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The Sanhedrin, from an 1883 encyclopedia

The Sanhedrin (Hebrew: סַנְהֶדְרִין sanhedrîn, Greek: συνέδριον,^[1] synedrion, "sitting together," hence "assembly" or "council") was an assembly of twenty-three judges appointed in every city in the Biblical Land of Israel.^[2]

The Great Sanhedrin was the supreme court of ancient Israel made of 71 members. The Great Sanhedrin was made up of a Chief/Prince/Leader called Nasi (at some times this position may have been held by the Kohen Gadol or the High Priest), a vice chief justice (Av Beit Din), and sixty-nine general members.^[3] In the Second Temple period, the Great Sanhedrin met in the Hall of Hewn Stones in the Temple in Jerusalem. The court convened every day except festivals and Shabbat. In the late 3rd century, to avoid persecution, its authoritative decisions were issued under the name of Beth HaMidrash.

The second final binding decision of the Sanhedrin was in 358, when the Hebrew Calendar was adopted. The Sanhedrin was dissolved after continued persecution by the Roman Empire. Over the centuries, there have been attempts to revive the institution, such as the Grand Sanhedrin convened by Napoleon Bonaparte.

The Sanhedrin is mentioned in the Gospels in relation to the Sanhedrin Trial of Jesus.

Early Sanhedrin[link]

The Hasmonean court in the Land of Israel, presided over by Alexander Jannaeus, king of Judea until 76 BC, followed by his wife, was called Synhedrion or Sanhedrin.^[4] The exact nature of this early Sanhedrin is not clear. It may have been a body of sages and/or priests, or a political, legislative and judicial institution. Only after the destruction of the Second Temple was the Sanhedrin made up only of sages.^[4]

Great and Lesser Sanhedrin[link]

The Talmud (tractate Sanhedrin) identifies two classes of rabbinical courts called Sanhedrin, a Great Sanhedrin (בית דין הגדול) and a Lesser Sanhedrin (בית דין הקטן). Each city could have its own lesser Sanhedrin of 23 judges, but there could be only one Great Sanhedrin of 71, which among other roles acted as the Supreme Court, taking appeals from cases decided by lesser courts. The numbers of judges were predicated on eliminating the possibility of a tie and the last to cast their vote was the head of the court.

Function and procedures[link]

The Sanhedrin as a body claimed powers that lesser Jewish courts did not have. As such, they were the only ones who could try the king, extend the boundaries of the Temple and Jerusalem, and were the ones to whom all questions of law were finally put. Before 191 BC the High Priest acted as the ex officio head of the Sanhedrin, but in 191 BC, when the Sanhedrin lost confidence in the High Priest, the office of Nasi was created. After the time of Hillel the Elder (late 1st century BC and early 1st century AD), the Nasi was almost invariably a descendant of Hillel. The second highest-ranking member of the Sanhedrin was called the Av Beit Din, or "Head of the Court" (literally, Beit Din = "house of law"), who presided over the Sanhedrin when it sat as a criminal court.^[5]

The Sanhedrin met in a building known as the Hall of Hewn Stones (Lishkat Ha-Gazith), which has been placed by the Talmud and many scholars as built into the north wall of the Temple Mount, half inside the sanctuary and half outside, with doors providing access both to the Temple and to the outside. The name presumably arises to distinguish it from the buildings in the Temple complex used for ritual purposes, which had to be constructed of stones unhewn by any iron implements.

In some cases, it was only necessary for a 23-member panel (functioning as a Lesser Sanhedrin) to convene. In general, the full panel of 71 judges was only convened on matters of national significance (e.g., a declaration of war) or in the event that the 23-member panel could not reach a conclusive verdict.^[6]

Galilee in late antiquity.

By the end of the Second Temple period, the Sanhedrin reached its pinnacle of importance, legislating all aspects of Jewish religious and political life within the parameters laid down by Biblical and Rabbinic tradition.

After the destruction of the Second Temple in 70, the Sanhedrin was re-established in Yavneh with reduced authority. The imperial Roman government and legislation recognized it as the Palestinian Patriarchate, the ultimate authority in Jewish religious matters. The seat of the Patriarchate moved to Usha under the presidency of Gamaliel II in 80 CE. In 116 it moved back to Yavneh, and then again back to Usha. It moved in 140 to Shefaram under the presidency of Shimon ben Gamliel II, and to Beit Shearim and Sephoris in 163, under the presidency of Judah I. Finally, it moved to Tiberias in 193, under the presidency of Gamaliel III (193–230) ben Judah haNasi, where it became more of a consistory, but still retained, under the presidency of Judah II (230–270), the power of excommunication.

During the presidency of Gamaliel IV (270–290), due to Roman persecution, it dropped the name Sanhedrin; and its authoritative decisions were subsequently issued under the name of Beth HaMidrash.^{[citation needed]}

In 363, emperor Julian ordered the Temple rebuilt.^[7] A personal friend of his, Ammianus Marcellinus, wrote this about the effort:

Julian thought to rebuild at an extravagant expense the proud Temple once at Jerusalem, and committed this task to Alypius of Antioch. Alypius set vigorously to work, and was seconded by the governor of the province; when fearful balls of fire, breaking out near the foundations, continued their attacks, till the workmen, after repeated scorchings, could approach no more: and he gave up the attempt.

— Ammianus Marcellinus

The failure to rebuild the Temple has been ascribed to the Galilee earthquake of 363, and to the Jews' ambivalence about the project. Sabotage is a possibility, as is an accidental fire. Divine intervention was the common view among Christian historians of the time.^[8] Julian's support of Jews, coming after the hostility of many earlier Emperors, meant that Jews called him Julian the Hellene.^[9]

As a reaction to Julian's pro-Jewish stance, Theodosius I forbade the Sanhedrin to assemble and declared ordination illegal. Capital punishment was prescribed for any Rabbi who received ordination and complete destruction of the town where the ordination occurred.^[10]

However, since the Hebrew calendar was based on witnesses' testimony, that had become far too dangerous to collect, Hillel II recommended change to a mathematically based calendar that was adopted at a clandestine, and maybe final, meeting in 358. This marked the last universal decision made by that body.

Gamaliel VI (400–425) was the Sanhedrin's last president. With his death in 425, executed by Theodosius II for erecting new synagogues contrary to the imperial decree, the title Nasi, the last remains of the ancient Sanhedrin, became illegal. An imperial decree of 426 diverted the patriarchs' tax (post excessum patriarchorum) into the imperial treasury^[11]

Archaeological findings[link]

In 2004, excavations in Tiberias conducted by the Israel Antiquities Authority uncovered a structure dating to the 3rd century CE that may have been the seat of the Sanhedrin when it convened in that city. At the time it was called Beit Hava'ad.^[12]

Revival attempts[link]

The Sanhedrin is traditionally viewed as the last institution that commanded universal Jewish authority among the Jewish people in the long chain of tradition from Moses until the present day. Since its dissolution in 358 by imperial decree, there have been several attempts to re-establish this body either as a self-governing body, or as a puppet of a sovereign government.

There are records of what may have been of attempts to reform the Sanhedrin in Arabia,^[13] in Jerusalem under the Caliph 'Umar,^[14] and in Babylon (Iraq),^[15] but none of these attempts were given any attention by Rabbinic authorities and little information is available about them.

Napoleon Bonaparte's "Grand Sanhedrin"[link]

Medallion struck in honor of the "Grand Sanhedrin" convened by Emperor Napoleon I of France.

The "Grand Sanhedrin" was a Jewish high court convened by Napoleon I to give legal sanction to the principles expressed by the Assembly of Notables in answer to the twelve questions submitted to it by the government (see Jew. Encyc. v. 468, s.v. France).

On October 6, 1806, the Assembly of Notables issued a proclamation to all the Jewish communities of Europe, inviting them to send delegates to the Sanhedrin, to convene on October 20. This proclamation, written in Hebrew, French, German, and Italian, speaks in extravagant terms of the importance of this revived institution and of the greatness of its imperial protector. While the action of Napoleon aroused in many Jews of Germany the hope that, influenced by it, their governments also would grant them the rights of citizenship, others looked upon it as a political contrivance. When in the war against Prussia (1806–7) the emperor invaded Poland and the Jews rendered great services to his army, he remarked, laughing, "The sanhedrin is at least useful to me."^{[citation needed]} David Friedländer and his friends in Berlin described it as a spectacle that Napoleon offered to the Parisians.

Modern attempts in Israel[link]

Since the dissolution of the Sanhedrin in 358,^[16] there has been no universally recognized authority within Jewish law. Maimonides (1135–1204) was one of the greatest scholars of the Middle Ages, and is arguably one of the most widely accepted scholars among the Jewish people since the closing of the Talmud in 500. Influenced by the rationalist school of thought and generally showing a preference for a natural (as opposed to miraculous) redemption for the Jewish people, Maimonides proposed a rationalist solution for achieving the goal of re-establishing the highest court in Jewish tradition and reinvesting it with the same authority it had in former years. There have been several attempts to implement Maimonides' recommendations, the latest being in modern times.

There have been rabbinical attempts to renew Semicha and re-establish a Sanhedrin by Rabbi Jacob Berab in 1538, Rabbi Yisroel Shklover in 1830, Rabbi Aharon Mendel haCohen in 1901, Rabbi Zvi Kovsker in 1940 and Rabbi Yehuda Leib Maimon in 1949.

In October 2004 (Tishrei 5765), a group of rabbis representing varied Orthodox communities in Israel undertook a ceremony in Tiberias^[17], where the original Sanhedrin was disbanded, which is claimed to re-establish the body according to the proposal of Maimonides and the Jewish legal rulings of Rabbi Yosef Karo. The controversial attempt has been subject to debate within different Jewish communities.

See also[link]

• Beth din shel Kohanim
• Synedrion, a general term for judiciary organs of Greek and Hellenistic city states and treaty organisations.

References[link]

Constructs such as ibid., loc. cit. and idem are discouraged by Wikipedia's style guide for footnotes, as they are easily broken. Please improve this article by replacing them with named references (quick guide), or an abbreviated title. (May 2010)

External links[link]

• Secular and religious history of the Jewish Sanhedrin
• English web site of the re-established Jewish Sanhedrin in Israel
• The Jewish Court System by Rabbi Aryeh Kaplan
• Jewish Encyclopedia: Sanhedrin
•  "Sanhedrin". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. 1913. 

Matt Maher
Maher performing in 2011
Background information
Born	(1974-11-10) November 10, 1974 (age 37)[1] Newfoundland, Canada
Genres	Christian rock
Years active	2000–present
Labels	Essential
Website	www.mattmahermusic.com

Matthew "Matt" Guion Maher (born November 10, 1974)^[1] is a contemporary Christian music (CCM) artist, songwriter, and worship leader originally from Newfoundland, Canada, who later relocated to Tempe, Arizona. He has written and produced five solo albums to date. Three of his albums have reached the Top 25 Christian Albums Billboard chart and four of his singles have reached the Top 25 Christian Songs chart. He is a practising Catholic.^[2]

Biography[link]

Maher was born and raised in Newfoundland, Canada. His parents recognized his musical talent, and he grew up taking piano lessons and immersing himself in a broad variety of music and playing in concert and jazz ensembles, singing in a choir, and playing in a garage rock band.^[3]

Maher received a scholarship from the Jazz Department at Arizona State University, where he studied Jazz Piano and got his music degree. He paid for his first three years of college by playing piano in a hotel.

Matt currently lives in Tempe, Arizona. He is involved in building community at Our Lady of Mount Carmel parish. He married Kristin Fisher on September 10, 2010. Their son, Michael Conor, was born on August 1, 2011.

Career[link]

Early in 2007 Maher signed to Essential Records. He released his first big-label album (and his fourth album overall) Empty and Beautiful on April 8, 2008. His second album with Essential Records (and his fifth album overall), Alive Again, was released on September 22, 2009.^[4] In late 2009, Maher toured with Michael W. Smith on the "New Hallelujah Tour". Alive Again peaked at No. 6 on Billboard magazine's Top Christian Albums chart in 2009.^[5]

When Pope Benedict XVI visited the United States in April 2008, Maher was asked to lead worship for crowds of thousands at the Rally for Youth and Seminarians in Yonkers, New York, which also featured Kelly Pease, tobyMac and Third Day, among other musicians. He was subsequently interviewed on Fox News, where he played his title track from Empty and Beautiful on the secular airwaves.^[6]

Maher was a guest singer songwriter speaker at Crowder's Fantastical Church Music Conference at Baylor University in late 2010 put on by the David Crowder Band.^[7] In early 2011 he toured the United States on the Rock And Worship Roadshow headlined by MercyMe.^[8]

Discography[link]

Albums[link]

Singles[link]

¹ Currently active on the charts

Awards and recognition[link]

GMA Canada Covenant Awards

• 2008 Praise And Worship Album of the Year: Empty & Beautiful^[19]
• 2009 nominee, Male Vocalist of the Year
• 2009 nominee, Song of the Year: "As It Is In Heaven"
• 2009 nominee, Praise And Worship Song of the Year: "As It Is In Heaven"
• 2010 Album of the Year: Alive Again
• 2010 Praise And Worship Album of the Year: Alive Again
• 2010 Song of the Year: "Hold Us Together"
• 2010 Praise And Worship Song of the Year: "Alive Again"
• 2011 Male Vocalist of the Year

GMA Dove Awards

• 2010 nominee, Praise And Worship Song of the Year: Alive Again
• 2010 nominee, Song of the Year: "Alive Again"
• 2010 winner, Special Events Album of the Year: Glory Revealed II: The Word of God in Worship [Split win with Kari Jobe]

Unity Awards

• 2003 winner, Best New Artist of the Year
• 2004 winner, Praise & Worship Song of the Year: "I Love You, Lord"
• 2008 winner, Best Artist of the Year

Other

• 2008 Catholic Album of the Year: Empty & Beautiful

References[link]

External links[link]

• Official website
• Official MySpace page
• Matt Maher at Essential Records
• Matt Maher at Spirit and Song

Ursula Rucker is an American spoken word recording artist. Rucker is known for a diverse repertoire, and for utilizing techniques that catch her listeners' attention.

Biography[link]

Ursula Rucker
Donaufestival Krems 2008 (Vienna)

Rucker was born and raised in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, where she was a graduate of Temple University’s journalism program.^[1] She is of African-American and Italian descent. Rucker had been writing poetry since adolescence but kept her writings to herself until she read poetry in 1994, at Philadelphia’s Zanzibar Blue which is credited as her debut.^[1]

That very same year, Rucker was invited to collaborate with numerous recording artists, and producers including King Britt, 4hero, Jamaaladeen Tacuma, Josh Wink, Alix Perez and most notably The Roots.^[2]

Rucker garnered a reputation for unique poetry techniques and stage presence which were described as "strong, vulnerable, wounded and raging". King Britt gave Rucker recognition and invited her to create her first spoken word recording, the 1994 club hit, "Supernatural". Dance music fans and DJ's quickly appreciated Rucker’s vocals and rhythm, which was described as "mystical". According to Britt, while the original and remixes of Supernatural were continually used in clubs widespread throughout the United States, internationally, the most popular mix of the song remains the a cappella.^[2]

Career[link]

Rucker's emotion in her work and words, has led some critics to compare her to celebrated writers like Sonia Sanchez and Nikki Giovanni, describing them as "powerful". Coincidentally, when Ntozake Shange was unable to supply The Roots with a spoken word contribution for their second album Do You Want More?!!?!!, they called on Rucker to do it instead. The Unlocking led to subsequent invitations to close The Roots follow-up albums Iladelph Halflife and the certified gold record Things Fall Apart.^[2]

In numerous reviews, many critics proclaim the value of Rucker’s work with The Roots, 4hero and other groups. Rucker has had reviews in, URB, Vibe, XXL, The Philadelphia Inquirer, and Straight No Chaser. Rucker has also performed her work at an array of venues, universities and festivals. Among these venues include the Montreal Jazz Festival, the 1999 Winter Music Conference, a performance at Drexel University and the 2005 Amnesty International Australia Freedom Festival^[3] which aimed to raise aware of Amnesty's global "Stop Violence against Women" campaign.

Rucker has toured with Jamaaladeen Tacuma, Sylk 130, and 4Hero in the United States and internationally in Europe. Rucker also has provided a single "Soon for Unbound", which was off a benefit album for convict Mumia Abu-Jamal. Andy Puleston at bbc.co.uk writes in his review of her album Supa Sista: Ursula's vocals... is a silken delivery, that like Michael Franti, demonstrates that a quiet word in the ear can speak volumes above the microphone rant.^[4] Paul Sullivan also of bbc.co.uk says in his review of her album Silver or Lead: Ursula's velvety voice...manages to both mollify and add a sinister dimension to the harshness of her subject matter.^[5]

Discography[link]

• Supernatural (Single) (1994)
• Supa Sista (2001)
• Silver or Lead (2003)
• Ma' at Mama (2006)
• Ruckus Soundsysdom (2008)
• She Said (2011)

with 4hero

• "Loveless" on Two Pages (1998)
• "Time" on Creating Patterns (2001)
• "The Awakening" on Play with the Changes (2007)

More extensive discography listings at Discogs.com

Ursula Rucker

Film Appearances[link]

She appears in the 2008 film The Black Candle, directed by M.K. Asante, Jr. and narrated by Maya Angelou.

Ursula Rucker: Poet debuted at the 2008 Urbanworld Film Festival. Directed and Edited by Michael J. Dennis, it was originally commissioned as part of WYBE/Mind-TV's "'Philadelphia Stories'" Series.

References and notes[link]

External links[link]

• Ma'at Mama website
• Concert photos at The Fabrik, Hamburg