The Bahá'í calendar, also called the Badí‘ calendar (badí‘ means wondrous or unique ^[1]), used by Bábism and the Bahá'í Faith, is a solar calendar with regular years of 365 days, and leap years of 366 days. Years are composed of 19 months of 19 days each, (361 days) plus an extra period of "Intercalary Days" (4 in regular and 5 in leap years). Years in the calendar begin at the vernal equinox, and are counted with the date notation of BE (Bahá'í Era), with 21 March 1844 CE being the first day of the first year.^[2] The period from 21 March 2012 to 20 March 2013 is the year 169 BE. At present, the Bahá'í calendar is synchronized to the Gregorian calendar, meaning that the extra day of a leap year occurs simultaneously in both calendars. Note: The Badi calendar was implemented during the Bábí faith and then adapted in the Bahá'í Faith.

Babi version of the calendar[link]

The early version of the calendar begun to be implemented during the ministry of the Báb and his appointed successor Subh-i-Azal depended on the Báb's Persian Bayan and other works.^[3] It used a scheme of 19 months of 19 days (19x19) for a 361 day calendar and intercalary days assigned differently than the Baha'i implementation later. There is also a cycle of 19 years. William Miller's polemical work against the Bahá'í Faith claims that the date the calendar was to begin was 1850 CE though most sources agree the date was with the Declaration of the Bab to Mullá Husayn, May 23, 1844 CE.^[4] The beginning of the calendar year was with Nowruz.^[5] The calendar contains symbolic connections to prophecies of the Báb about the next Manifestation of God termed He whom God shall make manifest.^[6]

History[link]

The Bahá'í calendar started from the original Badí‘ calendar, created by the Báb.^[7] Bahá'u'lláh confirmed and adopted this calendar and made Naw-Rúz the first day of the year, and also clarified the intercalary days.^[7][8]

Bahá'u'lláh set Naw-Rúz to the day on which the sun passes into the constellation Aries. Bahá'ís interpret this formula as a specification of the vernal equinox.^[8]

Although the vernal equinox can occur on March 20, 21 or 22, Shoghi Effendi declared that, for the time being, the Badí‘ calendar is 'locked' to the Gregorian calendar with the new year always starting at sunset on 20 March.^[9] Without this, the calendar could vary by a day or two when compared to the Gregorian calendar. The implementation of the variable calendar with respect to the beginning of Naw-Rúz will require the Universal House of Justice selecting a single location for the fixing of the date of the equinox, such as the Qiblih.^[8] The 'locked' calendar is the one described in this article.

Years in the Bahá'í calendar are counted from Thursday, 21 March 1844, the beginning of the Bahá'í Era or Badí‘ Era (abbreviated BE or B.E.).^[2] Year 1 BE thus began at sundown 20 March 1844. Using the Bahá'í names for the weekday and month, day one of the Bahá'í Era was Istijlál (Majesty), 1 Bahá (Splendour) 1 BE. As detailed below, the names of the Bahá'í months and days reflect attributes of God.^[10]

Months[link]

The Bahá'í calendar is composed of 19 months, each with 19 days.^[11] The Nineteen Day Fast is held during the final month of ‘Alá’ (2 March – 20 March), and is preceded by the intercalary days, known as Ayyám-i-Há. There are four intercalary days in a regular year, and five in a leap year.^[11] The introduction of intercalation marked an important break from Islam, as under the Islamic calendar the practice of intercalation had been specifically prohibited in the Qur'an.^[7] The month of fasting is followed by Naw-Rúz, the new year. Because the calendar is currently synchronized with the Gregorian calendar, the Bahá'í leap years happen on common era leap years. In addition, the intercalary days include 28 February and 1 March, causing precise synchronization of the 19 months with the Gregorian calendar.

The names of the months were taken by the Báb from the Du'ay-i-Sahar, a Ramadan dawn prayer by Imam Muhammad al-Baqir, the fifth Imam of Twelver Shi'ah Islam.^[12][13] These month names are described as describing attributes of God.

Holy days[link]

There are eleven holy days in the Bahá'í calendar; on nine of these holy days, work is suspended.^[14] The Festival of Ridván, a twelve day festival that commemorates Bahá'u'lláh's announcement of prophethood, is the most holy Bahá'í festival and is referred to as the "Most Great Festival."^[15]

On the Islamic lunar calendar, the births of the Báb and Bahá'u'lláh fall on consecutive days; the first and second day of Muharram, respectively.^[16] The Universal House of Justice has decided to celebrate them on the solar calendar, but has the authority to change the observance to the lunar calendar days, which migrate through the solar calendar by 11 or 12 days each year.

Weekdays[link]

The Bahá'í week starts on Saturday, and ends on Friday.^[17] Like Judaism and Islam, days begin at sunset on the previous solar day and end at sunset of the present solar day. Bahá'í writings indicate that Friday is to be kept as a day of rest.^[18][19] The practice of keeping Friday as a day of rest is not observed by all Bahá'ís, however; for example, in the UK, the National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá’ís does not currently keep this practice.^[20]

[edit] Váḥid and Kull-i-Shay’

Also existing in the Bahá'í calendar system is a 19-year cycle called Váḥid and a 361-year (19x19) supercycle called Kull-i-Shay’ (literally, "All Things").^[17] Each of the 19 years in a Vahid has been given a name as shown in the table below.^[17] The 9th Váḥid of the 1st Kull-i-Shay’ started on 21 March 1996, and the 10th Váḥid will begin in 2015.^[21] The current Bahá'í year, year 169 BE (21 March 2012 - 20 March 2013), is year Bahí of the 9th Váḥid of the 1st Kull-i-Shay’.^[21] The 2nd Kull-i-Shay’ will begin in 2205.^[21]

The concept of a 19-year cycle has existed in some form since the 4th century BC. The Metonic cycle represents an invented measure that approximately correlates solar and lunar markings of time and which appears in several calendar systems.

Years in a Váḥid

See also[link]

• Calendar
• Bahá'í Faith
• Intercalation
• 19 (number)

Notes[link]

References[link]

Further reading[link]

• Keil, Gerald (2008). Time and the Bahá’í Era. UK: George Ronald. ISBN 978-0-85398-527-3. http://www.udoschaefer.com/fileadmin/pdffiles/Foreword_Time_and_the_Bahai_Era_EN.pdf. 

External links[link]

• The Bahá'í Calendar
• Arithmetic of the Bahá'í Calendar, and Variants
• Bahá'í Calendar, Bahá'í Events and Holy Days (types: Persian, Islamic, Gregorian)

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Reza Shah
Reza Shah Pahlavi
Shahanshah of Iran
Reign	December 15, 1925 - September 16, 1941 (15 years, 9 months and 1 day)
Predecessor	Ahmad Shah Qajar
Successor	Mohammad Reza Pahlavi
Prime Minister of Iran
Reign	October 28, 1923 - November 1, 1925
Predecessor	Hassan Pirnia
Successor	Mohammad-Ali Foroughi
Spouse	Tadj ol-Molouk
Issue
Princess Shams Crown Prince Mohammad Reza Princess Ashraf Prince Ali Reza Prince Gholam Reza Prince Ahmad Reza Prince Mahmud Reza Princess Maryam Prince Hamid Reza
Full name
English: Rezā Persian: رضا‎
House	House of Pahlavi
Father	Abbas Ali
Mother	Noush-Afarin Ayromlou
Born	(1878-03-15)March 15, 1878 Alasht, Savad Kooh, Mazandaran, Persia
Died	July 26, 1944(1944-07-26) (aged 66) Johannesburg, South Africa
Burial	Reza Shah's mausoleum in Ray, Tehran, Iran
Religion	Shia Islam

This article contains Persian text, written from right to left with some letters joined. Without proper rendering support, you may see unjoined letters written left-to-right, instead of right-to-left or other symbols instead of Persian script.

Rezā Shāh Pahlavi (Persian: رضاشاه پهلوی‎; pronounced [reˈzɑː ˈʃɑːhe pæhlæˈviː] (March 15, 1878 – July 26, 1944), was the Shah of the Imperial State of Iran^[1] from December 15, 1925, until he was forced to abdicate by the Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran on September 16, 1941.

In 1925, Reza Shah overthrew Ahmad Shah Qajar, the last Shah of the Qajar dynasty, and founded the Pahlavi dynasty. He established a system of government that revitalized the goals of the Constitutional Revolution of Iran where for the first time Iranians were seeking for rulers who do not remain in power for eternity.^[2] Known for being quite intelligent despite his lack of formal and academic education,^[3] Reza Shah introduced many socio-economic reforms, reorganizing the army, government administration and finances. To his supporters his reign brought "law and order, discipline, central authority, and modern amenities — schools, trains, buses, radios, cinemas, and telephones".^[4] However, his attempts at modernisation have been criticised for being "too fast".^[5]

Early life[link]

Reza khan

Reza was born in the village of Alasht in Savadkuh County, Māzandarān Province, in 1878.

His father Major Abbas Ali Khan (Dadash Beg) became commissioned in the 7th Savadkuh Regiment, and served in the Anglo-Persian War in 1856. He married more than once and his fifth marriage was in 1877, to Noushafarin Ayromlou. She was a second or third cousin of Sar-Lashkar Muhammad-Hussein Ayrom. The Ayrums were a prominent Azeri tribe from the Caucasus, who arrived in Iran sometime in the nineteenth century as result of the Russo-Persian War. Upon entering Iran, many Ayrums became Iranian generals, colonels, and some Ayrum women, namely Nimtaj and Noushafarin, became royalty. Although having once ruled much of the Caucasus from north to south, the Ayrums did not separate themselves from other social classes and one of the greatest Ayrum leaders, Budogh-Sultan Ayromlou, was known for his humble persona.

Reza's father died suddenly at Alasht on 26 November 1878, having had 10 children, of whom six sons and three daughters survived infancy^{[citation needed]}. Upon Abbas Ali Khan's death, Reza's mother moved with Reza to her brother's house in Tehran. She remarried in 1879 and left Reza to the care of his uncle, who, in turn, sent Reza away to his friend Amir Tuman Kazim Khan, an army officer.^[6]

When Reza was sixteen years old, he joined the Persian Cossack Brigade, in which, years later, he would rise to the rank of Brigadier. In 1903 he is reported to have been guard and servant to the Dutch consul general Frits Knobel. A picture of him in Cossack uniform standing next to the mounted Dutch consul-general was published in De Hollandsche Revue. In 1925 Maurits Wagenvoort, a friend of Knobel, wrote: "was the present autocrat the same person as the one I once spoke to in the Babi-circle of Hadsji Achont when he was gholam of his Respected Presence the Netherlands' ambassador in Tehran?" He appeared to me most eager to learn about the Western political situation. And I shall never forget the expression of disillusion on his face when, in answer to his question, 'What? Aren't the elected people's representatives the most intelligent men of the nation?' I replied, 'Not a bit of it! Perhaps they are just a trifle above your average, everyday folk'. He continued, 'And the ministers then?' 'They are somewhat brighter. But not always.'^[7] He also served in the Iranian Army, where he gained the rank of gunnery sergeant under Qajar Prince Abdol Hossein Mirza Farmanfarma's command. He rose through the ranks, eventually holding a commission as a Brigadier General in the Persian Cossack Brigade. He was the last, and only Iranian, commander of the Persian Cossack Brigade. He was also one of the last individuals to become an officer of the Neshan-e Aqdas prior to the collapse of the Qajar dynasty in 1925.^[8]

Rise to power[link]

The 1921 Coup[link]

Reza Shah during his time as Minister of War.

In late 1920, the Persian Soviet Socialist Republic in Rasht was preparing to march on Tehran with "a guerrilla force of 1,500 Jangalis, Kurds, Armenians, and Azerbaijanis", reinforced by the Soviet Red Army. This fact, along with various other disorders, mutinies and unrest in the country created "an acute political crisis in the capital."^[9] On February 21, 1921, Reza Khan staged a coup d'état, together with Seyyed Zia'eddin Tabatabaee, to get control over a country which had practically no functioning central government at the time.

Commanding a Russian-trained Cossack Brigade, Reza Khan marched his troops from Qazvin, 150 kilometres to the west of Tehran, and seized key parts of the capital city almost without opposition and forced the government to resign.^[10] With the success of the coup, Tabatabaee became the Prime Minister of Iran. Reza Khan's first role in the new government was as commander of the army, which, in April 1921, he combined with the post of Minister of War. At the same time, he took the title Sardar Sepah (Persian: سردار سپه‎), or commander in chief of the army, by which he was known until he became shah.

While Reza Khan and his Cossack brigade were securing Tehran, the Persian envoy was in Moscow negotiating a treaty with the Bolsheviks for the removal of Soviet troops from Persia. Article IV of the Russo-Persian Treaty of Friendship allowed the Soviets to invade and occupy Persia, should they believe foreign troops were using it as a staging area for an invasion of Soviet territory. As Soviets interpreted the treaty, they could invade should events in Persia prove threatening to Soviet national security. The Soviets would hold this treaty over the heads of Persian leaders for years to come.^{[citation needed]}

The coup d'état of 1921 and the emergence of Reza Shah were partially assisted by the British government, which wished to halt the Bolsheviks' penetration of Iran, particularly because of the threat it posed to the British possessions in India. It is thought that British provided "ammunition, supplies and pay" for Reza's troops. On 8 June 1932, a British Embassy report states that the British were interested in helping Reza Shah create a centralizing power.^[11] The commander of the British Forces in Iran, General Edmund Ironside, gave a situation report to the British War Office saying that a capable Persian officer was getting the command of the Cossacks and this "would solve many difficulties and enable us to depart in peace and honour."^{[12][13][14][15]}

In 1921, a number of revolts erupted against the coup.^[16] Among those, the Persian Soviet Socialist Republic, which had been established in Gilan, with Mīrzā Kūchak Khān as the prime minister. The Kurds of Khorasan also revolted in the same year.^{[17][verification needed]}

Overthrow of the Qajar dynasty[link]

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Coronation of Reza Shah

On October 26, 1923, Reza Khan got control of Iran after a long period of efforts toward restoring the previous Qajar monarchy, and the young Ahmad Shah Qajar fled to exile in Europe, where he preferred to stay.^[18] Reza Shah's political court consisted mostly of intellectuals and highly-educated prominent Iranians such as Mohammad Ali Foroughi, Karim Taherzadeh Behzad and Hassan Taqizadeh. The reign of Reza Shah was a real "brain trust" that returned to the constitutional revolution's goals after almost 15 years. ^[19] Reza Shah created the foundation of a new Iran where people would participate in constructing the future of their homeland. He now called for establishment of a Republic, and his educative system started a massive campaign for a Republic. However, the idea of a Republic was fiercely opposed by the powerful clergymen and the feudal landlords.^{[citation needed]} Therefore Reza Shah as the constitution of Iran determined, became the King of Iran. He had to combat a numerous feudal aristocrats all over Iran which sought rural power in their territories. He put a collective pressure on the Parliament against the Qajar dynasty, and in October made arrangements to depose the young Shah. He assured the landlords and the conservative clergy that he would defend Islamic law and would not undertake any radical reform. The Majlis, convening as a constituent assembly on December 12, 1925, declared him the Shah as in the Constitution of Iran.^[20]

Three days later, on December 15, 1925, he took his imperial oath and thus became the first shah of the Pahlavi dynasty. It was not until April 25, 1926, that Reza Shah would receive his coronation and first place the Imperial Crown on his head. At the same ceremony his son, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, was proclaimed the Crown Prince of Persia – to rule after his father.^[21]

Actions[link]

Modernization[link]

Reza Shah at the opening ceremony of the University of Tehran's Faculty of Medicine.

Regarding modernization Reza Shah continued processes that had been started by Naser al-Din Shah Qajar, but which had been halted because of difficulties presented to the country during the First World War. During Reza Shah's sixteen years of rule, major developments, such as large road construction projects and the Trans-Iranian Railway were built, modern education was introduced and the University of Tehran was established.^[22] The government sponsored European educations for many Iranian students.^[23] The number of modern industrial plants increased 17-fold under Reza Shah (excluding oil installations), and the number of miles of highway increased from 2,000 to 14,000.^[24]

One important area of modernization of the new regime was public health. According to Pahlavi researcher Aban Tahmasebi, most of the Iranian cities faced a new health life, and they could finally begin to feel their life was similar to life in western countries.

Along with the modernization of the nation, Reza Shah was the ruler during the time of the Women's Awakening (1936–1941). This movement sought the elimination of the Islamic veil from Iranian working society. Supporters held that the veil impeded physical exercise and the ability of women to enter society and contribute to the progress of the nation. This move met opposition from the religious establishment.^{[citation needed]} The unveiling issue and the Women's Awakening are linked to the Marriage Law of 1931 and the Second Congress of Eastern Women in Tehran in 1932.

Reza Shah was the first Iranian Monarch in 1400 years who paid respect to the Jews by praying in the synagogue when visiting the Jewish community of Isfahan; an act that boosted the self-esteem of the Iranian Jews and made Reza Shah their second most respected Iranian leader after Cyrus the Great. Reza Shah's reforms opened new occupations to Jews and allowed them to leave the ghetto.^[25] He forbade photographing aspects of Iran he considered backwards such as camels, and he banned clerical dress and chadors in favor of Western dress.^[26] The conception of modernization in the epoch of Reza Shah has to be still researched and analyzed, because it was the locus of the process of insertion of Iranian society into the free world with Iran no longer a third world country where mostly the law hardly existed. This epoch was a real re-awaking moment for Iran.^[27]

The organization of the new Parliament[link]

Reza Shah assisted the Ministers to secure the collective agreement of intellectuals, considered possible problematic characters for the evolutionary procedure of the modern Iran. Despite this awareness that he had gained in a contest, he helped them a lot like the minority of the Parliament. But at the same time the system was strict toward the people who broke the laws of the country. For example his Minister of the Imperial Court, Abdolhossein Teymourtash, was accused and convicted of corruption, bribery, and misuse of foreign currency regulations. And now the researchers of the modern history of Iran know that in the beginning of the reign he had contributed a lot to the organization of plenty of reforms. Teymourtash was removed as the Minister of Court in late 1932 and died in September 1933. There were various categories of society who were participating in the modernization of the country. There existed a variety of classes with different backgrounds of study and experiences that led to different views toward the political configuration of the Parliament and mostly the minority of Parliament had different views toward the whole process of reforms.^[27][28]

One of the most important procedures of constructing this new legislated society was Reza Shah's policy to create a possibility to make the opponents of the constitution undertake a brand new duty in restoring collectively the new Iran where the acquired right to be able to go forward counted more than any sort of condemning or revenge. So these were the bases of the new parliament formed by a colorful range of Iranians. ^[29]

[edit] International usage of Iran instead of Persia

In 1935, the Iranian ruler issued a letter to the League of Nations insisting the name Iran (the historical name of the nation dating back thousands of years) be used instead of Persia (Pars), which is the name of one Iran's significant cultural provinces and the national language (Parsi / Farsi). Although (internally) the country had been referred to as Iran throughout much of its history, many countries including the English-speaking world, knew the country as Persia; a legacy of the Greeks who referred to the entire region after the province of Pars (present-day Fārs).^[30] While Persians are only one of several Indo-Iranian ethnic groups in Iran, their home province Pars (Fārs) was a center of political power in ancient times under the Achaemenid Empire and Sassanid Empire as well as other Iranian dynasties hence the, somewhat misleading, usage of the name Persia (in other countries) up to 1935 when referring to Iran as a whole.

Critics and Defenders[link]

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A man as vigorous and authoritarian as the Shahanshah (Persian: شاه شاهان) was bound to have detractors. They contended he was nothing more than another Oriental despot, who caused several of his enemies to be murdered, tortured, kidnapped, and imprisoned. They claim he slapped Cabinet Ministers, assaulted priests, kicked irksome subjects in the crotch (it is said that, for tiresome gabbing, he once even booted Crown Prince Mohammed Reza into a palace fountain). They insist that Iran was ruled entirely by fear; bribery was still prevalent, taxation overpowering and Iran's 136-man National Assembly, the Majlis, and the Cabinet solidly puppetized. By this time, they contend, the One-Man New Deal had turned into a One-Man Corporate State, owning everything worth owning.

On the other hand, there were others who watched the Shah work over a period of years and admired him greatly. First of all, they argue that it is unfair to apply Western standards to Iran. Then, they point to some of the flowers of civilization which have blossomed in the West since 1933. They recall that, unlike Kemal Atatürk, he had no elite of European-educated intellectuals to help him. "Reza Khan made Iran out of nothing," they say and, knowing Persia and Persians, they insist that force was the only way.

One of the first acts of the new Government after the 1921 entrance into Teheran was to tear up the treaty with the U.S.S.R.. The Bolsheviks condemned the aggressive foreign policy of Imperial Russia, promised never to interfere in Persia's internal affairs, but reserved the right to occupy it temporarily in the event another power used Persia for an attack on Soviet Russia.

As the Shah grew in power, his mistrust of British Imperialism grew with it and he began to spit in the Lion's eye. In 1931, he forbade Imperial Airways to fly over Iranian territory. More staggering was his sudden cancellation, in 1932, of the old William Knox D'Arcy contract which had now burgeoned into the British Government-controlled Anglo-Persian (later Anglo-Iranian) Oil Co. Iran was getting 16% of the net profits. The Shah wanted 21%. The British took the dispute before the League of Nations. The Shah got what he wanted; the British got 30 more years on their concession.^[31]

Foreign affairs and influence[link]

Reza Shah visit Mustafa Kemal Atatürk in Turkey

Signed Photograph of Adolf Hitler for Reza Shah Pahlavi in Original Frame with the Swastika and Adolf Hitler's (AH) Sign - Sahebgharanie Palace - Niavaran Palace Complex. The text below the photograph: His Imperial Majesty - Reza Shah Pahlavi - Shahanshah of Iran - With the Best Wishes - Berlin 12 March 1936 - The signature of Adolf Hitler

Reza Shah initiated change in foreign affairs as well. The Shah worked to balance British influence with other foreigners and generally to diminish foreign influence in Iran.

In 1931, as said before, he refused to allow Imperial Airways to fly in Persian airspace, instead giving the concession to German-owned Lufthansa Airlines. The next year he surprised the British by unilaterally canceling the oil concession awarded to William Knox D'Arcy (and then called Anglo-Persian Oil Company), which was slated to expire in 1961. The concession granted Persia 16% of the net profits from APOC oil operations. The Shah wanted 21%. Following a brief challenge by the British before the League of Nations, the British acquiesced. He previously hired American consultants to develop and implement Western-style financial and administrative systems. Among them was U.S. economist Dr. Arthur Millspaugh, who acted as the nation's Finance Minister. Reza Shah also purchased ships from Italy and hired Italians to teach his troops the intricacies of naval warfare. He also imported hundreds of German technicians and advisors for various projects. Mindful of Persia's long period of subservience to British and Russian authority, Reza Shah was careful to avoid giving any one foreign nation too much control. He also insisted that foreign advisors be employed by the Persian government, so that they would not be answerable to foreign powers. This was based upon his experience with Anglo-Persian, which was owned and operated by the British government.

In his campaign against foreign influence, he annulled the 19th-century capitulations to Europeans in 1928. Under these, Europeans in Iran had enjoyed the privilege of being subject to their own consular courts rather than to the Iranian judiciary. The right to print money was moved from the British Imperial Bank to his National Bank of Iran (Bank-i Melli Iran), as was the administration of the telegraph system, from the Indo-European Telegraph Company to the Iranian government, in addition to the collection of customs by Belgian officials. He eventually fired Millspaugh, and prohibited foreigners from administering schools, owning land or traveling in the provinces without police permission.^[32]

Not all observers agree that the Shah minimized foreign influence. One complaint about his development program was that the north-south railway line he had built was uneconomical, only serving the British, who had a military presence in the south of Iran and desired the ability to transfer their troops north to Russia, as part of their strategic defence plan. In contrast, the Shah's regime did not develop what critics believe was an economically justifiable east-west railway system.^[33]

On 21 March 1935, he issued a decree asking foreign delegates to use the term Iran in formal correspondence, in accordance with the fact that Persia was a term used for a country identified as Iran in the Persian language. It was, however, attributed more to the Iranian people than others, particularly the language. Opponents^[who?] claimed that this act brought cultural damage to the country and separated Iran from its past in the West (see Iran naming dispute). The name Iran means “Land of the Aryans”.

Tired of the opportunistic policies of both Britain and the Soviet Union, the Shah circumscribed contacts with foreign embassies. Relations with the Soviet Union had already deteriorated because of that country's commercial policies, which in the 1920s and 1930s adversely affected Iran. In 1932 the Shah offended Britain by canceling the agreement under which the Anglo-Persian Oil Company produced and exported Iran's oil. Although a new and improved agreement was eventually signed, it did not satisfy Iran's demands and left bad feeling on both sides. To counterbalance British and Soviet influence, Reza Shah encouraged German commercial enterprise in Iran. On the eve of World War II, Germany was Iran's largest trading partner.^[34] The Germans agreed to sell the Shah the steel factory he coveted and considered a sine qua non of progress and modernity. Nevertheless, according to the British embassy reports from Tehran in 1940, the total number of German citizens in Iran — from technicians to spies — was no more than a thousand.^[35]

His foreign policy, which had consisted essentially of playing the Soviet Union off against Great Britain, failed when those two powers joined in 1941 to fight the Germans. To supply the Soviet forces with war material through Iran, the two allies jointly occupied the country in August 1941.^[36]

Later years of reign[link]

Any serious discussion of the reign of Reza Shah would be meaningless without demarcating several distinct periods. During the first period, which lasted from 1925–1932, the country benefited greatly from the contributions of many of the country's best and brightest, to whom should accrue the credit for laying the foundations of modern Iran. All the worthwhile efforts of Reza Shah's reign were either completed or conceived in the 1925–1938 period, a period during which he required the assistance of reformists to gain the requisite legitimacy to consolidate this modern reign. In particular, Abdolhossein Teymourtash assisted by Farman Farma, Davar and a huge number of modern educated Iranians, proved adept at masterminding the implementation of many reforms demanded since the failed constitutional revolution of 1905–1911. The preservation and promotion of the country's historic heritage, the provision of public education, construction of a national railway, abolition of capitulation agreements, and the establishment of a national bank had all been advocated by intellectuals since the tumult of the constitutional revolution.

The later years of his reign were dedicated to institutionalizing the educational system of Iran and also to the industrialization of the country. He knew that the system of the constitutional monarchy in Iran after him had to stand on a solid basis of the collective participation of all Iranians, and that it was indispensable to create educational centers all over Iran.

Shah tried to create a confederation of Iran's neighbors, in particular Turkey and the Middle Eastern countries. Unfortunately, with the death of Kemal Atatürk and the start of the Second World War these projects were left unfinished.^[37]

The parliament assented to his decrees,^[38] the free press was suppressed, and the swift incarceration of political leaders like Mossadegh, the murder of others such as Teymourtash, Sardar Asad, Firouz, Modarres, Arbab Keikhosro and the suicide of Davar, ensured that any progress was stillborn and the formation of a democratic process unattainable. Shah treated the urban middle class, the managers, and technocrats with an Iron Fist; as a result his state-owned industries remained unproductive and inefficient.^[39] The bureaucracy fell apart, since officials preferred sycophancy, when anyone could be whisked away to prison for even the whiff of disobeying his whims.^[40] He confiscated land from the Qajars and from his rivals and into his own estates. The corruption continued under his rule and even became institutionalized. Progress toward modernization was spotty and isolated.^[41] He became totally dependent on his military force and the army, which in return regularly received up to 50 percent of the public revenue to guarantee its loyalty.^[40]

Although the landed upper class lost its influence during his reign, his new regime aroused opposition not from the gentry but mainly from Iranian "tribes, the clergy, and the young generation of the new intelligentsia. The tribes bore the brunt of the new order." ^[42]

World War II and forced abdication[link]

Reza Shah in Exile.

In August 1941, the Allied powers Britain and the Soviet Union invaded and occupied Iran by a massive air, land, and naval assault, (see Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran) subsequently forcing Reza Shah to abdicate in favour of his son (see also Persian Corridor).

The Shah received with disbelief, as a personal humiliation and defeat, the news that fifteen Iranian divisions had surrendered without much resistance. Some of his troops dispersed and went home, while others were locked up in their barracks by the Allies.

The British left the Shah a face-saving way out:^[43]

The Anglo-Soviet invasion was instigated in response to Reza Shah's declaration of Neutrality in World War II and refusal to allow Iranian territory to be used to train, supply, and act as a transport corridor to ship arms to Russia for its war effort against Germany. Reza Shah further refused the Allies' requests to expel German nationals residing in Iran, and denied the use of the railway to the Allies. However according to the British embassy reports from Tehran in 1940, the total number of German citizens in Iran - from technicians to spies - was no more than a thousand.^[44]

Because of its importance in the allied victory, Iran was subsequently called "The Bridge of Victory" by Winston Churchill.^[45]

Reza Shah was forced, by the invading British, to abdicate in favor of his son Mohammad Reza Pahlavi who replaced his father as Shah on the throne on September 16, 1941.

Death[link]

Reza Shah was then moved by invading British forces into exile to British territories, first to Mauritius, then to Durban, thence Johannesburg, South Africa, where according to his British captors, he died on July 26, 1944 of a heart ailment about which he had been complaining for many years^{[citation needed]}. (His personal doctor had boosted the King's morale in exile by telling him that he was suffering from chronic indigestion and not heart ailment^{[citation needed]}. He lived on a diet of plain rice and boiled chicken in the last years of his life.^{[citation needed]}) He was sixty-six years old at the time of his death.^{[citation needed]}

After his death, his body was carried to Egypt, where it was embalmed and kept at the royal Al Rifa'i Mosque in Cairo, (also the future burial place of his son, the exiled Mohammad Reza Pahlavi)^{[citation needed]}. Many years later, the remains were flown back to Iran, where the embalming was removed^{[citation needed]}, and buried in a beautifully designed and decorated mausoleum^{[citation needed]} built in his honor at town of Ray, in the southern suburbs of the capital, Tehran^{[citation needed]}. Satellite map The Iranian parliament (Majlis) later designated the title "the Great" to be added to his name. On 14 January 1979, shortly before the Iranian Revolution, the remains were moved back to Egypt and buried in the Al Rifa'i Mosque in Cairo^{[citation needed]}.

Following the Revolution in 1979, Reza Shah's mausoleum was destroyed by the newly formed Islamic state, at the direction of Ayatollah Sadeq Khalkhali, which was sanctioned by Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini. Many other historical sites were destroyed shortly thereafter.^[46]

Legacy[link]

• Iranian Railway.
• Iranian treasury.
• Creation of the first university in Iran.
• Eradication of malaria.
• Eradication of corruption in civil servants, paying wages in time so people didn't have to rely on bribes.
• Creation of schoolbooks; before Reza Shah the Islamic madreseh was the only form of schooling and the Koran the only widely available book.
• Creation of birth certificates for all Iranians.

Reza Shah's main critics were the so-called "new intelligentsia", often educated in Europe, for whom the Shah "was not a state-builder but an `oriental despot` ... not a reformer but a plutocrat strengthening the landed upper class; not a real nationalist but a jack-booted Cossack trained by the Tsarists and brought to power by British imperialists.^[47] His defenders included Ahmad Kasravi, an older intellectual who defended the Shah saying

Our younger intellectuals cannot possibly understand, and thus cannot possibly judge Reza Shah. They cannot because they were too young to remember the chaotic and desperate conditions out of which he arose.^[48]

Family[link]

Reza Shah's first wife, whom he married in 1894, was Maryam Khanum (died 1904). They had one daughter:

• Hamdamsaltaneh Pahlavi (1903–1992)

His second wife was Tadj ol-Molouk (1896–1982), by whom he had four children:

• Princess Shams Pahlavi (1917–1996)
• Mohammad-Rezā Shāh Pahlavi (1919–1980)
• Princess Ashraf Pahlavi (b. 1919)
• Prince Ali Reza Pahlavi (1922–1954)

In 1922 (divorced 1923), Reza Shah married Turan (Qamar al Molk) Amir Soleimani (1904–1995), by whom he had one son:^[49]

• Gholam Reza Pahlavi (b. 1923)

Reza Shah's fourth wife was Esmat Dowlatshahi (1904–1995), by whom he had five children:

• Abdul Reza Pahlavi (1924–2004)
• Ahmad Reza Pahlavi (1925–1981)
• Mahmud Reza Pahlavi (1926–2001)
• Fatimeh Pahlavi (1928–1987)
• Hamid Reza Pahlavi (1932–1992)

Honours[link]

• Decoration of the Imperial Portrait, 1st Class of the Persian Empire-1923
• Nishan-i-Aqdas, 1st Class of the Persian Empire-1923
• Order of the Lion and Sun, 1st Class of the Persian Empire-1923
• Grand Collar of the Order of the Supreme Sun of the Kingdom of Afghanistan-1928
• Knight of the Order of the White Eagle of Poland-1929
• Collar of the Order of Muhammad 'Ali of the Kingdom of Egypt-1932
• Collar of the Grand Order of the Hashimites of the Kingdom of Iraq-1932
• Knight of the Order of the Seraphim of Sweden-1934
• Knight of the Order of the Elephant of Denmark-1937
• Grand Cordon of the Order of Leopold of Belgium-1937
• Grand Cross of the Legion d'honneur of France-1937
• Knight of the Order of the Most Holy Annunciation of the Kingdom of Italy-1939
• Grand Cross of the Order of Saints Maurice and Lazarus of the Kingdom of Italy-1939
• Chain of Fuad I of the Kingdom of Egypt-1939

See also[link]

• Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran
• Abolhassan Diba
• Amir Abdollah Tahmasebi
• Sar-Lashkar Muhammad-Hussein Ayrom
• Abdolhossein Teymourtash
• Sar Lashgar Buzarjomehri
• Mahmud Khan Puladeen
• Amanullah Jahanbani
• Colonel Pesian
• Khaz'al Khan
• Sepahbod Ahmad Amir-Ahmadi
• General Fazlollah Zahedi
• Human rights in the Pahlavi Dynasty
• Reza Shah's mausoleum

References[link]

Constructs such as ibid., loc. cit. and idem are discouraged by Wikipedia's style guide for footnotes, as they are easily broken. Please improve this article by replacing them with named references (quick guide), or an abbreviated title. (May 2010)

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Reza Shah

Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Reza Shah Pahlavi

External links[link]

• IRANNOTES.com | High Quality IRANIAN Banknotes and Coins

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Hamid Karzai حامد کرزی GCMG
Karzai at the Munich Conference on Security Policy (2009)
President of Afghanistan
Incumbent
Assumed office 7 December 2004 Acting: 22 December 2001 – 7 December 2004
Vice President	Ahmad Zia Massoud Mohammed Fahim
Preceded by	Burhanuddin Rabbani
Personal details
Born	(1957-12-24) 24 December 1957 (age 54) Kandahar, Afghanistan
Political party	Independent
Spouse(s)	Zeenat Quraishi (1999–present)
Alma mater	Himachal Pradesh University
Religion	Sunni Islam

Hamid Karzai, GCMG (Pashto: حامد کرزی, Hāmid Karzay; born 24 December 1957) is the 12th and current President of Afghanistan, taking office on 7 December 2004. He became a dominant political figure after the removal of the Taliban regime in late 2001.^[1] During the December 2001 International Conference on Afghanistan in Germany, Karzai was selected by prominent Afghan political figures to serve a six month term as Chairman of the Interim Administration.^[2]

He was then chosen for a two year term as Interim President during the 2002 loya jirga (grand assembly) that was held in Kabul, Afghanistan. After the 2004 presidential election, Karzai was declared winner and became President of the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan. He won a second five-year-term in the 2009 presidential election.^[3]

Early life[link]

Karzai was born on 24 December 1957 in the Karz area of Kandahar City in southern Afghanistan.^[4] He is an ethnic Pashtun of the Popalzai tribe. His father, Abdul Ahad Karzai, served as the Deputy Speaker of the Parliament during the 1960s. His grandfather, Khair Mohammad Khan, had served in the 1919 Afghanistan's war of independence and as the Deputy Speaker of the Senate. Karzai's family were strong supporters of Zahir Shah, the last king of Afghanistan. His uncle, Habibullah Karzai, served as representative of Afghanistan at the UN and is said to have accompanied King Zahir Shah in the early 1960s to the United States for a special meeting with U.S. President John F. Kennedy.^[5]

Hamid Karzai attended Mahmood Hotaki Elementary School in Kandahar and Sayed Jamaluddin Afghani School in Kabul. He graduated from Habibia High School in 1976.^[6] From 1979 to 1983, Karzai took a postgraduate course in political science at Himachal Pradesh University in Shimla, Himachal Pradesh, India. He is well versed in several languages, including his native tongue which is Pashto as well as Dari (Persian), Urdu, Hindi, English and French.^[7]

Early career[link]

After obtaining his Master's degree in India he moved to neighboring Pakistan to work as a fundraiser for the anti-communist mujahideen during the 1980s Soviet war in Afghanistan.^[8] The Mujahideens were backed by the United States, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia and Iran, and Karzai was a secret contact for the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) at the time.^[9] While Karzai remained in Pakistan during the Soviet intervention,^[10] his siblings emigrated to the United States.^[8]

Following the withdrawal of Soviet forces, Hamid Karzai returned to Afghanistan in early October to assist in the Mujahideen victory in Tarinkot. Hamid Karzai assisted in rallying Polpalzai Durrani tribes to oust the regime from the city as well as helped negotiate the defection of five hundred of Dr. Najib's forces.^[11]

When Najibullah's Soviet-backed government collapsed in 1992, the Peshawar Accords agreed upon by the Afghan political parties established the Islamic State of Afghanistan and appointed an interim government to be followed by general elections. Karzai accompanied the first mujahideen leaders into Kabul in 1992 following the Soviet withdrawal.^[10] He served as Deputy Foreign Minister in the government of Burhanuddin Rabbani. Karzai was, however, arrested by Mohammad Fahim (Karzai's current Vice President) on charges of spying for Gulbuddin Hekmatyar in what Karzai claimed was an effort to mediate between Hekmatyar's militia and the Islamic State. When he was released Karzai fled from Kabul in a vehicle provided by Hekmatyar and driven by Gul Rahman.^[12]

American Special Forces and Hamid Karzai during Operation Enduring Freedom in October 2001.

When the Taliban emerged in the mid 1990s, Karzai initially recognized them as a legitimate government because he thought that they would stop the violence and corruption in his country.^[13] He was asked by the Taliban to serve as their ambassador but he refused, telling friends that he felt Pakistan's Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI) was wrongly using them.^[1] He lived in Pakistan as among the Afghan refugees, where he worked to reinstate former Afghan King Zahir Shah. On the morning of 14 July 1999, Karzai's father, Abdul Ahad Karzai, was gunned down as he was coming home from a mosque in the city of Quetta. Reports suggest that the Taliban carried out the assassination.^[1] Following this incident, Karzai decided to work closely with the United Front (Northern Alliance), which was led by Ahmad Shah Massoud. In 2000 and 2001, he traveled to Europe and the United States to help gather support for the anti-Taliban movement.

According to a 55-page report by the UN, the Taliban, while trying to consolidate control over northern and western Afghanistan, committed systematic massacres against civilians.^[14][15] U.N. officials stated that there had been 15 massacres between 1996 and 2001. They also said, that "these have been highly systematic and they all lead back to the Taliban Ministry of Defense or to Mullah Omar himself." During the 1997–1998 battles of Mazar-i-Sharif, about 4,000 civilians were killed by the Taliban.^[16][17][18] The documents also reveal the role of Arab and Pakistani support troops in Taliban killings. Bin Laden's so-called 055 Brigade was responsible for mass-killings of Afghan civilians.^[19] The report by the United Nations quotes "eyewitnesses in many villages describing Arab fighters carrying long knives used for slitting throats and skinning people".^[14][15]

As the United States armed forces were preparing for a confrontation with the Taliban in September 2001, Karzai began urging NATO nations to purge his country of Al-Qaeda. "These Arabs, together with their foreign supporters and the Taliban, destroyed miles and miles of homes and orchards and vineyards," he told BBC, "They have killed Afghans. They have trained their guns on Afghan lives... We want them out."^[1]

President and Chairman of a transitional administration[link]

Karzai appointed as President of the Afghan Transitional Administration at the July 2002 loya jirga (grand assembly) in Kabul, Afghanistan.

After the 7 October 2001 launch of Operation Enduring Freedom, the United Front (Northern Alliance) worked with teams of U.S. special forces. Together, they overthrew the Taliban regime and mustered support for a new government in Afghanistan. Karzai and his group were in Quetta (Pakistan) at the time, where they began their covert operation. Before entering Afghanistan he warned his fighters:

"We might be captured the moment we enter Afghanistan and be killed. We have 60 percent chance of death and 40 percent chance to live and survive. Winning was no consideration. We could not even think of that. We got on two motorbikes. We drove into Afghanistan."^[20]

—Hamid Karzai, October 2001

In October 2001, Hamid Karzai and his group of fighters survived a friendly fire missile attack by U.S. Air Force pilots in southern Afghanistan. The group suffered injuries and was treated in the United States; Karzai received injuries to his facial nerves as can sometimes be noticed during his speeches.^[21] On 4 November 2001, American special operation forces flew Karzai out of Afghanistan for protection.^[22]

Karzai speaking before the U.S. Congress in June 2004

In December 2001, political leaders gathered in Germany to agree on new leadership structures. Under the 5 December Bonn Agreement they formed an Interim Administration and named Karzai Chairman of a 29-member governing committee. He was sworn in as leader on 22 December. The loya jirga of 13 June 2002, appointed Karzai as Interim President of the new position as President of the Afghan Transitional Administration.^[23] Former members of the Northern Alliance remained extremely influential, most notably Vice President Mohammed Fahim, who also served as the Defense Minister.

Karzai re-enacted the original coronation of Ahmad Shah Durrani at the shrine of Sher-i-Surkh outside of Kandahar where he had leaders of various Afghan tribes, including a descendent of the religious leader (Sabir Shah) that originally selected Ahmad Shah Durrani in 1747 as key players in this event.^[24] Further evidence that Karzai views himself fulfilling a Durrani monarch's role arise from statements furnished by close allies within his government.^[25] His late brother, Ahmed Wali Karzai, made statements to a similar effect.^[26]

After Karzai was installed into power, his actual authority outside the capital city of Kabul was said to be so limited that he was often derided as the "Mayor of Kabul". The situation was particularly delicate since Karzai and his administration have not been equipped either financially or politically to influence reforms outside of the region around Kabul. Other areas, particularly the more remote ones, have historically been under the influence of various local leaders. Karzai has been, to varying degrees of success, attempting to negotiate and form amicable alliances with them for the benefit of Afghanistan as a whole, instead of aggressively fighting them and risking an uprising.^{[citation needed]}

In 2004 he rejected an international proposal to end poppy production in Afghanistan through aerial spraying of chemical herbicides, fearing that it would harm the economic situation of his countrymen. Moreover, Karzai's younger brother, Ahmed Wali Karzai – who partially helped finance Karzai's presidential campaign – was rumored to be involved in narcotic deals,^[27] which has been rejected. Karzai said that he has sought in writing a number of times, but failed to obtain, proof of allegations that Ahmed Wali was involved in illegal drugs.^[28][28]

2004 Afghan presidential election[link]

Karzai's inauguration on 7 December 2004, after successfully winning the presidential election.

When Karzai was a candidate in the October 2004 presidential election, he won 21 of the 34 provinces, defeating his 22 opponents and becoming the first democratically elected leader of Afghanistan.

Although his campaigning was limited due to fears of violence, elections passed without significant incident. Following investigation by the United Nations of alleged voting irregularities, the national election commission in early November declared Karzai winner, without runoff, with 55.4% of the vote. This represented 4.3 million of the total 8.1 million votes cast. The election took place safely in spite of a surge of insurgent activity.^[29]

Karzai was officially sworn in as President of the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan on 7 December 2004, at a formal ceremony in Kabul. Many interpreted the ceremony as a symbolically important "new start" for the war-torn nation. Notable guests at the inauguration included the country's former King, Zahir Shah, three former U.S. presidents, and U.S. Vice President Dick Cheney.

President of Afghanistan[link]

First term (2004–2009)[link]

After winning a democratic mandate in the 2004 election, it was thought that Karzai would pursue a more aggressively reformist path in 2005. However, Karzai has proved to be more cautious than was expected. After his new administration took over in 2004, the economy of Afghanistan has been growing rapidly for the first time in many years. Government revenue began increasing every year, although it is still heavily dependent on foreign aid.

Karzai with former US President George W. Bush and wife Laura Bush at Camp David in 2007.

During the first term in Karzai's Presidency, public discontent grew about corruption and the civilian casualties in the 2001–present war. In May 2006, an anti-American and anti-Karzai riot took place in Kabul which left at least seven people dead and 40 injured.^[30] In May 2007, after as many as 51 Afghan civilians were killed in a bombing, Karzai asserted that his government "can no longer accept" casualties caused by U.S. and NATO operations.^[31]

In September 2006, Karzai told the United Nations General Assembly that Afghanistan has become the "worst victim" of terrorism.^[32] Karzai said terrorism is rebounding in his country, with militants infiltrating the borders to wage attacks on civilians. He stated, "This does not have its seeds alone in Afghanistan. Military action in the country will, therefore, not deliver the shared goal of eliminating terrorism." He demanded assistance from the international community to destroy terrorist sanctuaries inside and outside Afghanistan. "You have to look beyond Afghanistan to the sources of terrorism," he told the UN General Assembly, and "destroy terrorist sanctuaries beyond" the country, dismantle the elaborate networks in the region that recruit, indoctrinate, train, finance, arm, and deploy terrorists. These activities are also robbing thousands of Afghan children of their right to education, and prevent health workers from doing their jobs in Afghanistan. In addition, he promised to eliminate opium-poppy cultivation in his country, which is possibly helping fuel the ongoing Taliban insurgency. He has repeatedly demanded that NATO forces take more care when conducting military operations in residential areas to avoid civilian casualties.^[33] In a September 2006 video broadcast, Karzai stated that if the money wasted on the Iraq War was actually spent on rebuilding Afghanistan, his country would "be in heaven in less than one year".^[34]

2009 re-election and second term[link]

The 2009 presidential election billboard for Karzai in Kandahar Province. Karzai won another 5 year term.

Karzai discussing security and development issues in Helmand Province on 2 January 2010.

Karzai at the 2011 Afghan Independence Day in Kabul, which is held every year on 19 August to commemorate Afghanistan's independence from British control over its foreign affairs.

On the eve of the 20 August presidential election, Karzai seemed at once deeply unpopular but also likely to win the majority of the votes. He was blamed by many for the failures that plagued the reconstruction of Afghanistan after the toppling of the Taliban government end 2001, from the widespread corruption and the resurgence of the (neo-)Taliban to the explosion of the poppy trade. His unpopularity and the likelihood of his victory formed an atmosphere with a kind of national demoralization, which could discourage many Afghans from voting and dash hopes for substantial progress after the election.^[35][36][37]

In this second presidential election, Karzai was announced to have received over 50% of the votes. The election was tainted by lack of security, low voter turnout and widespread ballot stuffing, intimidation, and other electoral fraud.^[38]

Two months later Karzai accepted calls for a second round run-off vote, which was scheduled for 7 November 2009.^[39][40] On 2 November 2009, Karzai's run-off opponent, Abdullah Abdullah, withdrew from the race and election officials announced the cancellation of the run-off race. Karzai, the only remaining contender, was declared the winner a short time later.^[41]

Karzai presented his first list of 24 cabinet nominees to the Afghan parliament on 19 December 2009; however, on 2 January 2010, the parliament rejected 17 of these. According to the parliament, most of the nominees were rejected due to having been picked for reasons other than their competency. A member of parliament said that they had been picked largely based on "ethnicity or bribery or money."^[42]

On 16 January 2010, the Afghan parliament rejected 10 of the Karzai's 17 replacement picks for cabinet. MPs complained that Karzai's new choices were either not qualified for their posts or had close connections to Afghan warlords. Despite the second setback, by mid-January Karzai had 14 out of the 24 ministers confirmed, including the most powerful posts at foreign, defense and interior ministries.^[43] Shortly afterwards, the parliament began its winter recess, lasting until 20 February, without waiting for Karzai to select additional names for his cabinet. The move both extended the political uncertainty in the government, as well as dealing Karzai the embarrassment of appearing at the London Conference on Afghanistan with nearly half of his cabinet devoid of leaders.^[44]

Since late 2001 Karzai has been trying for peace in his country, going as far as pardoning militants that lay down weapons and join the rebuilding process. However, his offers were not accepted by the militant groups. In April 2007, Karzai acknowledged that he spoke to some militants about trying to bring peace in Afghanistan.^[45] He noted that the Afghan militants are always welcome in the country, although foreign insurgents are not.^[46] In September 2007, Karzai again offered talks with militant fighters after a security scare forced him to end a commemoration speech.^[47] Karzai left the event and was taken back to his palace, where he was due to meet visiting Latvian President Valdis Zatlers. After the meeting the pair held a joint news conference, at which Karzai called for talks with his Taliban foes. "We don't have any formal negotiations with the Taliban. They don't have an address. Who do we talk to?" Karzai told reporters. He further stated: "If I can have a place where to send somebody to talk to, an authority that publicly says it is the Taliban authority, I will do it."^[47]

In December 2009 Karzai announced to move ahead with a Loya Jirga (large assembly) to discuss the Taliban insurgency in which the Taliban representatives would be invited to take part in this Jirga.^[48] In January 2010, Karzai set the framework for dialogue with Taliban leaders when he called on the group's leadership to take part in the jirga to initiate peace talks. A Taliban spokesman declined to talk in detail about Karzai's offer and only said the militants would make a decision soon.^[49] In April 2010, Karzai urged Taliban insurgents to lay down their arms and air their grievances while visiting a violent northern province, adding that foreign forces would not leave the country as long as fighting continued.^[50] In July 2010, Karzai approved a plan intended to win over Taliban foot soldiers and low-level commanders.^[51]

Foreign relations[link]

Karzai with former U.S. Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice in June 2006.

Anders Fogh Rasmussen with Karzai in 2009

Karzai with Russia's President Dmitry Medvedev in 2010.

Karzai speaking at the 47th Munich Security Conference in 2011.

Karzai's relations with NATO countries is strong, especially with the United States, due to the fact that it is the leading nation helping to rebuild war-torn Afghanistan. The United States supported him since late 2001 to lead his nation. He has made many important diplomatic trips to the United States and other NATO countries. In August 2007, Karzai was invited to Camp David in Maryland, USA, for a special meeting with U.S. President George W. Bush. The United States has set up a special envoy for Afghanistan and Pakistan, which is currently headed by Marc Grossman. His task is to serve as a mediator and solve issues between the three nations.

Karzai's relations with neighboring Pakistan are good, especially with the Awami National Party (ANP) and Pakistan Peoples Party (PPP). He often describes his nation and Pakistan as "inseparable twin brothers", a reference to the disputed Durand Line border between the two states. In December 2007, Karzai and his delegates travelled to Islamabad, Pakistan, for a usual meeting with Pervez Musharraf on trade ties and intelligence sharing between the two Islamic states.^[52] Karzai also met and had a 45-minute talk with Benazir Bhutto on the morning of 27 December, hours before her trip to Liaquat National Bagh, where she was assassinated after her speech.^[53] After Bhutto's death, Karzai called her his sister and a brave woman who had a clear vision "for her own country, for Afghanistan, and for the region – a vision of democracy, prosperity, and peace."^[54] In September 2008, Karzai was invited on a special visit to witness the sworn in ceremony of Asif Ali Zardari, who became the President of Pakistan.^[55] Relations between Afghanistan and Pakistan have improved after the PPP party took over in 2008. The two nations often make contacts with one another concerning the war on terrorism and trade. Pakistan even allowed NATO forces stationed in Afghanistan to launch attacks on militant groups in Pakistan. This was something strongly opposed by the previous government of Pakistan. The two states finally signed into law the long awaited Afghan-Pak Transit Trade Agreement in 2011, intended to improve trade.^[56][57]

Although the U.S. and others often charge that neighboring Iran is meddling in Afghanistan's affairs, Karzai believes that Iran is a friend despite Iranian-made weapons being found in his country.^[58]

"We did interdict a shipment, without question the Revolutionary Guard's core Quds Force, through a known Taliban facilitator. Three of the individuals were killed... 48 122 millimetre rockets were intercepted with their various components... Iranians certainly view as making life more difficult for us if Afghanistan is unstable. We don't have that kind of relationship with the Iranians. That's why I am particularly troubled by the interception of weapons coming from Iran. But we know that it's more than weapons; it's money; it's also according to some reports, training at Iranian camps as well."^[59]

—General David Petraeus, Commander of US-NATO forces in Afghanistan, 16 March 2011

In 2007, Karzai said that Iran, so far, has been a helper in the reconstruction process.^[60] He acknowledged in 2010 that the Government of Iran has been providing millions of dollars directly to his office.^[61][62][63] In October 2007, Karzai again rejected Western accusations against Iran, stating, "We have resisted the negative propaganda launched by foreign states against the Islamic Republic, and we stress that aliens' propaganda should not leave a negative impact on the consolidated ties between the two great nations of Iran and Afghanistan."^[64] Karzai added, "The two Iranian and Afghan nations are close to each other due to their bonds and commonalities, they belong to the same house, and they will live alongside each other for good."^[65] However, just a year prior Karzai warned that, "Iran, Pakistan, and others are not fooling anyone."

"If they don't stop, the consequences will be ... that the region will suffer with us equally. In the past we have suffered alone; this time everybody will suffer with us.... Any effort to divide Afghanistan ethnically or weaken it will create the same thing in the neighboring countries. All the countries in the neighborhood have the same ethnic groups that we have, so they should know that it is a different ball game this time."^[66]

—Hamid Karzai, 17 February 2006

Barack Obama meets with Karzai at the Presidential Palace in Kabul, Afghanistan.

Some international criticism has centered around the government of Karzai in early 2009 for failing to secure the country from Taliban attacks, systemic governmental corruption, and most recently, widespread claims of electoral fraud in the 2009 Afghan presidential election.^[28][28][67] Karzai staunchly defended the election balloting, stating that some statements criticizing the balloting and vote count were "totally fabricated." He told the media that, "There were instances of fraud, no doubt... There were irregularities... But the election as a whole was good and free and democratic." He further went on to say that, "Afghanistan has its separate problems and we have to handle them as Afghanistan finds it feasible... This country was completely destroyed... Today, we are talking about fighting corruption in Afghanistan, improved legal standards... You see the glass half empty or half full. I see it as half full. Others see it as half empty."^[68]

In June 2010, Karzai travelled to Japan for a five day visit where the two nations discussed a new aid provided by the hosting nation and the untapped mineral resources recently announced. Karzai invited Japanese companies such as Mitsubishi and others to invest in Afghan mining projects.^[69] He told Japanese officials that Japan would be given priority in the bid to explore its resources. He stated, "morally, Afghanistan should give access as a priority to those countries that have helped Afghanistan massively in the past few years."^[70] While in Japan, Karzai also made his first visit to Hiroshima to pray for the atomic bomb victims.^[71] Japan has provided billions of dollars in aid to Afghanistan since the beginning of 2002.

Relations between Karzai and India have always been friendly, which is the place where he attended university. Afghanistan–India relations began getting stronger in 2011, especially after the death of Osama bin Laden in Pakistan. In October 2011, Karzai signed a strategic partnership agreement with Indian Prime Minister Manmohan Singh. During his speech at the RK Mishra Memorial in New Delhi, Karzai told the audience that "The signing of the strategic partnership with India is not directed against any country. It is not directed against any other entity. This is for Afghanistan to benefit from the strength of India."^[72]

Assassination attempts[link]

Many people have plotted to assassinate Karzai in the last decade, especially the Taliban's Quetta Shura and the Haqqani network which allegedly receives support and guidance from Pakistan's Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI) spy network.^[73][74] As recent as October 2011, while Karzai was visiting India to sign an important strategic partnership agreement with Indian Prime Minister Manmohan Singh, Afghan agents of the National Directorate of Security (NDS) arrested 6 people in Kabul for planning to assassinate Karzai. Among those involved in the assassination plot were four Kabul University students and one of its professors, Dr. Aimal Habib, as well as Mohibullah Ahmadi who was one of the guards outside the Presidential Palace in Kabul.^[75] The alleged group of assassins were associates of al Qaida and the Haqqani network, and were paid $150,000 by Pakistani-based Islamic terrorists.^[76][77][78] A U.S. official said that "Our understanding is that the threat against President Karzai was real, was credible, but it was only in the early stages of planning."^[79] The following is a list of other failed assassination attempts:

• 5 September 2002: An assassination attempt was made on Karzai in the city of Kandahar. A gunman wearing the uniform of the new Afghan National Army opened fire, wounding Gul Agha Sherzai (former governor of Kandahar) and an American Special Operations officer. The gunman, one of the President's bodyguards, and a bystander who knocked down the gunman were killed when Karzai's American bodyguards returned fire. Recently, some pictures of the US Navy's DEVGRU responding to the attempt have surfaced.

• 16 September 2004: An attempted assassination on Karzai took place when a rocket missed the helicopter he was flying in while en route to the city of Gardez in eastern Afghanistan.

• 10 June 2007: The Taliban insurgents attempted to assassinate Karzai in Ghazni where Karzai was giving a speech to elders. Insurgents fired approximately 12 rockets, some of which landed 220 yards (200 m) away from the crowd. Karzai was not hurt in the incident and was transported away from the location after finishing his speech.^[80][81][82]

• 27 April 2008: Insurgents, reportedly from the Haqqani network, used automatic weapons and rocket-propelled grenades to attack a military parade that Karzai was attending in Kabul.^[83] Karzai was safe, but at least three people were killed, including a parliamentarian, a ten-year-old girl and a minority leader, and ten injured.^[84][85][86] Others attending the event included government ministers, former warlords, diplomats and the military top brass, all of whom had gathered to mark the 16th anniversary of the fall of the Afghan communist government to the mujahideen.^[87] Responding to the attack during the ceremony, the UN said the attackers "have shown their utter disrespect for the history and people of Afghanistan."^[88] Taliban spokesman Zabiullah Mujahid claimed responsibility for the attack, stating, "We fired rockets at the scene of the celebration." He went on to say there were 6 Taliban at the scene and that 3 were killed. "Our aim was not to directly hit someone," Mujahed said when asked if the intention was to kill Karzai. "We just wanted to show to the world that we can attack anywhere we want to".^[88] The ability of the attackers to get so close to Karzai suggested they had inside help. Defense minister Wardak confirmed that a police captain was connected with the group behind the assassination attempt and that an army officer supplied the weapons and ammunition used in the attack.^[89]

Personal and tribal lineage[link]

Karzai speaking at a shura to tribal and religious leaders in his native Kandahar, in southern Afghanistan.

In 1999, Hamid Karzai married Zeenat Quraishi, an obstetrician by profession who was working as a doctor with Afghan refugees living in Pakistan. They have a son, Mirwais, who was born on 25 January 2007.^[90][91] According to a declaration of his assets by an anti-graft body, Karzai earns $525 monthly and has less than $20,000 in bank accounts.^[92] Karzai does not own any land or property.^[93]

Karzai has six brothers, including Mahmood Karzai and Quayum Karzai, who are both Afghan American restaurant owners in the Baltimore–Washington Metropolitan Area of the United States, as well as Ahmed Wali Karzai, deceased, who was the representative for the southern Afghanistan region. Quayum is also the founder of the Afghans for a Civil Society in Maryland. Karzai has one sister, Fauzia Karzai, who is the manager of Helmand restaurant in Cambridge, Massachusetts.^[94] The family owns and operates several successful Afghan restaurants in the East Coast of the United States as well as in Chicago.

In initial biographical news reporting, there was confusion regarding his clan lineage; it was written that his paternal lineage derived from the Sadozai clan.^[95] This confusion might have arisen from sources stating he was chosen as the head, or Khan of the Popalzai.^[96] Traditionally, the Popalzai tribe has been led by members of the Sadozais.^[97] The first King of Afghanistan, Ahmad Shah Durrani, was the leader of the Sadozais, and the Sadozai lineage continued to rule Afghanistan until 1826 when the Barakzais ascended to the throne.

Karzai is believed to be from the Shamizai subtribe of the Popalzais.^[97] His grandfather, Khair Muhammad Karzai, was head of the Popalzai tribe from Kandahar who relocated to Kabul and ran the business of a guest house. This allowed Karzai's father Abdul Ahad, to gain a foothold in the royal family, and subsequently, the parliament. These actions and upwards movement within the Popalzai tribal system, led to the Karzai family furnishing a viable Shamizai clan alternative to Sadozai leadership in the aftermath of the Soviet invasion when the Sadozai clan failed to provide a tribal leader.^[97][98] He is often seen wearing a Karakul hat, something that has been worn by many Afghan kings in the past.^{[99][100][101][102]}

Honorary degrees and awards[link]

Karzai receiving a commemorative medallion of the 11 September 2001 attacks from Jack Kingston. The medallion was forged from steel salvaged from the World Trade Center site.

Over the years Hamid Karzai has become a well recognized figure. He has received a number of awards and honorary degrees from famous government and educational institutions around the world. The following are some of his awards and honoraria.

• A commemorative medallion of the 11 September 2001 attacks from the United States House of Representatives, presented to him by member of the house Jack Kingston on 29 January 2002.
• An honorary doctorate in literature from Himachal Pradesh University in India, his alma mater, on 7 March 2003.
• In June 2003, Karzai was created an Honorary Knight Grand Cross of the Order of St Michael and St George by Queen Elizabeth II.^[103]
• On 4 July 2004, Karzai was awarded the Philadelphia Liberty Medal in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. In his acceptance speech, Karzai stated: "Where Liberty dies, evil grows. We Afghans have learned from our historical experiences that liberty does not come easily. We profoundly appreciate the value of liberty...for we have paid for it with our lives. And we will defend liberty with our lives."^[104]
• On 22 May 2005, received an honorary Doctor of Laws Degree from Boston University.^[105]
• On 25 May 2005, received an honorary degree from the Center for Afghan Studies at the University of Nebraska — Omaha.
• On 25 September 2006, received an honorary Doctor of Laws Degree from Georgetown University.

Controversy[link]

The main areas of criticism surrounding President Karzai involve corruption/nepotism, electoral fraud, and the involvement of his late half brother Ahmed Wali Karzai in the drug trade. According to the New York Times, many members of the Karzai family have mixed their personal interests with that of the state, and become hugely influential and wealthy by murky means.^[106] Afghanistan is currently ranked as the second most corrupt country in the world by Transparency International.^[107] Furthermore, there is the issue of electoral fraud, which has reached such a level that Afghanistan's status as a democratic state is questionable.^[108][109] In fact, a special court set up personally by Karzai in defiance of constitutional norms has sought to reinstate dozens of candidates who were removed for fraud in the 2010 parliamentary elections by the Independent Electoral Commission.^[110] In addition to these issues, there is also the matter of the drug trade. Afghanistan supplies most of the world's opium, and its current production exceeds world demand, creating vast stockpiles of the drug.^[111] At the center of this trade was the half brother of President Karzai, Ahmed Wali Karzai.^[112]

In August 2011, Karzai pardoned dozens of child would-be suicide bombers, and in February 2012 some of the pardoned children were re-arrested attempting to commit suicide bombings in Kandahar Province.^[113]

Unocal connection[link]

There's been much debate over Karzai's alleged consultant work with Unocal (Union Oil Company of California since acquired by Chevron in 2005). In 2002, when Karzai became the subject of heavy media coverage as one of the front runners to lead Afghanistan, it was reported that he was a former consultant for them.^{[114][115][116]} Spokesmen for both Unocal and Karzai have denied any such relationship, although Unocal could not speak for all companies involved in the consortium.^[117] The original claim that Karzai worked for Unocal originates from a 6 December 2001 issue of the French newspaper Le Monde,^[117] Barry Lane UNOCAL's manager for public relations states that, "He was never a consultant, never an employee. We've exhaustively searched through all our records."^[118][119] Lane however did say that Zalmay Khalilzad, the former United States Ambassador to the United Nations, was a Unocal consultant in the mid-1990s.^[120]

See also[link]

• List of current heads of state and government
• List of presidents of Afghanistan
• Politics of Afghanistan
• Afghan Peace Jirga 2010

References[link]

External links[link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Hamid Karzai

Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Hamid Karzai

Wikisource has original works written by or about: Hamid Karzai

• Islamic Republic of Afghanistan: Office of the President
• The Embassy of Afghanistan: President Hamid Karzai
• Hamid Karzai at the Open Directory Project

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