official site. Includes information on and streaming of the radio and TV shows, essays, chatroom, and a discussion board.
• Past episodes of The Big Picture on YouTube
• Various video clips at BigPicture.tv Hartmann speaking on various topics.
• Screwed: The Undeclared War Against the Middle Class and What We Can Do About It, Hartmann talks about his book in a video at Fora TV.
• Thom Hartmann with the Dalai Lama Videos made during the filming of the documentary Dalai Lama Renaissance.
• "When Democracy Fails" Podcast on Google Video.
• C-SPAN Q&A interview with Hartmann, February 7, 2010

Pasuk Phongpaichit (Thai: ผาสุก พงษ์ไพจิตร, born February 11, 1946) is a Thai economist. A professor at Chulalongkorn University, she is the author of several books on corruption in Thailand.

Dr Pasuk graduated from Monash University in Australia, and received her PhD at Cambridge University in England. Her books include A History of Thailand, Thaksin: The Business of Politics in Thailand, and Thailand's Crisis (with Chris Baker), and Guns, Girls, Gambling, Ganja (with Sungsidh Piriyarangsan and Nualnoi Treerat).

A critic of former Premier Thaksin Shinawatra, she was appointed an advisor to the military junta that overthrew his government, but turned down the position.

References[link]

• Official profile from Chulalongkorn University

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