Australia Day
Australia Day on Sydney Harbour, 2004
Also called	Foundation Day, Anniversary Day, Survival Day, Invasion Day, Day of Mourning (in 1938 & 1970)
Observed by	Australian citizens and residents
Type	National
Significance	Date of landing of First Fleet in Port Jackson in 1788
Date	26 January
Observances	Family meetings, picnics and barbecues; parades, citizenship ceremonies, Order of Australia honours, Australian of the Year presentation.

Holidays portal

Australia Day (previously known as Anniversary Day, Foundation Day, and ANA Day)^[1] is the official national day of Australia. Celebrated annually on 26 January, the date commemorates the arrival of the First Fleet at Sydney Cove in 1788 and the proclamation at that time of British sovereignty over the eastern seaboard of New Holland.^[2]

Although it was not known as Australia Day until over a century later, records of celebrations on 26 January date back to 1808, with the first official celebration of the formation of New South Wales held in 1818. It is presently an official public holiday in every state and territory of Australia and is marked by the presentation of the Australian of the Year Awards on Australia Day Eve, announcement of the Honours List for the Order of Australia and addresses from the Governor-General and Prime Minister. With community festivals, concerts and citizenship ceremonies the day is celebrated in large and small communities and cities around the nation. Australia Day has become the biggest annual civic event in Australia.^[3]

The date is controversial to some Australians, particularly those of Indigenous heritage, leading to the use of alternate names, such as Invasion Day and Survival Day. Proposals have been made to change the date of Australia Day, but these have failed to gain widespread public support.

History[link]

The Founding of Australia, 1788

Arrival of the First Fleet[link]

On 13 May 1787, a fleet of 11 ships, which came to be known as the First Fleet, was sent by the British Admiralty from England to Australia. Under the command of Captain Arthur Phillip, the fleet sought to establish a penal colony at Botany Bay on the coast of New South Wales, which had been explored and claimed by Lieutenant James Cook in 1770. The settlement was seen as necessary because of the loss of the Thirteen colonies in North America.^[4] The Fleet arrived between 18 and 20 January 1788, but it was immediately apparent that Botany Bay was unsuitable.

On 21 January, Phillip and a few officers travelled to Port Jackson, 12 kilometres to the north, to see if it would be a better location for a settlement. They stayed there until 23 January; Phillip named the site of their landing Sydney Cove, after the Home Secretary, Thomas Townshend, 1st Viscount Sydney. They also had some contact with the local aborigines.

They returned to Botany Bay on the evening of 23 January, when Phillip gave orders to move the fleet to Sydney Cove the next morning, 24 January. That day, there was a huge gale blowing, making it impossible to leave Botany Bay, so they decided to wait till the next day, 25 January. However, during 24 January, they spotted the ships Astrolabe and Boussole, flying the French flag, at the entrance to Botany Bay; they were having as much trouble getting into the bay as the First Fleet was having getting out.

On 25 January, the gale was still blowing; the fleet tried to leave Botany Bay, but only the HMS Supply made it out, carrying Arthur Phillip, Philip Gidley King, some marines and about 40 convicts; they anchored in Sydney Cove in the afternoon.

On 26 January, early in the morning, Phillip along with a few dozen marines, officers and oarsmen, rowed ashore and took possession of the land in the name of King George III. The remainder of the ship's company and the convicts watched from on board the Supply.

Meanwhile, back at Botany Bay, Captain John Hunter of the HMS Sirius made contact with the French ships, and he and the commander, Captain de Clonard, exchanged greetings. Clonard advised Hunter that the fleet commander was Jean-François de Galaup, comte de La Pérouse. The Sirius successfully cleared Botany Bay, but the other ships were in great difficulty. The Charlotte was blown dangerously close to rocks; the Friendship and the Prince of Wales became entangled, both ship losing booms or sails; the Charlotte and the Friendship actually collided; and the Lady Penrhyn nearly ran aground. Despite these difficulties, all the remaining ships finally managed to clear Botany Bay and sail to Sydney Cove on 26 January. The last ship anchored there at about 3 pm.^[5]

Note that the formal establishment of the Colony of New South Wales did not occur on 26 January, as is commonly assumed. That did not occur until 7 February 1788, when the formal proclamation of the colony and of Arthur Phillip's governorship were read out. The vesting of all land in the reigning monarch George III also dates from 7 February 1788.^[6][7][8]

The first fifty years: 1788 to 1838[link]

Although there was no official recognition of the colony's anniversary, with the New South Wales Almanacks of 1806 and 1808 placing no special significance on 26 January,^[9] by 1808 the date was being used by the colony's immigrants, especially the emancipated convicts, to "celebrate their love of the land they lived in"^[10] with "drinking and merriment".^[11] The 1808 celebrations followed this pattern, beginning at sundown on 25 January, and lasted into the night, the chief toast of the occasion being Major George Johnston. Johnston had the honour of being the first officer ashore from the First Fleet, having been carried from the landing boat on the back of convict James Ruse. Despite suffering the ill-effects of a fall from his gig on the way home to Annandale, Johnston led the officers of the New South Wales Corps in arresting Governor William Bligh on the following day, 26 January 1808, in what became known as the "Rum Rebellion".

In 1817 The Sydney Gazette and New South Wales Advertiser reported on one of these unofficial gatherings at the home of Isaac Nichols:

On Monday the 27th ult. a dinner party met at the house of Mr. Isaac Nichols, for the purpose of celebrating the Anniversary of the Institution of this Colony under Governor Philip, which took place on 26 Jan. 1788, but this year happening upon a Sunday, the commemoration dinner was reserved for the day following. The party assembled were select, and about 40 in number. At 5 in the afternoon dinner was on the table, and a more agreeable entertainment could not have been anticipated. After dinner a number of loyal toasts were drank, and a number of festive songs given; and about 10 the company parted, well gratified with the pleasures that the meeting had afforded.

—The Sydney Gazette and New South Wales Advertiser^[12]

1818 was the 30th anniversary of the founding of the colony, and Governor Lachlan Macquarie chose to acknowledge the day with the first official celebration.^[13] The Governor declared that the day would be a holiday for all government workers, granting each an extra allowance of "one pound of fresh meat", and ordered a 30 gun salute at Dawes Point – one for each year that the colony had existed.^[14] This began a tradition that was retained by the Governors that were to follow.^[10]

Foundation Day, as it was known at the time, continued to be officially celebrated in New South Wales, and in doing so became connected with sporting events.^[13] One of these became a tradition that is still continued today: in 1837 the first running of what would become the Australia Day regatta was held on Sydney Harbour.^[10][15] Five races were held for different classes of boats, from first class sailing vessels to watermen's skiffs, and people viewed the festivities from both onshore and from the decks of boats on the harbour, including the steamboat Australian and the Francis Freeling – the second of whom ran aground during the festivities and had to be refloated the next day.^[16] Happy with the success of the regatta, the organisers resolved to make in an annual event.^[15] However, some of the celebrations had gained an air of elitism, with the "United Australians" dinner being limited to those born in Australia.^[10] In describing the dinner, the Sydney Herald justified the decision, saying:

The parties who associated themselves under the title of "United Australians" have been censured for adopting a principle of exclusiveness. It is not fair so to censure them. If they invited emigrants to join them they would give offence to another class of persons – while if they invited all they would be subject to the presence of persons with whom they might not wish to associate. That was a good reason. The "Australians" had a perfect right to dine together if they wished it, and no one has a right to complain.

—The Sydney Herald^[17]

The following year, 1838, was the 50th anniversary of the founding of the colony, and as part of the celebrations Australia's first public holiday was declared. The regatta was held for a second time, and people crowded the foreshores to view the events, or joined the five steamers (the Maitland, the Experiment, the Australia, the Rapid, and the miniature steamer Firefly) to view the proceedings from the water. At midday 50 guns were fired from Dawes' Battery as the Royal Standard was raised, and in the evening rockets and other fireworks lit the sky.^[18] The dinner was a smaller affair than the previous year, with only 40 in attendance compared to the 160 from 1837,^[17][18] and the anniversary as a whole was described as a "day for everyone".^[13]

The centenary celebration: 1839 to 1888[link]

Prior to 1888, 26 January was very much a New South Wales affair, as each of the colonies had their own commemorations for their founding. In Tasmania, Regatta Day occurred in December, South Australia had Proclamation Day 28 December, and Western Australia had their own Foundation Day (now Western Australia Day) on 1 June.^[10]

In 1888, all colonial capitals except Adelaide celebrated 'Anniversary Day'. In 1910, South Australia adopted Australia Day,^[10] followed by Victoria in 1931.^[13] By 1935, all states of Australia were celebrating 26 January as Australia Day (although it was still known as Anniversary Day in New South Wales).^[10]

Sesquicentenary[link]

The 150th anniversary of British settlement in Australia in 1938 was widely celebrated.^[10] Preparations began in 1936 with the formation of a Celebrations Council.^[10] In that year, New South Wales was the only state to abandon the traditional long weekend, and the annual Anniversary Day public holiday was held on the actual anniversary day – Wednesday 26 January.^[10] The Commonwealth and state governments agreed to unify the celebrations on 26 January as 'Australia Day' in 1946, although the public holiday was instead taken on the Monday closest to the actual anniversary.^[19]

Bicentennial year[link]

Sydney Harbour, 26 January 1988

In 1988, the celebration of 200 years since the arrival of the First Fleet was organised on a large scale, with many significant events taking place in all major cities.^[10] Over 2.5 million people attended the event in Sydney.^[13] These included street parties, concerts, including performances on the steps and forecourt of the Sydney Opera House and at many other public venues, art and literary competitions, historic re-enactments, and the opening of the Powerhouse Museum at its new location. A re-enactment of the arrival of the First Fleet took place in Sydney Harbour, with ships that had sailed from Portsmouth a year earlier taking part.^[10][13]

Contemporary celebrations[link]

Since 1988 participation in Australia Day has increased and in 1994 all States and Territories began to celebrate a unified public holiday on the actual day for the first time.^[20] Research conducted in 2007 reported that 27.6% of Australians polled attended an organised Australia Day event and a further 25.6% celebrated with family and friends making Australia Day the largest annual public event in the nation.^[21] This reflected the results of an earlier research project where 66% of respondents anticipated that they would actively celebrate Australia Day 2005.^[22]

500,000 people watch the Lotterywest Skyworks at Perth, Western Australia, Australia Day, 2006

Outdoor concerts, community barbecues, sports competitions, festivals and fireworks are some of the many events presented in communities across Australia. These official events are presented by the National Australia Day Council, an official council or committee in each state and territory, and local committees.^[23]

In Sydney the harbour is a focus and races are held, such as a ferry race and the tall ships race. Featuring the People’s March and the Voyages Concert, Melbourne’s events^[24] focus strongly on the celebration of multi-culturalism.^[25] Major celebrations are not confined to the East coast capitals. Despite a drop in attendance in 2010, but still with audiences estimated at 400,000,^[26] the Perth Skyworks is the largest single event presented each Australia Day.^[27]

Kevin Rudd speaking at the Australia Day 2010 citizenship ceremony

Citizenship ceremonies are also commonly held with Australia Day now the largest occasion for the acquisition of Australian citizenship. On 26 January 2011, more than 300 Citizenship Ceremonies took place and 13,000 people from 143 countries took Australian Citizenship.^[28] In recent years many citizenship ceremonies have included an affirmation by existing citizens. Research conducted in 2007 reported that 78.6% of respondents thought that citizenship ceremonies were an important feature of the day.^[21]

The official Australia Day Ambassador Program supports celebrations in communities across the nation by facilitating the participation of high-achieving Australians in local community celebrations. In 2011, 385 Ambassadors participated in 384 local community celebrations.^[29] The Order of Australia awards are also a feature of the day. The Australia Day Achievement Medallion is awarded to citizens by local governments based on excellence in both government and non-government organisations. The Governor-General and Prime Minister both address to the nation. On the eve of Australia Day each year, the Prime Minister announces the winner of the Australian of the Year award, presented to an Australian citizen who has shown a "significant contribution to the Australian community and nation", and is an "inspirational role model for the Australian community".^[30] Subcategories of the award include Young and Senior Australian of the Year, and an award for Australia's Local Hero.

Awards Announcement Australia Day Eve 25 January 2005

Various music festivals are held on Australia Day, such as the Big Day Out, the Triple J Hottest 100, and the Australia Day Live Concert which is televised nationally. For many years an international cricket match has been held on Australia Day at the Adelaide Oval. These matches have included both Test matches and One Day Internationals.^[31]

Australia Day barbecue at Berridge Park, Denmark, Western Australia

Research in 2009 indicated that Australians reflect on history and future fairly equally on Australia Day, with 43% of those polled agreeing history is the most important thing to think about on Australia Day and 41% saying they look towards ‘our future’. Thirteen percent thought it was important to ‘think about the present at this time’ and 3% were unsure.^[32] Despite the date reflecting the arrival of the First Fleet, contemporary celebrations are not particularly historical in their theme.^{[citation needed]} There are no large-scale re-enactments and the national leader’s participation is focused largely on events such as the Australian of the Year Awards announcement and Citizenship Ceremonies.^[33]

Possibly reflecting a shift in Australians’ understanding of the place of Indigenous Australians in their national identity, Newspoll research in November 2009 reported that ninety percent of Australians polled believed ‘it was important to recognise Australia’s indigenous people and culture’ as part of Australia Day celebrations. A similar proportion (89%) agreed that ‘it is important to recognise the cultural diversity of the nation’.^[34] Despite the strong attendance at Australia Day events and a positive disposition towards the recognition of Indigenous Australians, the date of the celebrations remains a source of challenge and national discussion.

Criticism[link]

An Invasion Day rally in Brisbane, 2007

For some Australians, particularly Indigenous Australians, Australia Day has become a symbol for adverse effects of British settlement on Australia's Indigenous people.^[35][36][37] The celebrations in 1938 were accompanied by an Aboriginal Day of Mourning. A large gathering of Aboriginal people in Sydney in 1988 led an "Invasion Day" commemoration marking the loss of Indigenous culture.^[38] The anniversary is also known as "Survival Day" and marked by events such as the Survival Day concert first held in Sydney in 1992, celebrating the fact that the Indigenous people and culture have not been completely wiped out.^[39]

In response, official celebrations have tried to include Indigenous people, holding ceremonies such as the Woggan-ma-gule ceremony, which was held in Sydney in 2006 and honoured the past and celebrated the present; it involved Indigenous Australians and the Governor of New South Wales.

Invasion Day[link]

In January 1988, various Indigenous people of Australia made a concerted effort to promote an awareness among other Australians of their presence, their needs, and their desire that there should be communication, reconciliation and cooperation over the matter of land rights.^[40] To this purpose, during January, they set up a highly visible Tent Embassy at a shoreside location at a point called Mrs Macquarie's Chair adjacent to the Sydney Royal Botanic Gardens. The embassy, consisting of several large marquees and smaller tents, was manned by a group of Aboriginal people from Eveleigh Street, Redfern, and was organised with the co-operation of the local council's department of parks and gardens.^[40] It became a gathering place for Aboriginal people from all over Sydney. One of the aims of the embassy was to be seen by the many thousands of Sydneysiders whom the organisers claimed did not know, and rarely even saw, any Aboriginal people.^[40]

'Invasion Day' has been widely used to describe the alternative Indigenous observance of Australia Day. Although some Indigenous Australians celebrate Australia Day, Invasion Day protests occur almost every year.^[41]

Suggested changes to the date[link]

Both prior to the establishment of Australia Day as the national day of Australia, and in the years subsequent to its creation, several dates have been proposed for its celebration, and, at various times, the possibility of moving Australia Day to an alternative date has been mooted. While the reasons for such a move have been varied, concerns with the current arrangement have included:

• The current date, celebrating the foundation of the Colony of New South Wales, can be seen as lacking national significance.^[42]
• Australia Day falls during the school holidays, limiting the ability of schools to engage children in the event.^[42]
• The date can be perceived as being intrinsically connected to Australia's convict past, celebrating "Britain's driving ashore of Australia's first white citizens in chains".^[43]
• It fails to encompass all Australians, alienating some members of the indigenous community.^[42] Connected to this is the suggestion that moving the date would be seen as a significant symbolic act.^[44]

Amongst those calling for change have been Tony Beddison, then chairman of the Australia Day Committee (Victoria), who argued for change and requested debate on the issue in 1999;^[42] and Mick Dodson, who was Australian of the Year in 2009, called for debate in regard to when Australia Day was held.^[45]

Proposed alternative dates[link]

Federation Pavilion, Centennial Park, Sydney, 1 January 1901

Federation of Australia, 1 January[link]

As early as 1957, 1 January was suggested as a possible alternative day, to commemorate the Federation of Australia.^[46] In 1902, the year after federation, 1 January was named 'Commonwealth Day'.^[47] However, New Year's Day was already a public holiday, and Commonwealth Day did not gather much support.^[47]

Anzac Day, 25 April[link]

There has been a degree of support in recent years for making Anzac Day, 25 April, Australia's national day, although the suggestions have also encountered strong opposition. In 1999, prompted by Tony Beddison's call for the date to be changed, a merger with Anzac Day found support with Peter Hollingworth (Anglican Archbishop of Brisbane), and the Federal Leader of the Opposition, Kim Beazley.^[48][49]

The suggestion was raised again in 2001, when the national president of the Returned and Services League of Australia (RSL), Major-General (retired) Peter Phillips, suggested that the merger may be possible in the future. Phillips was in the process of planning a major review into the future of Anzac Day, and the combination of the two caused considerable concern in the RSL. Although he subsequently stated that he was misrepresented, and that the review was not considering a merger of the two dates, the suggestion sparked controversy.^[50] The idea was strongly opposed, with both Prime Minister John Howard and Opposition Leader Kim Beazley speaking against the concept. (Beazley clarified his earlier stance by stating that he did not support a merger, but that he nevertheless saw Anzac Day as the true national day of Australia).^[51]

Counter arguments to merging the two dates include the belief that many war veterans view Anzac Day as their day; that Anzac Day is also a public holiday in New Zealand, Cook Islands, Niue, Samoa and Tonga; and that a merger would detract from the core purpose of Anzac Day – to honour the war dead.^[49][52]

Opening of the first Federal Parliament, 9 May[link]

The date 9 May is also sometimes suggested, being not only the date on which the first Federal Parliament was opened in Melbourne in 1901, but also the date of the opening of the Provisional Parliament House in Canberra in 1927, and the date of the opening of the New Parliament House in 1988.^[53] The date has, at various times, won the support of Queensland Premier Peter Beattie, Tony Beddison,^[42] and Geoffrey Blainey.^[54] However, as with the Eureka Stockade, the date has been seen by some as being too closely connected with Victoria,^[55] and its location close to the start of winter has been described as an impediment.^[53]

Eureka Stockade, 3 December[link]

Eureka leader, The Hon. Peter Lalor, Speaker of the Legislative Assembly of Victoria, 1880-1887

The Eureka Stockade on 3 December has had a long history as an alternative choice for Australia Day, having been proposed by The Bulletin in the 1880s.^[56] The Eureka uprising occurred in 1854 during the Victorian gold rush, and saw a failed rebellion by the miners against the Victorian colonial government. Although the rebellion was crushed, it led to significant reforms, and has been described as being the birthplace of Australian democracy.^[57] Supporters of the date have included senator Don Chipp and Victorian Premier Steve Bracks.^[42][58] Nevertheless, the idea failed to gain traction in the 1880s, possibly due to the loyalty of the colonialists to Britain, for "even in Ballarat Eureka had to be forgotten."^[56] More recently, the Eureka Stockade idea has received opposition after being claimed by both "hard-left unions" and "right-wing nationalist groups",^[57] and amongst some it is still seen as an essentially Victorian event.^[55]

Other recommended dates[link]

• Wattle Day on 1 September has been proposed as a unifying national patriotic holiday by the Wattle Day Association,^[59] and has been raised as an alternative date for Australia Day.^[60] There is a degree of historical precedent to the suggestion: Wattle Day was celebrated as Australia Day in South Australia for many years,^[61] though from 1915 to 1918, Australia Day was celebrated there on 26 July,^[62] placing it close to Wattle Day.^[63]
• Constitution Day, 9 July is also suggested as a possible alternative, commemorating the day in 1900 when Queen Victoria gave her assent to the Constitution of Australia.^[64]
• The anniversary of the 1967 referendum to amend the constitutional status of Aborigines, 27 May, has also been suggested as a possible alternative.^[44]
• 3 March, Anniversary of the Australia Act coming in to effect. "A Proclamation, signed by Queen Elizabeth II at Government House in Canberra on 2 March 1986, stated that the Act will come into effect at 5.00 am Greenwich Mean Time the next day." "Australia Act 1986". Museum of Australian Democracy. http://foundingdocs.gov.au/item-sdid-103.html. Retrieved 28 January 2012. 

Opposition to change[link]

Any decision to change the date of Australia Day would have to be made by a combination of the Australian Federal and State Governments.^[49] In recent years such a move has lacked sufficient support, with both Prime Ministers and Leaders of the Opposition speaking against the idea. In 2001 the Prime Minister John Howard stated that he acknowledged Aboriginal concerns with the date, but that it was nevertheless a significant day in Australia's history, and thus he was in favour of retaining the current date. He also noted that 1 January, which was being discussed in light of the Centenary of Federation, was inappropriate as it coincided with New Year's Day.^[65] More recently, the Prime Minister Kevin Rudd gave a "straightforward no" to a change of date, speaking in response to Mick Dodson's suggestion to reopen the debate. The Leader of the Opposition, Malcolm Turnbull, echoed Rudd's support of 26 January, but, along with Rudd, supported the right of Australians to raise the issue.^[45] In regard to State leaders, Nathan Rees, (who was, at the time, the Premier of New South Wales), stated that he was yet to hear a "compelling reason" to support change; and Queensland Premier Anna Bligh expressed her opposition to a change of date in spite of any controversy.^[45]

In 2004, a Newspoll that asked if the date of Australia Day should be moved to one that is not associated with European settlement found 79 per cent of respondents favoured no change, 15 per cent favoured change and 6 per cent were uncommitted.^[66] Historian Geoffrey Blainey said he believed 26 January worked well as Australia Day and that: "My view is that it is much more successful now than it's ever been."^[67]

References[link]

External links[link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Australia Day

• National Australia Day Council
• Official History of Australia Day
• Australia Day Council of NSW
• State Library of NSW - First Fleet Re-enactment Company records, 1978-1990: Presented by Trish and Wally Franklin
• State Library of NSW - First Fleet Re-enactment Voyage 1987-1988

Commonwealth of Australia
Flag Coat of arms
Anthem: "Advance Australia Fair" Royal anthem: "God Save the Queen"[N 1]
Capital		Canberra 35°18.48′S 149°7.47′E / 35.308°S 149.1245°E / -35.308; 149.1245
Largest city		Sydney
Official language(s)		None[N 2]
National language		English (de facto)[N 2]
Demonym		Australian, Aussie[3][4]
Government		Federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy
-	Monarch	Elizabeth II
-	Governor-General	Quentin Bryce
-	Prime Minister	Julia Gillard
Legislature		Parliament
-	Upper house	Senate
-	Lower house	House of Representatives
Independence		from the United Kingdom
-	Constitution	1 January 1901
-	Statute of Westminster	11 December 1931
-	Statute of Westminster Adoption Act	9 October 1942 (with effect from 3 September 1939)
-	Australia Act	3 March 1986
Area
-	Total	7,617,930 km2 (6th) 2,941,299 sq mi
Population
-	2012 estimate	22,944,040[5] (52nd)
-	2006 census	19,855,288[6]
-	Density	2.8/km2 (233rd) 7.3/sq mi
GDP (PPP)		2011 estimate
-	Total	$914.482 billion[7] (18th)
-	Per capita	$40,234[7] (12th)
GDP (nominal)		2011 estimate
-	Total	$1.488 trillion[7] (13th)
-	Per capita	$65,477[7] (5th)
Gini (2006)		30.5[8] (medium)
HDI (2011)		0.929[9] (very high) (2nd)
Currency		Australian dollar (AUD)
Time zone		various[N 3] (UTC+8 to +10.5)
-	Summer (DST)	various[N 3] (UTC+8 to +11.5)
Date formats		dd-mm-yyyy
Drives on the		left
ISO 3166 code		AU
Internet TLD		.au
Calling code		+61

Australia ( /əˈstreɪljə/), officially the Commonwealth of Australia,^[10] is a country in the Southern Hemisphere comprising the mainland of the Australian continent as well as the island of Tasmania and numerous smaller islands in the Indian and Pacific Oceans.^{[N 4]} It is the world's sixth-largest country by total area. Neighbouring countries include Indonesia, East Timor and Papua New Guinea to the north; the Solomon Islands, Vanuatu and New Caledonia to the north-east; and New Zealand to the south-east.

For at least 40,000 years^[12] before European settlement in the late 18th century, Australia was inhabited by indigenous Australians,^[13] who belonged to one or more of roughly 250 language groups.^[14][15] After discovery by Dutch explorers in 1606, Australia's eastern half was claimed by Great Britain in 1770 and settled through penal transportation to the colony of New South Wales from 26 January 1788. The population grew steadily in subsequent decades; the continent was explored and an additional five self-governing Crown Colonies were established.

On 1 January 1901, the six colonies federated, forming the Commonwealth of Australia. Since Federation, Australia has maintained a stable liberal democratic political system which functions as a federal parliamentary democracy and constitutional monarchy. The federation comprises six states and several territories. The population of 22.9 million is heavily concentrated in the Eastern states and is highly urbanised.

A highly developed country, Australia is the world's 13th-largest economy and has the world's fifth-highest per capita income. Australia's military expenditure is the world's 13th-largest. With the second-highest human development index globally, Australia ranks highly in many international comparisons of national performance, such as quality of life, health, education, economic freedom, and the protection of civil liberties and political rights.^[16] Australia is a member of the G20, OECD, WTO, APEC, UN, Commonwealth of Nations, ANZUS, and the Pacific Islands Forum.

Etymology[link]

Pronounced [əˈstɹæɪljə, -liə] in Australian English,^[17] the name Australia is derived from the Latin australis, meaning "southern". The country has been referred to colloquially as Oz since the early 20th century.^{[N 5]} Aussie is a common colloquial term for "Australian". In neighbouring New Zealand the term "Aussie" is sometimes applied as a noun to the nation as well as its residents.^[22]

Legends of Terra Australis Incognita—an "unknown land of the South"—date back to Roman times and were commonplace in medieval geography, although not based on any documented knowledge of the continent. Following European discovery, names for the Australian landmass were often references to the famed Terra Australis.

The earliest recorded use of the word Australia in English was in 1625 in "A note of Australia del Espíritu Santo, written by Sir Richard Hakluyt", published by Samuel Purchas in Hakluytus Posthumus, a corruption of the original Spanish name "Tierra Austral del Espíritu Santo" (Southern Land of the Holy Spirit)^[23] for an island in Vanuatu.^[24] The Dutch adjectival form Australische was used in a Dutch book in Batavia (Jakarta) in 1638, to refer to the newly discovered lands to the south.^[25] Australia was later used in a 1693 translation of Les Aventures de Jacques Sadeur dans la Découverte et le Voyage de la Terre Australe, a 1676 French novel by Gabriel de Foigny, under the pen-name Jacques Sadeur.^[26] Referring to the entire South Pacific region, Alexander Dalrymple used it in An Historical Collection of Voyages and Discoveries in the South Pacific Ocean in 1771. By the end of the 18th century, the name was being used to refer specifically to Australia, with the botanists George Shaw and Sir James Smith writing of "the vast island, or rather continent, of Australia, Australasia or New Holland" in their 1793 Zoology and Botany of New Holland,^[27] and James Wilson including it on a 1799 chart.^[28]

The name Australia was popularised by the explorer Matthew Flinders, who pushed for it to be formally adopted as early as 1804. When preparing his manuscript and charts for his 1814 A Voyage to Terra Australis, he was persuaded by his patron, Sir Joseph Banks, to use the term Terra Australis as this was the name most familiar to the public. Flinders did so, but allowed himself the footnote:

"Had I permitted myself any innovation on the original term, it would have been to convert it to Australia; as being more agreeable to the ear, and an assimilation to the names of the other great portions of the earth."^[29]

This is the only occurrence of the word Australia in that text; but in Appendix III, Robert Brown's General remarks, geographical and systematical, on the botany of Terra Australis, Brown makes use of the adjectival form Australian throughout,^[30]—the first known use of that form.^[31] Despite popular conception, the book was not instrumental in the adoption of the name: the name came gradually to be accepted over the following ten years.^[32]

The first time that the name Australia appears to have been officially used was in a despatch to Lord Bathurst of 4 April 1817 in which Governor Lachlan Macquarie acknowledges the receipt of Capt. Flinders' charts of Australia.^[33] On 12 December 1817 Macquarie recommended to the Colonial Office that it be formally adopted.^[34] In 1824, the Admiralty agreed that the continent should be known officially as Australia.^[35]

The first map on which the word Australia occurs was published in St Petersburg in 1824. It is in Krusenstern's "Atlas de l'Océan Pacifique".^[36]

History[link]

Exploration by Europeans till 1812

  1606 Willem Janszoon

  1606 Luis Váez de Torres

  1616 Dirk Hartog

  1619 Frederick de Houtman

  1644 Abel Tasman

  1696 Willem de Vlamingh

  1699 William Dampier

  1770 James Cook

  1797–1799 George Bass

  1801–1803 Matthew Flinders

Human habitation of the Australian continent is estimated to have begun between 42,000 and 48,000 years ago,^[37] possibly with the migration of people by land bridges and short sea-crossings from what is now South-East Asia. These first inhabitants may have been ancestors of modern Indigenous Australians. At the time of European settlement in the late 18th century, most Indigenous Australians were hunter-gatherers, with a complex oral culture and spiritual values based on reverence for the land and a belief in the Dreamtime. The Torres Strait Islanders, ethnically Melanesian, were originally horticulturalists and hunter-gatherers.^[38]

Following sporadic visits by fishermen from the Malay Archipelago,^[39] the first recorded European sighting of the Australian mainland and the first recorded European landfall on the Australian continent were attributed to the Dutch navigator Willem Janszoon. He sighted the coast of Cape York Peninsula on an unknown date in early 1606, and made landfall on 26 February at the Pennefather River on the western shore of Cape York, near the modern town of Weipa.^[40] The Dutch charted the whole of the western and northern coastlines of "New Holland" during the 17th century, but made no attempt at settlement.^[40] William Dampier, an English explorer and privateer landed on the north-west coast of Australia in 1688 and again in 1699 on a return trip. In 1770, James Cook sailed along and mapped the east coast of Australia, which he named New South Wales and claimed for Great Britain.^[41] Cook's discoveries prepared the way for establishment of a new penal colony. Captain Arthur Phillip led the First Fleet into Port Jackson on 26 January 1788.^[42] This date became Australia's national day, Australia Day. (The British Crown Colony of New South Wales was not formally promulgated until 7 February 1788, but 26 January has entered the popular consciousness as the effective date of its foundation.) Van Diemen's Land, now known as Tasmania, was settled in 1803 and became a separate colony in 1825.^[43] The United Kingdom formally claimed the western part of Australia in 1828.^[44]

Separate colonies were carved from parts of New South Wales: South Australia in 1836, Victoria in 1851, and Queensland in 1859.^[45] The Northern Territory was founded in 1911 when it was excised from South Australia.^[46] South Australia was founded as a "free province"—it was never a penal colony.^[47] Victoria and Western Australia were also founded "free", but later accepted transported convicts.^[48][49] A campaign by the settlers of New South Wales led to the end of convict transportation to that colony; the last convict ship arrived in 1848.^[50]

Port Arthur, Tasmania was Australia's largest gaol for transported convicts.

The indigenous population, estimated at 750,000 to 1,000,000 at the time of European settlement,^[51] declined steeply for 150 years following settlement, mainly due to infectious disease.^[52] The "Stolen Generations" (removal of Aboriginal children from their families), which historians such as Henry Reynolds have argued could be considered genocide,^[53] may have contributed to the decline in the Indigenous population.^[54] Such interpretations of Aboriginal history are disputed by conservative commentators such as former Prime Minister John Howard as exaggerated or fabricated for political or ideological reasons.^[55] This debate is known within Australia as the History wars.^[56] The Federal government gained the power to make laws with respect to Aborigines following the 1967 referendum.^[57] Traditional ownership of land—aboriginal title—was not recognised until 1992, when the High Court case Mabo v Queensland (No 2) overturned the notion of Australia as terra nullius ("land belonging to no one") before European occupation.^[58]

A gold rush began in Australia in the early 1850s,^[59] and the Eureka Rebellion against mining licence fees in 1854 was an early expression of civil disobedience.^[60] Between 1855 and 1890, the six colonies individually gained responsible government, managing most of their own affairs while remaining part of the British Empire.^[61] The Colonial Office in London retained control of some matters, notably foreign affairs,^[62] defence,^[63] and international shipping.

The Last Post is played at an ANZAC Day ceremony in Port Melbourne, Victoria. Similar ceremonies are held in most suburbs and towns.

On 1 January 1901 federation of the colonies was achieved after a decade of planning, consultation, and voting.^[64] The Commonwealth of Australia was established and it became a dominion of the British Empire in 1907. The Federal Capital Territory (later renamed the Australian Capital Territory) was formed in 1911 as the location for the future federal capital of Canberra. Melbourne was the temporary seat of government from 1901 to 1927 while Canberra was constructed.^[65] The Northern Territory was transferred from the control of the South Australian government to the federal parliament in 1911.^[66] In 1914, Australia joined Britain in fighting World War I, with support from both the outgoing Commonwealth Liberal Party and the incoming Australian Labor Party.^[67] Australians took part in many of the major battles fought on the Western Front.^[68] Of about 416,000 who served, about 60,000 were killed and another 152,000 were wounded.^[69] Many Australians regard the defeat of the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps (ANZACs) at Gallipoli as the birth of the nation—its first major military action.^[70][71] The Kokoda Track campaign is regarded by many as an analogous nation-defining event during World War II.^[72]

Australia's national flag comprises the Union Jack, the Commonwealth Star, and the Southern Cross.

Britain's Statute of Westminster 1931 formally ended most of the constitutional links between Australia and the UK. Australia adopted it in 1942,^[73] but it was backdated to 1939 to confirm the validity of legislation passed by the Australian Parliament during World War II.^[74][75] The shock of the UK's defeat in Asia in 1942 and the threat of Japanese invasion caused Australia to turn to the United States as a new ally and protector.^[76] Since 1951, Australia has been a formal military ally of the US, under the ANZUS treaty.^[77] After World War II Australia encouraged immigration from Europe. Since the 1970s and following the abolition of the White Australia policy, immigration from Asia and elsewhere was also promoted.^[78] As a result, Australia's demography, culture, and self-image were transformed.^[79] The final constitutional ties between Australia and the UK were severed with the passing of the Australia Act 1986, ending any British role in the government of the Australian States, and closing the option of judicial appeals to the Privy Council in London.^[80] In a 1999 referendum, 55 per cent of Australian voters and a majority in every Australian state rejected a proposal to become a republic with a president appointed by a two-thirds vote in both Houses of the Australian Parliament. Since the election of the Whitlam Government in 1972,^[81] there has been an increasing focus in foreign policy on ties with other Pacific Rim nations, while maintaining close ties with Australia's traditional allies and trading partners.^[82]

Government[link]

Parliament House, Canberra was opened in 1988, replacing the provisional Parliament House building opened in 1927.

Government House, Canberra, also known as "Yarralumla", is the official residence of the Governor-General.

Julia Gillard, Prime Minister of Australia since 2010

Australia is a constitutional monarchy with a federal division of powers. It uses a parliamentary system of government with Queen Elizabeth II at its apex as the Queen of Australia, a role that is distinct from her position as monarch of the other Commonwealth realms. The Queen resides in the United Kingdom, and she is represented by her viceroys in Australia (the Governor-General at the federal level and by the Governors at the state level), who by convention act on the advice of her ministers. Supreme executive authority is vested by the Constitution of Australia in the sovereign, but the power to exercise it is conferred by the Constitution specifically to the Governor-General.^[83][84] The most notable exercise of the Governor-General's reserve powers outside a Prime Minister's request was the dismissal of the Whitlam Government in the constitutional crisis of 1975.^[85]

The federal government is separated into three branches:

• The legislature: the bicameral Parliament, defined in section 1 of the constitution as comprising the Queen (represented by the Governor-General), the Senate, and the House of Representatives;
• The executive: the Federal Executive Council, in practice the Governor-General as advised by the Prime Minister and Ministers of State;^[86]
• The judiciary: the High Court of Australia and other federal courts, whose judges are appointed by the Governor-General on advice of the Council.

In the Senate (the upper house), there are 76 senators: twelve each from the states and two each from the mainland territories (the Australian Capital Territory and the Northern Territory).^[87] The House of Representatives (the lower house) has 150 members elected from single-member electoral divisions, commonly known as "electorates" or "seats", allocated to states on the basis of population,^[88] with each original state guaranteed a minimum of five seats.^[89] Elections for both chambers are normally held every three years, simultaneously; senators have overlapping six-year terms except for those from the territories, whose terms are not fixed but are tied to the electoral cycle for the lower house; thus only 40 of the 76 places in the Senate are put to each election unless the cycle is interrupted by a double dissolution.^[87]

Australia's electoral system uses preferential voting for all lower house elections with the exception of Tasmania and the ACT, which, along with the Senate and most state upper houses, combine it with proportional representation in a system known as the single transferable vote. Voting is compulsory for all enrolled citizens 18 years and over in every jurisdiction,^[90] as is enrolment (with the exception of South Australia).^[91] The party with majority support in the House of Representatives forms the government and its leader becomes Prime Minister. In cases where no party has majority support, the Governor-General has the power to appoint the Prime Minister, and if necessary dismiss one that has lost the confidence of Parliament.^[92]

There are two major political groups that usually form government, federally and in the states: the Australian Labor Party, and the Coalition which is a formal grouping of the Liberal Party and its minor partner, the National Party.^[93][94] Independent members and several minor parties have achieved representation in Australian parliaments, mostly in upper houses.

Within Australian political culture, the Coalition is considered centre-right and the Labor Party is considered centre-left. Queensland in particular, along with Western Australia and the Northern Territory, are regarded as comparatively conservative.^{[95][96][97][98][99][100]} Victoria, South Australia, Tasmania, and the Australian Capital Territory are regarded as comparatively socially liberal.^{[100][101][102][103]} New South Wales has often been regarded as a politically moderate bellwether state.^[104][103]

Following a partyroom leadership challenge, Julia Gillard became the first female Prime Minister in June 2010.^[105] The most recent federal election was held on 21 August 2010 and resulted in the first hung parliament in over 50 years. Gillard was able to form a minority Labor government with the support of independents.

States and territories[link]

A clickable map of Australia's states and mainland territories

Australia has six states—New South Wales, Queensland, South Australia, Tasmania, Victoria, and Western Australia—and two major mainland territories—the Northern Territory and the Australian Capital Territory (ACT). In most respects these two territories function as states, but the Commonwealth Parliament can override any legislation of their parliaments. By contrast, federal legislation overrides state legislation only in areas that are set out in Section 51 of the Australian Constitution; state parliaments retain all residual legislative powers, including those over schools, state police, the state judiciary, roads, public transport, and local government, since these do not fall under the provisions listed in Section 51.^[106]

Each state and major mainland territory has its own parliament—unicameral in the Northern Territory, the ACT, and Queensland, and bicameral in the other states. The states are sovereign entities, although subject to certain powers of the Commonwealth as defined by the Constitution. The lower houses are known as the Legislative Assembly (the House of Assembly in South Australia and Tasmania); the upper houses are known as the Legislative Council. The head of the government in each state is the Premier, and in each territory the Chief Minister. The Queen is represented in each state by a Governor; and in the Northern Territory, the Administrator.^[107] In the Commonwealth, the Queen's representative is the Governor-General.^[108]

The federal parliament directly administers the following territories:^[86]

• Ashmore and Cartier Islands
• Australian Antarctic Territory
• Christmas Island and Cocos (Keeling) Islands
• Coral Sea Islands
• Heard Island and McDonald Islands
• Jervis Bay Territory, a naval base and sea port for the national capital in land that was formerly part of New South Wales

Norfolk Island is also technically an external territory; however, under the Norfolk Island Act 1979 it has been granted more autonomy and is governed locally by its own legislative assembly. The Queen is represented by an Administrator, currently Owen Walsh.^[109]

Foreign relations and military[link]

Over recent decades, Australia's foreign relations have been driven by a close association with the United States through the ANZUS pact, and by a desire to develop relationships with Asia and the Pacific, particularly through ASEAN and the Pacific Islands Forum. In 2005 Australia secured an inaugural seat at the East Asia Summit following its accession to the Treaty of Amity and Cooperation in Southeast Asia, and in 2011 attended the Sixth East Asia Summit in Indonesia. Australia is a member of the Commonwealth of Nations, in which the Commonwealth Heads of Government meetings provide the main forum for co-operation.^[110]

Australian Army soldiers conducting a foot patrol during a joint training exercise with US forces in Shoalwater Bay (2007).

Australia has pursued the cause of international trade liberalisation.^{[111][112][113]} It led the formation of the Cairns Group and Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation.^[114][115] Australia is a member of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development and the World Trade Organization,^[116][117] and has pursued several major bilateral free trade agreements, most recently the Australia – United States Free Trade Agreement^[118] and Closer Economic Relations with New Zealand,^[119] with another free trade agreement being negotiated with China—the Australia–China Free Trade Agreement—and Japan,^[120] South Korea in 2011,^[121][122] Australia–Chile Free Trade Agreement, ASEAN – Australia – New Zealand Free Trade Area, and the Trans-Pacific Strategic Economic Partnership.

Along with New Zealand, the United Kingdom, Malaysia and Singapore, Australia is party to the Five Power Defence Arrangements, a regional defence agreement. A founding member country of the United Nations, Australia is strongly committed to multilateralism^[123] and maintains an international aid program under which some 60 countries receive assistance. The 2005–06 budget provides A$2.5 billion for development assistance.^[124] Australia ranks seventh overall in the Center for Global Development's 2008 Commitment to Development Index.^[125]

Australia's armed forces—the Australian Defence Force (ADF)—comprise the Royal Australian Navy (RAN), the Australian Army and the Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF), in total numbering 80,561 personnel (including 55,068 regulars and 25,493 reservists).^[126] The titular role of Commander-in-Chief is vested in the Governor-General, who appoints a Chief of the Defence Force from one of the armed services on the advice of the government.^[127] Day-to-day force operations are under the command of the Chief, while broader administration and the formulation of defence policy is undertaken by the Minister and Department of Defence.

In the 2010–11 budget, defence spending was A$25.7 billion,^[128] representing the 13th largest defence budget.^[129] Australia has been involved in UN and regional peacekeeping, disaster relief and armed conflict; it currently has deployed approximately 3,330 defence force personnel in varying capacities to 12 international operations in areas including East Timor, Solomon Islands and Afghanistan.^[130]

Geography and climate[link]

Climatic zones in Australia, based on the Köppen climate classification.

Australia's landmass of 7,617,930 square kilometres (2,941,300 sq mi)^[131] is on the Indo-Australian Plate. Surrounded by the Indian and Pacific oceans,^{[N 4]} it is separated from Asia by the Arafura and Timor seas, with the Coral Sea lying off the Queensland coast, and the Tasman Sea lying between Australia and New Zealand. The world's smallest continent^[132] and sixth largest country by total area,^[133] Australia—owing to its size and isolation—is often dubbed the "island continent",^[134] and is sometimes considered the world's largest island.^[135] Australia has 34,218 kilometres (21,262 mi) of coastline (excluding all offshore islands),^[136] and claims an extensive Exclusive Economic Zone of 8,148,250 square kilometres (3,146,060 sq mi). This exclusive economic zone does not include the Australian Antarctic Territory.^[137] Excluding Macquarie Island, Australia lies between latitudes 9° and 44°S, and longitudes 112° and 154°E.

The Great Barrier Reef, the world's largest coral reef,^[138] lies a short distance off the north-east coast and extends for over 2,000 kilometres (1,240 mi). Mount Augustus, claimed to be the world's largest monolith,^[139] is located in Western Australia. At 2,228 metres (7,310 ft), Mount Kosciuszko on the Great Dividing Range is the highest mountain on the Australian mainland. Even taller are Mawson Peak (at 2,745 metres or 9,006 feet), on the remote Australian territory of Heard Island, and, in the Australian Antarctic Territory, Mount McClintock and Mount Menzies, at 3,492 metres (11,457 ft) and 3,355 metres (11,007 ft) respectively.^[140]

Everlastings on Mount Hotham, located in Victoria

Australia's size gives it a wide variety of landscapes, with subtropical rain forests in the north-east, mountain ranges in the south-east, south-west and east areas, and a dry desert in its centre.^[141] It is the flattest continent,^[142] with the oldest and least fertile soils;^[143][144] desert or semi-arid land commonly known as the outback makes up by far the largest portion of land.^[145] The driest inhabited continent, only its south-east and south-west corners have a temperate climate.^[146] The population density, 2.8 inhabitants per square kilometre, is among the lowest in the world,^[147] although a large proportion of the population lives along the temperate south-eastern coastline.^[148]

Eastern Australia is marked by the Great Dividing Range that runs parallel to the coast of Queensland, New South Wales, and much of Victoria—although the name is not strictly accurate, as in parts the range consists of low hills and the highlands are typically no more than 1,600 metres (5,249 ft) in height.^[149] The coastal uplands and a belt of Brigalow grasslands lie between the coast and the mountains, while inland of the dividing range are large areas of grassland.^[149][150] These include the western plains of New South Wales, and the Einasleigh Uplands, Barkly Tableland, and Mulga Lands of inland Queensland. The northern point of the east coast is the tropical rainforested Cape York Peninsula.^{[151][152][153][154]}

Topographic map of Australia

The landscapes of the northern part of the country—the Top End and the Gulf Country behind the Gulf of Carpentaria, with their tropical climate—consist of woodland, grassland, and desert.^{[155][156][157]} At the north-west corner of the continent are the sandstone cliffs and gorges of The Kimberley, and below that the Pilbara. South and inland of these lie more areas of grassland: the Ord Victoria Plain and the Western Australian Mulga shrublands.^{[158][159][160]} At the heart of the country are the uplands of central Australia; prominent features of the centre and south include the inland Simpson, Tirari and Sturt Stony, Gibson, Great Sandy, Tanami, and Great Victoria deserts, with the famous Nullarbor Plain on the southern coast.^{[161][162][163][164]}

The climate of Australia is significantly influenced by ocean currents, including the Indian Ocean Dipole and the El Niño-Southern Oscillation, which is correlated with periodic drought, and the seasonal tropical low pressure system that produces cyclones in northern Australia.^[165][166] These factors induce rainfall to vary markedly from year to year. Much of the northern part of the country has a tropical predominantly summer rainfall (monsoon) climate.^[167] The southwest corner of the country has a Mediterranean climate.^[168] Much of the southeast (including Tasmania) is temperate.^[167]

Environment[link]

Although most of Australia is semi-arid or desert, it includes a diverse range of habitats from alpine heaths to tropical rainforests, and is recognised as a megadiverse country. Because of the continent's great age, extremely variable weather patterns, and long-term geographic isolation, much of Australia's biota is unique and diverse. About 85 per cent of flowering plants, 84 per cent of mammals, more than 45 per cent of birds, and 89 per cent of in-shore, temperate-zone fish are endemic.^[169] Australia has the greatest number of reptiles of any country, with 755 species.^[170]

The koala and the eucalyptus form an iconic Australian pair

Australian forests are mostly made up of evergreen species, particularly eucalyptus trees in the less arid regions, wattles replace them in drier regions and deserts as the most dominant species.^[171] Among well-known Australian fauna are the monotremes (the platypus and echidna); a host of marsupials, including the kangaroo, koala, and wombat, and birds such as the emu and the kookaburra.^[171] Australia is home to many dangerous animals including some of the most venomous snakes in the world.^[172] The dingo was introduced by Austronesian people who traded with Indigenous Australians around 3000 BCE.^[173] Many plant and animal species became extinct soon after first human settlement,^[174] including the Australian megafauna; others have disappeared since European settlement, among them the thylacine.^[175][176]

Many of Australia's ecoregions, and the species within those regions, are threatened by human activities and introduced plant and animal species.^[177] The federal Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 is the legal framework for the protection of threatened species.^[178] Numerous protected areas have been created under the National Strategy for the Conservation of Australia's Biological Diversity to protect and preserve unique ecosystems;^[179][180] 65 wetlands are listed under the Ramsar Convention,^[181] and 16 natural World Heritage Sites have been established.^[182] Australia was ranked 51st of 163 countries in the world on the 2010 Environmental Performance Index.^[183]

Climate change has become an increasing concern in Australia in recent years, and protection of the environment is a major political issue.^[184][185] In 2007, the Rudd Government signed the instrument of ratification of the Kyoto Protocol. Nevertheless, Australia's carbon dioxide emissions per capita are among the highest in the world, lower than those of only a few other industrialised nations.^[186] Rainfall in Australia has slightly increased over the past century, both nationwide and for two quadrants of the nation,^[187] According to the Bureau of Meteorology's 2011 Australian Climate Statement, Australia had lower than average temperatures in 2011 as a consequence of a La Nina weather pattern, however, "the country's 10-year average continues to demonstrate the rising trend in temperatures, with 2002-2011 likely to rank in the top two warmest 10-year periods on record for Australia, at 0.52 °C above the long-term average".^[188] Water restrictions are frequently in place in many regions and cities of Australia in response to chronic shortages due to urban population increases and localised drought.^[189][190] Throughout much of the continent, major flooding regularly follows extended periods of drought, flushing out inland river systems, overflowing dams and inundating large inland flood plains, as occurred throughout Eastern Australia in 2010, 2011 and 2012 after the 2000s Australian drought.

Economy[link]

The Super Pit gold mine in Kalgoorlie, Australia's largest open cut mine.^[191]

Australia has a market economy with high GDP per capita and a low rate of poverty. The Australian dollar is the currency for the nation, including Christmas Island, Cocos (Keeling) Islands, and Norfolk Island, as well as the independent Pacific Island states of Kiribati, Nauru, and Tuvalu. After the 2006 merger of the Australian Stock Exchange and the Sydney Futures Exchange, the Australian Securities Exchange is now the ninth largest in the world.^[192]

Ranked third in the Index of Economic Freedom (2010),^[193] Australia is the world's thirteenth largest economy and has the fifth highest per capita GDP (nominal) at $66,984. The country was ranked second in the United Nations 2011 Human Development Index and first in Legatum's 2008 Prosperity Index.^[194] All of Australia's major cities fare well in global comparative livability surveys;^[195] Melbourne reached first place on The Economist's 2011 World's Most Livable Cities list, followed by Sydney, Perth, and Adelaide in sixth, eighth, and ninth place respectively.^[196] Total government debt in Australia is about $190 billion^[197] - 20% of GDP in 2010.^[198] Australia has among the highest house prices and some of the highest household debt levels in the world.^[199]

Destination and value of Australian exports in 2006^[200]

An emphasis on exporting commodities rather than manufactured goods has underpinned a significant increase in Australia's terms of trade since the start of the 21st century, due to rising commodity prices. Australia has a balance of payments that is more than 7 per cent of GDP negative, and has had persistently large current account deficits for more than 50 years.^[201] Australia has grown at an average annual rate of 3.6 per cent for over 15 years, in comparison to the OECD annual average of 2.5 per cent.^[201] Australia was the only advanced economy not to experience a recession due to the global financial downturn in 2008-2009.^[202] Six of Australia's major trading partners had been in recession which in turn affected Australia, and economic growth was hampered significantly over recent years.^[203][204]

The Hawke Government floated the Australian dollar in 1983 and partially deregulated the financial system.^[205] The Howard Government followed with a partial deregulation of the labour market and the further privatisation of state-owned businesses, most notably in the telecommunications industry.^[206] The indirect tax system was substantially changed in July 2000 with the introduction of a 10 per cent Goods and Services Tax (GST).^[207] In Australia's tax system, personal and company income tax are the main sources of government revenue.^[208]

In April 2012, there were 11,501,000 people employed (either full- or part-time), with an unemployment rate of 4.9 per cent.^[209] Youth unemployment (15–24) stood at 11.2 per cent.^[209] Over the past decade, inflation has typically been 2–3 per cent and the base interest rate 5–6 per cent. The service sector of the economy, including tourism, education, and financial services, accounts for about 70 per cent of GDP.^[210] Rich in natural resources, Australia is a major exporter of agricultural products, particularly wheat and wool, minerals such as iron-ore and gold, and energy in the forms of liquified natural gas and coal. Although agriculture and natural resources account for only 3 per cent and 5 per cent of GDP respectively, they contribute substantially to export performance. Australia's largest export markets are Japan, China, the US, South Korea, and New Zealand.^[211] Australia is the world's fourth largest exporter of wine, in an industry contributing $5.5 billion per annum to the nation's economy.^[212]

Demography[link]

Nearly three quarters of Australians live in metropolitan cities and coastal areas. The beach is an integral part of the Australian identity.^[213]

For almost two centuries the majority of settlers, and later immigrants, came from the British Isles. As a result the people of Australia are mainly a mixture of British and Irish ethnic origin. In the 2006 Australian census, the most commonly nominated ancestry was Australian (37.13 per cent),^[214] followed by English (32 per cent), Irish (9 per cent), Scottish (8 per cent), Italian (4 per cent), German (4 per cent), Chinese (3 per cent), and Greek (2 per cent).^[215]

Australia's population has quadrupled since the end of World War I,^[216] much of the increase from immigration. Following World War II and through to 2000, almost 5.9 million of the total population settled in the country as new immigrants, meaning that nearly two out of every seven Australians were born in another country.^[217] Most immigrants are skilled,^[218] but the immigration quota includes categories for family members and refugees.^[218] By 2050, Australia's population is currently projected to reach around 42 million.^[219]

In 2005, 24% of Australians were born elsewhere;^[220] the five largest immigrant groups were those from the United Kingdom, New Zealand, Italy, Vietnam, and China.^[211][221] Following the abolition of the White Australia policy in 1973, numerous government initiatives have been established to encourage and promote racial harmony based on a policy of multiculturalism.^[222] In 2005–06, more than 131,000 people emigrated to Australia, mainly from Asia and Oceania.^[223] The migration target for 2010–11 is 168,700, compared to 67,900 in 1998–99.^[224]

The Barossa Valley is a wine-producing region in South Australia. Fewer than 15 per cent of Australians live in rural areas.

The Indigenous population—mainland Aborigines and Torres Strait Islanders—was counted at 410,003 (2.2 per cent of the total population) in 2001, a significant increase from 115,953 in the 1976 census.^[225] A large number of Indigenous people are not identified in the Census due to undercount and cases where their Indigenous status is not recorded on the form; after adjusting for these factors, the ABS estimated the true figure for 2001 to be around 460,140 (2.4 per cent of the total population).^[226]

Indigenous Australians experience higher than average rates of imprisonment and unemployment,^[227] lower levels of education, and life expectancies for males and females that are 11–17 years lower than those of non-indigenous Australians.^{[211][228][229]} Some remote Indigenous communities have been described as having "failed state"-like conditions.^{[230][231][232][233][234]}

In common with many other developed countries, Australia is experiencing a demographic shift towards an older population, with more retirees and fewer people of working age. In 2004, the average age of the civilian population was 38.8 years.^[235] A large number of Australians (759,849 for the period 2002–03)^[236] live outside their home country.