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Berlin-Mitte
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Brussels
Brussels (, pronounced ; , pronounced ), officially the Brussels Region or Brussels-Capital Region (, Dutch: ), is the de facto capital city of the European Union (EU) and the largest urban area in Belgium. It comprises 19 municipalities, including the City of Brussels proper, which is the constitutional capital of Belgium, the seat of the French Community of Belgium and of the Flemish Community.
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East Germany
The German Democratic Republic (GDR; German: Deutsche Demokratische Republik or DDR), informally called East Germany by the West, was the socialist state established in 1949 in the Soviet zone of occupied Germany and in the East Berlin portion of the Allied-occupied capital city. The German Democratic Republic, which consisted geographically of northeast Germany rather than all of eastern Germany, had an area of 107,771 km2. (41,610 mi.2), bordering Czechoslovakia in the south, West Germany (officially: Federal Republic of Germany) in the south and west, the Baltic Sea to the north, and Poland in the east.
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Karl Marx House
The Karl Marx House museum () is the house in Trier (Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany) in which Karl Marx was born in 1818; it is now a museum. The significance of the house went unnoticed until 1904, at which point the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD) worked hard to buy it, succeeding in 1928. After the Nazi party came to power in 1933 the building was confiscated and turned into a printing house.
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London
London () is the capital of England and the United Kingdom, the largest metropolitan area in the United Kingdom and the largest urban zone in the European Union by most measures. London has been a major settlement for two millennia, its history going back to its founding by the Romans, who called it Londinium. London's core, the ancient City of London, largely retains its square-mile mediaeval boundaries. Since at least the 19th century, the name London has also referred to the metropolis developed around this core. The bulk of this conurbation forms the London region and the Greater London administrative area, governed by the elected Mayor of London and the London Assembly.
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Marx-Engels-Forum
Marx-Engels-Forum is a public park in the central Mitte district of Berlin, the capital of Germany. It is named for Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, authors of The Communist Manifesto of 1848 and regarded as the founders of the Communist movement. The park was created by the authorities of the former German Democratic Republic (GDR) in 1986.
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Moselle
Moselle is a department in the east of France named after the river Moselle.
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Paris Commune
The Paris Commune (, ) was a government that briefly ruled Paris from March 18 (more formally, from March 28) to May 28, 1871. It existed before the split between anarchists and Marxists had taken place, and it is hailed by both groups as the first assumption of power by the working class in industrial Western Civilization. Debates over the policies and outcome of the Commune contributed to the break between those two political groups.
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Soho
Soho is an area of the City of Westminster and part of the West End of London, the capital of the UK. Long established as an entertainment district, for much of the 20th century Soho had a reputation for sex shops as well as night life and film industry. Since the early 1980s, the area has undergone considerable transformation. It now is predominantly a fashionable district of upmarket restaurants and media offices, with only a small remnant of "sex industry" venues in the west.
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Soviet Union
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United Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland (commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK, or Britain) is a country and sovereign state located off the northwestern coast of continental Europe. It is an island nation, spanning an archipelago including Great Britain, the northeastern part of the island of Ireland, and many smaller islands. Northern Ireland is the only part of the UK with a land border with another sovereign state, sharing it with the Republic of Ireland. Apart from this land border, the UK is surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean, the North Sea, the English Channel and the Irish Sea. Great Britain is linked to continental Europe by the Channel Tunnel.
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University of Berlin
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University of Bonn
The University of Bonn () is a public research university located in Bonn, Germany. Founded in its present form in 1818, as the linear successor of earlier academic institutions, the University of Bonn is today one of the leading universities in Germany. The University of Bonn offers a large number of undergraduate and graduate programs in a range of subjects. Its library holds more than two million volumes. The University of Bonn has 525 professors and 27,800 students. Among its notable alumni and faculty are seven Nobel Laureates, two Fields Medalists, twelve Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz Prize winners, Pope Benedict XVI, Joseph Goebbels, Karl Marx, Friedrich Nietzsche and Joseph Schumpeter.
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Adam Smith
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Adolf Reinach
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Alain Badiou
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Albert Camus
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Alex Callinicos
Alexander Theodore Callinicos (born 24 July 1950, Southern Rhodesia - now Zimbabwe) is a Trotskyist political theorist, a member of the Central Committee of the Socialist Workers Party and its International Secretary, and is Director of the Centre for European Studies at King's College London. He is also editor of International Socialism, the SWP's theoretical journal.
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Alexander Bickel
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Alfredo Saad-Filho
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Andrzej Walicki
Andrzej Walicki (b. May 15, 1930) is a Polish historian. He was a professor at the University of Notre Dame in Indiana. He specializes in philosophy of sociopolitics, history of Polish and Russian philosophy, Marxism and liberal thought. He is one one the scholars who form the "Warsaw school of the history of ideas".
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Anton Philips
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Antonie Pannekoek
Antonie (Anton) Pannekoek ( 2 January 1873, Vaassen, Gelderland - 28 April 1960, Wageningen) was a Dutch astronomer and Marxist theorist. He was one of the main theorists of council communism (Dutch: radencommunisme).
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Antonio Gramsci
Antonio Gramsci () (January 22, 1891 – April 27, 1937) was an Italian philosopher, writer, politician and political theorist. A founding member and onetime leader of the Communist Party of Italy, he was imprisoned by Benito Mussolini's Fascist regime. His writings mostly deal with the analysis of culture and political leadership. He is notable as a highly original thinker within the Marxist tradition. He is renowned for his concept of cultural hegemony as a means of maintaining the state in a capitalist society.
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Antonio Negri
Antonio Negri (born August 1, 1933) is an Italian Marxist sociologist and political philosopher.
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Aristotle
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Arnold Ruge
Arnold Ruge (13 September 1802 - 31 December 1880) was a German philosopher and political writer.
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Ashkenazi Jewish
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August Bebel
Ferdinand August Bebel (1840 - 1913) was a German Marxist politician, writer, and orator. He is best remembered as one of the founders of the Social Democratic Party of Germany.
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Auguste Comte
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Augustine of Hippo
: For other uses, see Augustine, Augustinus and Saint Augustine.
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Ayn Rand
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Balibar, Étienne
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Ben Fine
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Bertrand Russell
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Boris Nicolaevsky
Boris Ivanovich Nicolaevsky () (October 20, 1887 N.S. in Belebey – February 21, 1966 in New York City) was a revolutionary Russian Marxist activist and historian.
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Bruno Bauer
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Café de la Régence
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Carl Schmitt
Carl Schmitt (July 11, 1888 – April 7, 1985) was a German jurist, Catholic philosopher, political theorist, and professor of law.
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Carl Schorlemmer
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Cesare Beccaria
Beccaria redirects here. This article is about the philosopher and politician. For the physicist please see Giovanni Battista Beccaria.
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Charles Darwin
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Charles Fourier
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Charles Longuet
Charles Longuet (1839, Caen, Calvados 1903, Paris) was a journalist and prominent figure in the French working-class movement, including the 1871 Paris Commune, as well as a Proudhonist member of the General Council of the First International or International Working Men's Association (1866-67, 1871-72). He served as Corresponding Secretary for Belgium (1866) , delegate to the Lausanne (1867), Brussels (1868), the London Conference (1871) and the (1872).
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Che Guevara
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Confucius
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Constantin Pecqueur
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Craig Calhoun
Craig Calhoun is a famous American sociologist and well-known advocate of using social science to address issues of public concern. He is president of the Social Science Research Council, University Professor of the Social Sciences at New York University and Director of NYU's [http://www.nyu.edu/ipk/ Institute for Public Knowledge]. With Richard Sennett he co-founded [http://www.nyu.edu/projects/nylon/ NYLON], an interdisciplinary working seminar for graduate students in New York and London who bring ethnographic and historical research to bear on politics, culture, and society.
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David Hume
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David Ricardo
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Edmund Burke
Edmund Burke PC (12 January [NS] 1729 9 July 1797) was an Irish statesman, author, orator, political theorist, and philosopher who, after relocating to England, served for many years in the House of Commons of Great Britain as a member of the Whig party. He is mainly remembered for his support of the cause of the American Revolutionaries, and for his later opposition to the French Revolution. The latter led to his becoming the leading figure within the conservative faction of the Whig party, which he dubbed the "Old Whigs", in opposition to the pro-French-Revolution "New Whigs," led by Charles James Fox. Burke was praised by both conservatives and liberals in the nineteenth century and since the twentieth century he has generally been viewed as the philosophical founder of modern conservatism, as well as a representative of classical liberalism.
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Eduard Bernstein
Eduard Bernstein (January 6, 1850December 18, 1932) was a German social democratic theoretician and politician, a member of the SPD, and the founder of evolutionary socialism and revisionism.
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Eleanor Marx
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Emilio Betti
Emilio Betti (Camerino August 20, 1890 - Camerciano di Camerino August 11, 1968) was an Italian jurist, Roman Law scholar, philosopher and theologian. He is best known for his contributions to hermeneutics, part of a broad interest in interpretation. As a legal theorist, Betti is close to interpretivism.
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Enver Hoxha
(pronounced , 16 October 1908 11 April 1985) was the leader of Albania from the end of World War II until his death in 1985, as the First Secretary of the Party of Labour of Albania. He also served as Prime Minister of Albania from 1944 to 1954, Minister of Defense from 1944 to 1953, Minister of Foreign Affairs from 1946 to 1953, Chairman of the Democratic Front from 1945 to his death, and as Commander-in-Chief of the Albanian armed forces from 1944 to his death.
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Epicurus
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Eric Hobsbawm
Eric John Ernest Hobsbawm (usually known as "Eric Hobsbawm" or "E. J. Hobsbawm"), CH, FBA, (born 9 June 1917) is a British Marxist historian and author.
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Ernest Mandel
Ernest Ezra Mandel, also known by various pseudonyms such as Ernest Germain, Pierre Gousset, Henri Vallin, Walter (April 5, 1923 - July 20, 1995), was a revolutionary Marxist theorist.
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Eugen Ehrlich
Eugen Ehrlich (born September 14, 1862, Czernowitz, Austrian Empire [now Chernovtsy, Ukraine] — died May 2, 1922, Vienna, Austria) was an Austrian legal scholar and sociologist of law.
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Ferdinand Lassalle
Ferdinand Lassalle (11 April 1825 — 31 August 1864), also known as Ferdinand Lassalle-Wolfson was a German-Jewish jurist and socialist political activist.
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Fidel Castro
Fidel Alejandro Castro Ruz (born August 13, 1926) is a Cuban politician. One of the primary leaders of the Cuban Revolution, Castro served as the Prime Minister of Cuba from February 1959 to December 1976, and then as the President of the Council of State of Cuba and the President of Council of Ministers of Cuba until his resignation from the office in February 2008. He currently serves as First Secretary of the Communist Party of Cuba, a position he has held since 1965.
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Francis Wheen
Francis James Baird Wheen (born 22 January 1957) is a British journalist, writer and broadcaster.
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Franklin Rosemont
Franklin Rosemont (2 October 1943 – 12 April 2009) was a celebrated poet, artist, historian, street speaker, and co-founder of the Chicago Surrealist Group. Over four decades, Franklin produced a body of work, of declarations, manifestos, poetry, collage, hidden histories, and other interventions intended to inspire a new generation of revolution, and became perhaps "the most productive scholar of labor and the left in the United States."
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Franz Mehring
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François-Noël Babeuf
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Frederick William IV
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Friedrich Engels
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Friedrich Hayek
Friedrich August Hayek CH (8 May 189923 March 1992), born Friedrich August von Hayek, was an Austrian-born economist and philosopher best known for his defense of classical liberalism and free-market capitalism against socialist and collectivist thought. He is considered to be one of the most important economists and political philosophers of the twentieth century. Hayek's account of how changing prices communicate signals which enable individuals to coordinate their plans is widely regarded as an important achievement in economics. Hayek also produced significant work in the fields of systems thinking, jurisprudence, neuroscience and the history of ideas.
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Friedrich Nietzsche
Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche (; in English , ) (October 15, 1844 August 25, 1900) was a 19th-century German philosopher and classical philologist. He wrote critical texts on religion, morality, contemporary culture, philosophy and science, displaying a fondness for metaphor, irony and aphorism.
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Friedrich Wilhelm IV
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Frits Philips
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Georgi Plekhanov
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Gerard Philips
Gerard Leonard Frederik Philips (Zaltbommel, October 9, 1858 – The Hague, Netherlands January 25, 1942) was a Dutch industrialist, cofounder (with his brother Anton Philips) and first CEO of NV Philips' Gloeilampenfabrieken.
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Germain Grisez
Germain Gabriel Grisez (born 1929) is a Catholic moral theologian. Grisez's masterpiece is his three-volume Way of the Lord Jesus. Grisez moves between the spheres of philosophy and theology, articulating a new form of natural law thinking, consonant with the teachings of the Roman Catholic magisterium.
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Germans
|ref15 =
http://wn.com/Germans -
Gilles Deleuze
http://wn.com/Gilles_Deleuze -
Giorgio Del Vecchio
Giorgio Del Vecchio (Bologna, 1878 - Genoa, 1970) was a prominent Italian legal philosopher of the early 20th century. Among others he influenced the theories of Norberto Bobbio. He is famous for his book Justice.
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Giovanni Gentile
Giovanni Gentile (; May 30, 1875 – April 15, 1944) was an Italian neo-Hegelian Idealist philosopher, a peer of Benedetto Croce. He described himself as 'the philosopher of Fascism', and ghostwrote A Doctrine of Fascism (1932) for Benito Mussolini. He also devised his own system of philosophy, Actual Idealism.
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Gustav Radbruch
http://wn.com/Gustav_Radbruch -
Guy Debord
Guy Ernest Debord (December 28, 1931 - November 30, 1994) was a French Marxist theorist, writer, filmmaker, hypergraphist and founding member of the groups Lettrist International and Situationist International (SI). He was also briefly a member of Socialisme ou Barbarie.
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György Lukács
http://wn.com/György_Lukács -
H. L. A. Hart
Herbert Lionel Adolphus Hart (18 July 1907-19 December 1992) was an influential legal philosopher of the 20th century. He was Professor of Jurisprudence at Oxford University and the Principal of Brasenose College, Oxford. He authored The Concept of Law and made major contributions to political philosophy.
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Hal Draper
Hal Draper (born Harold Dubinsky, 1914-January 26, 1990) was an American socialist activist and author who played a significant role in the Berkeley, California, Free Speech Movement and is perhaps best known for his extensive scholarship on the history and meaning of the thought of Karl Marx.
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Hannah Arendt
http://wn.com/Hannah_Arendt -
Hans Kelsen
http://wn.com/Hans_Kelsen -
Hans Köchler
http://wn.com/Hans_Köchler -
Harry Cleaver
Harry Cleaver is Associate Professor in the Department of Economics at the University of Texas at Austin, where Cleaver teaches Marxism and Marxist economics. He is best known as the author of Reading Capital Politically, an autonomist reading of Karl Marx's Capital. Dr. Cleaver is currently active in the Zapatista movement in Chiapas, Mexico, and is also a contributor on the aut-op-sy email list.
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Heinrich Heine
http://wn.com/Heinrich_Heine -
Helene Demuth
Helene "Lenchen" Demuth (born December 31, 1820, in Sankt Wendel, Saarland - November 4, 1890, in London) was the housekeeper of Jenny and Karl Marx.
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Helvetius
http://wn.com/Helvetius -
Henri de Saint-Simon
http://wn.com/Henri_de_Saint-Simon -
Henry David Thoreau
http://wn.com/Henry_David_Thoreau -
Herbert Marcuse
http://wn.com/Herbert_Marcuse -
Herbert Spencer
http://wn.com/Herbert_Spencer -
Ho Chi Minh
http://wn.com/Ho_Chi_Minh -
Hugo Grotius
http://wn.com/Hugo_Grotius -
Immanuel Kant
http://wn.com/Immanuel_Kant -
Isaiah Berlin
Sir Isaiah Berlin OM (6 June 1909 – 5 November 1997) was a Russian-British social and political theorist, philosopher and historian of ideas, regarded as one of the leading thinkers of the twentieth century, and as the dominant liberal scholar of his generation. He excelled as an essayist, conversationalist and raconteur; and as a brilliant lecturer who improvised, rapidly and spontaneously, richly allusive and coherently structured material. He translated works by Ivan Turgenev from Russian into English and, during the war, worked for the British Diplomatic Service. The Independent stated that "Isaiah Berlin was often described, especially in his old age, by means of superlatives: the world's greatest talker, the century's most inspired reader, one of the finest minds of our time ... there is no doubt that he showed in more than one direction the unexpectedly large possibilities open to us at the top end of the range of human potential".
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Jean Baudrillard
http://wn.com/Jean_Baudrillard -
Jean-Paul Sartre
Jean-Paul Charles Aymard Sartre (, ; 21 June 1905 – 15 April 1980) was a French existentialist philosopher, playwright, novelist, screenwriter, political activist, biographer, and literary critic. He was one of the leading figures in 20th century French philosophy, existentialism, and Marxism, and his work continues to influence fields such as Marxist philosophy, sociology, and literary studies. Sartre was also noted for his long relationship with the author and social theorist, Simone de Beauvoir. He was awarded the 1964 Nobel Prize in Literature but refused the honour.
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Jenny Longuet
Jenny Marx Longuet (Jennychen) (1844, Paris - 1883) was the daughter of Jenny von Westphalen and Karl Marx.
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Jenny von Westphalen
Johanna Bertha Julie "Jenny" Freiin von Westphalen (February 12, 1814, Salzwedel – December 2, 1881, London) married (1843) the philosopher Karl Marx (1818-1883).
http://wn.com/Jenny_von_Westphalen -
Jeremy Bentham
Jeremy Bentham ( or ; 15 February 1748 – 6 June 1832) was an English jurist, philosopher, and legal and social reformer. He became a leading theorist in Anglo-American philosophy of law and a political radical whose ideas influenced the development of welfarism. He is best known for his advocacy of utilitarianism and the ethical treatment of animals, and the idea of the panopticon.
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Jesus Christ
http://wn.com/Jesus_Christ -
John Bellamy Foster
John Bellamy Foster (born August 19, 1953) is editor of the independent socialist magazine Monthly Review and professor of sociology at the University of Oregon in Eugene. His writings have focused on political economy, environmental sociology, and Marxist theory. He is author of numerous books, most recently (with Brett Clark and Richard York) Critique of Intelligent Design: Materialism versus Creationism from Antiquity to the Present, (with Fred Magdoff), The Great Financial Crisis: Causes and Consequences, and The Ecological Revolution: Making Peace with the Planet.
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John Locke
http://wn.com/John_Locke -
John Rawls
http://wn.com/John_Rawls -
John Stuart Mill
John Stuart Mill (20 May 1806 – 8 May 1873) was a British philosopher and civil servant. An influential contributor to social theory, political theory, and political economy, his conception of liberty justified the freedom of the individual in opposition to unlimited state control. He was a proponent of utilitarianism, an ethical theory developed by Jeremy Bentham, although his conception of it was very different from Bentham's. Hoping to remedy the problems found in an inductive approach to science, such as confirmation bias, he clearly set forth the premises of falsification as the key component in the scientific method. Mill was also a Member of Parliament and an important figure in liberal political philosophy.
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Joseph Raz
Joseph Raz (; born 21 March 1939) is a legal, moral and political philosopher. He is one of the most prominent living advocates of legal positivism. He has spent most of his career as professor of philosophy of law and a fellow of Balliol College, Oxford, and simultaneously as professor of law at Columbia University Law School. Several of Raz's students have become important legal and moral philosophers.
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Joseph Schumpeter
Joseph Alois Schumpeter (8 February 1883 – 8 January 1950) was an Austrian economist and political scientist. He popularized the term "creative destruction" in economics.
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Joseph Stalin
http://wn.com/Joseph_Stalin -
Joseph Weydemeyer
http://wn.com/Joseph_Weydemeyer -
Josiah Royce
http://wn.com/Josiah_Royce -
Josip Broz Tito
http://wn.com/Josip_Broz_Tito -
Jules Guesde
Jules Basile Guesde (November 11, 1845 – July 28, 1922) was a French socialist journalist and politician.
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Justus von Liebig
Justus von Liebig (12 May 1803 – 18 April 1873) was a German chemist who made major contributions to agricultural and biological chemistry, and worked on the organization of organic chemistry. As a professor, he devised the modern laboratory-oriented teaching method, and for such innovations, he is regarded as one of the greatest chemistry teachers of all time. He is known as the "father of the fertilizer industry" for his discovery of nitrogen as an essential plant nutrient, and his formulation of the Law of the Minimum which described the effect of individual nutrients on crops. He also developed a manufacturing process for beef extracts, and founded a company, Liebig Extract of Meat Company, that later trademarked the Oxo brand beef bouillon cube.
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Jürgen Habermas
http://wn.com/Jürgen_Habermas -
Karl Heinzen
Karl Peter Heinzen (22 February 1809 - 12 November 1880) was a revolutionary author who resided mainly in Germany and the United States. He was one of the German Forty-Eighters.
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Karl Kautsky
http://wn.com/Karl_Kautsky -
Karl Korsch
Karl Korsch (August 15, 1886 - October 21, 1961) was a German Marxist theorist.
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Karl Liebknecht
(13 August 1871, Leipzig, Saxony, Germany – 15 January 1919, Berlin, Germany) was a German socialist and a co-founder with Rosa Luxemburg of the Spartacist League and the Communist Party of Germany. He is best known for his role in the Spartacist uprising of 1919. The uprising was crushed by the social democrat government and the Freikorps (WWI veterans defending the Weimar Republic) and Liebknecht and Luxemburg were killed.
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Karl Llewellyn
http://wn.com/Karl_Llewellyn -
Karl Marx
http://wn.com/Karl_Marx -
Karl Olivecrona
http://wn.com/Karl_Olivecrona -
Karl Popper
http://wn.com/Karl_Popper -
Khoikhoi
The Khoikhoi ("people people" or "real people") or Khoi, in standardised Khoekhoe/Nama orthography spelled Khoekhoe, are a historical division of the Khoisan ethnic group, the native people of southwestern Africa, closely related to the Bushmen (or San, as the Khoikhoi called them). They had lived in southern Africa since the 5th century AD. When European immigrants colonized the area in 1652, the Khoikhoi were practising extensive pastoral agriculture in the Cape region, with large herds of Nguni cattle. The European immigrants labeled them Hottentots, in imitation of the sound of the Khoisan languages, but this term is today considered derogatory.
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Kostas Axelos
http://wn.com/Kostas_Axelos -
Laura Marx
Jenny Laura Marx (September 26, 1845 – November 26, 1911) was the second daughter of Karl Marx and Jenny von Westphalen. In 1868 she married Paul Lafargue. The two committed suicide together in 1911.
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Laurence Tribe
Laurence Henry Tribe (born in Shanghai, October 10, 1941) is a professor of constitutional law at Harvard Law School and the Carl M. Loeb University Professor at Harvard University. He also serves as a consultant for the law firm of Akin Gump Strauss Hauer & Feld.
http://wn.com/Laurence_Tribe -
Learned Hand
http://wn.com/Learned_Hand -
Leo Strauss
Leo Strauss (September 20, 1899 – October 18, 1973) was a political philosopher who specialized in classical political philosophy. He was born in Germany to Jewish parents and later emigrated to the United States. He spent most of his career as a professor of political science at the University of Chicago, where he taught several generations of students and published fifteen books.
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Leon Petrazycki
http://wn.com/Leon_Petrazycki -
Leon Trotsky
http://wn.com/Leon_Trotsky -
Leszek Kołakowski
http://wn.com/Leszek_Kołakowski -
List of Marxists
http://wn.com/List_of_Marxists -
Lon L. Fuller
http://wn.com/Lon_L_Fuller -
Louis Althusser
http://wn.com/Louis_Althusser -
Manabendra Nath Roy
http://wn.com/Manabendra_Nath_Roy -
Mao Zedong
Mao Zedong (; December 26, 1893 September 9, 1976) was a Han Chinese revolutionary, political theorist and communist leader. He led the People's Republic of China (PRC) from its establishment in 1949 until his death in 1976. His theoretical contribution to Marxism-Leninism, military strategies, and his brand of Communist policies are now collectively known as Maoism.
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Marsilius of Padua
Marsilius of Padua (Italian Marsilio or Marsiglio da Padova; (circa 1275 – circa 1342) was an Italian scholar, trained in medicine who practiced a variety of professions. He was also an important 14th century political figure. His political treatise Defensor pacis is seen by some authorities as the most revolutionary political treatise written in the later Middle Ages.
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Martha Fineman
http://wn.com/Martha_Fineman -
Martha Nussbaum
Martha Nussbaum (born Martha Craven on May 6, 1947) is an American philosopher with a particular interest in ancient Greek and Roman philosophy, political philosophy and ethics.
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Max Stirner
http://wn.com/Max_Stirner -
Max Weber
http://wn.com/Max_Weber -
Maximilien Rubel
http://wn.com/Maximilien_Rubel -
Michael Bakunin
http://wn.com/Michael_Bakunin -
Michael H. Hart
Michael H. Hart (born April 28, 1932 in New York City) is a Jewish American astrophysicist who has also written three books on history and controversial articles on a variety of subjects. Hart describes himself as a Jeffersonian liberal, while his critics call him a conservative and a racial separatist.
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Michael Oakeshott
Michael Joseph Oakeshott (December 11, 1901 – December 19, 1990) was an English philosopher who wrote about political thought, and the philosophy of history, religion, aesthetics, and law. He is widely regarded as one of the most important conservative intellectuals of the twentieth century, although he has also been characterized as a liberal thinker.
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Michael Taussig
Michael Taussig (born 1940) earned a medical degree from the University of Sydney, received his PhD. in anthropology from the London School of Economics and is a professor at Columbia University and European Graduate School. Although he has published on medical anthropology, he is best known for his engagement with Marx's idea of commodity fetishism, especially in terms of the work of Walter Benjamin.
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Michael Walzer
Michael Walzer (; 3 March 1935) is a Jewish American political philosopher and public intellectual. A professor emeritus at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey, he is editor of the political-intellectual quarterly Dissent. He has written books and essays on a wide range of topics, including just and unjust wars, nationalism, ethnicity, economic justice, social criticism, radicalism, tolerance, and political obligation and is a contributing editor to The New Republic. To date, he has written 27 books and published over 300 articles, essays, and book reviews in Dissent, The New Republic, The New York Review of Books, The New Yorker, The New York Times, and many scholarly journals.
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Michel Aflaq
http://wn.com/Michel_Aflaq -
Michel Foucault
http://wn.com/Michel_Foucault -
Mikhail Bakunin
Mikhail Alexandrovich Bakunin ( - 1 July 1876) (; ) was a well-known Russian revolutionary and theorist of collectivist anarchism.
http://wn.com/Mikhail_Bakunin -
Mikhail Gorbachev
Mikhail Sergeyevich Gorbachev ( Mikhail Sergeyevich Gorbachyov ; born 2 March 1931) was the sixth General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, serving from 1985 until 1991, and the last head of state of the USSR, serving from 1988 until its collapse in 1991.
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Milovan Đilas
http://wn.com/Milovan_Đilas -
Moors
The description Moors has referred to several historic and modern populations of Berber, Black African and Arab descent from Northern Africa, some of whom came to conquer and occupy the Iberian Peninsula for nearly 800 years. At that time they were Muslim, although earlier the people had followed other religions. They called the territory Al Andalus, comprising most of what is now Spain and Portugal.
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Moses Hess
http://wn.com/Moses_Hess -
Muhammad
http://wn.com/Muhammad -
Murray Bookchin
http://wn.com/Murray_Bookchin -
Murray Rothbard
http://wn.com/Murray_Rothbard -
Neil MacCormick
http://wn.com/Neil_MacCormick -
Niccolò Machiavelli
http://wn.com/Niccolò_Machiavelli -
Nicholas I of Russia
http://wn.com/Nicholas_I_of_Russia -
Nicolae Balcescu
http://wn.com/Nicolae_Balcescu -
Nicolae Ceaușescu
http://wn.com/Nicolae_Ceaușescu -
Niklas Luhmann
Niklas Luhmann (December 8, 1927 - November 6, 1998) was a German sociologist, and a prominent thinker in sociological systems theory.
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Noam Chomsky
Avram Noam Chomsky ( or ; born December 7, 1928) is an American linguist, philosopher, cognitive scientist, and political activist. He is an Institute Professor and professor emeritus of linguistics at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Chomsky is well known in the academic and scientific community as one of the fathers of modern linguistics, and a major figure of analytic philosophy. Since the 1960s, he has become known more widely as a political dissident and an anarchist, referring to himself as a libertarian socialist. Chomsky is the author of more than 100 books and has received worldwide attention for his views, despite being typically absent from the mainstream media.
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Norberto Bobbio
Norberto Bobbio (October 18, 1909 – January 9, 2004) was an Italian philosopher of law and political sciences and a historian of political thought. He also wrote regularly for the Turin-based daily La Stampa.
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Paul Craig Roberts
Paul Craig Roberts (born April 3, 1939, in Atlanta, Georgia) is an economist and a nationally syndicated columnist for Creators Syndicate. He served as an Assistant Secretary of the Treasury in the Reagan Administration earning fame as a co-founder of Reaganomics." He is a former editor and columnist for the Wall Street Journal, Business Week, and Scripps Howard News Service. Roberts has been a critic of both Democratic and Republican administrations.
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Paul Lafargue
Paul Lafargue (June 16, 1842 – November 26, 1911) was a French revolutionary Marxist socialist journalist, literary critic, political writer and activist; he was Karl Marx's son-in-law, having married his second daughter Laura. His best known work is The Right to Be Lazy. Born in Cuba to French and Creole parents, Lafargue spent most of his life in France, with periods in England and Spain. At the age of 69, he and Laura died together in a suicide pact.
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Paul Ricœur
http://wn.com/Paul_Ricœur -
Paul Strathern
Paul Strathern (born 1940) is a British writer and academic. He was born in London, and studied at Trinity College, Dublin, after which he served in the Merchant Navy over a period of two years. He then lived on a Greek island. In 1966 he travelled overland to India and the Himalayas. His novel A Season in Abyssinia won a Somerset Maugham Award in 1972.
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Peter Kropotkin
http://wn.com/Peter_Kropotkin -
Peter Singer
Peter Albert David Singer (born 6 July 1946) is an Australian philosopher. He is the Ira W. DeCamp Professor of Bioethics at Princeton University, and laureate professor at the Centre for Applied Philosophy and Public Ethics (CAPPE), University of Melbourne. He specialises in applied ethics, approaching ethical issues from a secular preference utilitarian perspective.
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Pierre Bourdieu
http://wn.com/Pierre_Bourdieu -
Plato
:For other uses, see Plato (disambiguation) and Platon (disambiguation).
http://wn.com/Plato -
Rabindranath Tagore
http://wn.com/Rabindranath_Tagore -
Ray Lankester
http://wn.com/Ray_Lankester -
Robert Alexy
http://wn.com/Robert_Alexy -
Robert Bork
Robert Heron Bork (born March 1, 1927) is an American legal scholar who has advocated the judicial philosophy of originalism. Bork formerly served as Solicitor General, acting Attorney General, and judge for the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit. In 1987, he was nominated to the Supreme Court by President Ronald Reagan, but the Senate rejected his nomination. Bork had more success as an antitrust scholar, where his once-idiosyncratic view that antitrust law should focus on maximizing consumer welfare has come to dominate American legal thinking on the subject. Currently, Bork is a lawyer, law professor, and bestselling author.
http://wn.com/Robert_Bork -
Robert C. Tucker
http://wn.com/Robert_C_Tucker -
Robert Nozick
http://wn.com/Robert_Nozick -
Robert Owen
Robert Owen (14 May 1771 – 17 November 1858), (born in Newtown, Montgomeryshire, Wales), was a social reformer and one of the founders of socialism and the cooperative movement.
http://wn.com/Robert_Owen -
Robert P. George
Robert P. George (born July 10, 1955) is McCormick Professor of Jurisprudence at Princeton University, where he lectures on constitutional interpretation, civil liberties and philosophy of law. He also serves as the director of the James Madison Program in American Ideals and Institutions. George has been called "one of the key contemporary proponents of natural law" and America's "most influential conservative Christian thinker."
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Ronald Dworkin
Ronald Dworkin, QC, FBA (born December 11, 1931) is an American philosopher of law and scholar of constitutional law. He is a Professor of Law and Philosophy at University College London, Frank Henry Sommer Professor of Law at New York University, and has taught previously at Yale Law School and the University of Oxford. An influential contributor to both philosophy of law and political philosophy, Dworkin received the 2007 Holberg International Memorial Prize in the Humanities for "his pioneering scholarly work" of "worldwide impact." His theory of law as integrity is amongst the most influential contemporary theories about the nature of law. He advocates a "moral reading" of the United States Constitution.
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Roscoe Pound
Nathan Roscoe Pound (October 27, 1870 – June 30, 1964) was a distinguished American legal scholar and educator. He was Dean of Harvard Law School from 1916 to 1936.
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Rudolf Hilferding
Rudolf Hilferding (10 August 1877, probably in the house of Malzgasse 9/10, Leopoldstadt, Vienna February 11, 1941, Paris) was an Austrian-born Marxist economist, leading socialist theorist, politician and chief theoretician for the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD) during the Weimar Republic, almost universally recognized as the SPD's foremost theoretician of his century, and physician.
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Russell Kirk
Russell Kirk (October 19, 1918 – April 29, 1994) was an American political theorist, moralist, historian, social critic, literary critic, and fiction author known for his influence on 20th century American conservatism. His 1953 book, The Conservative Mind, gave shape to the amorphous post-World War II conservative movement. It traced the development of conservative thought in the Anglo-American tradition, giving special importance to the ideas of Edmund Burke. Kirk was also considered the chief proponent of traditionalist conservatism.
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Shang Yang
Shang Yang (, 390 BC-338 BC) was an important statesman of the State of Qin during the Warring States Period of Chinese history. Born Wei Yang () in the State of Wei, with the support of Duke Xiao of Qin Yang enacted numerous reforms in Qin. These were in accordance with his legalist philosophy as recorded in The Book of Lord Shang and assisted Qin in its change from a peripheral state to that of a militarily powerful and strongly centralized kingdom. He changed the administration of the state through an emphasis on meritocracy and devolvement of power from the nobility.
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Shlomo Avineri
http://wn.com/Shlomo_Avineri -
Sigmund Freud
http://wn.com/Sigmund_Freud -
Simone de Beauvoir
: "La Beauvoir" redirects here; also see: Beauvoir (disambiguation).
http://wn.com/Simone_de_Beauvoir -
Society
A society or a human society is (1) a group of people related to each other through persistent relations such as social status, roles and social networks. (2) A large social grouping that shares the same geographical territory and is subject to the same political authority and dominant cultural expectations. Human societies are characterized by patterns of relationships between individuals sharing a distinctive culture and institutions. Without an article, the term refers either to the entirety of humanity or a contextually specific subset of people.
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Sri Aurobindo
http://wn.com/Sri_Aurobindo -
Stephen Jay Gould
Stephen Jay Gould (September 10, 1941 – May 20, 2002) was an American paleontologist, evolutionary biologist and historian of science. He was also one of the most influential and widely read writers of popular science of his generation.
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Terry Eagleton
Terence Francis Eagleton (born 22 February 1943, Salford) is a British literary theorist widely regarded as Britain's most influential living literary critic. Eagleton currently serves as Distinguished Professor of English Literature at the University of Lancaster, and as a Visiting Professor at the National University of Ireland, Galway.
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The Times
The Times is a daily national newspaper published in the United Kingdom since 1785, when it was known as The Daily Universal Register.
http://wn.com/The_Times -
Thomas Hobbes
http://wn.com/Thomas_Hobbes -
Thomas Hodgskin
Thomas Hodgskin (b. 12 December 1787 Chatham, Kent, d. -
http://wn.com/Thomas_Hodgskin -
Thomas T. Sekine
Thomas T. Sekine (born 1933) is a Japanese economist and is considered to be one of the most important theorists on the field of Marx's theory of value. His main work The Dialectic of Capital was published in 1986. He is a scholar of Kozo Uno.
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Vera Zasulich
http://wn.com/Vera_Zasulich -
Victor d'Hupay
'''Joseph Alexandre Victor d'Hupay''' (La Tour-d'Aigues, 1746 - Fuveau, 1818) was a French writer and philosopher.
http://wn.com/Victor_d'Hupay -
Vincent Barnett
http://wn.com/Vincent_Barnett -
Vladimir Lenin
http://wn.com/Vladimir_Lenin -
Voltaire
http://wn.com/Voltaire -
Wilhelm Liebknecht
Wilhelm Martin Philipp Christian Ludwig Liebknecht (29 March 1826 – 7 August 1900) was a German social democrat and a principal founder of the SPD. His political career was a pioneering project combining Marxist revolutionary theory with practical, legal political activity. Under his leadership, the SPD grew from a tiny sect to became Germany's largest political party.
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William Blackstone
http://wn.com/William_Blackstone -
William Shakespeare
William Shakespeare (baptised 26 April 1564; died 23 April 1616) was an English poet and playwright, widely regarded as the greatest writer in the English language and the world's pre-eminent dramatist. He is often called England's national poet and the "Bard of Avon". His surviving works, including some collaborations, consist of about 38 plays, 154 sonnets, two long narrative poems, and several other poems. His plays have been translated into every major living language and are performed more often than those of any other playwright.
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Zechariah Chafee
http://wn.com/Zechariah_Chafee -
Émile Durkheim
http://wn.com/Émile_Durkheim
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Karl Marx in 90 Minutes
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 84:03
- Published: 13 Feb 2012
- Updated: 30 Sep 2012
I do not claim to own the content of this video and am distributing it for educational purposes only
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5. Lecture on Karl Marx (1818-1883)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 53:41
- Published: 22 Nov 2007
- Updated: 27 Sep 2012
Lecture to second year undergraduate students at Cambridge University in 2001 by Alan Macfarlane on some aspects of the work of Karl Marx. For the background, downloadble version, readings etc. please see www.alanmacfarlane.com I have disabled the feed-back button because of a number of abusive and unpleasant comments (amongst much positive feed-back) I have received. Apologies to those who have constructive (whether positive or negative) comments to make. All revenue is donated to: www.oralliterature.org
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Karl Marx - BBC Radio 4 In Our Time's Greatest Philosopher (Part 1 of 5)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 10:00
- Published: 28 Sep 2008
- Updated: 25 Sep 2012
Marx developed the theories upon which modern communism is based and is considered the founding father of economic history and sociology. Marx set down his ideas in The Communist Manifesto(1848) and Das Kapital ((3 vol., 1861, 1885, 1894) arguing that economic relations determined all other features of a society, including its ideas. He also outlined the goal of Marxism - the creation of social and economic utopia by the revolution of the proletariat which would "centralise all instruments of production in the hands of the state." All class boundaries would be destroyed and each individual would find personal fulfilment, having no need for the bourgeois institutions of religion or family. Marx himself was an atheist, coining the phrase, "Religion is the opium of the people" Marx continued to express views about class struggle and bourgeois oppression throughout his life, despite being exiled from his homeland and coping with both his own illness and the death of his children. Most modern socialist theories are drawn from his work but Karl Marx has had a wider influence touching on many areas of human thought and life such as politics, economics, philosophy, and literature.
http://wn.com/Karl_Marx_BBC_Radio_4_In_Our_Time's_Greatest_Philosopher_Part_1_of_5
The Mark Steel Lectures-Karl Marx 1/3
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 9:53
- Published: 31 Aug 2008
- Updated: 29 Sep 2012
Television program written and delivered by Mark Steel.
http://wn.com/The_Mark_Steel_Lectures-Karl_Marx_1_3
Karl Marx - Actions and Legacies
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 9:59
- Published: 06 Mar 2009
- Updated: 29 Sep 2012
This is my History Day documentary. The project made it to the regionals competition.
http://wn.com/Karl_Marx_Actions_and_Legacies
Karl Marx idea of Alienation
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:38
- Published: 02 Dec 2009
- Updated: 30 Sep 2012
This was done for a creative assignment given to me by my philosophy teacher. We were told to express our knowledge of Karl Marx's ideas of Alienation in the four different ways: 1. Product 2. Productive Activity 3. Ourselves (Own Identity) 4. Each other (Society) Even if you're not big on philosophy, at least watch this and listen to the message I'm trying to get at. Why do we find ourselves never questioning the origins of our products, and I'm not just talking about clothes and electronics. I mean, everything! It's a good thing to think about!
http://wn.com/Karl_Marx_idea_of_Alienation
KARL MARX
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 8:08
- Published: 29 Mar 2010
- Updated: 20 Apr 2012
The first part of a five part web lecture about Karl Marx. For more details see: journalism.winchester.ac.uk.
http://wn.com/KARL_MARX
I Read Some Marx (And I Liked It)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:16
- Published: 29 Jun 2010
- Updated: 30 Sep 2012
This Katy Perry parody ("Katy Parody?") was made to advertise a seminar which took place at the Governor's School in the summer of 2010. The comments thread for this video has been disabled in response to a number of posts which missed the point of the song. The makers of the video advocate being informed and examining multiple narratives, and nothing more.
http://wn.com/I_Read_Some_Marx_And_I_Liked_It
Creative Quotations from Karl Marx for May 5
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:23
- Published: 30 Apr 2008
- Updated: 25 Sep 2012
A thought provoking collection of Creative Quotations from Karl Marx (1818-1883); born on May 5. German socialist leader, philosopher; He originated the idea of modern communism (Marxism); wrote "Communist Manifesto," 1848.
http://wn.com/Creative_Quotations_from_Karl_Marx_for_May_5
Karl Marx - The Theory of Socialism
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:14
- Published: 15 Jan 2010
- Updated: 07 Sep 2012
A short video giving an outline of Karl Marx's theory of Socialism/Communism I'm planning on making another video giving more detail on Orthodox Communism and maybe another video on Social Democracy.
http://wn.com/Karl_Marx_The_Theory_of_Socialism
Karl Marx (Black Eyed Peas - apl Song)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:10
- Published: 23 Oct 2009
- Updated: 25 Jun 2012
Karl Marx
http://wn.com/Karl_Marx_Black_Eyed_Peas_apl_Song
karl marx
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 9:35
- Published: 11 Mar 2007
- Updated: 13 Sep 2012
trabalho
http://wn.com/karl_marx
The Relevance of Karl Marx
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 6:48
- Published: 20 Mar 2008
- Updated: 16 Sep 2012
I asked my students to write on whether and how Karl Marx was relevant to a twenty-first century neoclassical economist. They asked me to answer the same question. Here goes...
http://wn.com/The_Relevance_of_Karl_Marx
Karl Marx Communism Satanism
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 6:35
- Published: 08 Jul 2010
- Updated: 15 Sep 2012
The true philosophy of Karl Marx is explained..
http://wn.com/Karl_Marx_Communism_Satanism
The Communist Manifesto Part 1 by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels Free Audiobook
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 39:49
- Published: 08 Nov 2011
- Updated: 16 Sep 2012
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia The Communist Manifesto, originally titled Manifesto of the Communist Party (German: Manifest der Kommunistischen Partei) is a short 1848 publication written by the German Marxist political theorists Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. It has since been recognized as one of the world's most influential political manuscripts.[1] Commissioned by the Communist League, it laid out the League's purposes and program. It presents an analytical approach to the class struggle (historical and present) and the problems of capitalism, rather than a prediction of communism's potential future forms.[2] The book contains Marx and Engels' Marxist theories about the nature of society and politics, that in their own words, "The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles".[3] It also briefly features their ideas for how the capitalist society of the time would eventually be replaced by socialism, and then eventually communism. Author(s) Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels Country Germany Language Originally German, subsequently into many others. Genre(s) Political theory, Sociology Publication date 21 February 1848
http://wn.com/The_Communist_Manifesto_Part_1_by_Karl_Marx_and_Friedrich_Engels_Free_Audiobook
The Real Karl Marx
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 6:43
- Published: 15 Nov 2008
- Updated: 11 Aug 2012
I destroyed many lies about Marx in this video. You may need to use full screen mode at one point. You might also need to adjust your volume. Link to the article regarding section 7: marxmyths.org Visit my blog: partisan-news.blogspot.com
http://wn.com/The_Real_Karl_Marx
genco erkal NY karl marx
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 8:41
- Published: 26 Oct 2009
- Updated: 24 Sep 2012
Leave Karl Marx Alone!
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:29
- Published: 22 Sep 2007
- Updated: 28 Sep 2012
Defending Karl Marx against those who hate him. All he ever did was write a few books. He was a poor man who couldn't support his family, at least one of his kids died of starvation and illness ... leave Karl Marx alone!
http://wn.com/Leave_Karl_Marx_Alone!
KARL MARX STADT TRAMS 1987
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:16
- Published: 08 Mar 2009
- Updated: 18 Aug 2012
A trailer for PMP DVD 1770 Trams of the DRR , 15 systems visited by Richard and Kath Lomas in 1987.
http://wn.com/KARL_MARX_STADT_TRAMS_1987
4. Karl Marx, Joseph Schumpeter, and an Economic System Incapable of Coming to Rest
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 47:06
- Published: 31 Mar 2011
- Updated: 11 Sep 2012
Capitalism: Success, Crisis and Reform (PLSC 270) Professor Rae relates Marxist theories of monopoly capitalism to Schumpeter's theory of creative destruction. Both Marx and Schumpeter agree that capitalism is a system that is "incapable of standing still," and is always revising (or revolutionizing) itself. Professor Rae critiques Marxist determinism and other features of Marx's theories. To highlight Schumpeterian creative destruction, Professor Rae uses examples from technological revolutions in energy production since water-powered mills. Marx's labor theory of value is discussed. Professor Rae highlights aspects overlooked by Marx, including supply and demand for labor, labor quality, and the role of capital in economic growth. Professor Rae also notes problems with Marx's predictions, including the prediction that the revolution will occur in the most advanced capitalist economies. Professor Rae also discusses Marx's theory of the universal class, the end of exploitation, and the withering away of the state. 00:00 - Chapter 1: Introduction 06:30 - Chapter 2: Marxist Historicism 11:36 - Chapter 3: Monopoly Capitalism 27:31 - Chapter 4: Falling Rates of Profit 34:42 - Chapter 5: Immiseration of the Working Class in Late Capitalism 38:30 - Chapter 6: Inevitable Revolution in Advanced Capitalist Systems 42:06 - Chapter 7: Theory of the Universal Class 43:23 - Chapter 8: Withering Away of the State Complete course materials are available at the Open Yale Courses website <b>...</b>
http://wn.com/4_Karl_Marx,_Joseph_Schumpeter,_and_an_Economic_System_Incapable_of_Coming_to_Rest
Economics Karl Marx
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 11:04
- Published: 24 Feb 2012
- Updated: 12 Jul 2012
Karl Marx Economics in 10 minutes
http://wn.com/Economics_Karl_Marx
Christopher Hitchens on Karl Marx
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:28
- Published: 14 Jul 2011
- Updated: 30 Sep 2012
Christopher Hitchens explains why religion still resonates in modern society by quoting from Karl Marx.
http://wn.com/Christopher_Hitchens_on_Karl_Marx
Marx is back
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:40
- Published: 12 Dec 2008
- Updated: 23 Sep 2012
REPORTAGE: Since the beginning of the year, a record 1500 copies of Karl Marx's 'Capital' have been sold in Germany. An opportunity for the left-wing party Die Linke, which would like to capitalise – excuse the irony – on the financial crisis.
http://wn.com/Marx_is_back
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Photo: AP / Chris Pizzello
28 Sep 2012
Mallika Sherawat has claimed that she does not want to get married. The actress is currently filming the romantic comedy Kismat Love Paisa Dilli. Sherawat told The Times of India: "I don't think I...
Photo: US Navy / Chief Mass Communication Specialist Michael B. Watkins
30 Sep 2012
KABUL, Afghanistan -- U.S. military deaths in the Afghan war have reached 2,000, a cold reminder of the human cost of an 11-year-old conflict that garners little public interest at home as the United...
Photo: AP / Alan Diaz
28 Sep 2012
The financial and banking industries are on high alert tonight as a massive cyberattack continues, with potentially millions of customers of Bank of America, PNC and Wells Fargo finding themselves...
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29 Sep 2012
Islamist militants in Somalia say they have withdrawn from their southern stronghold of Kismayo, following an African Union military attack. Kenyan and Somali forces launched a beach assault on...
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The US president and the Israeli PM have expressed agreement on the goal of preventing Iran from acquiring a nuclear weapon, the White House said. Barack Obama and Binyamin Netanyahu sought on Friday...
Karl Marx and our Emperor of Envy
09 Aug 2012
WorldNetDaily
This sounds great to Marxist politicians and professors, except for one small problem: Today, the U.S. and all other civilized countries have division-of-labor economies. How does one determine how much labor, in terms of money, each laborer has put into a particular product in a division-of-labor...(size: 5.3Kb)
Star Tribune
When self-help author and business motivational speaker Stephen R. Covey died last week, few would have suspected that his life's work shared a central concern with that of Karl Marx. Covey's work held enormous appeal for business leaders. His numerous bestsellers, starting with "The Seven...(size: 5.8Kb)
Obama sounds like Karl Marx
16 Jul 2012
Clarion Ledger
During candidate Obama's Pennsylvania campaign, he was...(size: 0.4Kb)
While the West embraces Karl Marx …
12 Jul 2012
WorldNetDaily
An example of such fluff and mirrors was Swedish artist Klas Eriksson’s contribution to the 2012 Bucharest Biennale (May 25-July 22), where he set the looming Intercontinental Hotel ablaze with optical pyrotechnics. His visually dazzling display used flares to simulate duel fires raging up the...(size: 9.4Kb)
Business Insider
In a contrast to the staunchly capitalist image of modern Germany, the East German bank Sparkasse Chemnitz is offering customers a Karl Marx credit card. Reuter Sophie Duvornoy reported on this recently. This moment of...(size: 1.5Kb)
Newsvine
(Reuters) - Two decades after the fall of the Berlin Wall, some eastern Germans are once again...(size: 0.6Kb)
Introducing the Karl Marx Credit Card
17 Jun 2012
Forbes
This story is doing the rounds...(size: 0.2Kb)
Karl Marx bank cards a hit in eastern Germany
15 Jun 2012
Independent online (SA)
Two decades after the fall of the Berlin Wall, some eastern Germans are once again carrying round images of Karl Marx - if only in their pockets. The disappearance of communist former East Germany has not deterred them from using credit cards emblazoned with the image of the man who...(size: 1.9Kb)
Karl Marx Bank Cards Are Taking Germany By Storm
15 Jun 2012
Hartford Courant
(Reuters) - Two decades after the , some eastern Germans are once again carrying round images of - if only in their pockets. The...(size: 0.9Kb)
"Marx" redirects here. For other uses, see Marx (disambiguation).
 Marx in 1875 |
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| Born | Karl Heinrich Marx 5 May 1818 Trier, Kingdom of Prussia |
|---|---|
| Died | 14 March 1883(1883-03-14) (aged 64) London, United Kingdom |
| Era | 19th-century philosophy |
| Region | Western Philosophy, German philosophy |
| School | Marxism, Communism, Socialism, Materialism |
| Main interests | Politics, economics, philosophy, sociology, labour, history, class struggle, |
| Notable ideas | Co-founder of Marxism (with Engels), surplus value, contributions to the labor theory of value, alienation and exploitation of the worker, The Communist Manifesto, Das Kapital, materialist conception of history |
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Influenced
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| Signature |  |
Karl Heinrich Marx (5 May 1818 – 14 March 1883) was a German philosopher, economist, sociologist, historian, journalist, and revolutionary socialist. His ideas played a significant role in the development of social science and the socialist political movement. He published various books during his lifetime, with the most notable being The Communist Manifesto (1848) and Capital (1867–1894); some of his works were co-written with his friend and fellow German revolutionary socialist, Friedrich Engels.[4]
Born into a wealthy middle class family in Trier, formerly in Prussian Rhineland now called Rhineland-Palatinate, Marx studied at both the University of Bonn and the University of Berlin, where he became interested in the philosophical ideas of the Young Hegelians. In 1836, he became engaged to Jenny von Westphalen, marrying her in 1843. After his studies, he wrote for a radical newspaper in Cologne, and began to work out his theory of dialectical materialism. Moving to Paris in 1843, he began writing for other radical newspapers. He met Engels in Paris, and the two men worked together on a series of books. Exiled to Brussels, he became a leading figure of the Communist League, before moving back to Cologne, where he founded his own newspaper. In 1849 he was exiled again and moved to London together with his wife and children. In London, where the family was reduced to poverty, Marx continued writing and formulating his theories about the nature of society and how he believed it could be improved, and also campaigned for socialism—he became a significant figure in the International Workingmen's Association.
Marx's theories about society, economics and politics—collectively known as Marxism—hold that all societies progress through the dialectic of class struggle: a conflict between an ownership class which controls production and a lower class which produces the labour for such goods. Heavily critical of the current socio-economic form of society, capitalism, he called it the "dictatorship of the bourgeoisie", believing it to be run by the wealthy classes purely for their own benefit, and predicted that, like previous socioeconomic systems, it would inevitably produce internal tensions which would lead to its self-destruction and replacement by a new system, socialism.[5] He argued that under socialism society would be governed by the working class in what he called the "dictatorship of the proletariat", the "workers state" or "workers' democracy".[6][7] He believed that socialism would, in its turn, eventually be replaced by a stateless, classless society called communism. Along with believing in the inevitability of socialism and communism, Marx actively fought for the former's implementation, arguing that both social theorists and underprivileged people should carry out organised revolutionary action to topple capitalism and bring about socio-economic change.[8][9]
Revolutionary socialist governments espousing Marxist concepts took power in a variety of countries in the 20th century, leading to the formation of such socialist states as the Soviet Union in 1922 and the People's Republic of China in 1949. Many labor unions and worker's parties worldwide were also influenced by Marxist ideas. Various theoretical variants, such as Leninism, Stalinism, Trotskyism and Maoism, were developed. Marx is typically cited, with Émile Durkheim and Max Weber, as one of the three principal architects of modern social science.[10] Marx has been described as one of the most influential figures in human history.[11][12]
Contents |
Biography[link]
Early life: 1818–1835[link]
Karl Heinrich Marx was born on 5 May 1818 at 664 Brückergasse in Trier, a town located in the Kingdom of Prussia's Province of the Lower Rhine.[13] His ancestry was Ashkenazi Jewish, with his paternal line having supplied the rabbis of Trier since 1723, a role that had been taken up by his own grandfather, Meier Halevi Marx; Meier's son and Karl's father would be the first in the line to receive a secular education.[14] His maternal grandfather was a Dutch rabbi.[15] Karl's father, Herschel Marx, was middle-class and relatively wealthy: the family owned a number of Moselle vineyards; he converted from Judaism to the Protestant Christian denomination of Lutheranism prior to his son's birth, taking on the German forename of Heinrich over Herschel.[4] In 1815, he began working as an attorney and in 1819 moved his family from a five-room rented apartment into a ten-room property near the Porta Nigra.[16] A man of the Enlightenment, Heinrich Marx was interested in the ideas of the philosophers Immanuel Kant and Voltaire, and took part in agitation for a constitution and reforms in Prussia, which was then governed by an absolute monarchy.[17] Karl's mother, born Henrietta Pressburg (20 July 1788-30 November 1863), was a Dutch Jew who, unlike her husband, was only semi-literate. She claimed to suffer from "excessive mother love", devoting much time to her family, and insisting on cleanliness within her home.[18] She was from a prosperous business family. Her family later founded the company Philips Electronics: she was great-aunt to Anton and Gerard Philips, and great-great-aunt to Frits Philips. Her brother, Marx's uncle Benjamin Philips (1830-1900), was a wealthy banker and industrialist, who Karl and Jenny Marx would later often come rely upon for loans, while they were exiled in London.[19]
Heinrich Marx converted to Lutheran Protestantism in 1816 or 1817 in order to continue practicing law after the Prussian edict denying Jews to the bar. Karl was born in 1818 and baptized in 1824, but his mother, Henriette, did not convert until 1825, when Karl was 7. There is no evidence that the Marx family actually embraced Lutheranism, although there is no evidence they were practicing Jews. Marx identified himself as an atheist.[20][21][22]
Little is known about Karl Marx's childhood.[23] He was privately educated until 1830, when he entered Trier High School, whose headmaster Hugo Wyttenbach was a friend of his father. Wyttenbach had employed many liberal humanists as teachers; this angered the government so that the police raided the school in 1832, discovering what they labelled seditious literature espousing political liberalism being distributed amongst the students.[24] In 1835, Karl, then aged seventeen, began attending the University of Bonn, where he wished to study philosophy and literature, but his father insisted on law as a more practical field of study.[25] He was able to avoid military service when he turned eighteen because he suffered from a weak chest.[26] Being fond of alcoholic beverages, at Bonn he joined the Trier Tavern Club drinking society (Landsmannschaft der Treveraner) and at one point served as its co-president.[27] Marx was more interested in drinking and socialising than studying law, and because of his poor grades, his father forced him to transfer to the far more serious and academically oriented University of Berlin,[28] where his legal studies became less significant than excursions into philosophy and history.[29]
Hegelianism and early activism: 1836–1843[link]
In 1836, Marx became engaged to Jenny von Westphalen, a beautiful baroness of the Prussian ruling class—"the most desirable young woman in Trier" [30] —who broke off her engagement with a young aristocratic second lieutenant to be with him.[31] Their eventual marriage was controversial for breaking two social taboos of the period: it was a marriage between a woman of a noble background and a man of Jewish origin, as well as being between a member of the upper class (aristocracy) and a member of the middle class, respectively. Such issues were lessened by Marx's friendship with Jenny's father, Baron Ludwig von Westphalen, a liberal thinking aristocrat. Marx dedicated his doctoral thesis to him.[32] The couple married seven years later, on 19 June 1843, at the Pauluskirche in Bad Kreuznach.[33]
Marx became interested in, but critical of, the work of the German philosopher G.W.F Hegel (1770–1831), whose ideas were widely debated amongst European philosophical circles at the time.[34] Marx wrote about falling ill "from intense vexation at having to make an idol of a view I detested."[35] He became involved with a group of radical thinkers known as the Young Hegelians, who gathered around Ludwig Feuerbach and Bruno Bauer.[29] Like Marx, the Young Hegelians were critical of Hegel's metaphysical assumptions, but still adopted his dialectical method in order to criticise established society, politics and religion. Marx befriended Bauer, and in July 1841 the two scandalised their class in Bonn by getting drunk, laughing in church, and galloping through the streets on donkeys.[36] During that period, Marx concentrated on his criticism of Hegel and certain other Young Hegelians.[4]
Marx also wrote for his own enjoyment, writing both non-fiction and fiction. In 1837, he completed a short novel, Scorpion and Felix; a drama, Oulanem and some poems, none of which were published.[37] In 1971, Marx's one act play Oulanem was made available in English by author Robert Payne. According to Payne, the title Oulanem is an anagram for "Manuelo" which is a variant of "Emmanuel" meaning "God is with us".[38] He soon gave up writing fiction for other pursuits, including learning English and Italian.[39]
He was deeply engaged in writing his doctoral thesis, The Difference Between the Democritean and Epicurean Philosophy of Nature, which he finished in 1841. The essay has been described as "a daring and original piece of work in which he set out to show that theology must yield to the superior wisdom of philosophy",[40] and as such was controversial, particularly among the conservative professors at the University of Berlin. Marx decided to submit it instead to the more liberal University of Jena, whose faculty awarded him his PhD based on it.[29][41]
From considering an academic career, Marx turned to journalism.[4][42] He moved to the city of Cologne in 1842, where he began writing for the radical newspaper Rheinische Zeitung, where he expressed his increasingly socialist views on politics.[43] He criticised the governments of Europe and their policies, but also liberals and other members of the socialist movement whose ideas he thought were ineffective or outright anti-socialist.[44] The paper eventually attracted the attention of the Prussian government censors, who checked every issue for potentially seditious material before it could be printed. Marx said, "Our newspaper has to be presented to the police to be sniffed at, and if the police nose smells anything un-Christian or un-Prussian, the newspaper is not allowed to appear."[45] After the paper published an article strongly criticising the monarchy in Russia, the Russian Tsar Nicholas I, an ally of the Prussian monarchy, requested that the Rheinische Zeitung be banned. The Prussian government shut down the paper in 1843.[46] Marx wrote for the Young Hegelian journal, the Deutsche-Französische Jahrbücher, in which he criticised the censorship instructions issued by Prussian King Friedrich Wilhelm IV. His article was censored and the newspaper closed down by the authorities shortly after.[47]
In 1843, Marx published On the Jewish Question, in which he distinguished between political and human emancipation. He also examined the role of religious practice in society.[4] That same year he published Contribution to Critique of Hegel's Philosophy of Right, in which he dealt more substantively with religion, describing it as "the opiate of the people".[4] He completed both works shortly before leaving Cologne.[48]
Paris: 1843–1845[link]
Following the government-imposed shutdown of the Rheinische Zeitung, Marx got involved with a new radical newspaper, the Deutsch-Französische Jahrbücher (German-French Annals), which was then being set up by Arnold Ruge, another German socialist revolutionary.[49] The paper was based not in Germany, but in the city of Paris in neighbouring France, and it was here that both Marx and his wife moved in October 1843. They initially lived with Ruge and his wife communally at 23 Rue Vaneau, but finding these living conditions difficult, the Marxes moved out following the birth of their daughter Jenny in 1844.[50] Although it was intended to attract writers from both France and the German states, the Deutsch-Französische Jahrbücher was dominated by the latter, with the only non-German writer being the exiled Russian anarcho-communist Michael Bakunin.[51] Only one issue was ever published, but it was relatively successful, largely owing to the inclusion of Heinrich Heine's satirical odes on King Ludwig of Bavaria, which led to those copies sent to Germany being confiscated by the state's police force.[52]
It was in Paris that, on 28 August 1844, Marx met German socialist Friedrich Engels at the Café de la Régence after becoming interested in the ideas that the latter had expressed in articles written for the Rheinische Zeitung and the Deutsch-Französische Jahrbücher. Although they had briefly met each other at the offices of the Rheinische Zeitung in 1842, it was here in Paris that they began their friendship that would last for the rest of their lives.[53] Engels showed Marx his recently published book, The Condition of the Working Class in England in 1844,[54] which convinced Marx that the working class would be the agent and instrument of the final revolution in history.[55] Engels and Marx soon set about writing a criticism of the philosophical ideas of Marx's former friend, the Young Hegelian Bruno Bauer, which would be published in 1845 as The Holy Family.[56] Although critical of Bauer, Marx was increasingly influenced by the ideas of the other Young Hegelians Max Stirner and Ludwig Feuerbach, but eventually also abandoned Feuerbachian materialism as well.[57]
In 1844 Marx wrote The Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts, a work which covered numerous topics, and went into detail to explain Marx's concept of alienated labour.[4] A year later Marx would write Theses on Feuerbach, best known for the statement that "the philosophers have only interpreted the world, the point is to change it".[4] This work contains Marx's criticism of materialism (for being contemplative), idealism (for reducing practice to theory) and overall, criticising philosophy for putting abstract reality above the physical world.[4] It thus introduced the first glimpse at Marx's historical materialism, an argument that the world is changed not by ideas but by actual, physical, material activity and practice.[4][58]
After the collapse of the Deutsch-Französische Jahrbücher, Marx, still living on the Rue Vaneau, began writing for what was then the only uncensored German-language radical newspaper in Europe, Vorwärts!.[59] Based in Paris, the paper had been established and was run by many activists connected to the revolutionary socialist League of the Just, which would come to be better known as the Communist League within a few years.[60][61] In Vorwärts!, Marx continued to refine his views on socialism based upon the Hegelian and Feuerbachian ideas of dialectical materialism, whilst at the same time criticising various liberals and other socialists operating in Europe at the time.[62] However in 1845, after receiving a request from the Prussian king, the French government agreed to shut down Vorwärts!, and furthermore, Marx himself was expelled from France by the interior minister François Guizot.[62]
Brussels: 1845–1847[link]
Unable either to stay in France or to move to Germany, Marx decided to emigrate to Brussels in Belgium, but had to pledge not to publish anything on the subject of contemporary politics in order to enter.[62] In Brussels, he associated with other exiled socialists from across Europe, including Moses Hess, Karl Heinzen and Joseph Weydemeyer, and soon Engels moved to the city in order to join them.[62] In 1845 Marx and Engels visited the leaders of the Chartists, a socialist movement in Britain, using the trip as an opportunity to study in various libraries in London and Manchester.[63] In collaboration with Engels he also set about writing a book which is often seen as his best treatment of the concept of historical materialism, The German Ideology; the work, like many others, would not see publication in Marx's lifetime, being published only in 1932.[4][5][64] He followed this with The Poverty of Philosophy (1847), a response to the French anarcho-socialist Pierre-Joseph Proudhon's The Philosophy of Poverty and a critique of French socialist thought in general.[65]
These books laid the foundation for Marx and Engels's most famous work, a political pamphlet that has since come to be commonly known as The Communist Manifesto. First published on 21 February 1848, it laid out the beliefs of the Communist League, a group who had come increasingly under the influence of Marx and Engels, who argued that the League must make their aims and intentions clear to the general public rather than hiding them as they had formerly been doing.[66] The opening lines of the pamphlet set forth the principal basis of Marxism, that "The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles."[67] It goes on to look at the antagonisms that Marx claimed were arising between the clashes of interest between the bourgeoisie (the wealthy middle class) and the proletariat (the industrial working class). Proceeding on from this, the Manifesto presents the argument for why the Communist League, as opposed to other socialist and liberal political parties and groups at the time, was truly acting in the interests of the proletariat to overthrow capitalist society and replace it with socialism.[68]
Later that year, Europe experienced a series of protests, rebellions, and often violent upheavals, the Revolutions of 1848.[69] In France, a revolution led to the overthrow of the monarchy and the establishment of the French Second Republic.[69] Marx was supportive of such activity, and having recently received a substantial inheritance from his father of either 6000[70] or 5000 francs,[71][72] allegedly used a third of it to arm Belgian workers who were planning revolutionary action.[73] Although the veracity of these allegations is disputed,[70][74] the Belgian Ministry of Justice accused him of it, subsequently arresting him, and he was forced to flee back to France, where, with a new republican government in power, he believed that he would be safe.[72][75]
Cologne: 1848–1849[link]
Temporarily settling down in Paris, Marx transferred the Communist League executive headquarters to the city and also set up a German Workers' Club with various German socialists living there.[76] Hoping to see the revolution spread to Germany, in 1848 Marx moved back to Cologne (Köln) where he began issuing a handbill entitled the Demands of the Communist Party in Germany, in which he argued for only four of the ten points of the Communist Manifesto, believing that in Germany at that time, the bourgeoisie must overthrow the feudal monarchy and aristocracy before the proletariat could overthrow the bourgeoisie.[77] On 1 June, Marx started publication of the daily Neue Rheinische Zeitung ("New Rhenish Newspaper"), which he helped to finance through his recent inheritance from his father. Designed to put forward news from across Europe with his own Marxist interpretation of events, Marx remained one of its primary writers, accompanied by other fellow members of the Communist League who wrote for the paper, although despite their input it remained, according to Friedrich Engels, "a simple dictatorship by Marx", who dominated the choice of content.[78][79][80]
Whilst editor of the paper, Marx and the other revolutionary socialists were regularly harassed by the police, and Marx was brought to trial on several occasions, facing various allegations including insulting the Chief Public Prosecutor, an alleged press misdemeanor and inciting armed rebellion through tax boycotting,[81][82][82][83][84] although each time he was acquitted.[82][84] Meanwhile, the democratic parliament in Prussia collapsed, and the king, Frederick William IV, introduced a new cabinet of his reactionary supporters, who implemented counter-revolutionary measures to expunge leftist and other revolutionary elements from the country.[81] As a part of this, the Neue Rheinische Zeitung was soon suppressed and Marx was ordered to leave the country on 16 May.[80][85] Marx returned to Paris, which was then under the grip of both a reactionary counter-revolution and a cholera epidemic, and was soon expelled by the city authorities who considered him a political threat. With his wife Jenny expecting their fourth child, and not able to move back to Germany or Belgium, in August 1849 he sought refuge in London.[86][87]
London: 1849–1883[link]
Marx moved to London in May 1849 and would remain in the city for the rest of his life. It was here that he founded the new headquarters of the Communist League, and got heavily involved with the socialist German Workers' Educational Society, who held their meetings in Great Windmill Street, Soho, central London's entertainment district.[88][89] Marx devoted himself to two activities: revolutionary organising, and an attempt to understand political economy and capitalism. For the first few years he and his family lived in extreme poverty.[90][91] His main source of income was his colleague, Engels, who derived much of his income from his family's business.[91] Marx also briefly worked as correspondent for the New York Tribune in 1851.[92]
From December 1851 to March 1852 Marx wrote The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Napoleon, a work on the French Revolution of 1848, in which he expanded upon his concepts of historical materialism, class struggle and the dictatorship of the proletariat, advancing the argument that victorious proletariat has to smash the bourgeois state.[93]
The 1850s and 1860s also mark the line between what some scholars see as idealistic, Hegelian young Marx from the more scientifically-minded mature Marx writings of the later period.[94][95][96][97] This distinction is usually associated with the structural Marxism school;[97] not all scholars agree that it indeed exists.[96][98]
In 1864 Marx became involved in the International Workingmen's Association (also known as First International).[82] He became a leader of its General Council, to whose General Council he was elected at its inception in 1864.[99] In that organisation Marx was involved in the struggle against the anarchist wing centred around Mikhail Bakunin (1814–1876).[91] Although Marx won this contest, the transfer of the seat of the General Council from London to New York in 1872, which Marx supported, led to the decline of the International.[100] The most important political event during the existence of the International was the Paris Commune of 1871 when the citizens of Paris rebelled against their government and held the city for two months. On the bloody suppression of this rebellion, Marx wrote one of his most famous pamphlets, The Civil War in France, a defense of the Commune.[101]
Given the repeated failures and frustrations of workers' revolutions and movements, Marx also sought to understand capitalism, and spent a great deal of time in the reading room of the British Museum studying and reflecting on the works of political economists and on economic data.[102] By 1857 he had accumulated over 800 pages of notes and short essays on capital, landed property, wage labour, the state, foreign trade and the world market; this work did not appear in print until 1941, under the title Grundrisse.[91][103] In 1859, Marx published Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy, his first serious economic work. In the early 1860s he worked on composing three large volumes, the Theories of Surplus Value, which discussed the theoreticians of political economy, particularly Adam Smith and David Ricardo.[91] This work is often seen as the fourth book of Capital, and constitutes one of the first comprehensive treatises on the history of economic thought.[104] In 1867 the first volume of Capital was published, a work which analyzed the capitalist process of production.[105] Here, Marx elaborated his labour theory of value (influenced by Thomas Hodgskin[citation needed]); and his conception of surplus value and exploitation which he argued would ultimately lead to a falling rate of profit and the collapse of industrial capitalism.[106] Volumes II and III remained mere manuscripts upon which Marx continued to work for the rest of his life and were published posthumously by Engels.[91]
During the last decade of his life, Marx's health declined and he became incapable of the sustained effort that had characterised his previous work.[91] He did manage to comment substantially on contemporary politics, particularly in Germany and Russia. His Critique of the Gotha Programme opposed the tendency of his followers Wilhelm Liebknecht and August Bebel to compromise with the state socialism of Ferdinand Lassalle in the interests of a united socialist party.[91] This work is also notable for another famous Marx's quote: "From each according to his ability, to each according to his need."[107]
In a letter to Vera Zasulich dated 8 March 1881, Marx even contemplated the possibility of Russia's bypassing the capitalist stage of development and building communism on the basis of the common ownership of land characteristic of the village mir.[91][108] While admitting that Russia's rural "commune is the fulcrum of social regeneration in Russia", Marx also warned that in order for the mir to operate as a means for moving straight to the socialist stage without a preceding capitalist stage, it "would first be necessary to eliminate the deleterious influences which are assailing it (the rural commune) from all sides."[109] Given the elimination of these pernicious influences, Marx allowed, that "normal conditions of spontaneous development" of the rural commune could exist.[109] However, in the same letter to Vera Zasulich, Marx points out that "at the core of the capitalist system ... lies the complete separation of the producer from the means of production."[109] In one of the drafts of this letter, Marx reveals his growing passion for anthropology, motivated by his belief that future communism would be a return on a higher level to the communism of our prehistoric past. He wrote that 'the historical trend of our age is the fatal crisis which capitalist production has undergone in the European and American countries where it has reached its highest peak, a crisis that will end in its destruction, in the return of modern society to a higher form of the most archaic type — collective production and appropriation'. He added that 'the vitality of primitive communities was incomparably greater than that of Semitic, Greek, Roman, etc. societies, and, a fortiori, that of modern capitalist societies'.[110] Before he died, Marx asked Engels to write up these ideas, which were published in 1884 under the title The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State.
Death[link]
Following the death of his wife Jenny in December 1881, Marx developed a catarrh that kept him in ill health for the last 15 months of his life. It eventually brought on the bronchitis and pleurisy that killed him in London on 14 March 1883. He died a stateless person;[111] family and friends in London buried his body in Highgate Cemetery, London, on 17 March 1883. There were between nine and eleven mourners at his funeral.[112][113]
Several of his closest friends spoke at his funeral, including Wilhelm Liebknecht and Friedrich Engels. Engels's speech included the passage:
| “ | On the 14th of March, at a quarter to three in the afternoon, the greatest living thinker ceased to think. He had been left alone for scarcely two minutes, and when we came back we found him in his armchair, peacefully gone to sleep—but forever.[114] | ” |
Marx's daughter Eleanor and Charles Longuet and Paul Lafargue, Marx's two French socialist sons-in-law, were also in attendance.[113] Liebknecht, a founder and leader of the German Social-Democratic Party, gave a speech in German, and Longuet, a prominent figure in the French working-class movement, made a short statement in French.[113] Two telegrams from workers' parties in France and Spain were also read out.[113] Together with Engels's speech, this constituted the entire programme of the funeral.[113] Non-relatives attending the funeral included three communist associates of Marx: Friedrich Lessner, imprisoned for three years after the Cologne communist trial of 1852; G. Lochner, whom Engels described as "an old member of the Communist League" and Carl Schorlemmer, a professor of chemistry in Manchester, a member of the Royal Society, and a communist activist involved in the 1848 Baden revolution.[113] Another attendee of the funeral was Ray Lankester, a British zoologist who would later become a prominent academic.[113]
Upon his own death, Engels left Marx's two surviving daughters a "significant portion" of his $4.8 million estate.[30]
Marx's tombstone bears the carved message: "WORKERS OF ALL LANDS UNITE", the final line of The Communist Manifesto, and from the 11th Thesis on Feuerbach (edited by Engels): "The philosophers have only interpreted the world in various ways—the point however is to change it".[9] The Communist Party of Great Britain had the monumental tombstone built in 1954 with a portrait bust by Laurence Bradshaw; Marx's original tomb had had only humble adornment.[9] In 1970 there was an unsuccessful attempt to destroy the monument using a homemade bomb.[115]
The later Marxist historian Eric Hobsbawm remarked that "One cannot say Marx died a failure" because, although he had not achieved a large following of disciples in Britain, his writings had already begun to make an impact on the leftist movements in Germany and Russia. Within 25 years of his death, the continental European socialist parties that acknowledged Marx's influence on their politics were each gaining between 15 and 47% in those countries with representative democratic elections.[116]
Marx's thought[link]
Inspirations[link]
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The philosophers G.W.F. Hegel and Ludwig Feuerbach, whose ideas on dialectics heavily influenced Marx
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Main article: Influences on Karl Marx
Marx's thought demonstrates influences from many thinkers, including but not limited to:
- Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel's philosophy;[117]
- The classical political economy (economics) of Adam Smith and David Ricardo;[118]
- French socialist thought,[118] in particular the thought of Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Henri de Saint-Simon and Charles Fourier;[119][120]
- Earlier German philosophical materialism, particularly that of Ludwig Feuerbach;[57]
- The working class analysis by Friedrich Engels.[55]
Marx's view of history, which came to be called historical materialism (controversially adapted as the philosophy of dialectical materialism by Engels and Lenin) certainly shows the influence of Hegel's claim that one should view reality (and history) dialectically.[117] However, Hegel had thought in idealist terms, putting ideas in the forefront, whereas Marx sought to rewrite dialectics in materialist terms, arguing for the primacy of matter over idea.[4][117] Where Hegel saw the "spirit" as driving history, Marx saw this as an unnecessary mystification, obscuring the reality of humanity and its physical actions shaping the world.[117] He wrote that Hegelianism stood the movement of reality on its head, and that one needed to set it upon its feet.[117]
Though inspired by French socialist and sociological thought,[118] Marx criticised utopian socialists, arguing that their favoured small scale socialistic communities would be bound to marginalisation and poverty, and that only a large scale change in the economic system can bring about real change.[120]
The other important contribution to Marx's revision of Hegelianism came from Engels's book, The Condition of the Working Class in England in 1844, which led Marx to conceive of the historical dialectic in terms of class conflict and to see the modern working class as the most progressive force for revolution.[55]
Marx believed that he could study history and society scientifically and discern tendencies of history and the resulting outcome of social conflicts. Some followers of Marx concluded, therefore, that a communist revolution would inevitably occur. However, Marx famously asserted in the eleventh of his Theses on Feuerbach that "philosophers have only interpreted the world, in various ways; the point however is to change it", and he clearly dedicated himself to trying to alter the world.[8][9]
Philosophy and social thought[link]
Marx polemic with other thinkers often occurred through critique, and thus he has been called "the first great user of critical method in social sciences."[117][118] He criticised speculative philosophy, equating metaphysics with ideology.[121] By adopting this approach, Marx attempted to separate key findings from ideological biases.[118] This set him apart from many contemporary philosophers.[8]
Human nature[link]
Further information: Marx's theory of human nature
Fundamentally, Marx assumed that human history involves transforming human nature, which encompasses both human beings and material objects.[122] Humans recognise that they possess both actual and potential selves.[123][124] For both Marx and Hegel, self-development begins with an experience of internal alienation stemming from this recognition, followed by a realisation that the actual self, as a subjective agent, renders its potential counterpart an object to be apprehended.[124] Marx further argues that, by molding nature[125] in desired ways,[126] the subject takes the object as its own, and thus permits the individual to be actualised as fully human. For Marx, then, human nature—Gattungswesen, or species-being—exists as a function of human labour.[123][124][126] Fundamental to Marx's idea of meaningful labour is the proposition that, in order for a subject to come to terms with its alienated object, it must first exert influence upon literal, material objects in the subject's world.[127] Marx acknowledges that Hegel "grasps the nature of work and comprehends objective man, authentic because actual, as the result of his own work",[128] but characterises Hegelian self-development as unduly "spiritual" and abstract.[129] Marx thus departs from Hegel by insisting that "the fact that man is a corporeal, actual, sentient, objective being with natural capacities means that he has actual, sensuous objects for his nature as objects of his life-expression, or that he can only express his life in actual sensuous objects."[127] Consequently, Marx revises Hegelian "work" into material "labour", and in the context of human capacity to transform nature the term "labour power".[4]
Labour, class struggle, and false consciousness[link]
Further information: Labour theory of value
The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles.— Karl Marx, The Communist Manifesto[67])
Marx had a special concern with how people relate to that most fundamental resource of all, their own labour power.[130] He wrote extensively about this in terms of the problem of alienation.[131] As with the dialectic, Marx began with a Hegelian notion of alienation but developed a more materialist conception.[130] Capitalism mediates social relationships of production (such as among workers or between workers and capitalists) through commodities, including labour, that are bought and sold on the market.[130] For Marx, the possibility that one may give up ownership of one's own labour—one's capacity to transform the world—is tantamount to being alienated from one's own nature; it is a spiritual loss.[130] Marx described this loss as commodity fetishism, in which the things that people produce, commodities, appear to have a life and movement of their own to which humans and their behavior merely adapt.[132]
Commodity fetishism provides an example of what Engels called "false consciousness",[133] which relates closely to the understanding of ideology. By "ideology", Marx and Engels meant ideas that reflect the interests of a particular class at a particular time in history, but which contemporaries see as universal and eternal.[134] Marx and Engels's point was not only that such beliefs are at best half-truths; they serve an important political function. Put another way, the control that one class exercises over the means of production includes not only the production of food or manufactured goods; it includes the production of ideas as well (this provides one possible explanation for why members of a subordinate class may hold ideas contrary to their own interests).[4][135] An example of this sort of analysis is Marx's understanding of religion, summed up in a passage from the preface[136] to his 1843 Contribution to the Critique of Hegel's Philosophy of Right:
Religious suffering is, at one and the same time, the expression of real suffering and a protest against real suffering. Religion is the sigh of the oppressed creature, the heart of a heartless world, and the soul of soulless conditions. It is the opium of the people. The abolition of religion as the illusory happiness of the people is the demand for their real happiness. To call on them to give up their illusions about their condition is to call on them to give up a condition that requires illusions.
Whereas his Gymnasium senior thesis argued that religion had as its primary social aim the promotion of solidarity, here Marx sees the social function of religion in terms of highlighting/preserving political and economic status quo and inequality.[138]
Economy, history and society[link]
Further information: Marxian economics
Marx's thoughts on labour were related to the primacy he gave to the economic relation in determining the society's past, present and future (see also economic determinism).[117][120][139] Accumulation of capital shapes the social system.[120] Social change, for Marx, was about conflict between opposing interests, driven, in the background, by economic forces.[117] This became the inspiration for the body of works known as the conflict theory.[139] In his evolutionary model of history, he argued that human history began with free, productive and creative work that was over time coerced and dehumanised, a trend most apparent under capitalism.[117] Marx noted that this was not an intentional process; rather, no individual or even no state can go against the forces of economy.[120]
The organisation of society depends on means of production. Literally those things, like land, natural resources, and technology, necessary for the production of material goods and the relations of production, in other words, the social relationships people enter into as they acquire and use the means of production.[139] Together these compose the mode of production, and Marx distinguished historical eras in terms of distinct modes of production. Marx differentiated between base and superstructure, with the base (or substructure) referring to the economic system, and superstructure, to the cultural and political system.[139] Marx regarded this mismatch between (economic) base and (social) superstructure as a major source of social disruption and conflict.[139]
Despite Marx's stress on critique of capitalism and discussion of the new communist society that should replace it, his explicit critique of capitalism is guarded, as he saw it as an improved society compared to the past ones (slavery and feudal).[4] Marx also never clearly discusses issues of morality and justice, although scholars agree that his work contained implicit discussion of those concepts.[4]
File:Marx Moscow.jpg
Memorial to Karl Marx in Moscow. The inscription reads "Proletarians of all countries, unite!"
Marx's view of capitalism was two sided.[4][95] On one hand, Marx, in the 19th century's deepest critique of the dehumanising aspects of this system, noted that defining features of capitalism include alienation, exploitation and recurring, cyclical depressions leading to mass unemployment; on the other hand capitalism is also characterised by "revolutionizing, industrializing and universalizing qualities of development, growth and progressivity" (by which Marx meant industrialisation, urbanisation, technological progress, increased productivity and growth, rationality and scientific revolution), that are responsible for progress.[4][95][117] Marx considered the capitalist class to be one of the most revolutionary in history, because it constantly improved the means of production, more so than any other class in history, and was responsible for the overthrow of feudalism and its transition to capitalism.[120][140] Capitalism can stimulate considerable growth because the capitalist can, and has an incentive to, reinvest profits in new technologies and capital equipment.[130]
According to Marx capitalists take advantage of the difference between the labour market and the market for whatever commodity the capitalist can produce. Marx observed that in practically every successful industry input unit-costs are lower than output unit-prices. Marx called the difference "surplus value" and argued that this surplus value had its source in surplus labour, the difference between what it costs to keep workers alive and what they can produce.[4] Marx's dual view of capitalism can be seen in his description of the capitalists: he refers to them as to vampires sucking worker's blood, but at the same time,[117] he notes that drawing profit is "by no means an injustice"[4] and that capitalists simply cannot go against the system.[120] The true problem lies with the "cancerous cell" of capital, understood not as property or equipment, but the relations between workers and owners – the economic system in general.[120]
At the same time, Marx stressed that capitalism was unstable, and prone to periodic crises.[5] He suggested that over time, capitalists would invest more and more in new technologies, and less and less in labour.[4] Since Marx believed that surplus value appropriated from labour is the source of profits, he concluded that the rate of profit would fall even as the economy grew.[106] Marx believed that increasingly severe crises would punctuate this cycle of growth, collapse, and more growth.[106] Moreover, he believed that in the long-term this process would necessarily enrich and empower the capitalist class and impoverish the proletariat.[106][120] In section one of The Communist Manifesto Marx describes feudalism, capitalism, and the role internal social contradictions play in the historical process:
We see then: the means of production and of exchange, on whose foundation the bourgeoisie built itself up, were generated in feudal society. At a certain stage in the development of these means of production and of exchange, the conditions under which feudal society produced and exchanged ... the feudal relations of property became no longer compatible with the already developed productive forces; they became so many fetters. They had to be burst asunder; they were burst asunder. Into their place stepped free competition, accompanied by a social and political constitution adapted in it, and the economic and political sway of the bourgeois class. A similar movement is going on before our own eyes ... The productive forces at the disposal of society no longer tend to further the development of the conditions of bourgeois property; on the contrary, they have become too powerful for these conditions, by which they are fettered, and so soon as they overcome these fetters, they bring order into the whole of bourgeois society, endanger the existence of bourgeois property.—Karl Marx, The Communist Manifesto[141]
Marx believed that those structural contradictions within capitalism necessitate its end, giving way to socialism, or a post-capitalistic, communist society:
The development of Modern Industry, therefore, cuts from under its feet the very foundation on which the bourgeoisie produces and appropriates products. What the bourgeoisie, therefore, produces, above all, are its own grave-diggers. Its fall and the victory of the proletariat are equally inevitable."—Karl Marx and Frederic Engels, The Communist Manifesto[141]
Thanks to various processes overseen by capitalism, such as urbanisation, the working class, the proletariat, should grow in numbers and develop a class consciousness, in time realising that they have to change the system.[117][120] Marx believed that if the proletariat were to seize the means of production, they would encourage social relations that would benefit everyone equally, abolishing exploiting class, and introduce a system of production less vulnerable to cyclical crises.[117] Marx argued that capitalism will end through the organised actions of an international working class:
Communism is for us not a state of affairs which is to be established, an ideal to which reality will have to adjust itself. We call communism the real movement which abolishes the present state of things. The conditions of this movement result from the premises now in existence."—Karl Marx, The German Ideology[142]
In this new society the self-alienation would end, and humans would be free to act without being bound by the labour market.[106] It would be a democratic society, enfranchising the entire population.[120] In such a utopian world there would also be little if any need for a state, which goal was to enforce the alienation.[106] He theorised that between capitalism and the establishment of a socialist/communist system, a dictatorship of the proletariat—a period where the working class holds political power and forcibly socialises the means of production—would exist.[120] As he wrote in his "Critique of the Gotha Program", "between capitalist and communist society there lies the period of the revolutionary transformation of the one into the other. Corresponding to this is also a political transition period in which the state can be nothing but the revolutionary dictatorship of the proletariat."[143] While he allowed for the possibility of peaceful transition in some countries with strong democratic institutional structures (such as Britain, the US and the Netherlands), he suggested that in other countries with strong centralised state-oriented traditions, like France and Germany, the "lever of our revolution must be force."[144]
Personal life[link]
Marx married Jenny von Westphalen in 1843. Together had seven children, but partly owing to the poor living conditions they were forced to live in whilst in London, only three survived to adulthood.[145] The children were: Jenny Caroline (m. Longuet; 1844–83); Jenny Laura (m. Lafargue; 1845–1911); Edgar (1847–1855); Henry Edward Guy ("Guido"; 1849–1850); Jenny Eveline Frances ("Franziska"; 1851–52); Jenny Julia Eleanor (1855–98) and one more who died before being named (July 1857). There are allegations that Marx also fathered a son, Freddy,[30] out of wedlock by his housekeeper, Helene Demuth.[146]
Marx frequently used pseudonyms, often when renting a house or flat, apparently to make it harder for the authorities to track him down. While in Paris, he used that of 'Monsieur Ramboz', whilst in London he signed off his letters as 'A. Williams'. His friends referred to him as 'Moor', owing to his dark complexion and black curly hair, something which they believed made him resemble the historical Moors of North Africa, whilst he encouraged his children to call him 'Old Nick' and 'Charley'.[147] He also bestowed nicknames and pseudonyms on his friends and family as well, referring to Friedrich Engels as 'General', his housekeeper Helene as 'Lenchen' or 'Nym', while one of his daughters, Jennychen, was referred to as 'Qui Qui, Emperor of China' and another, Laura, was known as 'Kakadou' or 'the Hottentot'.[147]
Legacy[link]
Influence[link]
Marx is widely thought of as one of the most influential thinkers in history, who has had a significant influence on both world politics and intellectual thought, and in a 1999 BBC poll was voted the top "thinker of the millennium".[11][12][8] Robert C. Tucker credits Marx with profoundly affecting ideas about history, society, economics, culture, politics, and the nature of social inquiry.[148] Marx's biographer Francis Wheen considers the "history of the twentieth century" to be "Marx's legacy",[149] whilst philosopher Peter Singer believes that Marx's impact can be compared with that of the founders of the two major world religions, Jesus Christ and Muhammad.[150] Singer notes that "Marx's ideas brought about modern sociology, transformed the study of history, and profoundly affected philosophy, literature and the arts."[150] Paul Ricœur calls Marx one of the masters of the "school of suspicion", alongside Friedrich Nietzsche and Sigmund Freud.[151] Philip Stokes says that Marx's ideas led to him becoming "the darling of both European and American intellectuals up until the 1960s".[152] Marx has influenced disciplines such as archaeology, anthropology,[153] media studies,[154] political science, theater, history, sociological theory, cultural studies, education, economics, geography, literary criticism, aesthetics, critical psychology, and philosophy.[155]
In July 2005, 27.9% of listeners in a BBC Radio 4 series In Our Time poll selected Marx as their favorite thinker.[156]
The reasons for Marx's widespread influence revolve around his ethical message; a "morally empowering language of critique" against the dominant capitalist society. No other body of work was so relevant to the modern times, and at the same time, so outspoken about the need for change.[8] In the political realm, Marx's ideas led to the establishment of governments using Marxist thought to replace capitalism with communism or socialism (or augment it with market socialism) across much of the world, whilst his intellectual thought has heavily influenced the academic study of the humanities and the arts.
Marxism[link]
Main article: Marxism
Followers of Marx have drawn on his work to propose grand, cohesive theoretical outlooks dubbed "Marxism". This body of works has had significant influence on the both political and scientific scenes.[157] The Marxist revolutionary Che Guevara summed up his own appeal to Marxism by stating that "the merit of Marx is that he suddenly produces a qualitative change in the history of social thought. He interprets history, understands its dynamic, predicts the future, but in addition to predicting it, he expresses a revolutionary concept: the world must not only be interpreted, it must be transformed."[158]
Nevertheless, Marxists have frequently debated amongst themselves over how to interpret Marx's writings and how to apply his concepts to their contemporary events and conditions.[157] The legacy of Marx's thought has become bitterly contested between numerous tendencies which each see themselves as Marx's most accurate interpreters, including (but not limited to) Leninism, Stalinism, Trotskyism, Maoism, Luxemburgism, and libertarian Marxism.[157] In academic Marxism, various currents have developed as well, often under influence of other views, resulting in structuralist Marxism, historical Marxism, phenomenological Marxism, Analytical Marxism and Hegelian Marxism.[157]
Moreover, there is a distinction between "Marxism" and "what Marx believed"; for example, shortly before he died in 1883, Marx wrote a letter to the French workers' leader Jules Guesde, and to his own son-in-law Paul Lafargue, accusing them of "revolutionary phrase-mongering" and of lack of faith in the working class. After the French party split into a reformist and revolutionary party, some accused Guesde (leader of the latter) of taking orders from Marx; Marx remarked to Lafargue, "What is certain to me is [that, if this is Marxism, then] I myself am not [a] Marxist" (in a letter to Engels, Marx later accused Guesde of being a "Bakuninist").[159]
Founder of social science[link]
Marx is typically cited, along with Émile Durkheim and Max Weber, as one of the three principal architects of modern social science.[10] In contrast to philosophers, Marx offered theories that could often be tested with the scientific method.[8] Both Marx and Auguste Comte set out to develop scientifically justified ideologies in the wake of European secularisation and new developments in the philosophies of history and science. Whilst Marx, working in the Hegelian tradition, rejected Comtean sociological positivism, in attempting to develop a science of society he nevertheless came to be recognised as a founder of sociology as the word gained wider meaning.[42] In modern sociological theory, Marxist sociology is recognised as one of the main classical perspectives. For Isaiah Berlin, Marx may be regarded as the "true father" of modern sociology, "in so far as anyone can claim the title."[160]
Debate over predictions and theories[link]
While many Marxist concepts are still of importance for modern social science, some specific predictions Marx made have been shown to be unlikely.[8] Marx is often criticised for expecting a wave of socialist revolutions, originating in the most highly industrialised countries,[161] to overturn capitalism. However others, pointing to Marx's encounter with late 19th-century Russian populism and Marx and Engels's preface to the second Russian edition of the Manifesto of the Communist Party (1882), have argued that Marx evinced a growing conviction in his late writings that revolution could in fact emerge first in Russia.[162] Marx predicted the eventual fall of capitalism, to be replaced by socialism, yet since the late 20th century state socialism is in retreat, as the Soviet Union collapsed, and the People's Republic of China shifted towards a market economy.[163] Additionally, his argument that profits are generated only through surplus labour has been challenged by the counterclaim that profits also come from investments in human capital and technology.[8] Marx correctly predicted that over time, inequality would grow[164] but he also believed that this would mean growing impoverishment of the growing worker class, increasingly exploited by the capitalists.[8] The latter has also come true; as in the developed world, through liberal reforms, trade unions won many concessions, improving the situation of the workers (something that Marx considered very unlikely); in the more populated parts of the world such as Africa, India, and China the populations continue to grow and all the industry is moving there if it has not already established itself in the last two decades. Worldwide poverty has increased since the end of the 19th century especially considering that the richest are richer than ever but the poor have remained at the same level and the percentage has risen in the last 30 years.[8][165][166][167] (Scholars have debated whether Marx's comments about the proletariat can be analyzed in the context of the working class).[168] In addition to specific predictions, certain of Marx's theories, such as his labour theory of value, have also been criticised.[4][118] However, in the wake of the economic crisis of 2008, Greek government debt crisis,2008–2012 Spanish financial crisis and European sovereign debt crisis some thinkers like Terry Eagleton, David Harvey, and David McNally have given renewed impetus to the debate on whether Marx was right that capitalism inherently tends towards crisis (which Marx discussed as the "contradictions of capital").[169]
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Totalitarianism[link]
While Marxist thought may be used to empower marginalised and dispossessed people, it has also been used to prop up governments who have utilised violence to remove those seen as impeding the revolution.[8][118] In some instances, his ultimate goals have been used as justification for the end justifies the means logic.[8] Moreover, contrary to his goal, his ideas have been used to promote dogmatism and intolerance.[8] Polish historian Andrzej Walicki noted that Marx's and Engels's theory was the "theory of freedom", but a theory that, at the height of its influence, was used to legitimise the totalitarian socialist state of the Soviet Union.[170] This abuse of Marx's thought is perhaps most clearly exemplified in Stalinist Marxism, described by critics as the "most widespread and successful form of mass indoctrination... a masterly achievement in transforming Marxism into the official ideology of a consistently totalitarian state."[171] The controversy is further fueled as some left-wing theorists have tried to shield Marxism from any connection to the Soviet regime.[172] Lastly, the undue focus on the Marxist thought in the former Eastern Bloc, often forbidding social science arguments from outside the Marxist perspective,[173][174] led to a backlash against Marxism after the revolutions of 1989. In one example, references to Marx drastically decreased in Polish sociology after the fall of the revolutionary socialist governments, and two major research institutions which advocated the Marxist approach to sociology were closed.[175]
Selected bibliography[link]
- The Philosophical Manifesto of the Historical School of Law (1842)
- Critique of Hegel's Philosophy of Right, 1843
- On the Jewish Question, 1843
- Notes on James Mill, 1844
- Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts of 1844, 1844
- The Holy Family, 1845
- Theses on Feuerbach, 1845
- The German Ideology, 1845
- The Poverty of Philosophy, 1847
- Wage Labour and Capital, 1847
- Manifesto of the Communist Party, 1848
- The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Napoleon, 1852
- Grundrisse, 1857
- A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy, 1859
- Writings on the U.S. Civil War, 1861
- Theories of Surplus Value, 3 volumes, 1862
- Value, Price and Profit, 1865
- Capital, Volume I (Das Kapital), 1867
- The Civil War in France, 1871
- Critique of the Gotha Program, 1875
- Notes on Wagner, 1883
- Capital, Volume II (posthumously published by Engels), 1885
- Capital, Volume III (posthumously published by Engels), 1894
See also[link]
- Karl Marx House
- Marx Memorial Library
- Marx’s method
- Marx's notebooks on the history of technology
- Marxian Class Theory
- Mathematical manuscripts of Karl Marx
- Pre-Marx socialists
- Karl Marx in film
- Marx Reloaded
References[link]
Footnotes[link]
- ^ Mehring, Franz, Karl Marx: The Story of His Life (Routledge, 2003) pg. 75
- ^ John Bellamy Foster. "Marx's Theory of Metabolic Rift: Classical Foundations for Environmental Sociology", American Journal of Sociology, Vol. 105, No. 2 (September 1999), pp. 366-405.
- ^ Allen Oakley, Marx's Critique of Political Economy: 1844 to 1860, Routledge, 1984, p. 51.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v "Karl Marx – Stanford Encyclopaedia of Philosophy". http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/marx/. . First published Tue 26 Aug 2003; substantive revision Mon 14 Jun 2010. Accessed 4 March 2011.
- ^ a b c Baird, Forrest E.; Walter Kaufmann (2008). From Plato to Derrida. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-158591-6.
- ^ Karl Marx: Critique of the Gotha Program (Marx/Engels Selected Works, Volume Three, pp. 13–30;)
- ^ In Letter from Karl Marx to Joseph Weydemeyer (MECW Volume 39, p. 58; )
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Craig J. Calhoun (2002). Classical sociological theory. Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 23–24. ISBN 978-0-631-21348-2. http://books.google.com/books?id=6mq-H3EcUx8C&pg=PA23. Retrieved 5 March 2011.
- ^ a b c d Wheen, Francis (2002). Karl Marx: A Life. New York: Norton. Introduction.
- ^ a b "Max Weber – Stanford Encyclopaedia of Philosophy". http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/weber/.
- ^ a b "Marx the millennium's 'greatest thinker'". BBC News World Online. 1 October 1999. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/461545.stm. Retrieved 23 November 2010.
- ^ a b Hart, Michael H. (2000). The 100: A Ranking of the Most Influential Persons in History. New York: Citadel. ISBN 0-89104-175-3.
- ^ Wheen 2001 p. 8 and p. 12
- ^ Kenneth Allan; Kenneth D. Allan (2 November 2005). Explorations in Classical Sociological Theory: Seeing the Social World. Pine Forge Press. p. 68. ISBN 978-1-4129-0572-5.
- ^ Wheen 2001. pp. 07–09, 12.
- ^ Wheen 2001. p. 10.
- ^ Wheen 2001. p. 11.
- ^ Wheen 2001. p. 12.
- ^ Francis Wheen, Karl Marx: A Life, (Fourth Estate, 1999), ISBN 1-85702-637-3
- ^ Enzo Traverso, The Marxists and the Jewish Question, (Humanities Press, 1994): "Born into a Jewish family that had converted to Lutheranism, Marx received no religious education and grew up, under the influence of his father, in a liberal and aufklärerisch environment. He considered himself a German, an atheist and a Communist and recognized himself as neither a Jew nor a converted Jew" (p14)
- ^ The famous Marxist historian and historiographer Eric Hobsbawm views Marx simply as a Jew, for example, in this October 2005 essay on the "Benefits of Diaspora" in the London Review of Books, in which he states "issues to do with the nature, structure and possible transformations of society in an era of radical historical change both in practice and in theory have attracted emancipated Jews disproportionately almost from the beginning, starting with the Saint Simonians and Marx".
- ^ Julius Carlbach's Karl Marx and the Jewish Question has an interesting discussion of "The Jewishness of Marx" staring on page 310, in which he describes the views of a large number of sources. See also Dennis K. Fischman's 1991 work Political Discourse in Exile: Karl Marx and the Jewish Question.
- ^ Wheen 2001. p. 13.
- ^ Wheen 2001. p. 13.
- ^ Wheen 2001. p. 14.
- ^ Wheen 2001. p. 15.
- ^ Wheen 2001. p. 16.
- ^ Wheen 2001. pp. 16–17.
- ^ a b c Appelrouth, Scott; Laura Desfor Edles (2007). Classical and Contemporary Sociological Theory: Text and Readings. Pine Forge Press. p. 23. ISBN 978-0-7619-2793-8.
- ^ a b c Montefiore, Simon Sebag. "The Means of Reproduction". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2011/09/25/books/review/love-and-capital-by-mary-gabriel-book-review.html. Retrieved 25 September 2011.
- ^ Tristram Hunt (3 August 2010). Marx's General: The Revolutionary Life of Friedrich Engels. Macmillan. pp. 59–61. ISBN 978-0-8050-9248-6. http://books.google.com/books?id=Mdj3AXU2YEEC&pg=PA59. Retrieved 9 March 2011.
- ^ Wheen 2001. pp. 17–21, 33.
- ^ Wheen 2001. pp. 52–53.
- ^ Wheen 2001. pp. 21–22.
- ^ Lewis S. Feuer; Irving Horowitz (1 June 2010). Ideology and the Ideologists. Transaction Publishers. p. 76. ISBN 978-1-4128-1442-3. http://books.google.com/books?id=8TwfWRr21zEC&pg=PA76. Retrieved 5 March 2011.
- ^ Wheen 2001. p. 34.
- ^ Stanley Edgar Hyman (March 1974). The tangled bank: Darwin, Marx, Frazer and Freud as imaginative writers. Atheneum. p. 86. http://books.google.com/books?id=f0pmAAAAMAAJ. Retrieved 6 March 2011.
- ^ Robert Payne, The Unknown Karl Marx, (University Press, 1971)
- ^ Wheen 2001. pp. 25–26.
- ^ Wheen 2001. p. 32.
- ^ Wheen 2001. p. 33.
- ^ a b Calhoun 2002. p. 19.
- ^ Wheen 2001. pp. 34–36.
- ^ Wheen 2001. pp. 42–44.
- ^ Wheen 2001. p. 47.
- ^ Wheen 2001. pp. 47–48.
- ^ Wheen 2001. p. 36.
- ^ Kenneth L. Morrison (21 July 2006). Marx, Durkheim, Weber: formations of modern social thought. SAGE. p. 35. ISBN 978-0-7619-7056-9. http://books.google.com/books?id=-sya6fxO6zgC&pg=PA35. Retrieved 5 March 2011.
- ^ Wheen 2001. p. 48.
- ^ Wheen 2001. pp. 62–66.
- ^ Wheen 2001. pp. 64–65.
- ^ Wheen 2001. p. 65.
- ^ Wheen 2001. p. 75.
- ^ Mansel, Philip: Paris Between Empires, p.390 (St. Martin Press, NY) 2001
- ^ a b c T. B. Bottomore (1991). A Dictionary of Marxist thought. Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 108–. ISBN 978-0-631-18082-1. http://books.google.com/books?id=q4QwNP_K1pYC&pg=PA108. Retrieved 5 March 2011.
- ^ Wheen 2001. pp. 85–86.
- ^ a b Several authors elucidated this for long neglected crucial turn in Marx's theoretical development, such as Ernie Thomson in The Discovery of the Materialist Conception of History in the Writings of the Young Karl Marx, New York, The Edwin Mellen Press, 2004; for a short account see Max Stirner, a durable dissident
- ^ Doug Lorimer, in Friedrich Engels (1999). Socialism: utopian and scientific. Resistance Books. pp. 34–36. ISBN 978-0-909196-86-8. http://books.google.com/books?id=_A7P0fL_kYsC&pg=PA34. Retrieved 7 March 2011.
- ^ Wheen 2001. pp. 66–67.
- ^ Wheen 2001. p. 112.
- ^ Charles Capper; Cristina Giorcelli; Lester K. Little (9 November 2007). Margaret Fuller: transatlantic crossings in a revolutionary age. Univ of Wisconsin Press. p. 18. ISBN 978-0-299-22340-3. http://books.google.com/books?id=LehjT5N5yQwC&pg=PA18. Retrieved 5 March 2011.
- ^ a b c d Wheen 2001. p. 90.
- ^ Wheen 2001. p. 92.
- ^ Wheen 2001. p. 93.
- ^ Wheen 2001. p. 107.
- ^ Wheen 2001. p. 115.
- ^ a b Karl Marx (1950). Communist Manifesto. eBookEden.com. p. 4. GGKEY:FWW90PP07L2. http://books.google.com/books?id=ZZuDP8hGg5IC&pg=PT4. Retrieved 23 April 2011.
- ^ Marx and Engels 1848.
- ^ a b Wheen 2001. p. 125.
- ^ a b Maltsev; Yuri N.. Requiem for Marx. Ludwig von Mises Institute. pp. 93–94. ISBN 978-1-61016-116-9. http://books.google.com/books?id=gx0X4NvNE_gC&pg=PA93. Retrieved 9 March 2011.
- ^ Saul Kussiel Padover, Karl Marx, an intimate biography, McGraw-Hill, 1978, page 205
- ^ a b Wheen 2001. pp. 126–127.
- ^ Wheen 2001. pp. 126–127.
- ^ David McLellan 1973 Karl Marx: His life and Thought. New York: Harper and Row. pp. 189–190
- ^ Felix, David (1982). "Heute Deutschland! Marx as Provincial Politician". Central European History (Cambridge University Press) 15 (4): 332–350. DOI:10.1017/S0008938900010621. JSTOR 4545968.
- ^ Wheen 2001. p. 128.
- ^ Wheen 2001. p. 129.
- ^ Wheen 2001. pp. 130–132.
- ^ Seigel, p. 50
- ^ a b Doug Lorimer. Introduction. In Karl Marx. The Class Struggles in France: From the February Revolution to the Paris Commune. Resistance Books. p. 6. ISBN 978-1-876646-19-6. http://books.google.com/books?id=xlYfFDJDXewC&pg=PA6. Retrieved 9 March 2011.
- ^ a b Wheen 2001. pp. 136–137.
- ^ a b c d Boris Nicolaievsky (15 March 2007). Karl Marx – Man and Fighter. READ BOOKS. pp. 192–. ISBN 978-1-4067-2703-6. http://books.google.com/books?id=4rbH49xtcpkC&pg=PA192. Retrieved 9 March 2011.
- ^ Slavko Splichal (2002). Principles of publicity and press freedom. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 115. ISBN 978-0-7425-1615-1. http://books.google.com/books?id=u8fO_b0lxDAC&pg=PA115. Retrieved 9 March 2011.
- ^ a b Franz Mehring (24 September 2003). Karl Marx: The Story of His Life. Psychology Press. pp. 19–20. ISBN 978-0-415-31333-9. http://books.google.com/books?id=486z9lE-jdsC&pg=PR19. Retrieved 9 March 2011.
- ^ Wheen 2001. pp. 137–146.
- ^ Wheen 2001. pp. 147–148.
- ^ Peter Watson (22 June 2010). The German Genius: Europe's Third Renaissance, the Second Scientific Revolution, and the Twentieth Century. HarperCollins. pp. 250–. ISBN 978-0-06-076022-9. http://books.google.com/books?id=lktG_12nBXEC&pg=PA250. Retrieved 9 March 2011.
- ^ Wheen 2001. pp. 151–155.
- ^ Phil Harriss (1 September 2006). London Markets, 4th. New Holland Publishers. p. 20. ISBN 978-1-86011-306-2. http://books.google.com/books?id=zv6GxJzhrbgC&pg=PA20. Retrieved 23 April 2011.
- ^ Enrique D. Dussel; Fred Moseley (2001). Towards an unknown Marx: a commentary on the manuscripts of 1861–63. Psychology Press. pp. 33–. ISBN 978-0-415-21545-9. http://books.google.com/books?id=-Ld9fM0DOYQC&pg=PR33. Retrieved 9 March 2011.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i "Karl Heinrich Marx – Biography". Egs.edu. http://www.egs.edu/library/karl-marx/biography/. Retrieved 9 March 2011.
- ^ Karl, Marx (2007). James Ledbetter. ed. Dispatches for the New York Tribune: Selected Journalism of Karl Marx. Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0-14-144192-4.
- ^ Karl Marx (30 March 2008). The 18th Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte. Wildside Press LLC. p. 141. ISBN 978-1-4344-6374-6. http://books.google.com/books?id=ryOVzGSq0zYC&pg=PA141. Retrieved 9 March 2011.
- ^ John Cunningham Wood. Karl Marx's economics : critical assessments. Psychology Press. p. 346. ISBN 978-0-415-06558-0. http://books.google.com/books?id=0Pr97rppN2EC&pg=PA346. Retrieved 16 March 2011.
- ^ a b c John Cunningham Wood (1993). Karl Marx's economics: critical assessments : second series. Taylor & Francis. p. 232. ISBN 978-0-415-08711-7. http://books.google.com/books?id=zoNIh_NYeRwC&pg=PA232. Retrieved 16 March 2011.
- ^ a b Sidney Hook (February 1994). From Hegel to Marx: studies in the intellectual development of Karl Marx. Columbia University Press. pp. 24–25. ISBN 978-0-231-09665-2. http://books.google.com/books?id=JXQ_cwiMhAUC&pg=PR24. Retrieved 16 March 2011.
- ^ a b Ronald John Johnston (2000). The dictionary of human geography. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 795. ISBN 978-0-631-20561-6. http://books.google.com/books?id=0-GxowMfwlkC&pg=PA795%7Caccessdate%3D16+March+2011%7Cyear%3D2000%7Cpublisher%3DWiley-Blackwell%7Cisbn%3D978-0-631-20561-6%7Cpages%3D795%E2%80%93%7D%7D%3C%2Fref%3E. Retrieved 16 March 2011.
- ^ Richard T. De George; James Patrick Scanlan (31 December 1975). Marxism and religion in Eastern Europe: papers presented at the Banff International Slavic Conference, September 4–7, 1974. Springer. p. 20. ISBN 978-90-277-0636-2. http://books.google.com/books?id=gO_mQQU8-GIC&pg=PA20. Retrieved 16 March 2011.
- ^ Boris Nicolaievsky (15 March 2007). Karl Marx – Man and Fighter. READ BOOKS. pp. 269–. ISBN 978-1-4067-2703-6. http://books.google.com/books?id=4rbH49xtcpkC&pg=PA269. Retrieved 9 March 2011.
- ^ Bob Jessop; Russell Wheatley (1999). Karl Marx's social and political thought. Taylor & Francis US. p. 526. ISBN 978-0-415-19327-6. http://books.google.com/books?id=vz-4LDWCnlAC&pg=PA526. Retrieved 9 March 2011.
- ^ Michael Curtis (1997). Marxism: the inner dialogues. Transaction Publishers. p. 291. ISBN 978-1-56000-945-0. http://books.google.com/books?id=hRdyY2f8UcUC&pg=PA291. Retrieved 9 March 2011.
- ^ Craig J. Calhoun (2002). Classical sociological theory. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 20. ISBN 978-0-631-21348-2. http://books.google.com/books?id=6mq-H3EcUx8C&pg=PA20. Retrieved 5 March 2011.
- ^ Mab Segrest (27 June 2002). Born to belonging: writings on spirit and justice. Rutgers University Press. p. 232. ISBN 978-0-8135-3101-4. http://books.google.com/books?id=gOmpSMh3y3YC&pg=PA232. Retrieved 9 March 2011.
- ^ Tom Rockmore (2002). Marx after Marxism: the philosophy of Karl Marx. John Wiley and Sons. p. 128. ISBN 978-0-631-23189-9. http://books.google.com/books?id=FkMgeGZuCOwC&pg=PA128. Retrieved 9 March 2011.
- ^ Anthony Brewer; Karl Marx (1984). A guide to Marx's Capital. CUP Archive. p. 15. ISBN 978-0-521-25730-5. http://books.google.com/books?id=RyQ4AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA15. Retrieved 9 March 2011.
- ^ a b c d e f Craig J. Calhoun (2002). Classical sociological theory. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 23. ISBN 978-0-631-21348-2. http://books.google.com/books?id=6mq-H3EcUx8C&pg=PA23. Retrieved 5 March 2011.
- ^ Marx, Karl (1875). "Part I". Critique of the Gotha Program. http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1875/gotha/ch01.htm. Retrieved 15 July 2008.
- ^ Karl Marx and Frederick Engels, Collected Works Volume 46 (International Publishers: New York, 1992) p. 71.
- ^ a b c Karl Marx and Frederick Engels, Collected Works Volume 46 (International Publishers: New York, 1992) p. 72.
- ^ K. Marx, First draft of letter to Vera Zasulich [1881]. In Marx-Engels 'Collected Works', Volume 24, p. 346.
- ^ McLellan 1973, p.541
- ^ Wheen 2001. p. 382.
- ^ a b c d e f g Stephen Jay Gould; Paul McGarr; Steven Peter Russell Rose (24 April 2007). The richness of life: the essential Stephen Jay Gould. W. W. Norton & Company. pp. 167–168. ISBN 978-0-393-06498-8. http://books.google.com/books?id=yfXJhKmp1wUC&pg=PA167. Retrieved 9 March 2011.
- ^ "1883: The death of Karl Marx". Marxists.org. http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1883/death/dersoz1.htm. Retrieved 21 December 2009.
- ^ "Tomb raiders' failed attack on Marx grave", Camden New Journal
- ^ Hobsbawm 2011. pp. 03–04.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Craig J. Calhoun (2002). Classical sociological theory. Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 20–23. ISBN 978-0-631-21348-2. http://books.google.com/books?id=6mq-H3EcUx8C&pg=PA20. Retrieved 5 March 2011.
- ^ a b c d e f g Howard J. Sherman (1995). Reinventing marxism. JHU Press. p. 5. ISBN 978-0-8018-5077-6. http://books.google.com/books?id=TTZf31HIJKsC&pg=PA5. Retrieved 7 March 2011.
- ^ Peter Beilharz (1992). Labour's Utopias: Bolshevism, Fabianism and Social Democracy. CUP Archive. p. 4. ISBN 978-0-415-09680-5. http://books.google.com/books?id=dJc9AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA4. Retrieved 7 March 2011.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Barry Stewart Clark (1998). Political economy: a comparative approach. ABC-CLIO. pp. 57–59. ISBN 978-0-275-96370-5. http://books.google.com/books?id=3bJHvA1H-2kC&pg=PA57. Retrieved 7 March 2011.
- ^ Himani Bannerji (2001). Inventing subjects: studies in hegemony, patriarchy and colonialism. Anthem Press. p. 27. ISBN 978-1-84331-072-3. http://books.google.com/books?id=rQqos58kEPwC&pg=PA27. Retrieved 2 May 2011.
- ^ Bertell Ollman (1973). Alienation: Marx's conception of man in capitalist society. CUP Archive. p. 81. ISBN 978-1-00-133135-5. http://books.google.com/books?id=8Ac4AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA81. Retrieved 8 March 2011.
- ^ a b Marx K (1999). "The labour-process and the process of producing surplus-value". In K Marx, Capital (Vol. 1, Ch. 7). Marxists.org. Retrieved 20 October 2010. Original work published 1867.
- ^ a b c See Marx K (1997). "Critique of Hegel's dialectic and philosophy in general". In K Marx, Writings of the Young Marx on Philosophy and Society (LD Easton & KH Guddat, Trans.), pp. 314–347. Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Company, Inc. Original work published 1844.
- ^ See also Lefever DM; Lefever JT (1977). "Marxian alienation and economic organisation: An alternate view". The American Economist(21)2, pp. 40–48.
- ^ a b See also Holland EW (2005). "Desire". In CJ Stivale (Ed.), Gilles Deleuze: Key Concepts, pp. 53–62. Montreal & Kingston: McGill-Queens University Press.
- ^ a b Marx (1997), p. 325, emphasis in original.
- ^ Marx (1997), p. 321, emphasis in original.
- ^ Marx (1997), p. 324.
- ^ a b c d e Craig J. Calhoun (2002). Classical sociological theory. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 22. ISBN 978-0-631-21348-2. http://books.google.com/books?id=6mq-H3EcUx8C&pg=PA22. Retrieved 5 March 2011.
- ^ István Mészáros (1 March 2006). Marx's Theory of Alienation. Merlin Press. p. 96. ISBN 978-0-85036-554-2. http://books.google.com/books?id=5lckAQAAIAAJ. Retrieved 8 March 2011.
- ^ Étienne Balibar (1995). The philosophy of Marx. Verso. p. 56. ISBN 978-1-85984-951-4. http://books.google.com/books?id=HBw-U1tSZoMC&pg=PA56. Retrieved 8 March 2011.
- ^ Leszek Kołakowski; Paul Stephen Falla (29 October 2005). Main currents of Marxism: the founders, the golden age, the breakdown. W. W. Norton & Company. p. 226. ISBN 978-0-393-06054-6. http://books.google.com/books?id=qUCxpznbkaoC&pg=PA226. Retrieved 8 March 2011.
- ^ Paul Hernadi (1989). The Rhetoric of interpretation and the interpretation of rhetoric. Duke University Press. p. 137. ISBN 978-0-8223-0934-5. http://books.google.com/books?id=yNGAg_yK6R4C&pg=PA137. Retrieved 8 March 2011.
- ^ John B. Thompson (1990). Ideology and modern culture: critical social theory in the era of mass communication. Stanford University Press. pp. 37–38. ISBN 978-0-8047-1846-2. http://books.google.com/books?id=ql5Ab8OXiPMC&pg=PA37. Retrieved 8 March 2011.
- ^ Karl Marx: Introduction to A Contribution to the Critique of Hegel's Philosophy of Right, in: Deutsch-Französische Jahrbücher, February 1844
- ^ Karl Marx; Joseph O'Malley (26 August 1977). Critique of Hegel's 'Philosophy of right'. CUP Archive. p. 131. ISBN 978-0-521-29211-5. http://books.google.com/books?id=uxg4AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA131. Retrieved 23 April 2011.
- ^ William H. Swatos; Peter Kivisto (28 February 1998). Encyclopedia of religion and society. Rowman Altamira. pp. 499–. ISBN 978-0-7619-8956-1. http://books.google.com/books?id=6TMFoMFe-D8C&pg=PA499. Retrieved 8 March 2011.
- ^ a b c d e Jonathan H. Turner (2 September 2005). Sociology. Pearson Prentice Hall. pp. 17–18. ISBN 978-0-13-113496-6. http://books.google.com/books?id=90vMAAAACAAJ. Retrieved 9 March 2011.
- ^ Dennis Gilbert (13 May 2010). The American Class Structure in an Age of Growing Inequality. Pine Forge Press. pp. 6–. ISBN 978-1-4129-7965-8. http://books.google.com/books?id=4JyQus8r9JYC&pg=PA6. Retrieved 8 March 2011.
- ^ a b Marx, K. and Engels, F. (1848).The Communist Manifesto
- ^ Jon Elster (31 May 1985). Making sense of Marx. Cambridge University Press. p. 217. ISBN 978-0-521-29705-9. http://books.google.com/books?id=I14p3dFLerYC&pg=PA217. Retrieved 23 April 2011.
- ^ "Karl Marx:Critique of the Gotha Programme". http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1875/gotha/ch04.htm.
- ^ "You know that the institutions, mores, and traditions of various countries must be taken into consideration, and we do not deny that there are countries – such as America, England, and if I were more familiar with your institutions, I would perhaps also add Holland – where the workers can attain their goal by peaceful means. This being the case, we must also recognise the fact that in most countries on the Continent the lever of our revolution must be force; it is force to which we must some day appeal to erect the rule of labour." La Liberté Speech delivered by Karl Marx on 8 September 1872, in Amsterdam
- ^ Peter Singer (2000). Marx a very short introduction. pp. 5. ISBN 0-19-285405-4
- ^ Francis Wheen (2000). Karl Marx. W. W. Norton and Company. p. 173.
- ^ a b Wheen 2001. p. 152.
- ^ Kenneth Allan (11 May 2010). The Social Lens: An Invitation to Social and Sociological Theory. Pine Forge Press. p. 68. ISBN 978-1-4129-7834-7. http://books.google.com/books?id=KEgg5g0d-fgC&pg=PA68. Retrieved 25 March 2011.
- ^ Wheen 2001. p. 01.
- ^ a b Singer 1980. p. 01.
- ^ Ricoeur, Paul. Freud and Philosophy: An Essay on Interpretation. New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1970, p. 32
- ^ Stokes 2004. p. 133.
- ^ Bridget O'Laughlin (1975) Marxist Approaches in Anthropology, Annual Review of Anthropology Vol. 4: pp. 341–70 (October 1975) (doi:10.1146/annurev.an.04.100175.002013).
William Roseberry (1997) Marx and Anthropology Annual Review of Anthropology, Vol. 26: pp. 25–46 (October 1997) (doi:10.1146/annurev.anthro.26.1.25) - ^ S. L. Becker (1984) "Marxist Approaches to Media Studies: The British Experience", Critical Studies in Mass Communication, 1(1): pp. 66–80.
- ^ See Manuel Alvarado, Robin Gutch, and Tana Wollen (1987) Learning the Media: Introduction to Media Teaching, Palgrave Macmillan.
- ^ Wheen, Francis (17 July 2005). "Why Marx is man of the moment". The Observer.
- ^ a b c d Heine Andersen; Lars Bo Kaspersen (2000). Classical and modern social theory. Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 123–. ISBN 978-0-631-21288-1. http://books.google.com/books?id=_PeGtsC2Hp4C&pg=PA123. Retrieved 9 March 2011.
- ^ "Notes for the Study of the Ideology of the Cuban Revolution" by Che Guevara, 8 October 1960
- ^ McLellan 1973, p. 443
- ^ Berlin, Isaiah. 1967. Karl Marx: His Life and Environment. Time Inc Book Division, New York. pp130
- ^ Robert André LaFleur (2003). China: a global studies handbook. ABC-CLIO. pp. 137–. ISBN 978-1-57607-284-4. http://books.google.com/books?id=RKwqnbWf3u0C&pg=PT137. Retrieved 5 March 2011.
- ^ *Foster, John (2000). Marx's Ecology: Materialism and Nature. New York: Monthly Review Press. pp. 165, 221. *Shanin, Teodor, ed. (1983). Late Marx and the Russian road : Marx and "the peripheries of capitalism" : a case. New York: Monthly Review Press. *Rosemont, Franklin. "Karl Marx and the Iroquois". http://libcom.org/library/karl-marx-iroquois-franklin-rosemont. Retrieved 13 June 2011. *Marx, Karl; Engels, Friedrich (1978). Tucker, Robert C.. ed. The Marx-Engels Reader. New York: W.W. Norton & Company. pp. 471–2.
- ^ Shang-Jin Wei. From Marx to Markets: China's Economic Reforms as a Megapolicy. In Dennis A. Rondinelli (1995). Great policies: strategic innovations in Asia and the Pacific Basin. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 151. ISBN 978-0-275-95050-7. http://books.google.com/books?id=31HHS8S6svkC&pg=PA151. Retrieved 5 March 2011.
- ^ Unbottled Gini: Inequality is rising. Does it matter—and if so why?, The Economist, 20 Jan 2001
- ^ Chen, Shaohua; Ravallion, Martin, The developing world is poor and unsuccessful in the fight against poverty, Policy Research working paper, World Bank, 2008
- ^ Stephen Moore; Julian Lincoln Simon (2000). It's getting better all the time: 100 greatest trends of the last 100 years. Cato Institute. p. 8. ISBN 978-1-882577-96-5. http://books.google.com/books?id=1ixRxAsdLKwC&pg=PA8. Retrieved 5 March 2011.
- ^ Sylvia Whitman (June 2008). World poverty. Infobase Publishing. p. 3. ISBN 978-0-8160-6807-4. http://books.google.com/books?id=fk4QHyTMhQkC&pg=PA3. Retrieved 5 March 2011.
- ^ Hugo Radice, The Prospects for Socialism: A Question of Capital and Class. CSGP 11/1 2011, p.7
- ^ Eagleton, Terry. "Was Marx Right?". Commonweal. http://commonwealmagazine.org/was-marx-right. Retrieved 14 July 2011. ; Harvey, David (2010). A Companion to Marx's Capital. London and New York: Verso. ; McNally, David (2009). "From Financial Crisis to World-Slump: Accumulation, Financialisation, and the Global Slowdown". Historical Materialism 17 (2): 35–83. DOI:10.1163/156920609X436117.
- ^ Andrzej Walicki (1 September 1997). Marxism and the Leap to the Kingdom of Freedom: The Rise and Fall of the Communist Utopia. Stanford University Press. p. 1. ISBN 978-0-8047-3164-5. http://books.google.com/books?id=NgZ6vitEjq4C&pg=PA1. Retrieved 5 March 2011.
- ^ Andrzej Walicki (1 September 1997). Marxism and the Leap to the Kingdom of Freedom: The Rise and Fall of the Communist Utopia. Stanford University Press. p. 426. ISBN 978-0-8047-3164-5. http://books.google.com/books?id=NgZ6vitEjq4C&pg=PA426. Retrieved 5 March 2011.
- ^ Andrzej Walicki (1 September 1997). Marxism and the Leap to the Kingdom of Freedom: The Rise and Fall of the Communist Utopia. Stanford University Press. p. 4. ISBN 978-0-8047-3164-5. http://books.google.com/books?id=NgZ6vitEjq4C&pg=PA4. Retrieved 5 March 2011.
- ^ Gwidon Zalejko, Soviet Historiography as a "Normal Science" in Jerzy Topolski (December 1994). Historiography between modernism and postmodernism. Rodopi. p. 179. ISBN 978-90-5183-744-5. http://books.google.com/books?id=oblFZ28X6oIC&pg=PA179. Retrieved 5 March 2011.
- ^ Marc Ferro (2003). The use and abuse of history, or, How the past is taught to children. Psychology Press. ISBN 978-0-415-28592-6. http://books.google.com/books?id=XS1hcDeSne0C&pg. Retrieved 5 March 2011. See Chapter 8 Aspects and variations of Soviet history and Chapter 10 History in profile: Poland.
- ^ Janusz Mucha and Paweł Załęcki, Sociology – Poland, Social Science Knowledge Base, Country Reports, commentary
Bibliography[link]
- Academic and Popular Books
- Calhoun, Craig J. (2002). Classical Sociological Theory. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-0-631-21347-5.
- Callinicos, Alex (2010 [1983]). The Revolutionary Ideas of Karl Marx. Bloomsbury, London: Bookmarks. ISBN 978-1-905192-68-7.
- Hobsbawm, Eric (2011). How to Change the World: Tales of Marx and Marxism. London: Little, Brown. ISBN 978-1-4087-0287-1.
- Lenin, Vladimir (1967) [1913]. Karl Marx: A Brief Biographical Sketch with an Exposition of Marxism. Peking: Foreign Languages Press. http://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1914/granat/index.htm.
- Singer, Peter (1980). Marx. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-287510-5.
- Stokes, Philip (2004). Philosophy: 100 Essential Thinkers. Kettering: Index Books. ISBN 978-0-572-02935-7.
- Vygodsky, Vitaly (1973). The Story of a Great Discovery: How Karl Marx wrote "Capital". Verlag Die Wirtschaft. http://www.marxists.org/archive/vygodsky/1965/discovery.htm.
- Wheen, Francis (2001). Karl Marx. London: Fourth Estate. ISBN 978-1-85702-637-5.
Further reading[link]
- Althusser, Louis. For Marx. London: Verso, 2005.
- Althusser, Louis and Balibar, Étienne. Reading Capital. London: Verso, 2009.
- Avineri, Shlomo. The Social and Political Thought of Karl Marx (Cambridge University Press, 1968) ISBN 0-521-09619-7
- Axelos, Kostas. Alienation, Praxis, and Techne in the Thought of Karl Marx (translated by Ronald Bruzina, University of Texas Press, 1976).
- Barnett, Vincent. Marx (Routledge, 2009)
- Berlin, Isaiah. Karl Marx: His Life and Environment (Oxford University Press, 1963) ISBN 0-19-520052-7
- Blackledge, Paul. Reflections on the Marxist Theory of History (Manchester University Press, 2006)
- Bottomore, Tom, ed. A Dictionary of Marxist Thought. Oxford: Blackwell, 1998.
- Callinicos, Alex. The Revolutionary Ideas of Karl Marx (Bookmarks, 1983)
- Cleaver, Harry. Reading Capital Politically (AK Press, 2000)
- G. A. Cohen. Karl Marx's Theory of History: A Defence (Princeton University Press, 1978) ISBN 0-691-07068-7
- Collier, Andrew. Marx (Oneworld, 2004)
- Draper, Hal, Karl Marx's Theory of Revolution (4 volumes) Monthly Review Press
- Duncan, Ronald and Wilson, Colin. (editors) Marx Refuted, (Bath, UK, 1987) ISBN 0-906798-71-X
- Fine, Ben. Marx's Capital. 5th ed. London: Pluto, 2010.
- Foster, John Bellamy. Marx's Ecology: Materialism and Nature. New York: Monthly Review Press, 2000.
- Gould, Stephen Jay. A Darwinian Gentleman at Marx's Funeral – E. Ray Lankester, Page 1, Find Articles.com (1999)
- Harvey, David. A Companion to Marx's Capital. London: Verso, 2010.
- Harvey, David. The Limits of Capital. London: Verso, 2006.
- Iggers, Georg G. "Historiography: From Scientific Objectivity to the Postmodern Challenge."(Wesleyan University Press, 1997, 2005)
- Kołakowski, Leszek. Main Currents of Marxism Oxford: Clarendon Press, OUP, 1978
- Little, Daniel. The Scientific Marx, (University of Minnesota Press, 1986) ISBN 0-8166-1505-5
- Mandel, Ernest. Marxist Economic Theory. New York: Monthly Review Press, 1970.
- Mandel, Ernest. The Formation of the Economic Thought of Karl Marx. New York: Monthly Review Press, 1977.
- McLellan, David. Marx before Marxism (1980), Macmillan, ISBN 978-0-333-27882-6
- McLellan, David. Karl Marx: his Life and Thought Harper & Row, 1973 ISBN 978-0-06-012829-6
- Mehring, Franz. Karl Marx: The Story of His Life (Routledge, 2003)
- Miller, Richard W. Analyzing Marx: Morality, Power, and History. Princeton, N.J: Princeton University Press, 1984.
- Nicolaevsky, Boris and Maenchen-Helfen, Otto (translator). Karl Marx: Man and Fighter (Penguin Books, 1976) ISBN 0-14-021594-8
- Postone, Moishe. Time, Labour, and Social Domination: A Reinterpretation of Marx's Critical Theory. Cambridge [England]: Cambridge University Press, 1993.
- Rothbard, Murray. An Austrian Perspective on the History of Economic Thought Volume II: Classical Economics (Edward Elgar Publishing Ltd., 1995) ISBN 0-945466-48-X
- Rubel, Maximilien. Marx Without Myth: A Chronological Study of his Life and Work (Blackwell, 1975) ISBN 0-631-15780-8
- Saad-Filho, Alfredo. The Value of Marx: Political Economy for Contemporary Capitalism. London: Routledge, 2002.
- Schmidt, Alfred. The Concept of Nature in Marx. London: NLB, 1971.
- Seigel, Jerrold. Marx's fate: the shape of a life (Princeton University Press, 1978) ISBN 0-271-00935-7
- Sekinel, Thomas T. The Dialectic of Capital. A Study of the Inner Logic of Capitalism, 2 volumes (preliminary edition), Tokyo 1986; ISBN 978-4-924750-44-9 (vol. 1), ISBN 4-924750-34-4 (vol. 2)
- Strathern, Paul. "Marx in 90 Minutes", (Ivan R. Dee, 2001)
- Thomas, Paul. Karl Marx and the Anarchists. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1980.
- Walker, Frank Thomas. 'Karl Marx: a Bibliographic and Political Biography. (bj.publications), 2009.
- Wendling, Amy. Karl Marx on Technology and Alienation (Palgrave Macmillan, 2009)
- Wheen, Francis. Karl Marx: A Life, (Fourth Estate, 1999), ISBN 1-85702-637-3
- Wheen, Francis. Marx's Das Kapital, (Atlantic Books, 2006) ISBN 1-84354-400-8
External links[link]
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Bibliography and online texts[link]
- (German) Works by Karl Marx at Zeno.org
- Karl Marx at Libcom.org
- Karl Marx entry in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
- Karl Marx on In Our Time at the BBC. (listen now)
- Marxists.org, homepage of the Marxists Internet Archive
- Works by or about Karl Marx in libraries (WorldCat catalog)
- Works by Karl Marx in audio format from LibriVox
- Works by Karl Marx at Project Gutenberg
Articles and entries[link]
- Dead Labour: Marx and Lenin Reconsidered by Paul Craig Roberts
- Hegel, Marx, Engels, and the Origins of Marxism, by David North
- In Praise of Marx Terry Eagleton synopsising his Why Marx was right chronicle.com 10 April 2011.
- Karl Marx: Did he get it all Right? by Philip Collins, The Times, 21 October 2008
- Karl Marx, Ernest Mandel
- Karl Marx and the Iroquois by Franklin Rosemont
- Liberalism, Marxism and The State, by Ralph Raico
- Marx, Mao and mathematics: the politics of infinitesimals, by Joseph Dauben
- Marx Was Right
- Marxism and Ethics from International Socialism Paul Blackledge (2008)
- Marxmyths.org Various essays on misinterpretations of Marx
- Portraits of Karl Marx (International Institute of Social History)
- Paul Dorn, The Paris Commune and Marx' Theory of Revolution
- The Top Seven Reasons why Marx was Right by Green Left Weekly
- Why Marx is the Man of the Moment
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| Persondata | |
|---|---|
| Name | Marx, Karl |
| Alternative names | Marx, Karl Heinrich |
| Short description | German philosopher, political economist and revolutionary |
| Date of birth | 1818-5-5 |
| Place of birth | Trier, Prussia |
| Date of death | 1883-3-14 |
| Place of death | London, United Kingdom |
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This biographical article needs additional citations for verification. Please help by adding reliable sources. Contentious material about living persons that is unsourced or poorly sourced must be removed immediately, especially if potentially libelous or harmful. (November 2010) |
| Mark Steel | |
|---|---|
.jpg) Mark Steel in 2008 |
|
| Born | (1960-07-04) 4 July 1960 (age 51) Swanley, Kent, United Kingdom |
| Medium | Stand-up, Television, Radio |
| Nationality | British |
| Years active | 1983-present |
| Genres | Political satire |
| Subject(s) | Politics |
| Influences | Tony Cliff |
| Notable works and roles | The Mark Steel Lectures The Mark Steel Revolution The Mark Steel Solution Mark Steel's in Town |
| Website | http://www.marksteelinfo.com/ |
Mark Steel (born 4 July 1960)[1] is an English socialist columnist, author and comedian. A stand-up comedian known for his left-wing beliefs (he was a long-standing member of the Socialist Workers Party before he resigned in 2007), he has made many appearances on radio and television shows as a guest panellist, and has written regular columns in printed media. He is perhaps best known for presenting The Mark Steel Lectures, The Mark Steel Revolution, The Mark Steel Solution, and Mark Steel's in Town.
Contents |
Early life[link]
Steel was adopted a few days after he was born.[2] He grew up in Swanley, Kent. He was expelled from Swanley Comprehensive School for attending a cricket course at the age of 15,[clarification needed] and went on to work in a garage. From there he went on to make his first public performance as a poet.
In the late 1970s his father suffered a mental breakdown and was placed into care at Stonehouse Hospital. The shabby conditions of the home reinforced Steel's political beliefs.[3]
Career[link]
Steel has given varying accounts of his early life: he became bored with constantly being asked how he had started in comedy and took to telling the questioner the first thing that came into his head. He is often described as having worked as a television repair man[4] but confesses that he has no technical ability whatsoever. He worked the comedy circuit for several years, and then in 1992 presented a satirical radio show The Mark Steel Solution on BBC Radio 5, consisting of half-hour monologues which offered solutions to social problems. It ran to four series. It's Not a Runner Bean, a comic autobiography, was published in 1996, and this led to a column in The Guardian.
Steel wrote a column for The Guardian between 1996 and 1999. He was sacked by that newspaper, according to him because The Guardian wanted to "realign towards Tony Blair" - though The Guardian denies this. In 2000 he started writing a weekly column for The Independent, which appears in the Wednesday Opinion Column.
He has written and performed several radio and television series for the BBC, and authored several books, as detailed below.
In 2005 he toured the UK and Ireland, where he discussed the French revolution in a light-hearted style.
Personal life[link]
Steel is a supporter of Crystal Palace F.C. and Kent County Cricket Club and enjoys watching both play on occasion. He was interviewed by Jonathan Agnew on Test Match Special during the South Africa series, giving an interview on his love of cricket.[5]
He has a son (Elliot) and a daughter (Eloise) from a relationship, but he and his partner separated in 2006.[6]
Politics[link]
During the Thatcher years, when he was in his 20s, Steel developed his left-wing political views. His anger and frustration at society's injustices were vented by political protests, punk rock and poetry.
Seeing the Soviet Union as "shit", and state capitalist rather than truly socialist, Steel joined the Socialist Workers Party rather than the Communist Party.[3] He attended marches, strikes and demonstrations, and was present at the death of Blair Peach. In the early '80s he also persuaded his mother to allow striking steelworkers to spend a night in the Steel residence.[3] His political activism continued throughout the decade, from the miners' strike through to the Poll Tax Riots. During this time he moved into a squat with his old friend Mick Hannan, before taking up residence in a flat.[3]
In 2000 Steel took part in the London Assembly elections on behalf of the London Socialist Alliance (part of the Socialist Alliance) in the Croydon and Sutton constituency; he received 1,823 votes (1.5 per cent of the vote).
In 2007 he left the SWP and justified his decision in his book What's Going On? In the book he wrote that he left the party because whilst the membership base had become smaller and smaller, the members that remained became increasingly deluded regarding the size and relevance of the organisation. He also condemned the manner in which, at a time when there was broad public support for socialist ideals, increasingly bitter and futile in-fighting on the left made political success impossible. Alex Callinicos, International Secretary of the SWP, reviewed the book in the Socialist Review, arguing that it "evinces a kind of grandiose ignorance" and that "the only principle one can detect here is that the SWP is always in the wrong".[7] Literary critic Nicholas Lezard praised the book in The Guardian, particularly for its discussion of the break-up of Steel's relationship, which "gives it a poignancy and depth which at its outset one might not have expected".[8]
Steel is a Palestinian human rights activist, having been a member of the British-based ENOUGH! coalition that seeks to end the "Israeli occupation of the Gaza Strip and West Bank."[9]
Radio and television[link]
Radio[link]
- The Mark Steel Solution (1992, 1994–1996) BBC Radio 5, BBC Radio 4, repeated BBC 7
- The Mark Steel Revolution (1998) BBC Radio 4, (2007) repeated BBC 7 Australia - Radio National 17.30 2009-01-13 to 2009-01-16 and 2009-01-19 to 2009-01-23
- The Mark Steel Lectures (1999–2002) BBC Radio 4, (2007) repeated BBC 7
- Dedicated Troublemaker (2004) BBC Radio 4
- Mark Steel's in Town (2009–2011) BBC Radio 4
He has also contributed to or appeared on the following shows:
- The Good Human Guide BBC Radio 2(1985). Contributing writer.
- Extra Time BBC Radio 5. Presenter. Sports programme.
- Late Edition BBC Radio 4 (1995). Regular panellist on this satirical talk show.
- The News Quiz BBC Radio 4 several occasions from the late 1990s onwards. Guest panellist on this satirical news based panel game.
- Loose Ends BBC Radio 4. Interviewee.
- Midweek BBC Radio 4. Interviewee.
- Excess Baggage BBC Radio 4. Interviewee.
- Test Match Special BBC Radio 4. Lunchtime interviewee, 1 August 2008 - England vs South Africa, 3rd test, Edgbaston.
- I've Never Seen Star Wars BBC Radio 4 (2008). Interviewee
- Heresy BBC Radio 4 (2009).
Television[link]
- The Mark Steel Lectures BBC Four (2003, 2004, 2006). Writer and Presenter. Television version of his radio programme of the same title. Produced in association with The Open University.
He also appeared in the following shows:
- Red Dwarf BBC Two (1989). Playing 'Ski-man' in episode "Timeslides" (non-speaking part).
- Loose Talk (1994). Guest.
- The Late Jonathan Ross (1996). Guest.
- Does China Exist. (1997).
- If I Ruled the World BBC Two (1998). Guest panellist.
- Lamarr's Attacks BBC Two (2000). Guest.
- Never Mind the Buzzcocks BBC Two (2000, 2001). Guest panellist on the satirical music based panel game.
- Have I Got News for You BBC One (2001, 2002, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2008, 2009). Guest panellist on this satirical news based panel game.
- Question Time BBC One (2003, 2005, 2012). Guest panellist on discussion show.
- QI BBC Two, BBC Four (2004, 2005, 2006). Guest panellist.
- Mock the Week, BBC Two (2005, 2006). Guest panellist.
- Room 101 BBC Two, (2006). Guest
Bibliography[link]
- Printed
- Vive La Revolution (2003) ISBN 0-7432-0805-6, (2004) ISBN 0-7432-0806-4 History of the French Revolution.
- Reasons To Be Cheerful (2001) ISBN 0-7432-0803-X, (2002) ISBN 0-7432-0804-8 Autobiography concentrating on political activism.
- It's Not A Runner Bean (1996) ISBN 1-899344-12-8, (2004) ISBN 1-904316-43-3 Autobiography concentrating on his comedy career.
- What's Going On? The Meanderings of a Comic Mind in Confusion (2008) ISBN 1-84737-281-9 Autobiography charting changes to his own personal life and the politics of the left.
- Audiobooks
- Reasons to Be Cheerful: From Punk to New Labour Through the Eyes of a Dedicated Troublemaker (2001) cassette ISBN 0-7435-0062-8
See also[link]
References[link]
- ^ IMDb Mark Steel. Retrieved 2011-11-08.
- ^ "The Week with George Galloway". 4/11/2011.
- ^ a b c d Steel, Mark (2001). Reasons to be Cheerful. Scribner UK. ISBN 0-7432-0804-8.
- ^ "Open2.net: How did you get into comedy?". Open University. http://www.open2.net/marksteel/o2interview.htm. Retrieved 2008-10-18.
- ^ Interview on BBC's Test Match Special, 1 August 2008
- ^ "Anatomy of a break-up". The Independent. 24 September 2008. http://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/love-sex/heartbreak/anatomy-of-a-breakup-939706.html. Retrieved 2009-03-31.
- ^ Callinicos, Alex (September 2008). "What's Going On?". Socialist Review. http://www.socialistreview.org.uk/article.php?articlenumber=10514. Retrieved 16 November 2010.
- ^ Lezard, Nicholas (11 April 2009). "Few things are funnier than ageing and disillusionment". The Guardian. http://www.guardian.co.uk/books/2009/apr/11/mark-steel-review. Retrieved 16 November 2010.
- ^ "Emma Thompson bids for Palestinian Rights | The Electronic Intifada". electronicintifada.net. 27 January 2007. http://electronicintifada.net/content/emma-thompson-bids-palestinian-rights/3079. Retrieved 31 August 2011.
External links[link]
- Mark Steel's official website
- Open University site dedicated to the television version of The Mark Steel Lectures.
- Interviews at LeftLion, The Third Estate, and Socialist Review.
- Audio Files
- The Russian Revolution: Was It A Coup? - Lecture at Marxism 1999 (MP3)
- Karl Marx - Part 2 - Lecture at Marxism 2002 (MP3)
- The French Revolution - Part 2 - Lecture at Marxism 2002 (MP3)
- Viva La Revolution A Stand Up History Of The French Revolution - Part 2 - Lecture at Marxism 2003 (MP3)
- Large selection of audio (mp3) and video (mp4) files available at www.marksteelinfo.com/audiovideo/
| Persondata | |
|---|---|
| Name | Steel, Mark |
| Alternative names | |
| Short description | English comedian |
| Date of birth | 4 July 1960 |
| Place of birth | Swanley, Kent, United Kingdom |
| Date of death | |
| Place of death | |
http://wn.com/Mark_Steel
This page contains text from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_Steel
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
"Engels" redirects here. For other uses, see Engels (disambiguation).
 Friedrich Engels |
|
| Born | 28 November 1820 Barmen, Kingdom of Prussia (now Wuppertal, Germany) |
|---|---|
| Died | 5 August 1895(1895-08-05) (aged 74) London, United Kingdom |
| Era | 19th-century philosophy |
| Region | Western Philosophy |
| School | Marxism, Materialism |
| Main interests | Political philosophy, Politics, Economics, class struggle, capitalism |
| Notable ideas | Co-founder of Marxism (with Karl Marx), alienation and exploitation of the worker, historical materialism |
| Signature |  |
Friedrich Engels (German pronunciation: [ˈfʁiːdʁɪç ˈɛŋəls]; 28 November 1820 – 5 August 1895) was a German-English industrialist, social scientist, author, political theorist, philosopher, and father of Marxist theory, alongside Karl Marx. In 1845 he published The Condition of the Working Class in England, based on personal observations and research. In 1848 he co-authored The Communist Manifesto with Karl Marx, and later he supported Marx financially to do research and write Das Kapital. After Marx's death Engels edited the second and third volumes. Additionally, Engels organized Marx's notes on the "Theories of Surplus Value" and this was later published as the "fourth volume" of Capital.[1]
Contents |
Biography[link]
Early years[link]
Friedrich (Frederick) Engels was born on November 28, 1820 in Barmen, Prussia (now Wuppertal, Germany).[2] At the time, Barmen was an expanding industrial metropole and Frederick was the eldest son of a wealthy German cotton manufacturer. As his father, Friederich Sr., was a Methodist. Accordingly, Fredrick was raised Christian Pietist. As he grew up, his relationship with his parents became strained because of his atheist beliefs.[3] Parental disapproval of his revolutionary activities is recorded in an October, 1848 letter from his mother, Elizabeth Engels.[4] In this letter his mother berates him for having "really gone too far" and "begged" him "to proceed no further.".[5] "You have paid more heed to other people, to strangers, and have taken no account of your mother's pleas. God alone knows what I have felt and suffered of late. I was trembling when I picked up the newspaper and saw therein that a warrant was out for my son's arrest."[6] At the point this letter was written Frederick Engels was in hiding in Brussels, Belgium and was soon to make his way to Switzerland and then in 1849 make his way back into Germany to participate in the revolutionary uprising in Baden and Palatinate.
Earlier when he was merely 18 years of age, young Frederick had been dropped out of high school because of family circumstances. At this point, he had been sent by his family to work as a nonsalaried office clerk at a commercial house in Bremen.[7][8] His parents expected that he would begin a career in business like his father. Accordingly, Frederick's revolutionary activities were a definite disappointment to his parents.
Whilst at Bremen, Engels began reading the philosophy of Hegel, whose teachings had dominated German philosophy at the time. In September 1838, he published his first work, a poem titled The Bedouin, in the Bremisches Conversationsblatt No. 40. He also engaged in other literary and journalistic work.[9][10]
In 1841, Engels joined the Prussian Army as a member of the Household Artillery. This position moved him to Berlin where he attended university lectures and began to associate with groups of Young Hegelians. He anonymously published articles in the Rheinische Zeitung exposing the working and living conditions workers in the factories had to endure.[8] Editor of the Rheinshe Zeitung was Karl Marx. However, Engels never met Karl Marx until they had a brief encounter near the end of November 1842.[11] Throughout his lifetime, Engels would point out that he was indebted to German philosophy because of its effect on his intellectual development.[7] A remarkable quotation from that period: "To get the most out of life you must be active, you must live and you must have the courage to taste the thrill of being young ... " (1840)
Manchester[link]
In 1842, the 22-year-old Engels was sent by his parents to Manchester, Britain, to work for the Ermen and Engels' Victoria Mill in Weaste which made sewing threads.[12][13][14] Engels' father thought that working at the Manchester firm might make Engels reconsider the opinions he had developed at the time.[7][13] On his way to Manchester, Engels visited the office of the Rheinische Zeitung and met Karl Marx for the first time - they were not impressed by each other.[15] Marx mistakenly thought that Engels was still associated with the Berliner Young Hegelians, with whom he (Marx) had just broken.[16]
In Manchester Engels met Mary Burns, a fierce young working woman with radical opinions with whom he began a relationship that lasted until her death in 1862.[17][18] The two never married, as both were against the institution of marriage. While Engels regarded monogamy as a virtue, state and church regulated marriage were to him a form of class oppression.[19][20] Burns guided Engels through Manchester and Salford, showing him the worst districts for his research. While in Manchester, Engels wrote his first economic work. This article was called "Outline of a Critique of Political Economy" and was written between October and November 1843.[21] Engels sent the article to Paris, where Marx published it in the Deutsch-Französische Jahrbücher. Engels also wrote a three part series of articles called "The Condition of England" in January, February and March 1844.[22]
While observing the slums of Manchester in close detail, Engels took notes of the horrors he observed, notably child labor, the despoiled environment and overworked and impoverished laborers.[23] and sent back a series of articles to Marx, first for publication in the Rheinische Zeitung and then for publication in Deutsch–Franzosische Jahrbucher, chronicling the conditions amongst the working class in Manchester. These he would later collect and publish in his influential first book, The Condition of the Working Class in England.[24] The book was written between September 1844 and March 1845 and was printed in German in 1845. In the book, Engels gave way to his views on the "grim future of capitalism and the industrial age",[23] and described in detail, street after street, the total squalor in which the working people were living.[25] The book was published in English in 1887.
While writing it, Engels continued his involvement with radical journalism and politics. He frequented some areas also frequented by some members of the English labour and Chartist movements, whom he met, and wrote for several journals, including The Northern Star, Robert Owen’s New Moral World and the Democratic Review newspaper.[17][26][27]
Paris[link]
After a productive stay in Britain, Engels decided to return to Germany in 1844. On his way, he stopped in Paris to meet Karl Marx, with whom he had an earlier correspondence. Marx had been living in Paris since late October 1843, following the banning of the Rheinsche Zeitung by Prussian governmental authorities in March 1843.[28] In Paris, Marx was now publishing the Deutsch-Französische Jahrbücher. Marx and Engels met at the Café de la Régence on the Place du Palais, 28 August 1844. The two became close friends and would remain so for their entire lives. In late May 1845 Engels published the English version of his first book - a quotation: "A class which bears all the disadvantages of the social order without enjoying its advantages…Who can demand that such a class respect this social order ?"[29]
Engels stayed in Paris to help Marx write The Holy Family.[30] The Holy Family was an attack on the Young Hegelians and the Bauer brothers and was published in late February 1845. Engels' earliest contribution to Marx's work was writing to the Deutsch-französische Jahrbücher journal, which was edited by both Marx and Arnold Ruge in Paris in 1844.[12] However, as Ruge remained a Young Hegelian in his belief, Marx and Ruge soon split and Ruge left the Deutsch-französische Jahrbücher[31] Nonetheless, even following the split, Marx remained friendly enough to Ruge that Marx sent Ruge a warning on January 15, 1845 that the Paris police were going to execute orders against both Marx and Ruge and others at the Deutshe-französische Jahrbücher requiring all to leave Paris within 24 hours.[32] Marx, himself, was expelled from Paris by French authorities on February 3, 1845 and settled in Brussels, Belgium with his wife and one daughter.[33] Having left Paris on September 6, 1844, Engels returned to his home in Barmen, Germany, to work on his The Condition of the English Working Class, which was published in late May 1845.[34] Even before the publication of his book, Engels moved to Brussels in late April 1845, to collaborate with Marx on another book--German Ideology.[35] While living in Barmen, Engels began making contact with Socialists in the Rhineland to raise money for Marx's publication efforts in Brussels.[36] However, these contacts became more important as both Marx and Engels began political organizing for German Workers Party.
Brussels[link]
From 1845 to 1848, Engels and Marx lived in Brussels, spending much of their time organizing the city's German workers. Shortly after their arrival, they contacted and joined the underground German Communist League. The Communists League was the successor organization to the old League of the Just which had been founded in 1837, but had recently disbanded.[37] Influenced by Wilhelm Weitling, the Communist League was an international society of proletarian revolutionaries with branches in various European cities.[38] The Communist League also had contacts with the underground conspiratorial organization of Louis Auguste Blanqui. Many of Marx's and Engels' current friends became member of the Communist League. Old friends like Georg Friedrich Herwegh, who had worked with Marx on the Rheinsche Zeitung, Heinrich Heine, the famous poet, a young doctor by the name of Roland Daniels, Heinrich Bürgers and August Herman Ewerbeck all maintained their contacts with Marx and Engels in Brussels. Georg Weerth, who had become a friend of Engels in England in 1843 now settled in Brussels. Karl Wallau and Stephen Born (whose real name was Simon Buttermilch) were both German immigrant typesetters who settled in Brussels to help Marx and Engles with their work in the Communist League. Additionally, Marx and Engels made many important new contacts through the Communist League. One of the first was Wilhelm Wolff, who was soon to become one of Marx's and Engels' closest collaborators. Others were Joseph Weydemeyer and Ferdinand Freiligrath, a famous revolutionary poet. While most of the associates of Marx and Engels were German immigrants living in Brussels, some of there new associates were Belgians. Phillipe Gigot, a Belgian philosopher and Victor Tedesco, lawyer from Liege both joined the Communist League. Joachim Lelewel a prominent Polish historian and participant in the Polish uprising of 1830-1831 was also a frequent associate of Marx and Engels.[39] The Communist League commissioned Marx and Engels to write a pamphlet explaining the principles of communism. This became The Manifesto of the Communist Party, better known as the Communist Manifesto.[40] It was first published on 21 February 1848 and ends with the world famous phrase: ""Let the ruling classes tremble at a Communistic revolution. The proletariat have nothing to lose but their chains. They have a world to win ... Working Men of All Countries, Unite!"[7]
Return to Prussia[link]
There was a revolution in France in 1848 that eventually spread to other Western European countries. This event caused Engels and Marx to go back to their home country of Prussia, specifically the city of Cologne. While living in Cologne, they created and served as editors for a new daily newspaper called the Neue Rheinische Zeitung.[12] Besides Marx and Engels, other frequent contributors to the Neue Rheinische Zeitung included Karl Schapper, Wilhelm Wolff, Ernst Dronke, Peter Nothjung, Heinrich Bürgers, Ferdinand Wolf and Carl Cramer.[41] Frederick Engels' mother, herself, gives unwitting witness to the effect of the Neue Rheinische Zeitung on the revolutionary uprising in Cologne in 1848. Criticizing his involvement in the uprising she states in a December 5, 1848 letter to Frederick that "nobody, ourselves included, doubted that the meetings at which you and your friends spoke, and also the language of (Neue) Rh.Z. were largely the cause of these disturbances."[42] At the time of this letter, Frederick Engels's even more dangerous involvement in the revolutionary uprisings in Baden and the Palatinate in 1849, still lay ahead him. Engels' parents hoped that young Frederick would "decide to turn to activities other than those which you have been pursing in recent years and which have caused so much distress."[43] At this point Frederick's parents felt the only hope for Frederick was to emigrate to America and start his life over. They told him that he should do this or he would "cease to receive money from us."[43] However, the problem in the relations between Frederick and his parents was worked out without Engels having to leave England or to be cut off from any financial assistance from his parents. In July 1851, Frederick Engels father arrived to visit him in Manchester, England. During the visit his father arranged for Frederick to Peter Ermen of the office of Ermond & Engels to move to Liverpool, England and for young Frederick to take over sole management of the office in Manchester, England.[44]
Starting in with an article called "The Magyar Struggle" written on January 8, 1849, Frederick Engels, himself, began a series of reports on the Revolution and War for Independence of the newly founded Hungarian Republic.[45] Engels' articles on the Hungarian Republic became a regular feature in the Neue Rheinische Zeitung under the heading: "From the Theater of War."[46]
However, during the June 1849 Prussian coup d'état the newspaper was suppressed. After the coup, Marx lost his Prussian citizenship, was deported, and fled to Paris and then London. Engels stayed in Prussia and took part in an armed uprising in South Germany as an aide-de-camp in the volunteer corps of August Willich.[47][48][49] Engels also brought two cases of rifle cartridges with him when he went to join the uprising in Elberfeld on May 10. 1849.[50] Later when Prussian troops came to Kaiserlautern to suppress an uprising there, Engels joined a group of volunteers under the command of August Willich, who were going to fight the Prussian troops.[51] When the uprising was crushed, Engels was one of the last members of Willich's volunteers to escape by crossing the Swiss border. Marx and others became concerned for Engels life until they finally heard from him.[52] Engels traveled through Switzerland as a refugee and eventually made it to safety in England.[7] On June 6, 1849 Prussian authorities issued an arrest warrant for Frederick Engels which contains a physical description of Frederick Engels as "height: 5 feet 6 inches; hair: blond; forehead: smooth; eyebrows: blond; eyes: blue; nose and mouth: well proportioned; beard: reddish; chin: oval; face: oval; complexion: healthy; figure: slender. Special characteristics: speaks very rapidly and is short-sighted."[53] As to his "short-sightedness," Engels, himself, admitted as much in a letter written to Joseph Weyedemeyer on June 19, 1851 in which he says he was not worried about being selected for the Prussian military because of "my eye trouble, as I have now found out once and for all which renders me completely unfit for active service of any sort."[54] Once he was safely in Switzerland, Engels began to write down all his memories of the recent military campaign against the Prussians. This writing eventually became the article published under the name "The Campaign for the German Imperial Constitution."[55]
Back in Britain[link]
In order to help Marx with the new publishing effort in London, Neue Rheinsche Zeitung Politisch-ökonomische Revue, Engels sought ways to escape the continent and travel to London. On October 5, 1849, Engels arrived in the Italian port city of Genoa.[56] In Genoa, Engels booked passage on the English schooner, Cornish Diamond under the command of a Captain Stevens.[57] The voyage across the western Mediterraean, around the Iberian Peninsula by sailing schooner took about five weeks. However, finally on November 10, 1849 the Cornish Diamond sailed up the Thames River to London with Engels on board.[58]
Once Engels made it to Britain, Engels decided to re-enter the Manchester company in which his father held shares, in order to be able to support Marx financially so he could work on his masterpiece "Das Kapital". Engels didn't like the work but did it for the good of the cause.[59][60] Unlike the first time he lived in England, in 1843, this time, Engels was under surveillance from the secret police, and had `official' homes and `unofficial homes' all over inner city Manchester where he lived with Mary Burns under false names to confuse the police.[25] Despite his work at the mill, Engels found time to wrote his monumental work on Luther, the Reformation and and the revolutionary war of the peasants in 1525. This work was entitled The Peasant War in Germany.[61] Engels also wrote some important newspaper articles like "The Campaign for the German Imperial Constitution which he finished in February 1850,"[62] and "On the Slogan of the Abolition of the State and the German 'Friends of Anarchy'" written in October 1850.[63] In April 1851, Engels wrote the pamphlet, "Conditions and Prospects of a War of the Holy Alliance against France."[64]
When Louis Bonaparte carried out a coup against the French government and made himself president for life on December 2, 1851, Marx and Engels, like many people, were shocked. In condemning this action, Engels wrote to Marx on December 3, 1851 about the coup.[65] Engels characterized the coup as "comical"[66] and referred to coup as occurring on "the 18th Brumaire"--the date of the coup according to the 1799 republican calendar of France under Napoleon I.[67] Marx was later to incorporate this comically ironic characterization of Louis Bonaparte's coup into his book on the coup. Indeed, Marx even called the book "The Eighteenth Brumaire of Lois Bonaparte" again using Engels suggested characterization of the coup.[68] Marx also borrowed Engels quote of Hegel that "history occurred twice, once as a tragedy and secondly as a farce" on the very first paragraph of his new book.[69]
Meanwhile, while working at the mill in Manchester, England owned by his father, Engels started off working as an office clerk, the same position he held in his teens while in Germany where is father's company was based. However, Frederick worked his way up to become a partner of the firm in 1864. Five years later, Engels retired from the business and could focus more on his studies.[12] At this time, Marx was living in London but they were able to exchange ideas through daily correspondence. One of the ideas that Engels and Marx contemplated was the possibility and character of a potential revolution in the Russia. As early as April 1853, Engels and Marx anticipated an "aristocratic-bourgeois revolution in Russia[70] which would begin in "St. Petersburg with a resulting civil war in the interior."[71] The model for this type of aristocratic-bourgeois revolution in Russia against the autocratic czarist government in favor of a constitutional government had been provided by the Decembrist Revolt of 1825.[72] Although an unsuccessful revolt against the czarist government in favor of a constitutional government, both Engels and Marx anticipated a bourgeois revolution in Russia would occur which would bring about a bourgeois stage in Russian development which would precede a communist stage. However, by 1881, both Marx and Engels began to contemplate a course of development in Russia that would lead directly to the communist stage without the intervening bourgeois stage. This analysis was based on what Marx and Engels saw as the exceptional characteristics of the Russian village commune or the mir.[73] However, later doubt was cast on this theory by Georgi Plekhanov.
How Engels lived in Weaste until 1869 is open to speculation as he destroyed over 1500 letters between himself and his friend after Marx's death, so as not to expose their secret life in the north west.[25]
In 1870, Engels moved to London where he and Marx lived until Marx's death in 1883.[7] His London home at this time and until his death was 122 Regent's Park Road, Primrose Hill, NW1.[74] Marx's first London residence was a cramped apartment at 28 Dean Street, Soho. From 1856, he lived at 9 Grafton Terrace, Kentish Town, and then in a tenement at 41 Maitland Park Road from 1875 until his death.[75]
Later years[link]
After Marx's death, Engels devoted much of his remaining years to editing Marx's unfinished volumes of Capital. However, he also contributed significantly to other areas. Engels made an argument using anthropological evidence of the time to show that family structures have changed over history, and that the concept of monogamous marriage came from the necessity within class society for men to control women to ensure their own children would inherit their property. He argued a future communist society would allow people to make decisions about their relationships free from economic constraints. One of the best examples of Engels' thoughts on these issues are in his work The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State.
Engels died of throat cancer in London in 1895.[76] Following cremation at Woking Crematorium, his ashes were scattered off Beachy Head, near Eastbourne as he had requested.[76][77]
Personality[link]
Engels is commonly known as a "ruthless party tactician", "brutal ideologue", and "master tactician" when it came to purging rivals in political organizations. However, another strand of Engels’s personality was one of a "gregarious", "bighearted", and "jovial man of outsize appetites", who was referred to by his son-in-law as "the great beheader of champagne bottles."[23] His interests included poetry, fox hunting, and he hosted regular Sunday parties for London’s left-wing intelligentsia where as one regular put it, "no one left before 2 or 3 in the morning." His stated personal motto was "take it easy", while "jollity" was listed as his favorite virtue.[79]
Tristram Hunt, author of Marx’s General: The Revolutionary Life of Friedrich Engels, sums up the disconnect between Engel's personality, and those Soviets who later utilized his works, stating:
As to the religious persuasion attributable to Engels, Hunt writes:
"In that sense the latent rationality of Christianity comes to permeate the everyday experience of the modern world— its values are now variously incarnated in the family, civil society, and the state. What Engels particularly embraced in all of this was an idea of modern pantheism (or, rather, pandeism), a merging of divinity with progressing humanity, a happy dialectical synthesis that freed him from the fixed oppositions of the pietist ethos of devout longing and estrangement. “Through Strauss I have now entered on the straight road to Hegelianism. . . . The Hegelian idea of God has already become mine, and thus I am joining the ranks of the 'modern pantheists",' Engels wrote in one of his final letters to the soon-to-be-discarded Graebers."
- Marx's General: The Revolutionary Life of Friedrich Engels By Tristram Hunt. 2010. Page 43.
Ideological legacy[link]
Lenin wrote: "After his friend Karl Marx (who died in 1883), Engels was the finest scholar and teacher of the modern proletariat in the whole civilised world...In their scientific works, Marx and Engels were the first to explain that socialism is not the invention of dreamers, but the final aim and necessary result of the development of the productive forces in modern society. All recorded history hitherto has been a history of class struggle, of the succession of the rule and victory of certain social classes over others."[80]
But Tristram Hunt argues that Engels has become a convenient scapegoat, too easily blamed for the state crimes of the Soviet Union, Communist Southeast Asia and China. "Engels is left holding the bag of 20th century ideological extremism," Hunt writes, "while Marx is rebranded as the acceptable, postpolitical seer of global capitalism."[23] Hunt largely exonerates Engels stating that "in no intelligible sense can Engels or Marx bear culpability for the crimes of historical actors carried out generations later, even if the policies were offered up in their honor."[23]
Other writers, while admitting the distance between Marx and Engels and Stalin, are less charitable, noting for example that the anarchist Bakunin predicted the oppressive potential of their ideas. "It is a fallacy that Marxism's flaws were exposed only after it was tried out in power.... [Marx and Engels] were centralizers. While talking about 'free associations of producers', they advocated discipline and hierarchy." [81]
Paul Thomas, of the University of California, Berkeley, claims that while Engels had been the most important and dedicated facilitator and diffuser of Marx's writings, he significantly altered Marx's intents as he held, edited and released in a finished form, and commentated on them. Engels attempted to fill gaps in Marx's system and to extend it to other fields. He stressed in particular Historical Materialism, assigning it a character of scientific discovery and a doctrine, indeed forming Marxism as such. A case in point is Anti-Dühring, which supporters of socialism, like its detractors, treated as an encompassing presentation of Marx's thought. And while in his extensive correspondence with German socialists Engels modestly presented his own secondary place in the couple's intellectual relationship and always emphasized Marx' outstanding role, Russian communists like Lenin raised Engels up with Marx and conflated their thoughts as if they were necessarily congruous. Soviet Marxists then developed this tendency to the state doctrine of Dialectical Materialism.[82]
Major works[link]
[edit] The Holy Family (1844)
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The Holy Family was a book written by Marx & Engels in November 1844. The book is a critique on the Young Hegelians and their trend of thought which was very popular in academic circles at the time. The title was a suggestion by the publisher and is meant as a sarcastic reference to the Bauer Brothers and their supporters.[83]
The book created a controversy with much of the press and caused Bruno Bauer to attempt to refute the book in an article which was published in Wigand's Vierteljahrsschrift in 1845. Bauer claimed that Marx and Engels misunderstood what he was trying to say. Marx later replied to his response with his own article that was published in the journal Gesellschaftsspiegel in January 1846. Marx also discussed the argument in chapter 2 of The German Ideology.[83]
[edit] The Condition of the Working Class in England (1844)
Main article: The Condition of the Working Class in England in 1844
The Condition of the Working Class in England is a detailed description and analysis of the appalling conditions of the working class in Britain during Engels' stay in Manchester and Salford. The work also contains seminal thoughts on the state of socialism and its development. It was considered a classic in its time and must have been an eye-opener for most Germans. The work is still widely available today.
[edit] Herr Eugen Dühring's Revolution in Science (1878)
Main article: Anti-Dühring
Popularly known as Anti-Dühring, Herr Eugen Dühring's Revolution in Science is a detailed critique of the philosophical positions of Eugen Dühring, a German philosopher and critic of Marxism. In the course of replying to Dühring, Engels reviews recent advances in science and mathematics and seeks to demonstrate the way in which the concepts of dialectics apply to natural phenomena. Many of these ideas were later developed in the unfinished work, Dialectics of Nature. The last section of Anti-Dühring was later edited and published under the separate title, Socialism: Utopian and Scientific.
[edit] Socialism: Utopian and Scientific (1880)
Main article: Socialism: Utopian and Scientific
In what Engels presented as an extraordinarily popular piece,[84] Engels critiques the utopian socialists, such as Fourier and Owen, and provides an explanation of the socialist framework for understanding capitalism, and an outline of the progression of social and economic development from the perspective of historical materialism.
[edit] The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State (1884)
Main article: The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State
The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State is an important and detailed seminal work connecting capitalism with what Engels argues is an ever-changing institution – the family. It was written when Engels was 64 years of age and at the height of his intellectual power and contains a comprehensive historical view of the family in relation to the issues of class, female subjugation and private property.
Sources[link]
- Carlton, Grace (1965), Friedrich Engels: The Shadow Prophet. London: Pall Mall Press
- Carver, Terrell. (1989). Friedrich Engels: His Life and Thought. London: Macmillan
- Green, John (2008), Engels: A Revolutionary Life, London: Artery Publications. ISBN 0-9558228-0-7
- Henderson, W. O. (1976), The life of Friedrich Engels, London : Cass, 1976. ISBN 0-7146-4002-6
- Hunt, Tristram (2009), The Frock-Coated Communist: The Revolutionary Life of Friedrich Engels, London: Allen Lane. ISBN 978-0-7139-9852-8
- Mayer, Gustav (1936), Friedrich Engels: A Biography (1934; trans. 1936)
Notes and references[link]
- ^ The "Theories of Surplus Value" are contained in theCollected Works of Marx and Englels: Volumes 30, 31 and 32 (International Publishers: New York, 1988).
- ^ A copy of Frederick Engels' birth certificate is located on page 577 of the Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 2 (New York: International Publishers, 1975).
- ^ Frederick Engels. "Letters of Marx and Engels, 1845". Marxists.org. http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1845/letters/45_03_17.htm. Retrieved 2010-02-13.
- ^ Elisabeth Engels' letter contained at No. 6 of the Appendix in the Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 38 (International Publishers: New York, 1982) pp. 540-541.
- ^ Elisabeth Engels' letter contained at No. 6 of the Appendix in the Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 38, pp.540-541.
- ^ Elisabeth Engels'letter contained at No. 6 of the Appendix of the Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 38, p. 541.
- ^ a b c d e f "Lenin: Frederick Engels". Marxists.org. http://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1895/misc/engels-bio.htm. Retrieved 2010-02-13.
- ^ a b Tucker, Robert C. The Marx-Engels Reader, p.xv
- ^ Progress Publishers. "Preface by Progress Publishers". Marxists.org. http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/cw/volume02/preface.htm. Retrieved 2010-02-13.
- ^ "Footnotes to Volume 1 of Marx Engels Collected Works". Marxists.org. 1941-11-15. http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/cw/volume02/footnote.htm#188. Retrieved 2010-02-13.
- ^ Heinrich Gemkow et al., Frederick Engels: A Biography (Verlag Zeit im Bild: Dresden, Germany, 1972) p. 53.
- ^ a b c d "Biography on Engels". Marxists.org. http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/bio/engels/en-1893.htm. Retrieved 2010-02-13.
- ^ a b "Legacies - Work - England - Manchester - Engels in Manchester - Article Page 1". BBC. http://www.bbc.co.uk/legacies/work/england/manchester/article_1.shtml. Retrieved 2010-02-13.
- ^ Salford Star issue 6 Winter 2007, read on http://www.salfordstar.com/article.asp?id=461
- ^ Wheen, Francis Karl Marx: A Life, p. 75
- ^ Heinrich Gemkow et al., Frederick Engels: A Biography (Verlag Zeit im Bild: Dresden, Germany, 1972) pp. 53-54.
- ^ a b "Legacies - Work - England - Manchester - Engels in Manchester - Article Page 2". BBC. http://www.bbc.co.uk/legacies/work/england/manchester/article_2.shtml. Retrieved 2010-02-13.
- ^ "Friedrich Engels in Manchester", Roy Whitfield, 1988
- ^ Carver, Terrell (2003). Engels: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press. pp. 71–72.
- ^ Draper, Hal (1970-07). "Marx and Engels on Women's Liberation". International Socialism. http://www.marxists.org/archive/draper/1970/07/women.htm. Retrieved 2011-11-29.
- ^ "Outline of a Critique of Political Economy" in contained in the Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 3 (International Publishers: New York, 1975) pp. 418-445.
- ^ The three part series of articles called The Condition of England is contained in the Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 3 p. 444-513.
- ^ a b c d e f Fox Hunter, Party Animal, Leftist Warrior by Dwight Garner, The New York Times, August 18, 2009
- ^ The Condition of the Working Class in England is contained in the Collected Works of Marx and Engels: Volume 4 (International Publishers: New York, 1975) pp. 295-596.
- ^ a b c Salford Star issue 6 Winter 2007, "Friedrich Engels in Salford" part 1 - read on http://www.salfordstar.com/article.asp?id=456
- ^ Karl Marx. "Introduction to the French Edition of Engels' by Karl Marx 1880". Marxists.org. http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1880/05/04.htm. Retrieved 2010-02-13.
- ^ Whitfield, Roy (1988) The Double Life of Friedrich Engels. In: Manchester Region History Review, vol. 2, no. 1, 1988
- ^ P. N. Fedoseyev, Karl Marx: A Biography (Progress Publishers: Moscow, 1973) pp. 41-42 & 49.
- ^ Karl Marx and Frederick Engels, Collected Works: Volume 4 p. 424.
- ^ "The Holy Family" is located in the Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 4, pp. 3 through 211.
- ^ P. N. Fedoseyev et al., Karl Marx: A Biography pp. 57-58.
- ^ Karl Marx and Frederick Engels, "Letter from Marx to Ruge" (January 15, 1845) contained in Collected Works: Volume 38, p. 15.
- ^ Heinrich Gemkow et al., Frederick Engels: A Biography p. 625.
- ^ Heinrich Gemkow et al. Frederick Engels: A Biography p. 625.
- ^ German Ideology is located in the Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels pp. 19 through 539.
- ^ Heinrich Gemkow et al., Frederick Engels: A Biography p. 101.
- ^ Isaiah Berlin, Karl Marx: His Life and Environment (Oxford University Press: Oxford, England, 1963) pp. 159-160.
- ^ Isaiah Berlin, Karl Marx: His Life and Environment p. 160.
- ^ P. N.Fedoseyev et al., Karl Marx: A Biography (Progess Publishers: Moscow, 1973) pp. 86-88.)
- ^ Karl Marx and Frederick Engels, Manifesto of the Communist Party contained in the Collected Works Volume 6 pp. 477-517.
- ^ Karl Marx and Frederick Engels, "Banquet in Gűrzenich" contained in the Collected Works: Volume 9 (International Publishers: New York, 1977) p. 490.
- ^ Elisabeth Engels' letter to Frederick Engels contained at No. 8 of the Appendix in the Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 38, p. 543.
- ^ a b Elisabeth Engels' letter contained at No. 8 of the Appendix in the Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 38, p. 543.
- ^ Frederick Engels letter to Karl Marx dated July 6, 1851 and contained at No. 186 of the Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 38, p. 378.
- ^ Karl Marx and Frederick Engels, "The Magyar Struggle" contained in Collected Works: Volume 8, pp. 227-238.
- ^ See Karl Marx and Frederick Engels, Collected Works: Volume 8, pp. 451-480 and Volume 9, pp. 9-463.
- ^ "Engels, Frederick (encyclopedia)". Marxists.org. http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/bio/engels/en-1892.htm. Retrieved 2010-02-13.
- ^ Isaiah Berlin, Karl Marx: His Life and Environment, 4th ed. 1978, New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996, p. 130, ISBN 978-0-19-510326-7.
- ^ Mike Rapport, 1848 Year of Revolution, London: Little Brown, 2008, p. 342, ISBN 978-0-316-72965-9.
- ^ Karl Marx and Frederick Engels, "Elberfeld" contained in the Collected Works: Volume 9 (International Publishers: New York, 1977) p. 447.
- ^ Heinrich Gemkow, et al., Frederick Engels: A Biography (Verlag Zeit im Bild: Dresden, 1972) p.205.
- ^ "Letter from Engels to Jenny Marx" (July 25, 1849) contained in the Collected Works: Volume 38 p. 202-204.
- ^ Karl Marx and Frederick Engels, Collected Works: Volume 9, p. 524,
- ^ Frederick Engels letter contained at No. 183 of the Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 38, p. 370.
- ^ Karl Marx and Frederick Engels, Collected Works: Volume 10, p. 147.
- ^ See the "Letter to from Engels to George Julian Harney" dated October 5, 1849 in the Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 38 p. 217.
- ^ Karl Marx and Frederick Engels, "Letter from Engels to George Julian Harney (October 5, 1849) Collected Works: Volume 38 p. 217.
- ^ Heinrich Gemkow et al., Frederick Engels: A Biography p. 213.
- ^ "Legacies - Work - England - Manchester - Engels in Manchester - Article Page 4". BBC. http://www.bbc.co.uk/legacies/work/england/manchester/article_4.shtml. Retrieved 2010-02-13.
- ^ "Legacies - Work - England - Manchester - Engels in Manchester - Article Page 5". BBC. http://www.bbc.co.uk/legacies/work/england/manchester/article_5.shtml. Retrieved 2010-02-13.
- ^ "The Peasant War in Germany" is contained in the Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 10 pp. 397 through 482.
- ^ The article called "The Campaign for the German Imperial Constitution" is contained in the Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 10 p. 147
- ^ The article "On the Slogan of the Abolition of the State and the German 'Friends of Anarchy'" is contained in the Collected Works of Marx and Engels: Volume 10 p. 486.
- ^ The pamphlet "Conditions and Prospects of a War of the Holy Alliance against France" is contained in the Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 10 p. 542.
- ^ Frederick Engels' letter to Karl Marx dated December 3, 1851 contained in the "Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 38", p. 503.
- ^ Frederick Engels' letter to Karl Marx contained in the "Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 38", p. 503.
- ^ See note 517 located at page 635 in the "Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 38.
- ^ Karl Marx, "The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte" contained in the Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 11, p. 98.
- ^ Karl Marx, "The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte" contained in the Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 11, p. 103.
- ^ See the letter from Frederick Engels to Joseph Weydemeyer dated April 12, 1853 contained in the Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 39 (New York: International Publishers, 1983) pp. 305-306.
- ^ Letter from Fredereick Engels to Joseph Weydemeyer dated April 12, 1853 contained in the Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 39, p. 306.
- ^ W. Bruce Lincoln, The Romanovs: Autocrats of All the Russias (New York: Dial Press, 1981) pp. 408-413.
- ^ See the letter from Karl Marx to Vera Zasulich contained in the Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 46, (New York: International Press, 1992) pp. 71-72.
- ^ Plaque #213 on Open Plaques. - Accessed July 2010
- ^ "Photos of Marx's Residence(s)". Marxists.org. http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/photo/places/index.htm. Retrieved 2010-02-13.
- ^ a b "Letters: Marx-Engels Correspondence 1895". Marxists.org. http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1895/letters/95_05_21.htm. Retrieved 2010-02-13.
- ^ Kerrigan, Michael (1998). Who Lies Where - A guide to famous graves. London: Fourth Estate Limited. p. 156. ISBN 1-85702-258-0.
- ^ Manchester Photographers by Gillian Read. Ed. Royal Photographic Society's Historical Group, 1982: „George Lester, 51, King Street , Manchester (1863-1868). See the photo in Jenny Marx album too.
- ^ Frederick Engels. "Frederick Engels’ "Confession"". Marxists.org. http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1868/04/01.htm. Retrieved 2011-01-25.
- ^ Vladimir Ilyich Lenin. "Frederick Engels". Marxists.org. http://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1895/misc/engels-bio.htm. Retrieved 2011-01-25.
- ^ Robert Service, Comrades: A World History of Communism (Londo: Macmillan, 2007) p. 37
- ^ Thomas, Paul (1991), "Critical Reception: Marx then and now", in Carver, Terrell, The Cambridge Companion to Marx, Cambridge University Press, pp. 36–42
- ^ a b "The Holy Family by Marx and Engels". Marxists.org. http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1845/holy-family/index.htm. Retrieved 2010-02-13.
- ^ Engels, Friedrich (1970) [1892]. "Introduction". Socialism: Utopian and Scientific. Marx/Engels Selected Works. 3. Progress Publishers. http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1880/soc-utop/index.htm. "From this French text, a Polish and a Spanish edition were prepared. In 1883, our German friends brought out the pamphlet in the original language. Italian, Russian, Danish, Dutch, and Roumanian translations, based upon the German text, have since been published. Thus, the present English edition, this little book circulates in 10 languages. I am not aware that any other Socialist work, not even our Communist Manifesto of 1848, or Marx's Capital, has been so often translated. In Germany, it has had four editions of about 20,000 copies in all." Cited in Carver, Terrell (2003). Engels: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press. p. 56. and Thomas, Paul (1991), "Critical Reception: Marx then and now", in Carver, Terrell, The Cambridge Companion to Marx, Cambridge University Press
External links[link]
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Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Friedrich Engels |
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Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Friedrich Engels |
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Wikisource has original works written by or about: |
- Marx/Engels Biographical Archive
- The Legend of Marx, or “Engels the founder” by Maximilien Rubel
- Reason in Revolt: Marxism and Modern Science
- Engels: The Che Guevara of his Day
- The Brave New World: Tristram Hunt On Marx and Engels' Revolutionary Vision
- German Biography from dhm.de
Works by Engels[link]
- The Marx & Engels Internet Archive at Marxists.org
- Marx and Engels in their native German language
- Works by Friedrich Engels at Project Gutenberg
- Libcom.org/library Frederick Engels archive
- Works by Friedrich Engels (in German) at Zeno.org
- Pathfinder Press
- Friedrich Engels, “On Rifled Cannon," articles from the New York Tribune, April, May and June, 1860, reprinted in Military Affairs 21, no. 4 (Winter 1957) ed. Morton Borden, 193-198.
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| Persondata | |
|---|---|
| Name | Engels, Friedrich |
| Alternative names | |
| Short description | German political philosopher |
| Date of birth | 28 November 1820 |
| Place of birth | Wuppertal, Germany |
| Date of death | 5 August 1895 |
| Place of death | London, England |
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| Genco Erkal | |
|---|---|
| Born | (1938-03-28) 28 March 1938 (age 74) Istanbul, Turkey |
| Occupation | Actor |
| Years active | 1974 - present |
Genco Erkal (born 28 March 1938) is a Turkish film actor. He starred in the 1983 film A Season in Hakkari, which won the Silver Bear - Special Jury Prize at the 33rd Berlin International Film Festival.[1]
Selected filmography[link]
- A Season in Hakkari (1983)
- The Market: A Tale of Trade (2008)
- Sleeping Princess (2010)
References[link]
- ^ "Berlinale: 1983 Prize Winners". berlinale.de. http://www.berlinale.de/en/archiv/jahresarchive/1983/03_preistr_ger_1983/03_Preistraeger_1983.html. Retrieved 2010-11-18.
External links[link]
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| Persondata | |
|---|---|
| Name | Erkal, Genco |
| Alternative names | |
| Short description | Actor |
| Date of birth | 1938-3-28 |
| Place of birth | Istanbul, Turkey |
| Date of death | |
| Place of death | |
 |
This article about a Turkish actor or actress is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. |
http://wn.com/Genco_Erkal
This page contains text from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genco_Erkal
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This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
| Historical School | |
|---|---|
 |
|
| Born | (1883-02-08)8 February 1883 Triesch, Moravia, Austria–Hungary (now Třešť, Czech Republic) |
| Died | 8 January 1950(1950-01-08) (aged 66) Taconic, Connecticut, U.S. |
| Institution | Harvard University 1932–50 University of Bonn 1925–32 Biedermann Bank 1921–24 University of Graz 1912–14 University of Czernowitz 1909-11 |
| Field | Economics |
| Alma mater | University of Vienna |
| Opposed | Karl Marx, John Maynard Keynes |
| Influences | Tocqueville, Marx, Spencer, Menger, Böhm-Bawerk, Wieser, Schmoller, Weber, Sombart, Durkheim, Walras, Pareto, Juglar, Kondratiev, Wicksell |
| Influenced | Christopher Freeman, Dahl, Kirzner, Hicks, Friedman, Samuelson, Tobin, Williams, Bergson, Georgescu-Roegen, Heilbroner, Huntington, Wallerstein |
| Contributions | Business cycles Economic development Entrepreneurship Evolutionary economics |
Joseph Alois Schumpeter (8 February 1883 – 8 January 1950)[1] was an Austrian-Hungarian-American economist and political scientist. He popularized the term "creative destruction" in economics.[2]
Contents
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Life[link]
Born in Třešť, Habsburg Moravia (now Czech Republic, then part of Austria-Hungary) in 1883 to Catholic ethnic German parents. His father owned a factory, but he died when Joseph was only four years old. In 1893, Joseph and his mother moved to Vienna.[3]
Schumpeter began his career studying law at the University of Vienna under the Austrian capital theorist Eugen von Böhm-Bawerk, taking his PhD in 1906. In 1909, after some study trips, he became a professor of economics and government at the University of Czernowitz. In 1911 he joined the University of Graz, where he remained until World War I. In 1919, he served briefly as the Austrian Minister of Finance, with some success, and in 1920–1924, as president of the private Biedermann Bank. That bank, along with a great part of that regional economy, collapsed in 1924 leaving Schumpeter bankrupt.
From 1925 to 1932, he held a chair at the University of Bonn, Germany. He lectured at Harvard in 1927–1928 and 1930. In 1931 he was a visiting professor at The Tokyo College of Commerce. In 1932 he moved to the United States, in 1939 he became an US citizen. Schumpeter had a highly conservative political attitude. In the beginning of WWII, the FBI investigated him for pro-Nazi leanings, but no evidence was found that he had any sympathies for Nazism.[3]
During his Harvard years he was not generally considered a good classroom teacher, but he acquired a school of loyal followers[citation needed]. His prestige among colleagues was likewise not very high because his views seemed outdated and not in tune with the then-fashionable Keynesianism. This period of his life was characterized by hard work but little recognition of his core ideas.
Although Schumpeter encouraged some young mathematical economists and was even the president of the Econometric Society (1940–41), Schumpeter was not a mathematician, but rather an economist, and tried instead to integrate sociological understanding into his economic theories. From current thought it has been argued that Schumpeter's ideas on business cycles and economic development could not be captured in the mathematics of his day – they need the language of non-linear dynamical systems to be partially formalized.
Schumpeter claimed that he had set himself three goals in life: to be the greatest economist in the world, to be the best horseman in all of Austria and the greatest lover in all of Vienna. He said he had reached two of his goals, but he never said which two,[4][5] although he is reported to have said that there were too many fine horsemen in Austria for him to succeed in all his aspirations![6]
He died in his home in Taconic, Connecticut, at the age of 66, on the night of 7 January 1950.[7]
He was married three times, first to Gladys Ricarde Seaver, an Englishwoman nearly 12 years his senior (married 1907, separated 1913, divorced 1925); then to Anna Reisinger, the daughter of the concierge of the apartment where he grew up, twenty years his junior; they married in 1925; she died in childbirth along with their newborn son, two months after the death of Schumpeter's mother; and finally, in 1937, he married the American Elizabeth Boody, who possessed a PhD in English and business cycles, and helped him to popularize his work.[8]
Most important work[link]
Influences[link]
The source of Joseph Schumpeter's dynamic, change-oriented, and innovation-based economics was the Historical School of economics. Although his writings could be critical of the School, Schumpeter's work on the role of innovation and entrepreneurship can be seen as a continuation of ideas originated by the Historical School, especially the work of Gustav von Schmoller and Werner Sombart.[9][10]
Evolutionary economics[link]
Main article: Evolutionary economics
 |
This section may be confusing or unclear to readers. Please help clarify the section; suggestions may be found on the talk page. (March 2009) |
According to Christopher Freeman (2009), a scholar who devoted much time researching Schumpeter's work: "the central point of his whole life work [is]: that capitalism can only be understood as an evolutionary process of continuous innovation and 'creative destruction' [This] is still not taken into the bosom of mainstream theory, although many now pay lip service to it."[11]
[edit] History of Economic Analysis
Schumpeter's scholarship is apparent in his posthumous History of Economic Analysis, although some of his judgments seem idiosyncratic and sometimes cavalier. For instance, Schumpeter thought that the greatest 18th century economist was Turgot, not Adam Smith, as many consider, and he considered Léon Walras to be the "greatest of all economists", beside whom other economists' theories were "like inadequate attempts to catch some particular aspects of Walrasian truth".[12] Schumpeter criticized John Maynard Keynes and David Ricardo for the "Ricardian vice." According to Schumpeter, Ricardo and Keynes reasoned in terms of abstract models, where they would freeze all but a few variables. Then they could argue that one caused the other in a simple monotonic fashion. This led to the belief that one could easily deduce policy conclusions directly from a highly abstract theoretical model.
Business cycles[link]
Schumpeter's relationships with the ideas of other economists were quite complex in his most important contributions to economic analysis – the theory of business cycles and development. Following neither Walras nor Keynes, Schumpeter starts in The Theory of Economic Development[13] with a treatise of circular flow which, excluding any innovations and innovative activities, leads to a stationary state. The stationary state is, according to Schumpeter, described by Walrasian equilibrium. The hero of his story is the entrepreneur.
| Economic Waves series (see Business cycles) |
|
| Cycle/Wave Name | Years |
|---|---|
| Kitchin inventory | 3–5 |
| Juglar fixed investment | 7–11 |
| Kuznets infrastructural investment | 15–25 |
| Kondratiev wave | 45–60 |
The entrepreneur disturbs this equilibrium and is the prime cause of economic development, which proceeds in cyclic fashion along several time scales. In fashioning this theory connecting innovations, cycles, and development, Schumpeter kept alive the Russian Nikolai Kondratiev's ideas on 50-year cycles, Kondratiev waves.
Schumpeter suggested a model in which the four main cycles, Kondratiev (54 years), Kuznets (18 years), Juglar (9 years) and Kitchin (about 4 years) can be added together to form a composite waveform. Actually there was considerable professional rivalry between Schumpeter and Kuznets. The wave form suggested here did not include the Kuznets Cycle simply because Schumpeter did not recognize it as a valid cycle[clarification needed]. See "Business Cycle" for further information. A Kondratiev wave could consist of three lower degree Kuznets waves.[14] Each Kuznets wave could, itself, be made up of two Juglar waves. Similarly two (or three) Kitchin waves could form a higher degree Juglar wave. If each of these were in phase, more importantly if the downward arc of each was simultaneous so that the nadir of each was coincident it would explain disastrous slumps and consequent depressions. As far as the segmentation of the Kondratiev Wave, Schumpeter never proposed such a fixed model. He saw these cycles varying in time – although in a tight time frame by coincidence – and for each to serve a specific purpose.
Schumpeter and Keynesianism[link]
Unlike Keynes, in Schumpeter's theory, Walrasian equilibrium is not adequate to capture the key mechanisms of economic development. Schumpeter also thought that the institution enabling the entrepreneur to purchase the resources needed to realize his or her vision was a well-developed capitalist financial system, including a whole range of institutions for granting credit. One could divide economists among (1) those who emphasized "real" analysis and regarded money as merely a "veil" and (2) those who thought monetary institutions are important and money could be a separate driving force. Both Schumpeter and Keynes were among the latter.
Schumpeter and capitalism's demise[link]
Schumpeter's most popular book in English is probably Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy. This book opens with a treatment of Karl Marx. While he is sympathetic to Marx's theory that capitalism will collapse and will be replaced by socialism, Schumpeter concludes that this will not come about in the way Marx predicted. To describe it he borrowed the phrase "creative destruction", and made it famous by using it to describe a process in which the old ways of doing things are endogenously destroyed and replaced by new ways.
Schumpeter's theory is that the success of capitalism will lead to a form of corporatism and a fostering of values hostile to capitalism, especially among intellectuals. The intellectual and social climate needed to allow entrepreneurship to thrive will not exist in advanced capitalism; it will be replaced by socialism in some form. There will not be a revolution, but merely a trend in parliaments to elect social democratic parties of one stripe or another. He argued that capitalism's collapse from within will come about as democratic majorities vote for restrictions upon entrepreneurship that will burden and destroy the capitalist structure, but also emphasizes non-political, evolutionary processes in society where "liberal capitalism" was evolving into democratic socialism because of the growth of workers' self-management, industrial democracy and regulatory institutions.[15] Schumpeter emphasizes throughout this book that he is analyzing trends, not engaging in political advocacy. In his vision, the intellectual class will play an important role in capitalism's demise. The term "intellectuals" denotes a class of persons in a position to develop critiques of societal matters for which they are not directly responsible and able to stand up for the interests of strata to which they themselves do not belong. One of the great advantages of capitalism, he argues, is that as compared with pre-capitalist periods, when education was a privilege of the few, more and more people acquire (higher) education. The availability of fulfilling work is, however, limited, and this lack, coupled with the experience of unemployment, produces discontent. The intellectual class is then able to organize protest and develop critical ideas.
Schumpeter and democratic theory[link]
In the same book, Schumpeter expounded a theory of democracy which sought to challenge what he called the "classical doctrine". He disputed the idea that democracy was a process by which the electorate identified the common good, and politicians carried this out for them. He argued this was unrealistic, and that people's ignorance and superficiality meant that in fact they were largely manipulated by politicians, who set the agenda. This made a 'rule by the people' concept both unlikely and undesirable. Instead he advocated a minimalist model, much influenced by Max Weber, whereby democracy is the mechanism for competition between leaders, much like a market structure. Although periodic votes by the general public legitimize governments and keep them accountable, the policy program is very much seen as their own and not that of the people, and the participatory role for individuals is usually severely limited.
Schumpeter and entrepreneurship[link]
The research of entrepreneurship owes much to his contributions. He was probably the first scholar to develop theories in this field. His fundamental theories are often referred to as Mark I and Mark II. In the first one, the early one, Schumpeter argued that the innovation and technological change of a nation come from the entrepreneurs, or wild spirits. He coined the word Unternehmergeist, German for entrepreneur-spirit. Mark II was developed when Schumpeter was a professor at Harvard. He asserted that the agents that drive innovation and the economy are large companies which have the resources and capital to invest in research and development. These arguments may be complementary today.
Schumpeter and innovation[link]
Schumpeter identified innovation as the critical dimension of economic change.[16] He argued that economic change revolves around innovation, entrepreneurial activities, and market power. He sought to prove that innovation-originated market power could provide better results than the invisible hand and price competition. He argues that technological innovation often creates temporary monopolies, allowing abnormal profits that would soon be competed away by rivals and imitators. He said that these temporary monopolies were necessary to provide the incentive necessary for firms to develop new products and processes.[16]
Schumpeter and the gold standard[link]
Joseph Schumpeter recognized the implication of a gold monetary standard compared to a fiat monetary standard. In History of Economic Analysis he stated the following:
An ‘automatic’ gold currency is part and parcel of a laissez-faire and free-trade economy. It links every nation’s money rates and price levels with the money-rates and price levels of all the other nations that are ‘on gold.’ It is extremely sensitive to government expenditure and even to attitudes or policies that do not involve expenditure directly, for example, to foreign policy, to certain policies of taxation, and, in general, to precisely all those policies that violate the principles of [classical] liberalism. This is the reason why gold is so unpopular now and also why it was so popular in a bourgeois era. It imposes restrictions upon governments or bureaucracies that are much more powerful than is parliamentary criticism. It is both the badge and the guarantee of bourgeois freedom – of freedom not simply of the bourgeois interest, but of freedom in the bourgeois sense. From this standpoint a man may quite rationally fight for it, even if fully convinced of the validity of all that has ever been urged against it on economic grounds. From the standpoint of etatisme and planning, a man may not less rationally condemn it, even if fully convinced of the validity of all that has ever been urged for it on economic grounds.—Schumpeter, History of Economic Analysis[17]
His legacy[link]
For some time after his death, Schumpeter's views were most influential among various heterodox economists, especially European, who were interested in industrial organization, evolutionary theory, and economic development, and who tended to be on the other end of the political spectrum from Schumpeter and were also often influenced by Keynes, Karl Marx, and Thorstein Veblen. Robert Heilbroner was one of Schumpeter's most renowned pupils, who wrote extensively about him in The Worldly Philosophers. In the journal Monthly Review John Bellamy Foster wrote of that journal's founder Paul Sweezy, one of the leading Marxist economists in the United States and a graduate assistant of Schumpeter's at Harvard, that Schumpeter "played a formative role in his development as a thinker".[18] Other outstanding students of Schumpeter's include the economists Nicholas Georgescu-Roegen and Hyman Minsky and former chairman of the Federal Reserve, Alan Greenspan.[19] Robert Solow, Nobel Prize in Economics, was his student at Harvard, and he expanded on Schumpeter's theory.[20]
Today, Schumpeter has a following outside of standard textbook economics, in areas such as in economic policy, management studies, industrial policy, and the study of innovation. Schumpeter was probably the first scholar to develop theories about entrepreneurship. For instance, the European Union's innovation program, and its main development plan, the Lisbon Strategy, are influenced by Schumpeter. The International Joseph A. Schumpeter Society awards the Schumpeter Prize.
The Schumpeter School of Business and Economics opened in October 2008 at the University of Wuppertal. According to University President Professor Lambert T. Koch, “Schumpeter will not only be the name of the Faculty of Management and Economics, but this is also a research and teaching programme related to Joseph A. Schumpeter."[21]
On 17 September 2009, The Economist inaugurated a column on business and management named "Schumpeter."[22] The publication has a history of naming columns after significant figures or symbols in the covered field, including naming its British affairs column after former editor Walter Bagehot and its European affairs column after Charlemagne. The initial Schumpeter column praised him as a "champion of innovation and entrepreneurship" whose writing showed an understanding of the benefits and dangers of business that proved far ahead of its time.
Major works[link]
- "Über die mathematische Methode der theoretischen Ökonomie", 1906, ZfVSV.
- "Das Rentenprinzip in der Verteilungslehre", 1907, Schmollers Jahrbuch.
- Wesen und Hauptinhalt der theoretischen Nationalökonomie (transl. The Nature and Essence of Theoretical Economics), 1908.
- "Methodological Individualism", 1908,[23]
- "On the Concept of Social Value", 1909, QJE.
- Wie studiert man Sozialwissenschaft, 1910 (transl. by J.Z. Muller, "How to Study Social Science", Society, 2003).
- "Marie Esprit Leon Walras", 1910, ZfVSV.
- "Über das Wesen der Wirtschaftskrisen", 1910, ZfVSV.
- Theorie der wirtschaftlichen Entwicklung (transl. 1934, The Theory of Economic Development: An inquiry into profits, capital, credit, interest and the business cycle) 1911.
- Economic Doctrine and Method: An historical sketch, 1914.[24]
- "Das wissenschaftliche Lebenswerk Eugen von Böhm-Bawerks", 1914, ZfVSV.
- Vergangenkeit und Zukunft der Sozialwissenschaft, 1915.
- The Crisis of the Tax State, 1918.
- "The Sociology of Imperialisms", 1919, Archiv für Sozialwissenschaft und Sozialpolitik [25]
- "Max Weber's Work", 1920, Der österreichische Volkswirt.
- "Carl Menger", 1921, ZfVS.
- "The Explanation of the Business Cycle", 1927, Economica.
- "Social Classes in an Ethnically Homogeneous Environment", 1927, Archiv für Sozialwissenschaft und Sozialpolitik.[25]
- "The Instability of Capitalism", 1928, EJ.
- Das deutsche Finanzproblem, 1928.
- "Mitchell's Business Cycles", 1930, QJE.
- "The Present World Depression: A tentative diagnosis", 1931, AER.
- "The Common Sense of Econometrics", 1933, Econometrica.
- "Depressions: Can we learn from past experience?", 1934, in Economics of the Recovery Program
- "The Nature and Necessity of a Price System", 1934, Economic Reconstruction.
- "Review of Robinson's Economics of Imperfect Competition", 1934, JPE.
- "The Analysis of Economic Change", 1935, REStat.
- "Professor Taussig on Wages and Capital", 1936, Explorations in Economics.
- "Review of Keynes's General Theory", 1936, JASA.
- Business Cycles: A theoretical, historical and statistical analysis of the Capitalist process, 1939.
- "The Influence of Protective Tariffs on the Industrial Development of the United States", 1940, Proceedings of AAPS.
- "Alfred Marshall's Principles: A semi-centennial appraisal", 1941, AER.
- "Frank William Taussig", 1941, QJE.
- Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy, 1942.
- "Capitalism in the Postwar World", 1943, Postwar Economic Problems.
- "John Maynard Keynes", 1946, AER.
- "The Future of Private Enterprise in the Face of Modern Socialistic Tendencies", 1946, Comment sauvegarder l'entreprise privée
- Rudimentary Mathematics for Economists and Statisticians, with W.L .Crum, 1946.
- "Capitalism", 1946, Encyclopædia Britannica.
- "The Decade of the Twenties", 1946, AER.
- "The Creative Response in Economic History", 1947, JEH.
- "Theoretical Problems of Economic Growth", 1947, JEH.
- "Irving Fisher's Econometrics", 1948, Econometrica.
- "There is Still Time to Stop Inflation", 1948, Nation's Business.
- "Science and Ideology", 1949, AER.
- "Vilfredo Pareto", 1949, QJE.
- "Economic Theory and Entrepreneurial History", 1949, Change and the Entrepreneur.
- "The Communist Manifesto in Sociology and Economics", 1949, JPE.
- "English Economists and the State-Managed Economy", 1949, JPE.
- "The Historical Approach to the Analysis of Business Cycles", 1949, NBER Conference on Business Cycle Research.
- "Wesley Clair Mitchell", 1950, QJE.
- "March into Socialism", 1950, AER.
- Ten Great Economists: From Marx to Keynes, 1951.[26]
- Imperialism and Social Classes, 1951 (reprints of 1919, 1927)
- Essays on Economic Topics, 1951.
- "Review of the Troops", 1951, QJE.
- History of Economic Analysis, (published posthumously, ed. Elisabeth Boody Schumpeter), 1954.
- "American Institutions and Economic Progress", 1983, Zeitschrift fur die gesamte Staatswissenschaft
- "The Meaning of Rationality in the Social Sciences", 1984, Zeitschrift fur die gesamte Staatswissenschaft
- "Money and Currency", 1991, Social Research.
- Economics and Sociology of Capitalism, 1991.
See also[link]
- List of Austrians
- Austrian School of economics
- List of Austrian scientists
- Social innovation
- Creative destruction
- Capitalism
- Socialism
- Innovation
- Schumpeterian rent
References[link]
- ^ Liberty Fund, Inc. (2007-10-08). "Joseph Alois Schumpeter: Biography". Econlib.org. http://www.econlib.org/library/Enc/bios/Schumpeter.html. Retrieved 2010-09-21.
- ^ Stone, Brad; Vance, Ashlee (January 25, 2009). "$200 Laptops Break a Business Model". New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2009/01/26/technology/26spend.html?partner=rss&emc=rss. Retrieved 2010-09-21. "Indeed, Silicon Valley may be one of the few places where businesses are still aware of the ideas of Joseph Schumpeter, an economist from Austria who wrote about business cycles during the first half of the last century. He said the lifeblood of capitalism was “creative destruction.” Companies rising and falling would unleash innovation and in the end make the economy stronger."
- ^ a b Entrepreneurship, Competitiveness and Local Development. (Iandoli, Landström and Raffa, 2007, p. 5)
- ^ George Viksnins. Professor of Economics. Georgetown University. Economic Systems in Historical Perspective. http://books.google.com/books?id=e78cAAAACAAJ&dq=george+viksnins&source=gbs_book_other_versions_r&cad=2
- ^ Schumpeter#s Diary as quoted in "Prophet of Innovation" by Thomas McCraw. page 4. see http://books.google.com/books?id=wBXQOuQ73vwC&pg=PP1&dq=seph+Schumpeter:+Scholar,+Teacher,+Politician&ei=ra6FS4PhE4KUMsuSsJEM&cd=1#v=onepage&q=horseman&f=false
- ^ P.A. Samuelson and W.D. Nordhaus, Economics (1998, p. 178)
- ^ Giersch, H. (1984). "The Age of Schumpeter". The American Economic Review 74 (2): 103–109. JSTOR 1816338.
- ^ Joseph A. Schumpeter. A Theory of Social and Economic Evolution (Andersen, E.S., 2011)
- ^ PG Michaelides, The Influence of the German Historical School on Schumpeter, 17th International Conference of the European Association for. Evolutionary Political Economy, Bremen/Germany, November 2005.
- ^ PG Michaelides, Joseph Schumpeter and the German Historical School, Cambridge Journal of Economics 2009, 33, 495–516.
- ^ (Freeman, 2009; p. 126) in Techno-economic paradigms: essays in honor of Carlota Perez. Edited by Wolfgang Drechsler, Erik Reinert, Rainer Kattel.
- ^ "Phases of the Marginalist Revolution". Cepa.newschool.edu. http://cepa.newschool.edu/het/essays/margrev/phases.htm#aftermath. Retrieved 2010-07-02.
- ^ Schumpeter, J.A. The theory of economic development : an inquiry into profits, capital, credit, interest, and the business cycle translated from the German by Redvers Opie (1961) New York: OUP
- ^ Recent research suggests that the Kuznets swing could be regarded as the third harmonic of the Kondratiev wave – see Korotayev, Andrey V., & Tsirel, Sergey V. A Spectral Analysis of World GDP Dynamics: Kondratieff Waves, Kuznets Swings, Juglar and Kitchin Cycles in Global Economic Development, and the 2008–2009 Economic Crisis. Structure and Dynamics. 2010. Vol.4. #1. pp. 3–57.
- ^ John Medearis, "Schumpeter, the New Deal, and Democracy", The American Political Science Review, 1997.
- ^ a b An Introduction to Economics with Emphasis on Innovation, Pol, E Carroll,P, 2006
- ^ Timberlake, Richard (August 2005). "Gold Standards and the Real Bills Doctrine in U.S. Monetary Policy". Econ Journal Watch. http://www.econjournalwatch.org/pdf/TimberlakeIntellectualTyrannyAugust2005.pdf. Retrieved 2010-09-21.
- ^ Foster, John Bellamy (May 2008). "Sweezy in Perspective". Monthly Review. http://www.monthlyreview.org/080526foster.php. Retrieved 2010-09-21.
- ^ Greenspan, Alan (2007). The Age of Turbulence: Adventures in a New World. Penguin Press. p. 48. ISBN 978-1-59420-131-8. "I've watched the process [creative destruction] at work through my entire career,"
- ^ Thoma, Mark (2007-05-17). "Robert Solow on Joseph Schumpeter". Economistsview.typepad.com. http://economistsview.typepad.com/economistsview/2007/05/robert_solow_on.html. Retrieved 2010-09-21.
- ^ "Opening ceremony: Schumpeter School of Business and Economics". University of Wuppertal. 8 July 2011. http://www.wiwi.uni-wuppertal.de/en/schumpeter-school/opening-ceremony.html.
- ^ "Taking Flight". The Economist. 17 September 2009. http://www.economist.com/businessfinance/displaystory.cfm?story_id=14447179.
- ^ Schumpeter, Joseph (1908). "Methodological Individualism" (PDF). Das Wesen und Hauptinhalt der theoretischen Nationalokonomie (The Nature and Essence of Theoretical Economics). http://mises.org/books/schumpeter_individualism.pdf. Retrieved 2010-07-02.
- ^ "Economic Doctrine and Method" (PDF). http://mises.org/books/economicdoctrine.pdf. Retrieved 2010-07-02.
- ^ a b "Imperialism and Social Classes (1919 and 1927)" (PDF). http://mises.org/books/imperialism.pdf. Retrieved 2010-07-02.
- ^ "Browse by subject". Mises.org. http://mises.org/books/tengreateconomists_schumpeter.pdf. Retrieved 2010-07-02.
Further reading[link]
- Cheung, Edward "Baby Boomers, Generation X and Social Cycles" "The latest findings on Schumpeter's Creative Destruction."
- Harris, Seymour E., ed. (1951). Schumpeter: Social Scientist. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-8369-1138-1.
- Robbins, L. C., 1955, "Schumpeter's History of Economic Analysis," Quarterly Journal of Economics 69: 1–22.
- Muller, Jerry Z., 2002. The Mind and the Market: Capitalism in Western Thought. Anchor Books.
- Groenewegen, Peter, 2003. Classics and Moderns in Economics: Essays on Nineteenth And Twentieth Century Economic Thought: Vol. 2. Routledge. Chpt. 22, pp. 203+.
- McCraw, Thomas K. (2007). Prophet of Innovation: Joseph Schumpeter and Creative Destruction. Belknap Press. ISBN 978-0-674-02523-3.
- Carayannis, E. G.; Ziemnowicz, C., eds. (2007). Rediscovering Schumpeter. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-1-4039-4241-8.
- Dahms, Harry (1995). "From Creative Action to the Social Rationalization of the Economy: Joseph A. Schumpeter's Social Theory". Sociological Theory 13 (1): 1–13. DOI:10.2307/202001. http://www.suz.uzh.ch/fux/lehre/semwandel/dahms_schumpeter.pdf. Retrieved 2 July 2010. [dead link]
- Swedberg, Richard (1992). Schumpeter: A Biography. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-04296-1.
- Michaelides, Panayotis; Milios, John (2005). "Did Hilferding Influence Schumpeter?" (PDF). History of Economics Review 41 (Winter): 98–125. http://www.hetsa.org.au/pdf/41-A-8.pdf. Retrieved 2 July 2010.
External links[link]
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- Andersen, Esben Sloth. "Review of Schumpeter: A Biography". Journal of Economic Literature. http://www.business.aau.dk/evolution/esapapers/esa90-93/R93-1.pdf. Retrieved on December 4, 2007.
- Kilcullen, John. "Reading Guide 10: Schumpeter, Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy". Macquarie University. http://www.humanities.mq.edu.au/Ockham/y6410.html. Retrieved on December 4, 2007.
- "Joseph A. Schumpeter". The New School. http://cepa.newschool.edu/het/profiles/schump.htm. Retrieved on December 4, 2007.
- Drucker, Peter. "Modern Prophets: Schumpeter and Keynes?". http://www.peterdrucker.at/en/texts/proph_01.html. Retrieved on December 4, 2007.
- DeLong, J. Bradford. "Creative Destruction's Reconstruction: Joseph Schumpeter Revisited". The Chronicle of Higher Education. http://chronicle.com/free/v54/i15/15b00801.htm. Retrieved on December 4, 2007.
- McCraw, Thomas. "Schumpeter’s Business Cycles as Business History". Business History Review. http://hbswk.hbs.edu/pdf/20070207_Schumpeter.pdf.
- Harvard University Archives. "Papers of Joseph Alois Schumpeter : an inventory". http://nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:HUL.ARCH:hua11007.
- "International J.A. Schumpeter Society". http://www.iss-evec.de/.
- "Web Joseph Alois Schumpeter in Memoriam". http://www.schumpeter.org/.
| Political offices | ||
|---|---|---|
| Preceded by Otto Steinwender |
Finance Minister of Austria 1919 |
Succeeded by Richard Reisch |
|
|||||
| Persondata | |
|---|---|
| Name | Schumpeter, Joseph A. |
| Alternative names | |
| Short description | |
| Date of birth | 8 February 1883 |
| Place of birth | Třešť, Moravia, Austria–Hungary (now Czech Republic) |
| Date of death | 8 January 1950 |
| Place of death | Taconic, Connecticut, U.S. |
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