Reconstruction of a Taíno village in Cuba
The Taínos were pre-Columbian inhabitants of the Bahamas, Greater Antilles, and the northern Lesser Antilles. It is thought that the seafaring Taínos are relatives of the Arawak people of South America.[1] The Taíno language is a member of the Arawakan language family, which ranges from South America across the Caribbean.
At the time of Columbus's arrival in 1492, there were five Taíno chiefdoms and territories on Hispaniola (modern day Haiti and Dominican Republic), each led by a principal Cacique (chieftain), to whom tribute was paid. Puerto Rico also was divided into chiefdoms. As the hereditary head chief of Taíno tribes, the cacique was paid significant tribute. Caciques enjoyed the privilege of wearing golden pendants called guanin, living in square bohíos instead of the round ones that the villagers inhabited, and sitting on wooden stools when receiving guests. At the time of the Spanish conquest, the largest Taíno population centers may have contained over 3,000 people each.
The Taínos were historically enemies of the neighboring Carib tribes, another group with origins in South America who lived principally in the Lesser Antilles.[2] The relationship between the two groups has been the subject of much study. For much of the 15th century, the Taíno tribe was being driven to the northeast in the Caribbean (out of what is now South America) because of raids by Caribs. Many Carib women spoke Taíno because of the large number of female Taíno captives among them.[3]
By the 18th century, Taíno society had been devastated by introduced diseases such as smallpox, as well as other factors such as intermarriages and forced assimilation into the plantation economy that Spain imposed in its Caribbean colonies, with its subsequent importation of African slave workers. The first recorded smallpox outbreak in Hispaniola occurred in December 1518 or January 1519.[4] It is argued that there was substantial mestizaje (racial and cultural mixing) as well as several Indian pueblos that survived into the 19th century in Cuba.
The Spaniards who first arrived in the Bahamas, Cuba, and Hispaniola in 1492, and later in Puerto Rico, did not bring women. They took Taíno women for their wives, which resulted in mestizo children.[5]
The Taíno people, or Taíno culture, has been classified by some authorities as belonging to the Arawaks. Indeed, ethnohistorian Daniel Garrison Brinton called the same group of people "Island Arawak" from the Arawakan word for cassava flour, a staple of the people. From this, the language and the people were eventually called "Arawak". However, modern scholars consider this a mistake. The people who called themselves Arawak lived only in Guyana and Trinidad and their language and culture differ from those of the Taíno.
Throughout time these terms have been used interchangeably by writers, travelers, historians, linguists, and anthropologists. Taíno has been used to mean the Greater Antillean tribes only, those plus the Bahamian tribes, those and the Leeward Islands tribes, or all those excluding the Puerto Rican and Leeward tribes. Island Taíno has been used to refer to those living in the Windward Islands only, those in the northern Caribbean only, or those living in any of the islands. Modern historians, linguists and anthropologists now hold that the term Taíno should refer to all the Taíno/Arawak tribes except for the Caribs. The Caribs are not seen by anthropologists or historians as being the same people, although linguists are still debating whether the Carib language is an Arawakan dialect or creole language—or perhaps an individual language, with an Arawakan pidgin often used to communicate.
Rouse classifies all inhabitants of the Greater Antilles (except the western tip of Cuba), the Bahamian archipelago, and the northern Lesser Antilles as Taínos. He subdivides Taínos into three main groups: Classic Taíno, mostly from Puerto Rico and the Dominican Republic; Western Taíno or sub-Taíno, from Jamaica, Cuba (except for the western tip) and the Bahamian archipelago; and Eastern Taíno, from the Virgin Islands to Montserrat.
Two schools of thought have emerged regarding the origin of the indigenous people of the West Indies.
- One group contends that the ancestors of the Taínos came from the center of the Amazon Basin, subsequently moving to the Orinoco valley. From there they reached the West Indies by way of what is now Guyana and Venezuela into Trinidad, proceeding along the Lesser Antilles all the way to Cuba and the Bahamian archipelago. Evidence that supports this theory includes the tracing of the ancestral cultures of these people to the Orinoco Valley and their languages to the Amazon Basin.[6]
- The alternate theory, known as the circum-Caribbean theory, contends that the ancestors of the Taínos diffused from the Colombian Andes. Julian H. Steward, this theory's originator, suggested a radiation from the Andes to the West Indies and a parallel radiation into Central America and into the Guianas, Venezuela, and the Amazon Basin.[6]
Taíno culture is believed to have developed in the West Indies. The Taíno believed they had originated from caves in a sacred mountain on Hispaniola.[7]
Dujo, a wooden chair crafted by Taínos.
Taíno society was divided into two classes: naborias (commoners) and nitaínos (nobles). These were governed by chiefs known as caciques (who were either male or female), who were advised by priests/healers known as bohiques.[8] Bohiques were extolled for their healing powers and ability to speak with gods and as a result, they granted Taínos permission to engage in important tasks.
Taínos lived in a matrilineal society. When a male heir was not present the inheritance or succession would go to the oldest child (son or daughter) of the deceased's sister. The Taínos had avunculocal post-marital residence meaning a newly married couple lived in the household of the maternal uncle.
The Taínos were very experienced in agriculture and lived a mainly agrarian lifestyle but also fished and hunted. A frequently worn hair style featured bangs in front and longer hair in back. They sometimes wore gold jewelry, paint, and/or shells. Taíno men sometimes wore short skirts. Taíno women wore a similar garment (nagua) after marriage. Some Taíno practiced polygamy. Men, and sometimes women, might have two or three spouses, and it was noted that some caciques would even marry as many as 30 wives.
Taínos lived in metropolises called yucayeques, which varied in size depending on the location; those in Puerto Rico and Hispaniola (Dominican Republic and Haiti) being the largest and those in the Bahamas being the smallest. In the center of a typical village was a plaza used for various social activities such as games, festivals, religious rituals, and public ceremonies. These plazas had many shapes including oval, rectangular, or narrow and elongated. Ceremonies where the deeds of the ancestors were celebrated, called areitos, were performed here.[9] Often, the general population lived in large circular buildings (bohios), constructed with wooden poles, woven straw, and palm leaves. These houses would surround the central plaza and could hold 10-15 families. The cacique and his family would live in rectangular buildings (caney) of similar construction, with wooden porches. Taíno home furnishings included cotton hammocks (hamaca), mats made of palms, wooden chairs (dujo) with woven seats, platforms, and cradles for children.
Caguana Ceremonial ball court (
batey), outlined with stones.
The Taínos played a ceremonial ball game called batey. The game was played between opposing teams consisting of 10 to 30 players per team using a solid rubber ball. Normally, the teams were composed of only men, but occasionally women played the game as well.[10] The Classic Taínos played in the village's center plaza or on especially designed rectangular ball courts called batey. Batey is believed to have been used for conflict resolution between communities; the most elaborate ball courts are found at chiefdoms' boundaries.[11] Often, chiefs made wagers on the possible outcome of a game.[10]
Taínos spoke a Maipurean language (tnq) but lacked a written language. Some of the words used by them such as barbacoa ("barbecue"), hamaca ("hammock"), kanoa ("canoe"), tabaco ("tobacco"), yuca, batata ("sweet potato"), and Juracán ("hurricane") have been incorporated into the Spanish and English languages.
Cassava (
yuca) roots, the Taínos' main crop
Taíno staples included vegetables, fruit, meat, and fish. Large animals were absent from the fauna of the West Indies, but small animals such as hutias, earthworms, lizards, turtles, birds, and other mammals were eaten. Manatees were speared and fish were caught in nets, speared, poisoned, trapped in weirs, or caught with hook and line. Wild parrots were decoyed with domesticated birds and iguanas were extracted from trees and other vegetation. Taínos stored live animals until they were ready to be consumed, fish and turtles were stored in weirs, and hutias and dogs were stored in corrals.[12]
Taíno groups in the more developed islands, such as Puerto Rico, Hispaniola, and Jamaica, relied more on agriculture. Fields for important root crops, such as the staple yuca, were prepared by heaping up mounds of soil, called conucos, which improved soil drainage and fertility as well as delaying erosion, and allowing for longer storage of crops in the ground. Less important crops such as corn were raised in simple clearings created by slash and burn technique. Typically, conucos were three feet high and nine feet in circumference and were arranged in rows.[13] The primary root crop was yuca/cassava, a woody shrub cultivated for its edible and starchy tuberous root. It was planted using a coa, a kind of hoe made completely out of wood. Women squeezed the poisonous variety of "cassava" to extract the toxic juices preparatory to grinding the roots into flour for baking bread. Batata (sweet potato) was the next most important root crop.[13]
Contrary to mainland practices, corn was not ground into flour and baked into bread. Instead, it was eaten off the cob. A possible explanation for this is that corn bread becomes moldy faster than cassava bread in the high humidity of the West Indies. Taínos grew squash, beans, peppers, peanuts, and pineapples. Tobacco, calabashes (West Indian pumpkins) and cotton were grown around the houses. Other fruits and vegetables, such as palm nuts, guavas, and Zamia roots, were collected from the wild.[13]
Taínos used cotton and palm extensively for fishing nets and ropes. Their dugout canoes (kanoa) were made in various sizes, which could hold from two to 150 people. An average sized canoe would hold about 15–20 people. They used bows and arrows, and sometimes put various poisons on their arrowheads. For warfare, they employed the use of a wooden war club, which they called a macana, that was about one inch thick and was similar to the coco macaque.
Taíno religion centered on the worship of zemís or cemís. Cemís are gods, spirits, or ancestors. The major Taíno gods are Yúcahu and Atabey. Yúcahu,[14] which means spirit of cassava, was the god of cassava (the Taínos main crop) and the sea. Atabey,[15] mother of Yúcahu, was the goddess of fresh waters and fertility.[12]
The minor Taíno gods related to growing of cassava, the process of life, creation and death. Baibrama was a minor god worshiped for his assistance in growing cassava and curing people from its poisonous juice. Boinayel and his twin brother Márohu were the gods of rain and fair weather respectively.[16] Guabancex was the goddess of storms (hurricanes). Juracán is often identified as the god of storms but juracán only means hurricane in the Taíno language. Guabancex had two assistants: Guataubá, a messenger who created hurricane winds, and Coatrisquie, who created floodwaters.[17] Maquetaurie Guayaba or Maketaori Guayaba was the god of Coaybay, the land of the dead. Opiyelguabirán', a dog-shaped god, watched over the dead. Deminán Caracaracol, a male cultural hero from which the Taíno believed to descend, was worshipped as a cemí.[16] Macocael was a cultural hero worshipped as a god who had failed to guard the mountain from which human beings arose and was punished by being turned into stone or a bird or reptile depending on how one interprets the myth.
Cemí was also the name of the physical representations of the gods. These representations came in many forms and materials and could be found in a variety of settings. The majority of cemís were crafted from wood but stone, bone, shell, pottery, and cotton were also used.[18] Cemí petroglyphs were carved on rocks in streams, ball courts, and on stalagmites in caves. Cemí pictographs were found on secular objects such as pottery, and on tattoos. Yucahú, the god of cassava, was represented with a three-pointed cemí which could be found in conucos to increase the yield of cassava. Wood and stone cemís have been found in caves in Hispaniola and Jamaica.[19] Cemís are sometimes represented by toads, turtles, snakes, and various abstract and human-like faces. Some of the carved cemís include a small table or tray which is believed to be a receptacle for hallucinogenic snuff called cohoba prepared from the beans of a species of Piptadenia tree. These trays have been found with ornately carved snuff tubes. Before certain ceremonies Taínos would purify themselves, either by inducing vomiting with a swallowing stick or by fasting.[20] After serving communal bread, first to the cemi, then to the cacique, and then to the common people, the village epic would be sung to the accompanyment of maraca and other instruments.
Taínos also employed body modification as an expression of their faith. The higher the piercing or tattoo on the body, the closer to their gods. Men usually wore decorative tattoos and the women usually had piercings.
One Taíno oral tradition explains that the sun and moon come out of caves. Another story tells of people who once lived in caves and only came out at night, because it was believed that the sun would transform them. The Taíno believed themselves descended from the union of Deminaán Caracaracol and a female turtle. The origin of the oceans is described in the story of a huge flood which occurred when a father murdered his son (who was about to murder the father), and then put his bones into a gourd or calabash. These bones then turned to fish and the gourd broke and all the water of the world came pouring out.
Taínos believed that the souls of the dead go to Coaybay, the underworld, and there they rest by day, and when night comes they assume the form of bats and eat the fruit "guayaba".
Columbus and his crew, landing on an island in the Bahamas on October 12, 1492, were the first Europeans to encounter the Taíno people. Columbus wrote:
They traded with us and gave us everything they had, with good will..they took great delight in pleasing us..They are very gentle and without knowledge of what is evil; nor do they murder or steal..Your highness may believe that in all the world there can be no better people ..They love their neighbours as themselves, and they have the sweetest talk in the world, and are gentle and always laughing.
At this time, the neighbors of the Taínos were the Guanahatabeys in the western tip of Cuba, the Island-Caribs in the Lesser Antilles from Guadaloupe to Grenada, and the Timacua and Ais tribes of Florida. The Taínos called the island Guanahaní which Columbus renamed as San Salvador (Spanish for "Holy Savior"). It was Columbus who called the Taíno "Indians", an identification that has grown to encompass all the indigenous peoples of the Western Hemisphere. A group of Taíno people accompanied Columbus on his return voyage back to Spain.[22]
On Columbus' second voyage, he began to require tribute from the Taínos in Hispaniola. According to Kirkpatrick Sale, each adult over 14 years of age was expected to deliver a hawks bell full of gold every three months, or when this was lacking, twenty five pounds of spun cotton. If this tribute was not observed, the Taínos had their hands cut off and were left to bleed to death.[23] These cruel practices gave way for many revolts and campaigns—some being successful, some not.
In 1511, several caciques in Puerto Rico, such as Agüeybaná, Urayoán, Guarionex, and Orocobix, allied with the Caribs and tried to oust the Spaniards. The revolt was pacified by the Indio-Spanish forces of Governor Juan Ponce de León.[24] Hatuey, a Taíno chieftain who had fled from Hispaniola to Cuba with 400 natives to unite the Cuban natives, was burned at the stake on February 2, 1512. In Hispaniola, a Taíno chieftain named Enriquillo mobilized over 3,000 Taíno in a successful rebellion in the 1520s. These Taíno were accorded land and a charter from the royal administration. Despite the small Spanish military presence found in the region they were, in fact, able to utilize the diplomatic divisions and, with help from powerful native allies,[25][26] they were able to control most of the region. In exchange for a seasonal salary, religious and language education, the Taínos were required to work for Spanish and Indian land owners; these services were part of a system called the encomienda.
Early population estimates of Hispaniola, probably the most populous island inhabited by Taínos, range from 100,000 to 1,000,000 people. The maximum estimates for Jamaica and Puerto Rico are 600,000 people.[27] The Spanish priest Bartolomé de Las Casas (who was living in the Dominican Republic at the time) wrote in his 1561 multivolume History of the Indies:[28]
There were 60,000 people living on this island [when I arrived in 1508], including the Indians; so that from 1494 to 1508, over three million people had perished from war, slavery and the mines. Who in future generations will believe this?
Researchers today doubt Las Casas's figures for the pre-contact levels of the Taíno population, considering them an exaggeration. For example, Anderson Córdova estimates a maximum of 500,000 people inhabiting the island.[29] The Taíno population estimates range all over, from a few hundred thousand up to 8,000,000.[30] They had no resistance to Old World diseases, notably smallpox.[31] The encomienda system brought many Taínos to work in the fields and mines in exchange for Spanish protection,[32] education, and a seasonal salary.[33] Under the pretense of searching for gold and other materials,[34] many Spaniards took advantage of the regions now under control of the anaborios and Spanish encomienderos to exploit the native population by stealing their land and wealth. It would take some time before the Taínos were to revolt against their oppressors—both Indian and Spanish alike—and many military campaigns to finally induce Emperor Charles V to eradicate the encomienda system as a form of slavery.[35][36]
In thirty years, between 80% and 90% of the population died.[37] Because of the increased number of people (Spanish) on the island, there was a higher demand for food from the Taíno method of plantation which was being converted to Spanish methods. In hopes of gaining a pyrrhic victory over the Spanish, some Taínos refused to plant or even harvest their crops and in doing so, the supply of food became so low in 1495 and 1496 that some 50,000 died from the severity of the famine.[38] Despite this massive decline in population, it is safe to say that there simply wasn't enough of a Spanish military presence to be attributed to the large reduction of native manpower.[39][40] By 1507 their numbers had shrunk to 60,000. Scholars now believe that, among the various contributing factors, such as purposeful destruction of the people by the colonists and enslavement, newly imported epidemic disease (smallpox, influenza, measles, and typhus) was the overwhelming cause of the population decline of the indigenous people.[41][42][43]
Dominican girls at carnival, in Taíno garments and makeup (2005)
Many people identify themselves as descendants of the Taínos, most notably among the Puerto Ricans and Dominicans, both on the islands and on the United States mainland. The concept of living Taíno has proved controversial, as the historical canon has for so long declared the Taíno to be extinct.[44]
Some scholars, such as Jalil Sued Badillo, an ethnohistorian at the University of Puerto Rico, assert that the official Spanish historical record speak of the disappearance of the Taínos. Certainly there are no full blood Taíno people alive today, but recent research does point towards a large mestizo population.
Frank Moya Pons, a Dominican historian documented that Spanish colonists intermarried with Taíno women, and, over time, these mestizo descendants intermarried with Africans, creating a tri-racial Creole culture. 1514 census records reveal that 40% of Spanish men in the Dominican Republic had Taíno wives.[44] Ethnohistorian Lynne Guitar writes that Taínos were declared extinct in Spanish documents as early as the 16th century; however, Taíno Indians kept appearing in wills and legal records in the ensuing years.[44]
Anthropologist and archaeologist Dr. Pedro J. Ferbel Azacarate writes that Taínos and Africans lived in isolated Maroon communities, evolving into a rural population with predominantly Taíno cultural influences. Ferbel documents that even contemporary rural Dominicans retain Taíno linguistic features, agricultural practices, foodways, medicine, fishing practices, technology, architecture, oral history, and religious views. However, these cultural traits are often looked down upon by urbanites as being backwards.[44] "It's surprising just how many Taino traditions, customs, and practices have been continued," says David Cintron, who wrote his graduate thesis on the Taíno revitalization movement. "We simply take for granted that these are Puerto Rican or Cuban practices and never realize that they are Taino."[45]
A recent study conducted in Puerto Rico suggests that over 61% of the population possess Amerindian mtDNA.[46] Juan Carlos Martinez, a biology professor at the University of Puerto Rico who conducted his own mtDNA studies, says, "Our results suggest that our genetic inheritance of indigenous origin can't be very low and could be even higher than the inheritance from the other two races (Caucasoid and Negroid)."[47] On average Puerto Ricans possess approximately 10-15% Native American DNA, most of it Taino in origin; it is mixed into the genome in short pieces, consistent with a single short period of union between the races several hundred years ago.[48]
Heritage groups, such as the Jatibonicu Taíno Tribal Nation of Boriken, Puerto Rico (1970), the Taíno Nation of the Antilles (1993), the United Confederation of Taíno People (1998) and El Pueblo Guatu Ma-Cu A Boriken Puerto Rico (2000), have been established to foster Taíno culture. However, it is controversial as to whether these Heritage Groups represent Taíno Culture accurately as some Taino groups are known to 'adopt' other native traditions (mainly North American Indian). Many aspects of Taino culture have been lost to time and or blended with Spaniard and African culture on the Caribbean Islands. Peoples who claim to be of native descent in the islands of Puerto Rico, Hispaniola and Eastern Cuba attempt to maintain some form of cultural connection with their historic identities. Antonio de Moya, a Dominican educator, wrote in 1993, "the [Indian] genocide is the big lie of our history... the Dominican Taínos continue to live, 500 years after European contact."[49]
One of the ways that Taino activists now use to strengthen interest and identity is by the creation of two unique scripts. The scripts are used to write Spanish, not a retained language from pre-Columbian ancestors.[50] The organization Guaka-kú teaches and uses their script among their own members, but the LGTK (Liga Guakía Taína-ké) has promoted their script among elementary and middle school students to strengthen their interest in Taino identity.
- ^ Taino Indian Culture
- ^ Saunders, Nicholas J. The Peoples of the Caribbean: An Encyclopedia of Archaeology and Traditional Culture. ABC-CLIO, 2005: xi, xv. ISBN 978-1-57607-701-6
- ^ 1492 and Multiculturalism. Archive copy at the Wayback Machine[dead link]
- ^ Alfred W. Crosby, The Columbian Exchange Westport, 1972, p. 47
- ^ Guitat, Lynne. "Criollos: The Birth of a Dynamic New Indo-Afro-European People and Culture on Hispaniola.". KACIKE: Journal of Caribbean Amerindian History and Anthropology. Archived from the original on 2 December 2008. http://web.archive.org/web/20081202053219/http://www.kacike.org/LynneGuitar.html. Retrieved 27 May 2011.
- ^ a b Rouse, p.30–48.
- ^ Rouse, p.16
- ^ "Caciques, nobles and their regalia". elmuseo.org. Archived from the original on 2006-10-09. http://web.archive.org/web/20061009090513/http://elmuseo.org/taino/caciques.html. Retrieved 2006-11-09.
- ^ Rouse, p.15
- ^ a b Alegría, p.348.
- ^ Rouse, p.15.
- ^ a b Rouse, p.13.
- ^ a b c Rouse, p.12.
- ^ The Taínos of Quisqueya (Dominican Republic) called him "Yucahú Bagua Maorocotí", which means "White Yuca, great and powerful as the sea and the mountains".
- ^ Other names for this goddess include Guabancex, Atabei, Atabeyra, Atabex, and Guimazoa.
- ^ a b Rouse, p.119.
- ^ Rouse, p.121.
- ^ Rouse, p.13,118.
- ^ Rouse, p.118.
- ^ Rouse, p.14.
- ^ Kirkpatrick Sale, "The Conquest of Paradise",p100, ISBN 0-333-57479-6
- ^ Allen, John Logan (1997). North American Exploration: A New World Disclosed. Volume: 1. University of Nebraska Press. p. 13.
- ^ Kirkpatrick Sale, "The Conquest of Paradise",p155, ISBN 0-333-57479-6
- ^ By Anghiera Pietro Martire D'. De Orbe Novo, the Eight Decades of Peter Martyr D'Anghera. p. 143. http://books.google.ca/books?id=e7hU_LePtIQC&pg=PA122&dq=guarionex+revolt&hl=en&ei=CQw5TLT7NYGC8ga_zYWoBg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CDEQ6AEwAg#v=snippet&q=three%20thousand%20islanders&f=false. Retrieved 31 July 2010.
- ^ By Anghiera Pietro Martire D'. De Orbe Novo, the Eight Decades of Peter Martyr D'Anghera. p. 132. http://books.google.ca/books?id=e7hU_LePtIQC&pg=PA122&dq=guarionex+revolt&hl=en&ei=CQw5TLT7NYGC8ga_zYWoBg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CDEQ6AEwAg#v=snippet&q=water%20extreme%20heat&f=false. Retrieved 10 July 2010.
- ^ By Anghiera Pietro Martire D'. De Orbe Novo, the Eight Decades of Peter Martyr D'Anghera. p. 199. http://books.google.ca/books?id=e7hU_LePtIQC&pg=PA122&dq=guarionex+revolt&hl=en&ei=CQw5TLT7NYGC8ga_zYWoBg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CDEQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=concluding&f=false. Retrieved 10 July 2010.
- ^ Rouse, p.7.
- ^ "Endless War of Domination". Student-Employee Assistance Program Against Chemical Dependency. http://www.interamerdeminst.org/H8.html. Retrieved 2007-10-02.
- ^ Karen Anderson Córdova (1990) (PhD dissertation). Hispaniola and Puerto Rico: Indian Acculturation and Heterogeneity, 1492–1550. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms International.
- ^ "The Taino Indians: Native Americans of the Caribbean". The Healing Center On-Line. http://www.healing-arts.org/spider/tainoindians.htm. Retrieved 2007-10-02.
- ^ American Indian Epidemics
- ^ By Anghiera Pietro Martire D'. De Orbe Novo, the Eight Decades of Peter Martyr D'Anghera. p. 112. http://books.google.ca/books?id=e7hU_LePtIQC&pg=PA122&dq=guarionex+revolt&hl=en&ei=CQw5TLT7NYGC8ga_zYWoBg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CDEQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=begged&f=false. Retrieved 21 July 2010.
- ^ By Anghiera Pietro Martire D'. De Orbe Novo, the Eight Decades of Peter Martyr D'Anghera. p. 182. http://books.google.ca/books?id=e7hU_LePtIQC&pg=PA122&dq=guarionex+revolt&hl=en&ei=CQw5TLT7NYGC8ga_zYWoBg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CDEQ6AEwAg#v=snippet&q=cheerfully&f=false. Retrieved 21 July 2010.
- ^ By Anghiera Pietro Martire D'. De Orbe Novo, the Eight Decades of Peter Martyr D'Anghera. p. 111. http://books.google.ca/books?id=e7hU_LePtIQC&pg=PA122&dq=guarionex+revolt&hl=en&ei=CQw5TLT7NYGC8ga_zYWoBg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CDEQ6AEwAg#v=snippet&q=columbus%20rapacity&f=false. Retrieved 21 July 2010.
- ^ By Anghiera Pietro Martire D'. De Orbe Novo, the Eight Decades of Peter Martyr D'Anghera. p. 143. http://books.google.ca/books?id=e7hU_LePtIQC&pg=PA122&dq=guarionex+revolt&hl=en&ei=CQw5TLT7NYGC8ga_zYWoBg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CDEQ6AEwAg#v=snippet&q=three%20thousand&f=false. Retrieved 21 July 2010.
- ^ David M. Traboulay. Columbus and Las Casas: the conquest and Christianization of America, 1492–1566. p. 44. http://books.google.ca/books?id=7Jmi4Wb1DdsC&pg=PA44&dq=enriquillo+revolt&hl=en&ei=S08sTP7LHMXflgeajv2hCg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CDAQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=enriquillo%20revolt&f=false. Retrieved 21 July 2010.
- ^ "La tragédie des Taïnos", in L'Histoire n°322, July–August 2007, p.16
- ^ By Anghiera Pietro Martire D'. De Orbe Novo, the Eight Decades of Peter Martyr D'Anghera. p. 108. http://books.google.ca/books?id=e7hU_LePtIQC&pg=PA122&dq=guarionex+revolt&hl=en&ei=CQw5TLT7NYGC8ga_zYWoBg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CDEQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=50%2C000&f=false. Retrieved 21 July 2010.
- ^ By Anghiera Pietro Martire D'. De Orbe Novo, the Eight Decades of Peter Martyr D'Anghera. p. 160. http://books.google.ca/books?id=e7hU_LePtIQC&pg=PA122&dq=guarionex+revolt&hl=en&ei=CQw5TLT7NYGC8ga_zYWoBg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CDEQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=thirty&f=false. Retrieved 21 July 2010.
- ^ Arthur C. Aufderheide; Conrado Rodríguez-Martín; Odin Langsjoen (1998). The Cambridge encyclopedia of human paleopathology. Cambridge University Press. pp. 204. ISBN 978-0-521-55203-5. http://books.google.com/books?id=qubTdDk1H3IC.
- ^ Watts, Sheldon (2003). Disease and medicine in world history. Routledge. pp. 86, 91. ISBN 978-0-415-27816-4. http://books.google.com/books?id=Nc9Aq8HOVaEC&pg=PA86.
- ^ Schimmer, Russell. "Puerto Rico". Genocide Studies Program. Yale University. http://www.yale.edu/gsp/colonial/puerto-rico/index.html.
- ^ Raudzens, George (2003). Technology, Disease, and Colonial Conquests, Sixteenth to Eighteenth Centuries. Brill. pp. 41. ISBN 978-0-391-04206-3. http://books.google.com/books?id=_PFSc4kCyxcC&pg=PA41.
- ^ a b c d Ferbel, Dr. P. J. "Not Everyone Who Speaks Spanish is from Spain: Taíno Survival in the 21st Century Dominican Republic." Kacike: Journal of Caribbean Amerindian History and Anthropology.. Retrieved on 24 Sept 2009.
- ^ Taliman, Valerie. Taino Nation alive and strong. Indian Country Today. 24 Jan 2001. Retrieved 24 Sept 2009.
- ^ Martínez Cruzado, Juan C. (2002). The Use of Mitochondrial DNA to Discover Pre-Columbian Migrations to the Caribbean:Results for Puerto Rico and Expectations for the Dominican Republic. Kacike: The Journal of Caribbean Amerindian History and Anthropology. Lynne Guitar, Ed. (Date of access: 25 September 2006)
- ^ Ferrer, Melba. "UPR study finds high Taino DNA rate: Tests contradict theory of extinction of P.R. natives." San Juan Star. 1 April 1999. Retrieved 24 Sept 2009.
- ^ Susan Young (2011-10-14). "Breathing life into an extinct ethnicity". Nature News. http://www.nature.com/news/2011/111014/full/news.2011.592.html.
- ^ Antonio de Moya, E. (l993). "Animación sociocultural y polisíntesis en la transformación del sistema educativo Dominicano." La Revista de Educación. 1(2): 6-10.
- ^ Sherina Feliciano-Santos. 2011. An Inconceivable Indigeneity: The Historical, Cultural, and Interactional Dimensions of Puerto Rican Activism. University of Michigan, doctoral dissertation. [1]
- Irving Rouse (1992). The Tainos: Rise and Decline of the people who greeted Columbus. Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-05696-6.
- Ricardo Alegría (April 1951). "The Ball Game Played by the Aborigines of the Antilles". American Antiquity 16 (4): 348–352. DOI:10.2307/276984.
- Guitar, Lynne. 2000. "Criollos: The Birth of a Dynamic New Indo-Afro-European People and Culture on Hispaniola." KACIKE: The Journal of Caribbean Amerindian History and Anthropology, 1(1): 1-17. Archive copy at the Wayback Machine
- Indigenous Resurgence in the Contemporary Caribbean: Amerindian Survival and Revival. Edited by Maximilian C. Forte. New York: Peter Lang Publishing, 2006. http://www.centrelink.org/resurgence/index.html
- DeRLAS. Some important research contributions of Genetics to the study of Population History and Anthropology in Puerto Rico. Newark, Delaware: Delaware Review of Latin American Studies. August 15, 2000.
- The Role of Cohoba in Taíno Shamanism Constantino M. Torres in Eleusis No. 1 (1998)
- Shamanic Inebriants in South American Archaeology: Recent lnvestigations Constantino M. Torres in Eleusis No. 5 (2001)
- Tinker, T & Freeland, M. 2008. "Thief, Slave Trader, Murderer: Christopher Columbus and Caribbean Population Decline." (pp=25-50). Retrieved from Academic Search Premier Database on September 23, 2008.
- TAINOS: Alive and well in Puerto Rico and the United States?. http://www.prdream.com/wordpress/?p=212
- Island Thresholds, Peabody Essex Museum's interactive feature, showcases the work of Caribbean artists and their exploration of culture and identity.
- Taino Diccionary, A dictionary of words of the indigenous peoples of caribbean from the encyclopedia "Clásicos de Puerto Rico, second edition, publisher, Ediciones Latinoamericanas. S.A., 1972" compiled by Puerto Rican historian Dr. Cayetano Coll y Toste of the "Real Academia de la Historia". Provided by the Jatibonicu Taino Tribal Nation of Boriken (Puerto Rico).
- 2011 Smithsonian article on Taino culture remnant in the Dominican Republic
