LGBT rights in Pakistan
Pakistan
Same-sex sexual activity legal?	Illegal: Islamic Sharia Law may be applied
Family rights
Recognition of relationships	Same-sex relationships considered taboo

Being a lesbian, gay, bisexual or transsexual person is a considered a taboo vice in parts of society of Pakistan and gay rights are close to non-existent. According to Pakistani law, homosexuality is illegal and the law has yet to be repealed. The current ban on homosexuality comes from a British colonial era law, which has been on the books since 1860, with subsequent laws further restricting LGBT-rights under the guise of protecting public morality. Due to the social disapproval towards such acts, the public tend to oppose homosexuality and other forms of alternative sexual orientation.

Although Pakistan is officially an Islamic Republic, in practice Pakistan has mixed laws with mainly Anglo-Saxon laws inherited from the British. As a result of increasing liberalisation trends and increasing globalisation and social tolerance, there have been many public gay parties taking place in the country and such parties have been thriving for a number of years.^[1]

Traditional religious norms and cultural beliefs view homosexuality and cross-dressing negatively, and this homophobic societal attitude contributes to intolerant social behavior as well as refusal of the government, or most political groups within Pakistan, to support LGBT-rights.

Pakistan does not have civil rights laws to prohibit discrimination or harassment on the basis of real or perceived sexual orientation and there is no legal recognition of same-sex marriage or civil unions in Pakistan.

The LGBT community in Pakistan has not formally begun to campaign for LGBT-rights, but there is growing tolerance for social gatherings of gay men in the cities and in what was seen as a historical move in 2009, the Supreme Court of Pakistan ruled in favor of the civil rights of transsexual citizens. ^[1]

LGBT Legal Issues[link]

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v t e

Pakistani law is a mixture of both Anglo-Saxon colonial law as well as Islamic law, both which proscribe criminal penalties for homosexuality. The Pakistan Penal Code of 1860, originally developed under colonialism, punishes acts of sodomy with a possible prison sentence and has other provisions that impact the human rights of LGBT Pakistanis, under the guise of protecting public morality and order. Alongside these Anglo-Saxon based laws are the religious courts and Islamic laws, where the maximum punishment for sodomy is death. Yet, the more likely situation for gay and bisexual men is sporadic police blackmail, harassment, fines and jail sentences [1].

Pakistan Constitution[link]

The Pakistan Constitution does not explicitly make mention of sexual orientation or gender identity. It does contain certain provisions that may impact the constitutional rights of LGBT Pakistani citizens [2].

• Part II 37. The government pledges to promote Islamic values among its Muslim citizens, to protect marriage and the family and to oppose obscenity.

• Part II 38. The government will guarantee all of citizens education, job training, and health care services, including social insurance.

• Part IX 227. Islam is the official state religion, and all laws, rules, regulations and other such legislation must be compatible with Islam, as defined by a government appointed Islamic council.

Pakistan Penal Code 1860[link]

• Article 141 - An assembly of five or more persons is designated an "unlawful assembly" if the common object of the persons composing that assembly is...To commit any mischief or criminal trespass, or other offense.

• Article 153 - Whoever by words, either spoken or written, or by signs, or by visible representations, or otherwise, induce or attempts to induce any student, or any class of students, or any institution interested in or connected with students, to take part in any political activity which disturbs or undermines, or is likely disturb or undermine, the public order shall be punished with imprisonment which may extend to two years or –with fine or with both.

• Article 268 - A person is guilty of a public nuisance who does any act or is guilty of an illegal omission which causes any common injury, danger or annoyance to the public or to the people in general who dwell or occupy property in the vicinity, or which must necessarily cause injury, obstruction, danger or annoyance to persons who may have occasion to use any public right.

• Article 269 - Whoever unlawfully or negligently does any act which is, and which he knows or has reason to believe to be, likely to spread the infection of any disease dangerous to life, shall be punished with imprisonment of either description for a term which may extend to six months, or with fine, or with both.

• Article 270 - Whoever malignantly does any act which is, and which he knows or has reason to believe to be, likely to spread the infection of any disease dangerous to life, shall be punished with imprisonment of either description for a term which may extend to two years, or with fine, or with both.

• Article 290 - Whoever commits a public nuisance in any case not otherwise punishable by this Code, shall be punished with fine which may extend to six hundred rupees.

• Article 292 - Prohibits the sale, distribution, exhibition, ownership or importation of any, "obscene" books, phamplets, or other literature or images.

• Article 294 - Prohibits any "obscene" public acts, songs, music or poems.

• Article 371A - Whoever sells, lets to hire, or otherwise disposes of any person with intent that such a person shall at any time be employed or used for the purpose of prostitution or illicit intercourse with any person or for any unlawful and immoral purpose, or knowing it to be likely that such person shall at any time be employed or used for any such, purpose, shall be punished with imprisonment which may extend to twenty-five years, and shall also be liable to fine

• Article 371B - When a female is sold, let for hire, or otherwise disposed of to a prostitute or to any person who keeps or manages a brothel, the person so disposing of such female shall, until the contrary is proved, be presumed to have disposed of her with the intent that she shall be used for the purpose of prostitution. For the purposes of this section and section 371B, "illicit intercourse" means sexual intercourse between persons not united by marriage.

• Article 377 - Whoever voluntarily has carnal intercourse against the order of nature with any man, woman or animal, shall be punished with imprisonment for life, or with imprisonment of either description for a term which shall not be less than two years nor more than ten years, and shall also be liable to fine. Penetration is sufficient to constitute the carnal intercourse necessary to the offense described in this section.

• Article 496 - Whoever, dishonestly or with a fraudulent intention, goes through the ceremony of being married, knowing that he is not thereby lawfully married, shall be punished with imprisonment of either description for a term which may extend to seven years, and shall be liable to fine.

Abuse Issues[link]

An institutional form of pederasty does exist within certain parts of rural Pakistan, which is often treated as being the same as homosexuality, thus furthering homophobia within Pakistani society and making it harder to help victims of sexual abuse, because both the abuser and his victim are often treated as the law and society treats gay people.

The World Organization Against Torture (Organisation Mondiale Contre la Torture, OMCT) targeted Pakistan conservatives in the tribal areas in 1997 over the recent whipping of two males, an adult and a minor, allegedly caught having sex in a public lavatory. Mohammad Yaman, a mosque worker and Fahimullah, 14, a student were lashed publicly on 1997-05-17 in Bara Bazar in Pakistan's western Khyber Agency, an area administered by local Afridi tribesmen. It was reported that Fahimullah was paid PKR 100 (USD 1.15) for the act. The adult was whipped 75 times while the minor received 32 lashes.^[2][3] A Kahuta based Pakistani cleric stated on 2007-12-31 that every homosexual person should be killed to stop this sudden growth towards sexual awareness suggesting either beheading or stoning the involved.^[4]

There have been several incidents of pederasty reported as being made by clerics towards young boys at religious schools or madrasahs.^[5] It is often difficult for victims of sexual abuse to get justice in these situations, because the public does not want to believe that a cleric could engage in pederastry and the victims, young boys who are forced to be the receptive partner in anal intercourse are often perceived as being gay and are thus subjected to social hostility and even legal sanctions.^[6] While the LGBT community is not ready to tackle such abuse and prejudices, a growing number of gay and bisexual men are creating social networks ^[7]

Metropolitan areas like Lahore and Karachi have seen many gay men, mostly of the middle and upper classes, enjoying themselves at parties aimed at proclaiming their gay pride.^[7][8] These usually involve large numbers of men dancing together in huge isolated rooms modelled into a discothèque environment and making out. In 2008 an incident that caught the eyes of passers-by was a group of cross-dressed men dancing to Bollywood tunes on a rooftop on the day of Basant.^[1] Yet, despite examples of tolerance, prejudice and discrimination still exists.

In 2003, however, three Pakistani men were arrested in the city of Lahore when one of their relatives turned them in for engaging in homosexuality at a private party. Their punishment is not known.

In 2005, a man named Liaquat Ali, 42, from Khyber region bordering Afghanistan married a fellow tribesman Markeen, 16, with the usual pomp and show associated with tribal weddings. Upon hearing of the man's religious infidelity, a tribal council told the pair to leave the area or face death.^[9]

Where men are now opening up to sexualities, lesbianism has lesser exposure in the country and one hears almost rarely of events that matter to women indulging in homosexual relationships. One such court case, decided in 2008, displayed the same disapproving attitude towards a lesbian relationship as it would have towards two men involved.^[10][11]

Transsexualism and intersexuality[link]

A thriving community of hijras and transsexual people cross-dressed as females protest in Islamabad.

In most South Asian nations, a concept of third gender prevails where members of the same are referred to as neither man or a woman. Pakistan is no different and has a vibrant culture of hijras. They are sometimes referred to as transsexuals in English language publications.^[12] Like transgender people in many countries they are sometimes the subjects of ridicule, abuse, and violence.^[12] That said they enjoy a certain level of acceptance due to their position in precolonial Desi society. For example they are welcome at weddings where they will dance as entertainment for the men, and are also welcome among the women.^[12]

Their presence in society is usually tolerated and are considered blessed in the Pakistani culture. Most hijras are deemed to have been direct cultural descendants of the court eunuchs of the Mughal era.^[13] Thought to be born with genital dysphoria and afraid that they might curse one their fate,^[14][15] people listen to their needs, give them alms and invite their presence at various events and functions, e.g., birth of a child, his circumcision or weddings.^[16] This mysteriousness that shrouds their existence has born of the fact that the hijra communities live a very secretive life. In 2004 it was reported that Lahore alone has 10,000 active transvestites.^[13]

People have started accepting acts of sex reassignment surgery to change their sex as a norm either compelled by gender identity disorder or just for the sake of it. There are situations where such cases have come into the limelight.^[10] A 2008 ruling at Pakistan's Lahore High Court issued permissions to Naureen, 28, to have a sex change operation, although the decision was applicable only towards people suffering from gender identity disorder.^[17]

In 2009, the Pakistan Supreme Court ruled in favor of a group of transvestites. The landmark ruling stated that as citizens they were entitled to the equal benefit and protection of the law and called upon the government to take steps to protect transvestites from discrimination and harassment [3]

Acceptance in media and popular culture[link]

In 2005, Ali Saleem, 28, son of an army colonel gathered courage to appear on Geo TV's Hum Sub Umeed Se Hain as cross-dressed Benazir Bhutto. So loved were his performances that he has taken to act to extremes on-air and presents his own talk show where he appears as a dragged-up character named Begum Nawazish Ali. Begum would almost always interview influential government ministers, e.g., pro-Jamait-e-Islami former mayor of Karachi, Naimatullah Khan.^[18] His character self is often compared to Dame Edna Everage.^[19]

Government's stance on homosexuality[link]

Pakistani law is a combination of the colonial and Islamic view. Under the Pakistan Penal Code (PCC), homosexuality is deemed a crime that is punishable by a prison sentence. With the Islamicisation of Pakistan policies under the rule of General Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq, Islamic sharia laws were intervened with the existing laws. A complete compilation of Islamic laws that amended the policies were called the Hudood Ordinance that stipulated severe punishments for adultery, fornication, consuming alcohol and homosexuality. What was excluded however was punishments for actions that involved pederasty, pederasty became confused with other carnal acts.

Under the colonial aspects of law, since 1860, homosexuality was a crime punishable by a sentence of two to 10 years in prison. However, when the Islamic laws were introduced to the system, amendments included primitive forms of punishments like whipping of up to 100 lashes and death by stoning. A homosexual Pakistani may face either secular or Islamic, or in some cases both punishments combined. Although, all of the known recorded cases of these laws being used against LGBT Pakistanis suggest that more common punishment involves police harassment and the imposition of fines and or jail time.

Under section 377 of the PPC, it states:^[20][21]

Of Unnatural Offences
Section 377: Whoever voluntarily has carnal intercourse against the order of nature with any man, woman or animal, shall be punished with imprisonment for life, or with imprisonment of either description for a term which shall not be less than two years nor more than ten years, and shall also be liable to fine.^[21]

In the PPC, the provision defining the offence and prescribing the punishment for it is titled unnatural offences where people would argue that while homosexuality is generally an offence under Pakistan's Penal Code (PCC), this particular law does not specifically refer to homosexuality.^[20]

The UNHRC vote[link]

The Islamabad government has always shown resistance against the issue of gay rights and never hid its intolerance. A UN vote cast on 2003-04-25, on issues of homosexual human rights was derailed at the last minute by an alliance of five disapproving Muslim countries which included Pakistan. The others being Egypt, Libya, Saudi Arabia and Malaysia.^[22]

The countries delayed their votes to stall the process and proposed amendments that were meant to kill the measure deliberately, removing all references to discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation, rendering the resolution meaningless. The resolution was tabled by Brazil with support from 19 of the 53 member countries of the UN Human Rights Commission (UNHRC) in Geneva.^[22] It called on member states to promote and protect the human rights of all persons, regardless of their sexual orientation.^[20]

Course of denials[link]

The Government denies that homosexuality even exists in Pakistan and that LGBT expressions or human rights are alien concepts from the decadent west. Pakistan is one of the few countries retaining penalty of death as punishment for homosexuality and one of the eight countries retaining capital punishment for the same. Others being Mauritania, Sudan, Afghanistan, Iran, Saudi Arabia and Yemen. However, the UAE's stance is unclear.^[20]

Civil rights[link]

No civil rights legislation exists to prohibit public or private sector discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation or gender identity and nor are political parties or organizations in Pakistan publicly supporting any LGBT rights legislation. Sociologists Stephen O. Murray and Badruddin Khan have written that the penal laws themselves are rarely enforced directly, but are used by the police and other private citizens as a form of blackmail.^[23]

Pakistan is under the spotlight after the derailment of the UN vote to make a formal statement supporting the human rights of LGBT people. During that same month, the chief minister of Pakistan’s south-eastern state of Sindh, Ali Mohammad Mahar, was publicly outed as being gay and attending private parties in women's clothing, although he was allowed to keep his government job.^[24]

LGBT politics[link]

Political parties, interest groups and other political organizations in Pakistan are required to respect, Islam and "public morality", which may, prelude any endorsement of LGBT-rights. The one exception seems to be Pakistani citizens who are transsexual or a member of the third gender. In 2009, the Pakistani Supreme Court ruled that the government must take proactive steps to protect transsexuals from harassment and discrimination, although no legislation in the area of gender identity has advanced. 'Third gender' officially protected from discrimination by the Supreme Court of Pakistan in 2010.

Related issues[link]

A growing number of gay and bisexual Pakistanis, mostly from the urban, middle and upper classes, are more open about their sexual orientation and are attending or hosting social functions. While there is no political movement being launched, the Internet has played a large role in social networking and fighting isolation with websites like Facebook, Orkut, blogs and websites.^[25] The blogosphere so far has been immune to the modern emergence of queer desi identity. Blogs now highlight stories and issues specific to this marginalised community.^[25]

One of the issues that that has opened up public discussion about homosexuality has been effort to combat the spread of AIDS-HIV among men who have sex with other men, but may not necessarily identity as being gay or bisexual in orientation. UNAIDS official reports suggest that they are targeting night truck drivers who are known for having sex with other younger men.^[26] Of most concern is the spread of HIV and AIDS.

Fighting HIV and AIDS[link]

The AIDS pandemic first arose in Pakistan in 1987, and the official government reports estimate (as of 2004) that nearly 3,000 Pakistanis are living with the disease, although several critics believe that the government is underestimating the problem.^[27] It is believed that the number may have risen to somewhere between 70,000 and 80,000 people,^[28] and possibly as high as 210,000 (as in the UNAIDS Pakistan reports).^[26]

Today, a small number of organizations exist in Pakistan to promote greater education about HIV/AIDS, including the Association for People Living With AIDS/HIV In Pakistan, which was created in 2006.^[26] One of the few public educators is a woman named Shukria Gul, who got infected from her husband. She had been fighting ever since to raise awareness of the disease, and has been highly critical of the government's efforts. Ignorance about the disease, and how it is spread, is commonplace; this is particularly true among people performing high risk bahavior such as prostitutes. Pakistani prostitutes do not have access to condoms or contraception, and there is little effort to provide any sort of public health education for this high-risk group.^[29]

Where there was no public call for tolerance or acceptance of LGBT people, the subject of sexual orientation and gender identity are becoming more openly discussed, especially in light of the HIV/AIDS pandemic.^[7] All but a handful of LGBT Pakistanis are in the closet, the most public form of homosexuality involving illegal prostitution.^[30] Young boys, and girls, are often forced into prostitution due to poverty, or outright coercion and have no means of protection.^[31]

See also[link]

	LGBT portal
	Pakistan portal

• Human rights in Pakistan
• Prostitution in Pakistan
• Court system of Pakistan
• Pakistan Penal Code
• Al-Fatiha Foundation
• LGBT rights in Asia

References[link]

Constructs such as ibid., loc. cit. and idem are discouraged by Wikipedia's style guide for footnotes, as they are easily broken. Please improve this article by replacing them with named references (quick guide), or an abbreviated title. (July 2010)

Template:LGBT in Pakistan

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Islamic Republic of Pakistan اسلامی جمہوریۂ پاکستان Islāmī Jumhūrī-ye Pākistān
Flag State Emblem
Motto: Faith, Unity, Discipline[1] Urdu: ایمان ، اتحاد ، تنظیم Iman, Ittehad, Tanzeem
Anthem: Qaumī Tarāna
Area constituting Pakistan in dark green; claimed but uncontrolled territory in light green
Capital		Islamabad 33°40′N 73°10′E / 33.667°N 73.167°E / 33.667; 73.167
Largest city		Karachi
Official language(s)		Urdu English (Pakistani)
Regional languages		Punjabi, Sindhi, Pashto, Balochi, Saraiki, Hindko, Brahui[2][3]
Demonym		Pakistani
Government		Federal Parliamentary republic
-	President	Asif Ali Zardari (PPP)
-	Prime Minister	Yousaf Raza Gillani (PPP)
-	Chief Justice	Iftikhar Chaudhry
-	Chair of Senate	Nayyar Hussain Bukhari (PPP)
-	House Speaker	Fahmida Mirza (PPP)
Legislature		Majlis-e-Shoora
-	Upper house	Senate
-	Lower house	National Assembly
Formation
-	Conception of Pakistan	29 December 1930
-	Pakistan Declaration	28 January 1933
-	Pakistan Resolution	23 March 1940
-	Independence	from the United Kingdom
-	Declared	14 August 1947
-	Islamic Republic	23 March 1956
Area
-	Total	796,095 km2 [a](36th) 307,374 sq mi
-	Water (%)	3.1
Population
-	2011 estimate	177,100,000[5] (6th)
-	1998 census	132,352,279[6]
-	Density	214.3/km2 (55th) 555/sq mi
GDP (PPP)		2011 estimate
-	Total	$488.580 billion[7]
-	Per capita	$2,787[7]
GDP (nominal)		2011 estimate
-	Total	$210.566 billion[7]
-	Per capita	$1,201[7]
Gini (2005)		31.2 (medium)
HDI (2011)		0.504[8] (low) (145th)
Currency		Pakistani Rupee (Rs.) (PKR)
Time zone		PST (UTC+5)
-	Summer (DST)	PDT (UTC+6)
Drives on the		left[9]
ISO 3166 code		PK
Internet TLD		.pk
Calling code		92

Pakistan (ⁱ/ˈpækɨstæn/ or ⁱ/pɑːkiˈstɑːn/; Urdu: پاکستان) (Urdu pronunciation: [paːkɪˈst̪aːn] ( listen)), officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan (Urdu: اسلامی جمہوریۂ پاکستان), is a sovereign country in South Asia. It sits at the crossroads of the strategically important regions of South Asia, Central Asia and the Middle East. It has a 1,046-kilometre (650 mi) coastline along the Arabian Sea and the Gulf of Oman in the south and is bordered by India to the east, Afghanistan to the west and north, Iran to the southwest and China in the far northeast. It is separated from Tajikistan by Afghanistan's narrow Wakhan Corridor in the north, and it shares a marine border with Oman.

The territory of modern Pakistan was the site of several ancient cultures, including the Neolithic Mehrgarh and the Bronze Age Indus Valley Civilisation, and has undergone invasions or settlements by Hindu, Persian, Indo-Greek, Islamic, Turco-Mongol, Afghan and Sikh cultures. Thus the area has been ruled by numerous empires and dynasties, including the Indian Mauryan Empire, the Persian Achaemenid Empire, the Arab Umayyad Caliphate, the Mongol Empire, the Mughal Empire, the Durrani Empire, the Sikh Empire and the British Empire. As a result of the Pakistan Movement led by Muhammad Ali Jinnah and India's struggle for independence, Pakistan was created in 1947 as an independent nation for Muslims from the regions in the east and west of India where there was a Muslim majority. Initially a dominion, Pakistan adopted a new constitution in 1956, becoming an Islamic republic. A civil war in 1971 resulted in the secession of East Pakistan as the new country of Bangladesh.

Pakistan is a federal parliamentary republic consisting of four provinces and four federal territories. With a population exceeding 170 million people, it is the sixth most populous country in the world and has the largest Muslim population after Indonesia. It is an ethnically and linguistically diverse country, with a similar variation in its geography and wildlife. It has a semi-industrialised economy which is the 27th largest in the world in terms of purchasing power and 47th largest in terms of nominal GDP. Pakistan's post-independence history has been characterised by periods of military rule, political instability and conflicts with neighbouring India. The country continues to face challenging problems, including terrorism, poverty, illiteracy and corruption.

A regional and middle power,^[10][11] Pakistan has the seventh largest standing armed forces in the world and is a declared nuclear weapons state, being the first and only nation in the Muslim world, and the second in South Asia, to have that status. It is designated as a major non-NATO ally of the United States and a strategic ally of China. Pakistan is a founding member of the Organisation of the Islamic Conference (now the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation) and is a member of the United Nations, the Commonwealth of Nations and the G20 developing nations.

Etymology[link]

The name Pakistan literally means "Land of (the) Pure" in Urdu and Persian. It was coined in 1933 as Pakstan by Choudhary Rahmat Ali, a Pakistan Movement activist, who published it in his pamphlet Now or Never,^[12] using it as an acronym ("thirty million Muslim brethren who live in PAKSTAN") referring to the names of the five northern regions of the Indian subcontinent: Punjab, North-West Frontier Province (Afghan Province), Kashmir, Sind, and Baluchistan".^[13][14][15] The letter i was incorporated to ease pronunciation and form the linguistically correct name.^[16]

History[link]

Early and medieval age[link]

1st century AD Standing Buddha from Gandhara, Pakistan

Some of the earliest ancient human civilisations in South Asia originated from areas encompassing present-day Pakistan. The earliest known inhabitants in the region were the Soanians, who settled in the Soan Valley of Punjab.^[17] The Indus region, which covers most of Pakistan, was the site of several successive ancient cultures including the Neolithic Mehrgarh^[18] and the Bronze Age Indus Valley Civilisation (2800–1800 BCE) at Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro.^[19][20]

The Vedic Civilization (1500–500 BCE), characterised by Indo-Aryan culture, laid the foundations of Hinduism, which would become well established in the region.^[21][22] Multan was an important Hindu pilgrimage centre.^[23] The Vedic civilisation flourished in the ancient Gandhāran city of Takṣaśilā, now Taxila in Punjab.^[18] Successive ancient empires and kingdoms ruled the region: the Persian Achaemenid Empire around 519 BCE, Alexander the Great's empire in 326 BCE^[24] and the Maurya Empire founded by Chandragupta Maurya and extended by Ashoka the Great until 185 BCE.^[18] The Indo-Greek Kingdom founded by Demetrius of Bactria (180–165 BCE) included Gandhara and Punjab and reached its greatest extent under Menander (165–150 BCE), prospering the Greco-Buddhist culture in the region.^{[18] [25]} Taxila had one of the earliest universities and centres of higher education in the world.^{[26][27][28][29]}

Mughal emperor Aurangzeb seated on a golden throne in the Durbar

The Medieval period (642–1219 CE) is defined by the spread of Islam in the region. During this period, Sufi missionaries played a pivotal role in converting a majority of the regional Buddhist and Hindu population to Islam.^[30] The Rai Dynasty (489–632 CE) of Sindh, at its zenith, ruled this region and the surrounding territories.^[31]

The Arab general Muhammad bin Qasim conquered Sindh and Multan in southern Punjab in 711CE.^[32] The Pakistan government's official chronology identifies this as the point where the "foundation" of Pakistan was laid.^[32] This conquest set the stage for the rule of several successive Muslim empires in the region, including the Ghaznavid Empire (975–1187 CE), the Ghorid Kingdom and the Delhi Sultanate (1206–1526 CE). The Lodi dynasty, the last of the Delhi Sultanate, was replaced by the Mughal Empire (1526–1857 CE). The Mughals introduced Persian literature and high culture, establishing the roots of Indo-Persian culture in the region.^[33]

Colonial period[link]

The 1940 Working Committee of the Muslim League in Lahore

The gradual decline of the Mughal Empire in the early eighteenth century enabled Sikh rulers to control large areas until the British East India Company gained ascendancy over South Asia.^[34] The Indian Rebellion of 1857, also known as the Sepoy Mutiny, was the region's major armed struggle against the British.^[35] The largely non-violent freedom struggle led by the Indian National Congress engaged millions of protesters in mass campaigns of civil disobedience in the 1920s and 1930s .^[36][37]

Muhammad Ali Jinnah, the founder and first Governor General of Pakistan, delivering the opening address of the 1947 Constitutional Assembly, explaining the foundations for the new state of Pakistan.

The All-India Muslim League rose to popularity in the late 1930s amid fears of under-representation and neglect of Muslims in politics. In his presidential address of 29 December 1930, Muhammad Iqbal called for "the formation of a consolidated North-West Indian Muslim State" consisting of Punjab, North-West Frontier Province, Sind and Baluchistan.^[38] Muhammad Ali Jinnah, the founder of Pakistan, espoused the two-nation theory and led the Muslim League to adopt the Lahore Resolution of 1940, popularly known as the Pakistan Resolution.^[34] In early 1947, Britain announced the decision to end its rule in India. In June 1947, the nationalist leaders of British India—including Jawaharlal Nehru and Abul Kalam Azad representing the Congress, Jinnah representing the Muslim League, and Master Tara Singh representing the Sikhs—agreed to the proposed terms of transfer of power and independence.^[39]

The modern state of Pakistan was established on 14 August 1947 (27 Ramadan 1366 in the Islamic Calendar) in the eastern and northwestern regions of British India, where there was a Muslim majority. It comprised the provinces of Balochistan, East Bengal, the North-West Frontier Province, West Punjab and Sindh.^[34][39] The partition of the Punjab and Bengal provinces led to communal riots across India and Pakistan; millions of Muslims moved to Pakistan and millions of Hindus and Sikhs moved to India.^[40] Dispute over the princely state of Jammu and Kashmir led to the First Kashmir War in October 1947.^[41][42]

Independence and Modern Pakistan[link]

The Minar-e-Pakistan, a symbol of Pakistan's independence

From 1947 to 1956, Pakistan was a dominion in the Commonwealth of Nations,^[43] under two monarchs. In 1947, King George VI relinquished the title of Emperor of India and became King of Pakistan. He retained that title until his death on 6 February 1952, after which Queen Elizabeth II became Queen of Pakistan.^[43] Pakistan became an Islamic and Parliamentary republic in 1956,^[44] but civilian rule was stalled by a military coup led by the Army Commander-in-Chief, General Ayub Khan. The country experienced exceptional growth until a second war with India took place in 1965 and led to economic downfall and internal instability.^[45][46] Ayub Khan's successor, General Yahya Khan (President from 1969 to 1971), had to deal with a devastating cyclone which caused 500,000 deaths in East Pakistan.^[47]

In 1970, Pakistan held its first democratic elections since independence. They were meant to mark a transition from military rule to democracy, but after the East Pakistani Awami League won, Yahya Khan and the ruling elite in West Pakistan refused to hand over power.^[48][49] There was civil unrest in the East, and the Pakistan Army launched a military operation on 25 March 1971, aiming to regain control of the province.^[48][49] The targeting of civilians and other atrocities during this operation led to a declaration of independence and to the waging of a war of liberation by the Bengali Mukti Bahini forces in East Pakistan, with support from India.^[49][50] Independent estimates of civilian deaths during this period range from 1 million to 3 million.^[51] Attacks on Indian military bases by the Pakistan Air Force in December 1971 sparked the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971, which ended with the formal secession of East Pakistan as the independent state of Bangladesh.^[49]

With Pakistan's defeat in the war, Yahya Khan was replaced by Zulfikar Ali Bhutto as Chief Martial Law Administrator. Civilian rule resumed from 1972 to 1977.^[52] During this period Pakistan began to build nuclear weapons; the country's first atomic power plant was inaugurated in 1972.^[53][54] Civilian rule ended with a military coup in 1977, and in 1979 General Zia-ul-Haq became the third military president. Military government lasted until 1988, during which Pakistan became one of the fastest-growing economies in South Asia.^[55] Zia consolidated nuclear development and increased Islamization of the state.^[56] During this period, Pakistan helped to subsidise and distribute US resources to factions of the Mujahideen movement against the 1979 Soviet invasion of Afghanistan.^[57][58]

Zia died in a plane crash in 1988, and Benazir Bhutto, daughter of Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, was elected as the first female Prime Minister of Pakistan. She was followed by Nawaz Sharif, and over the next decade the two leaders fought for power, alternating in office while the country's situation worsened; economic indicators fell sharply, in contrast to the 1980s. This period is marked by political instability, misgovernance and corruption.^[59][60] In May 1998, while Sharif was Prime Minister, India tested five nuclear weapons and tension with India heightened to an extreme: Pakistan detonated six nuclear weapons of its own in the Chagai-I and Chagai-II tests later in the same month. Military tension between the two countries in the Kargil district led to the Kargil War of 1999, after which General Pervez Musharraf took over through a bloodless coup d'état and assumed vast executive powers.^[61][62]

Musharraf ruled Pakistan as head of state from 1999 to 2001 and as President from 2001 to 2008, a period of extensive economic reform^[63] and Pakistan's involvement in the US-led war on terrorism. On 15 November 2007, Pakistan's National Assembly became the first to completed its full five-year term, and new elections were called.^[64] After the assassination of Benazir Bhutto in December 2007, her Pakistan Peoples Party (PPP) won the largest number of seats in the 2008 elections, and party member Yousaf Raza Gillani was sworn in as Prime Minister.^[65] Musharraf resigned from the presidency on 18 August 2008 when threatened with impeachment, and was succeeded by Asif Ali Zardari, the current President.^[66][67][68] By its own estimates, Pakistan's involvement in the war on terrorism has cost up to $67.93 billion,^[69][70] thousands of casualties and nearly 3 million displaced civilians.^[71]

Politics[link]

Yousaf Raza Gillani, Prime Minister of Pakistan

Pakistan is a democratic parliamentary federal republic with Islam as the state religion. The first Constitution of Pakistan was adopted in 1956 but suspended by Ayub Khan in 1958. The Constitution of 1973—suspended by Zia-ul-Haq in 1977 but reinstated in 1985—is the country's most important document, laying the foundations of the current government.^[72]

The bicameral legislature comprises a 100-member Senate and a 342-member National Assembly. The President is the head of state and commander-in-chief of the armed forces and is elected by an electoral college. The prime minister is usually the leader of the largest party in the National Assembly. Each province has a similar system of government, with a directly elected Provincial Assembly in which the leader of the largest party or alliance becomes Chief Minister. Provincial governors are appointed by the President.^[72] The Pakistani military establishment has played an influential role in mainstream politics throughout Pakistan's political history. Presidents brought in by military coups ruled in 1958–1971, 1977–1988 and 1999–2008.^[73]

Benazir Bhutto was the first female Prime Minister of Pakistan. She served two terms.

Pakistan's foreign policy focuses on security against threats to national identity and territorial integrity, and on the cultivation of close relations with Muslim countries. A 2004 briefing on foreign policy for Pakistani Parliamentarians says, "Pakistan highlights sovereign equality of states, bilateralism, mutuality of interests, and non-interference in each other's domestic affairs as the cardinal features of its foreign policy."^[74] The country is an active member of the United Nations. It is a founding member of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC), in which it has promoted Musharraf's concept of "Enlightened Moderation".^[75][76][77] Pakistan is also a member of Commonwealth of Nations,^[78] the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC), the Economic Cooperation Organisation (ECO)^[79][80] and the G20 developing nations.^[81] India's nuclear tests were seen as a threat to Pakistan and led it to establish itself as a nuclear power.^[82] Pakistan now maintains a policy of "credible minimum deterrence".^[83]

Pakistan maintains good relations with all Arab and most other Muslim countries. Since the Sino-Indian War of 1962, Pakistan's closest strategic, military and economic ally has been China. The relationship has survived changes of governments and variations in the regional and global situation.^[84][85][86] Pakistan and India continue to be rivals. The Kashmir conflict remains the major point of rift; three of their four wars were over this territory.^[87] Pakistan has had mixed relations with the United States. As an anti-Soviet power in the 1950s and during Soviet-Afghan War in the 1980s, Pakistan was one of the closest allies of the US,^[74][88] but relations soured in the 1990s when the US imposed sanctions because of Pakistan's possession and testing of nuclear weapons.^[89] The US war on terrorism led initially to an improvement in the relationship, but it was strained by a divergence of interests and resulting mistrust during the war in Afghanistan and by issues related to terrorism.^{[90][91][92][93]} Since 1948, there has been an ongoing, and at times fluctuating, violent conflict in the southwestern province of Balochistan between various Baloch separatist groups, who seek greater political autonomy, and the central government of Pakistan.^[94]

Administrative divisions[link]

Pakistan is a federation of four provinces: Punjab, Sindh, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and Balochistan, as well as the Islamabad Capital Territory and the Federally Administered Tribal Areas in the northwest, which include the Frontier Regions. The government of Pakistan exercises de facto jurisdiction over the western parts of the disputed Kashmir region, organised into the separate political entities Azad Kashmir and Gilgit–Baltistan (formerly Northern Areas). The Gilgit–Baltistan Empowerment and Self-Governance Order of 2009 assigned a province-like status to the latter, giving it self-government.^[95]

Local government follows a three-tier system of districts, tehsils and union councils, with an elected body at each tier.^[96] There are about 130 districts altogether, of which Azad Kashmir has ten^[97] and Gilgit–Baltistan seven.^[98] The Tribal Areas comprise seven tribal agencies and six small frontier regions detached from neighbouring districts.^[99]

Law enforcement in Pakistan is carried out by federal and provincial police agencies. The four provinces and the Islamabad Capital Territory each have a civilian police force with jurisdiction limited to the relevant province or territory. At the federal level, there are a number of civilian agencies with nationwide jurisdictions; including the Federal Investigation Agency, the National Highways and Motorway Police, and several paramilitary forces such as the Pakistan Rangers and the Frontier Corps.^[100]

The court system of Pakistan is organised as a hierarchy, with the Supreme Court at the apex, below which are High Courts, Federal Shariat Courts (one in each province and one in the federal capital), District Courts (one in each district), Judicial Magistrate Courts (in every town and city), Executive Magistrate Courts and Civil Courts. Pakistan's penal code has limited jurisdiction in the Tribal Areas, where law is largely derived from tribal customs.^[100][101]

Military[link]

Pakistani F-16s in preparation for training with the USAF

The armed forces of Pakistan are the eighth largest in the world in terms of numbers in full-time service, with about 617,000 personnel on active duty and 513,000 reservists in 2010.^[102] They came into existence after independence in 1947, and the military establishment has frequently been involved in the politics of Pakistan ever since.^[73] The three main branches are the Army (headed by General Ashfaq Parvez Kayani^[103]), the Navy and the Air Force, and they are supported by a number of paramilitary forces.^[104] The National Command Authority is responsible for employment, for control of the development of all strategic nuclear organisations and for Pakistan's nuclear doctrine. Pakistan's defence forces maintain close military relations with China and the United States and import military equipment mainly from them.^[105] The defence forces of China and Pakistan carry out joint military exercises.^{[104][106][107]} Conscription may be introduced in times of emergency, but it has never been imposed.^[108]

A team of Pakistani Special Service Wing soldiers during training

Since independence, Pakistan has been involved in four wars with neighbouring India, beginning in 1947 with the First Kashmir War, when Pakistan gained control of present-day Azad Kashmir and Gilgit–Baltistan. The two countries were at war again in 1965 and in 1971,^[109] and most recently in the Kargil War of 1999.^[61] The Army has also been engaged in several skirmishes with Afghanistan on the western border: in 1961, it repelled a major Afghan incursion.^[110] During the Soviet war in Afghanistan, Pakistan shot down several intruding pro-Soviet Afghan communist aircraft and provided covert support to factions of the Afghan mujahideen through the Inter-Services Intelligence agency.^[111]

Apart from its own conflicts, Pakistan has been an active participant in United Nations peacekeeping missions. It played a major role in rescuing trapped American soldiers from Mogadishu, Somalia, in 1993 in Operation Gothic Serpent.^{[112][113][114]} Pakistani armed forces are the largest troop contributors to UN peacekeeping missions.^[115]

PNS Shah Jahan and PNS Tippu Sultan during a Pakistan Navy drill

Pakistan maintained significant numbers of troops in some Arab countries in defence, training and advisory roles.^[116][117] During the Six-Day War in 1967 and the Yom Kippur War in October 1973, PAF pilots volunteered to go to the Middle East to support Egypt and Syria, which were in a state of war with Israel; they shot down ten Israeli planes in the Six-Day War.^[112] In 1979, at the request of the Saudi government, commandos of the Pakistani Special Service Group were rushed to assist Saudi forces in Mecca to lead the operation of the Grand Mosque Seizure.^[118] In 1991 Pakistan got involved with the Gulf War and sent 5,000 troops as part of a US-led coalition, specifically for the defence of Saudi Arabia.^[119]

Pakistani armed forces have been engaged in a war in North-West Pakistan since 2001, mainly against the Tehrik-i-Taliban Pakistan.^[120][121] Major operations undertaken by the Army include Operation Black Thunderstorm and Operation Rah-e-Nijat.^[122][123]

Kashmir conflict[link]

The Kashmir conflict is a territorial dispute between India and Pakistan over the Kashmir region, the most northwesterly region of South Asia. The two countries have fought at least three wars over Kashmir—the Indo-Pakistani Wars of 1947, 1965 and 1999—and several skirmishes over the Siachen Glacier.^[87] India claims the entire state of Jammu and Kashmir and administers approximately 45.1% of the region, including most of Jammu, the Kashmir Valley, Ladakh, and the Siachen Glacier. India's claim is contested by Pakistan, which controls approximately 38.2% of Kashmir, consisting of Azad Kashmir and the northern areas of Gilgit and Baltistan.^[87][124]

The conflict of Kashmir has its origin in 1947, when British India was separated into the two states of Pakistan and India. As part of the partition process, both countries had agreed that the rulers of princely states would be allowed to opt for membership of either Pakistan or India, or in special cases to remain independent.^[125] India claims Kashmir on the basis of the Instrument of Accession, a legal agreement with Kashmir's leaders executed by Maharaja Hari Singh, then ruler of Kashmir, agreeing to accede the area to India.^[126][127] Pakistan claims Kashmir on the basis of a Muslim majority and of geography, the same principles that were applied for the creation of the two independent states.^[128][129] India referred the dispute to the United Nations on 1 January 1948.^[130] In a resolution in 1948, the UN asked Pakistan to remove most of its troops. A plebiscite would then be held. However, Pakistan failed to vacate the region. A ceasefire was reached in 1949 and a Line of Control was established, dividing Kashmir between the two countries.^[125]

Pakistan's position is that the people of Jammu and Kashmir have the right to determine their future through impartial elections as mandated by the United Nations.^[131] India has stated that it believes that Kashmir is an integral part of India, referring to the 1972 Simla Agreement and to the fact that elections take place regularly.^[132] Certain Kashmiri independence groups believe that Kashmir should be independent of both India and Pakistan.^[87]

Geography and climate[link]

K2 in Gilgit–Baltistan is the second-highest mountain on Earth, with a peak elevation of 8,611 metres (28,251 ft). It is part of the Karakoram range.

Pakistan covers an area of 796,095 km² (307,374 sq mi), approximately equal to the combined land areas of France and the United Kingdom. It is the 36th largest nation by total area, although this ranking varies depending on how the disputed territory of Kashmir is counted. Pakistan has a 1,046 km (650 mi) coastline along the Arabian Sea and the Gulf of Oman in the south^[133] and land borders of 6,774 km (4,209 mi) in total: 2,430 km (1,510 mi) with Afghanistan, 523 km (325 mi) with China, 2,912 km (1,809 mi) with India and 909 km (565 mi) with Iran.^[72] It shares a marine border with Oman,^[134] and is separated from Tajikistan by the cold, narrow Wakhan Corridor.^[135] Pakistan occupies a geopolitically important location at the crossroads of South Asia, the Middle East and Central Asia.^[136]

Geologically, Pakistan overlaps the Indian tectonic plate in its Sindh and Punjab provinces; Balochistan and most of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa are within the Eurasian plate, mainly on the Iranian plateau. Gilgit–Baltistan and Azad Kashmir lie along the edge of the Indian plate and hence are prone to violent earthquakes. Ranging from the coastal areas of the south to the glaciated mountains of the north, Pakistan's landscapes vary from plains to deserts, forests, hills and plateaus .^[137]

Kund Malir beach, Baluchistan

Pakistan is divided into three major geographic areas: the northern highlands, the Indus River plain and the Balochistan Plateau.^[138] The northern highlands contain the Karakoram, Hindu Kush and Pamir mountain ranges (see mountains of Pakistan), which contain some of the world's highest peaks, including five of the fourteen eight-thousanders (mountain peaks over 8,000 metres or 26,250 feet), which attract adventurers and mountaineers from all over the world, notably K2 (8,611 m or 28,251 ft) and Nanga Parbat (8,126 m or 26,660 ft).^[139] The Balochistan Plateau lies in the west and the Thar Desert in the east. The 1,609 km (1,000 mi) Indus River and its tributaries flow through the country from the Kashmir region to the Arabian Sea. There is an expanse of alluvial plains along it in Punjab and Sindh.^[140]

The climate varies from tropical to temperate, with arid conditions in the coastal south. There is a monsoon season with frequent flooding due to heavy rainfall, and a dry season with significantly less rainfall or none at all. There are four distinct seasons: a cool, dry winter from December through February; a hot, dry spring from March through May; the summer rainy season, or southwest monsoon period, from June through September; and the retreating monsoon period of October and November.^[34] Rainfall varies greatly from year to year, and patterns of alternate flooding and drought are common.^[141]

Flora and fauna[link]

Jasmine, Pakistan's national flower^[142]

The diversity of landscapes and climates in Pakistan allows a wide variety of trees and plants to flourish. The forests range from coniferous alpine and subalpine trees such as spruce, pine and deodar cedar in the extreme northern mountains, through deciduous trees in most of the country (for example the mulberry-like shisham found in the Sulaiman Mountains), to palms such as coconut and date in southern Punjab, southern Balochistan and all of Sindh. The western hills are home to juniper, tamarisk, coarse grasses and scrub plants. Mangrove forests form much of the coastal wetlands along the coast in the south.^[143]

Coniferous forests are found at altitudes ranging from 1,000 to 4,000 metres in most of the northern and northwestern highlands. In the xeric regions of Balochistan, date palm and Ephedra are common. In most of Punjab and Sindh, the Indus plains support tropical and subtropical dry and moist broadleaf forestry as well as tropical and xeric shrublands. These forests are mostly of mulberry, acacia, and eucalyptus.^[144] About 2.2% or 1,687,000 hectares (16,870 km²) of Pakistan was forested in 2010.^[145]

The fauna of Pakistan reflects its varied climates too. Around 668 bird species are found there:^[146][147] crows, sparrows, mynas, hawks, falcons, and eagles commonly occur. Palas, Kohistan, has a significant population of Western Tragopan.^[148] Many birds sighted in Pakistan are migratory, coming from Europe, Central Asia and India.^[149]

Markhor, Pakistan's national animal^[142]

The southern plains are home to mongooses, civets, hares, the Asiatic jackal, the Indian pangolin, the jungle cat and the desert cat. There are mugger crocodiles in the Indus, and wild boar, deer, porcupines and small rodents are common in the surrounding areas. The sandy scrublands of central Pakistan are home to Asiatic jackals, striped hyenas, wildcats and leopards.^[150][151] The lack of vegetative cover, the severe climate and the impact of grazing on the deserts have left wild animals in a precarious position. The chinkara is the only animal that can still be found in significant numbers in Cholistan. A small number of nilgai are found along the Pakistan-India border and in some parts of Cholistan.^[150][152] A wide variety of animals live in the mountainous north, including the Marco Polo sheep, the urial (a subspecies of wild sheep), Markhor and Ibex goats, the Asian black bear and the Himalayan brown bear.^{[150][153][154]} Among the rare animals found in the area are the snow leopard,^[153] the Asiatic cheetah^[155] and the blind Indus river dolphin, of which there are believed to be about 1,100 remaining, protected at the Indus River Dolphin Reserve in Sindh.^[153][156] In total, 174 mammals, 177 reptiles, 22 amphibians, 198 freshwater fish species and 5,000 species of invertebrates (including insects) have been recorded in Pakistan.^[146][147]

The flora and fauna of Pakistan suffer from a number of problems. Pakistan has the second-highest rate of deforestation in the world. This, along with hunting and pollution, is causing adverse effects on the ecosystem. The government has established a large number of protected areas, wildlife sanctuaries, and game reserves to deal with these issues.^[146][147]

Infrastructure[link]

Economy[link]

Pakistan is a rapidly developing country^{[157][158][159]} and is one of the Next Eleven, the eleven countries that, along with the BRICs, have a high potential to become the world's largest economies in the 21st century.^[160] The economy is semi-industrialized, with centres of growth along the Indus River.^{[161][162][163]} The diversified economies of Karachi and Punjab's urban centres coexist with less developed areas in other parts of the country.^[162] Pakistan's estimated nominal GDP as of 2011 is US$202 billion. The estimated nominal per capita GDP is US$1,197, GDP (PPP) per capita is US$2,851 (international dollars), and debt-to-GDP ratio is 55.5%.^[164][165] A 2010 report by RAD-AID positioned Pakistan's economy at 27th largest in the world by purchasing power and 45th largest in absolute dollars.^[163] It is South Asia's second largest economy, representing about 15 percent of regional GDP.^[166][167]

Pakistan's economic growth since its inception has been varied. It has been slow during periods of civilian rule, but excellent during the three periods of military rule, although the foundation for sustainable and equitable growth was not formed.^[46] The early to middle 2000s was a period of rapid reform; the government raised development spending, which reduced poverty levels by 10% and increased GDP by 3%.^[72][168] The economy cooled again from 2007.^[72] Inflation reached 25% in 2008^[169] and Pakistan had to depend on an aggressive fiscal policy backed by the International Monetary Fund to avoid possible bankruptcy.^[170][171] A year later, the Asian Development Bank reported that Pakistan's economic crisis was easing.^[172] The inflation rate for the fiscal year 2010–11 was 14.1%.^[173]

A mango orchard in Multan, southern Punjab: agriculture is the backbone of Pakistan's economy

Pakistan is one of the largest producers of natural commodities, and its labour market is the 10th largest in the world. Around 600,000 Pakistanis went abroad to work in 2009. Expatriate workers send remittances of close to US$8 billion annually—the largest source of foreign exchange apart from exports.^[174] According to the World Trade Organization Pakistan's share of overall world exports is declining; it contributed only 0.128% in 2007.^[175] The trade deficit in the fiscal year 2010–11 was US$11.217 billion.^[176]

The structure of the Pakistani economy has changed from a mainly agricultural to a strong service base. Agriculture now^[when?] accounts for only 21.2% of the GDP. Even so, according to the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization, Pakistan produced 21,591,400 metric tons of wheat in 2005, more than all of Africa (20,304,585 metric tons) and nearly as much as all of South America (24,557,784 metric tons).^[177] The service and industrial sectors account for 52.4% and 26.4% of GDP respectively.^[178] Between 2002 and 2007 there was substantial foreign investment in Pakistan's banking and energy sectors.^[179] Other important industries include clothing and textiles (accounting for nearly 60% of exports), food processing, chemicals manufacture, iron and steel.^[180] There is great potential for tourism in Pakistan, but it is severely affected by the country's instability.^[181]

Transport[link]

The transport sector accounts for 10.5% of Pakistan's GDP.^[182] Its road infrastructure is better than those of India, Bangladesh and Indonesia, but the rail system lags behind those of India and China, and aviation infrastructure also needs improvement.^[183] There is scarcely any inland water transportation system, and coastal shipping only meets minor local requirements.^[184]

Road form the backbone of Pakistan's transport system; a total road length of 259,618 km accounts for 91% of passenger and 96% of freight traffic. Road transport services are largely in the hands of the private sector, which handles around 95% of freight traffic. The National Highway Authority is responsible for the maintenance of national highways and motorways. The highway and motorway system depends mainly on north–south links, connecting the southern ports to the populous provinces of Punjab and NWFP. Although this network only accounts for 4.2% of total road length, it carries 85 percent of the country's traffic.^[183][185]

Nagan Interchange is one of the busiest intersections in Karachi.

Pakistan Railways, under the Ministry of Railways, operates the railroad system. Railway was the primary means of transport till 1970. In the two decades from around 1990, there was a marked shift in traffic from rail to highways. Now the railway's share of inland traffic is only 10% for passengers and 4% for freight traffic. The total rail track decreased from 8,775 km in 1990–91 to 7,791 km in 2011.^[183][186] Pakistan expects to use the rail service to boost foreign trade with China, Iran and Turkey.^[187][188]

Pakistan had 35 airports in 2007–8. The state-run Pakistan International Airlines is the major airline; it carries about 73% of domestic passengers and all domestic freight. Karachi's Jinnah International Airport is the principal international gateway to Pakistan, although Islamabad and Lahore also handle significant amounts of traffic. Pakistan's major seaports are Karachi, Muhammad bin Qasim and Gwadar, which is still^[when?] under construction.^[183][186]

Science and technology[link]

The boot sector of an infected floppy by Brain virus; the world's first computer virus, made in Pakistan.^[189]

Pakistan is active in physics research. Every year, scientists from around the world are invited by the Pakistan Academy of Sciences and the Pakistan Government to participate in the International Nathiagali Summer College on Physics.^[190] Pakistan hosted a international seminar on Physics in Developing Countries for International Year of Physics 2005.^[191] Pakistani theoretical physicist Abdus Salam won a Nobel Prize in Physics for his work on the electroweak interaction.^[192]

In medicine, Salimuzzaman Siddiqui was the first Pakistani scientist to bring the therapeutic constituents of the Neem tree to the attention of natural products chemists.^[193] Pakistani neurosurgeon Ayub Ommaya invented the Ommaya reservoir, a system for treatment of brain tumours and other brain conditions.^[194]

Pakistan has an active space program led by its space research agency, SUPARCO. Polish-Pakistani aerospace engineer W. J. M. Turowicz developed and supervised the launch of the Rehbar-I rocket from Pakistani soil, making Pakistan the first South Asian country to launch a rocket into space.^[195] Pakistan launched its first satellite, Badr-I, from China in 1990, becoming the first Muslim country and second South Asian country to put a satellite into space.^[196] In 1998, Pakistan became the seventh country in the world to successfully develop and its own nuclear weapons.^[197]

Pakistan is one of a small number of countries that have an active research presence in Antarctica. The Pakistan Antarctic Programme was established in 1991. Pakistan has two summer research stations on the continent and plans to open another base, which will operate all year round.^[198]

Electricity in Pakistan is generated and distributed by two vertically integrated public sector utilities: the Karachi Electric Supply Corporation (KESC) for Karachi and the Water and Power Development Authority (WAPDA) for the rest of Pakistan.^[199] Nuclear power in Pakistan is provided by three licensed commercial nuclear power plants under Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission (PAEC).^[200] Pakistan is the first Muslim country in the world to embark on a nuclear power program.^[201] Commercial nuclear power plants generate roughly 3% of Pakistan's electricity, compared with about 64% from thermal and 33% from hydroelectric power.^[199]

Education[link]

The constitution of Pakistan requires the state to provide free primary and secondary education.^[202] At the time of independence Pakistan had only one university, the University of the Punjab.^[203] As of September 2011^[update] it has 136 universities, of which 74 are public universities and 62 are private universities.^[204] It is estimated that there are 3193 technical and vocational institutions in Pakistan,^[205] and there are also madrassahs that provide free Islamic education and offer free board and lodging to students, who come mainly from the poorer strata of society.^[206] After criticism over terrorists' use of madrassahs for recruitment, efforts have been made to regulate them.^[207]

Education in Pakistan is divided into six main levels: pre-primary (preparatory classes); primary (grades one through five); middle (grades six through eight); high (grades nine and ten, leading to the Secondary School Certificate); intermediate (grades eleven and twelve, leading to a Higher Secondary (School) Certificate); and university programmes leading to graduate and postgraduate degrees.^[205] Pakistani private schools also operate a parallel secondary education system based on the curriculum set and administered by the Cambridge International Examinations. Some students choose to take the O level and A level exams conducted by the British Council.^[208]

Government is in development stage^[timeframe?] of extending English medium education to all schools across the country.^[209] By 2013 all educational institutions in Sindh will have to provide Chinese language courses, reflecting China's growing role as a superpower and Pakistan's close ties with China.^[210]

Around 57.7% of adult Pakistanis are literate. Male literacy is 69.3%, female literacy 45.2%.^[173] Literacy rates vary by region and particularly by sex; for instance, female literacy in tribal areas is 3%.^[211] The government launched a nationwide initiative in 1998 with the aim of eradicating illiteracy and providing a basic education to all children.^[212] Through various educational reforms, by 2015 the ministry of education expects to attain 100% enrolment levels among children of primary school age and a literacy rate of 86% among people aged over 10.^[213]

Demographics[link]

Population density

With 177.1 million residents reported in 2011, Pakistan is the sixth most populated country in the world, behind Brazil and ahead of Bangladesh. Its 2.03% population growth rate is the highest among the SAARC countries and gives an annual increase of 3.6 million. The population is projected to reach 210.13 million by 2020 and to double by 2045. In 1947, Pakistan had a population of 32.5 million.^[174][214] From 1990 to 2009 it increased by 57.2%.^[215] By 2030 it is expected to overtake Indonesia as the largest Muslim country in the world.^{[216][217][218]} Pakistan is a 'young' nation, with a median age of about 20 and 104 million people under 30 in 2010.^[174]

The majority of southern Pakistan's population lives along the Indus River. Karachi is its most populous city.^[219] In the northern half of the country, most of the population lives in an arc formed by the cities of Lahore, Faisalabad, Rawalpindi, Islamabad, Gujranwala, Sialkot, Gujrat, Jhelum, Sargodha, Sheikhupura, Nowshera, Mardan and Peshawar. During 1990–2008, city dwellers made up 36% of Pakistan's population, making it the most urbanised nation in South Asia.^[72][174] Furthermore, 50% of Pakistanis live in towns of 5,000 people or more.^[220]

Expenditure on health was 2.6% of GDP in 2009.^[221] Life expectancy at birth was 65.4 years for females and 63.6 years for males in 2010. The private sector accounts for about 80% of outpatient visits. Approximately 19% of the population and 30% of children under five are malnourished.^[163] Mortality of the under-fives was 87 per 1,000 live births in 2009.^[221] About 20% of the population live below the international poverty line of US$1.25 a day.^[222]

More than sixty languages are spoken in Pakistan, including a number of provincial languages. Urdu, the lingua franca and a symbol of Muslim identity and national unity, is the national language and is understood by over 75% of Pakistanis.^[136][223] English is the official language of Pakistan, used in official business, government, and legal contracts;^[72] the local dialect is known as Pakistani English. Punjabi is the commonest native language in Punjab and has many native speakers. Saraiki is mainly spoken in South Punjab. Pashto is the provincial language of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Sindhi is the provincial language of Sindh, while Balochi is dominant in Balochistan.^[3][34][224]

v t e Largest cities or towns of Pakistan 2010 estimate[225]
	Rank	City name	Province	Pop.	Rank	City name	Province	Pop.
Karachi Lahore	1	Karachi	Sindh	13,205,339	11	Sargodha	Punjab	600,501	Faisalabad Rawalpindi
	2	Lahore	Punjab	7,129,609	12	Bahawalpur	Punjab	543,929
	3	Faisalabad	Punjab	4,880,675	13	Sialkot	Punjab	510,863
	4	Rawalpindi	Punjab	3,991,656	14	Sukkur	Sindh	493,438
	5	Multan	Punjab	5,506,481	15	Larkana	Sindh	456,544
	6	Hyderabad	Sindh	1,578,367	16	Sheikhupura	Punjab	426,980
	7	Gujranwala	Punjab	1,569,090	17	Jhang	Punjab	372,645
	8	Peshawar	Khyber Pakhtunkhwa	1,439,205	18	Rahim Yar Khan	Punjab	353,112
	9	Quetta	Balochistan	896,090	19	Mardan	Khyber Pakhtunkhwa	352,135
	10	Islamabad	Capital Territory	689,249	20	Gujrat	Punjab	336,727

The Kalash people of northern Pakistan are unique in their customs and religion.

The population comprises several ethnic groups. As of 2009, the Punjabi population dominates with 78.7 million (44.15%), followed by 27.2 million (15.42%) Pashtuns, 24.8 million (14.1%) Sindhis, 14.8 million (10.53%) Seraikis, 13.3 million (7.57%) Muhajirs and 6.3 million (3.57%) Balochs. The remaining 11.1 million (4.66%) belong to various ethnic minorities.^[226] There is also a large worldwide Pakistani diaspora, numbering over seven million.^[227]

Pakistan's census does not include immigrant groups such as the 1.7 million registered refugees from neighbouring Afghanistan, who are found mainly in the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and FATA areas, with small numbers in Karachi and Quetta.^[228][229] As of 1995, there were more than 1.6 million Bengalis, 650,000 Afghans, 200,000 Burmese, 2,320 Iranians and Filipinos and hundreds of Nepalese, Sri Lankans and Indians living in Karachi.^[230][231] Pakistan hosts more refugees than any other country in the world.^[232]

Faisal Mosque, in Islamabad, is Pakistan's largest mosque.

Religion[link]

Pakistan is the second most populous Muslim-majority country^[233] and has the second largest Shi'a population in the world.^[234] About 97% of Pakistanis are Muslim. The majority are Sunni, with an estimated 5–20% Shi'a.^{[34][235][236]} A further 2.3% are Ahmadis,^[237] who are officially considered non-Muslims by virtue of a 1974 constitutional amendment.^[238] There are also several Quraniyoon communities.^[239][240] Although the Muslim denominations usually coexist peacefully, sectarian violence occurs sporadically.^[241]