Constellation Program logo

The Constellation Program (abbreviated CxP) is a human spaceflight program within NASA, the space agency of the United States. The stated goals of the program were to gain significant experience in operating away from Earth's environment, develop technologies needed for opening the space frontier, and conduct fundamental science.^[1]

Constellation began in response to the goals laid out in the Vision for Space Exploration under NASA Administrator Sean O'Keefe. It had already begun development, under several proposals ^[2][3] After Sean O'Keefe's retirement, his replacement Michael D. Griffin ordered a complete review, termed the Exploration Systems Architecture Study, which reshaped how NASA would pursue the goals laid out in the Vision for Space Exploration. With the NASA Authorization Act of 2005 formalizing the findings of the Exploration Systems Architecture Study, work began on this revised Constellation Program to send astronauts first to the International Space Station, then to the Moon, and afterward to Mars and other destinations beyond.^[4]

On February 1, 2010, President Barack Obama announced a proposal to cancel the program, effective with the U.S. 2011 fiscal year budget,^[5][6][7][8] but later announced changes to the proposal in a major space policy speech at Kennedy Space Center on April 15, 2010. Obama signed the NASA Authorization Act of 2010 on October 11 which brought the program to an end despite promises to fully fund space flight during his campaign for election to President of the United States in 2008,^[9] but Constellation contracts remain in place until Congress acts to overturn the previous mandate.^[10][11] The program has been replaced by the U.S. National Space Policy of the Barack Obama administration. NASA announced that it had selected the design of the Space Launch System in September 2011.^[12]

Spacecraft[link]

Constellation included the development of spacecraft and booster vehicles to replace the Space Shuttle. NASA had already begun designing two boosters, the Ares I and Ares V. Ares I would have had the sole function of launching mission crews into orbit, while Ares V would have been used to launch other hardware for use on missions requiring a heavier lift capacity than the Ares I booster. In addition to these two boosters, NASA designed a set of other spacecraft for use during Constellation. These included the Orion crew capsule, the Earth Departure Stage and the Altair lunar lander.^[13]

Orion[link]

Orion spacecraft

Orion was originally designed as the crew compartment for the Constellation program and Earth orbit missions. Lockheed Martin was selected as the prime contractor to build Orion on August 31, 2006,^[14] and Boeing was selected to build the primary heat shield for the Orion crew exploration vehicle on September 15, 2006.^[15] NASA planned to develop different Orion capsules tailored for specific missions. The Block I Orion was to be used for International Space Station crew rotation and resupply and other Earth orbit missions, while the Block II and III variants were designed for deep-space exploration.

Orion consists of three main parts: a Crew Module (CM) similar to the Apollo Command Module but capable of holding four to six crew members; a cylindrical Service Module (SM) containing the primary propulsion systems and consumable supplies; and the Launch Abort System (LAS) which provides capability for the astronauts and Crew Module to escape from the launch vehicle should problems arise during launch ascent. The Orion Crew Module is designed to be reusable for up to ten flights, allowing NASA to construct a fleet of Orion crew modules.

Altair[link]

Altair lunar lander

Altair (formerly known as the Lunar Surface Access Module, LSAM) would have been the main transport vehicle for lunar-bound astronauts. The Altair design was much larger than the Apollo Lunar Module (LM), with almost five times the volume, occupying a total of 1,120 cubic feet (32 m³) compared with the Apollo lander's 235 cubic feet (6.7 m³). It was to stand 32 feet (9.8 m) tall and span 49 feet (15 m) wide from landing gear tip to tip.

Like its Apollo LM predecessor, Altair consisted of two parts: an ascent stage which houses the four-person crew; and a descent stage which has the landing legs, the majority of the crew's consumables (oxygen and water), and scientific equipment. Unlike the Apollo LM, Altair would have touched down in the lunar polar regions favored by NASA for future lunar base construction.^[16] Altair, like the LM, is not reusable; the ascent stage would be discarded after use.

The Altair descent stage was to be powered by four RL-10 rocket engines that are used for the Centaur upper stage used on the Atlas V rocket. Unlike the current RL-10 engines in use, the newer RL-10s would be able to throttle down to as low as 10% rated thrust (the current specifications allow for 20%), thus allowing the use of Altair for both the lunar orbit insertion (LOI) and landing stages of the lunar mission. The ascent stage was to be powered by a single engine, likely a hypergolic engine similar or identical to the main engine of the Orion CSM, using the descent stage as a launchpad and as a platform for future base construction. There was a small possibility that the original plan of using LOX/CH4 – fueled engines on board the Block II (lunar) Orion CSM and Altair ascent stage could come to pass.

Earth Departure Stage[link]

Earth Departure Stage

The Earth Departure Stage (EDS) was the main propulsion system that would have sent the Ares V Orion/Altair upper stage from low Earth orbit to the Moon. It was to have been the second liquid stage of the Ares V rocket. The Orion spacecraft would have launched separately on Ares I, and rendezvous and dock with the Ares V EDS/Altair combination, which would have then been configured for the journey to the Moon (known as Earth orbit rendezvous).

Legacies of Apollo and Space Shuttle[link]

NASA would have used the vehicles of the Constellation Program to replace the Space Shuttle.^[17] But unlike the X-33 and other programs meant to replace the Shuttle, Constellation reused concepts already learned from the Apollo and Space Shuttle programs.^[17]

For instance, the shape of the Orion command ship closely resembled the aerodynamic shape of the Apollo Command/Service Module. However, in other respects – such as with the cockpit displays and heatshield – Orion employs new technology.^[18] The design of the launch vehicle taking Orion into orbit, the Ares I, was closely based on Apollo designs. It was based on a J-2X engine, a redesigned version of the J-2 engine used in the Saturn family of boosters.

In working on the J-2X, NASA engineers visited museums, searched for Apollo-era documentation and consulted with engineers who worked on the Apollo program. "The mechanics of landing on the moon and getting off the moon to a large extent have been solved," said Constellation program manager Jeff Hanley. "That is the legacy that Apollo gave us."^[19]

Like Apollo, Constellation would have flown a lunar orbit rendezvous mission profile, but unlike Apollo, Constellation would have also employed an Earth orbit rendezvous. The lander, known as Altair, would have been launched separately on the Ares V rocket, a rocket based on both Space Shuttle and Apollo technologies. Orion would have been launched separately and would have linked up with Altair in low earth orbit. Also unlike Apollo, Orion would have remained unmanned in lunar orbit while the entire crew landed on the lunar surface (specifically at the lunar polar regions, unlike the equatorial regions explored by Apollo). At the end of the mission, the Altair spacecraft would have launched into lunar orbit to link up with the Orion spacecraft in lunar orbit rendezvous.

Ares boosters[link]

Unlike the Saturn V and Space Shuttle, where the crew and cargo were launched together on the same rocket, NASA planned to use two separate launch vehicles for the Constellation Program – the Ares I for crew and the Ares V for cargo. This would have allowed the two launch vehicles to be optimized for their respective missions, especially for a much heavier cargo load per mission. The Constellation Program thus combined the Lunar Orbit Rendezvous method which was used by Apollo with the Earth Orbit Rendezvous method.

Ares I[link]

The Orion spacecraft would have been launched into a low Earth orbit using the Ares I rocket (the "Stick"), developed by Alliant Techsystems, Rocketdyne, and Boeing.^[20][21][22] Formerly referred to as the Crew Launch Vehicle (CLV), the Ares I consisted of a single Solid Rocket Booster (SRB) derived from the boosters used in the Space Shuttle system, connected at its upper end by an interstage support assembly to a new liquid-fueled second stage powered by an uprated Apollo-era J-2X rocket engine. NASA selected the Ares designs for their anticipated overall safety, reliability and cost-efficiency.^[23]

The launch of Ares I prototype, Ares I-X on October 28, 2009

NASA began developing the Ares I low Earth orbit launch vehicle (analogous to Apollo's Saturn IB), returning to a development philosophy used for the original Saturn I, test-launching one stage at a time, which George Mueller abandoned in favor of "all-up" testing for the Saturn V. As of May 2010, the program got as far as launching the first Ares I-X first-stage flight on October 28, 2009 and testing the Orion launch abort system.

Ares V[link]

Ares V would have had a maximum payload capacity of about 188 metric tons (414,000 lb) to low earth orbit (LEO), compared to the Space Shuttle's capacity of 24.4 metric tons, and the Saturn V's 118 metric tons. The Ares V would have carried about 71 metric tons (157,000 lb) to the Moon, versus the Saturn V's 45 metric tons moon payload.^[24][25]

The Ares V design incorporated six RS-68 engines with assistance from a pair of 5.5-segment SRBs. Five Space Shuttle Main Engines (SSME) were originally planned for the Ares V, but the RS-68 engines are more powerful and less complex and therefore less expensive than the SSMEs. The Ares V would have flown for the first eight minutes of powered flight, then the Earth Departure Stage would have placed itself and the Altair spacecraft into low Earth orbit while awaiting the arrival of the Orion.

History[link]

This article may be unbalanced towards certain viewpoints. Please improve the article by adding information on neglected viewpoints, or discuss the issue on the talk page. (December 2010)

A number of alternatives to Constellation have been suggested in response to critiques of the program. Debates persist regarding whether the present program should continue, be discontinued, or rectified in some way.^[26]

President Bush[link]

On January 14, 2004 President George W. Bush requested NASA develop a proposal for continuing manned space exploration after the completion of the International Space Station and the planned retirement of the Space Shuttle program in 2010. This proposal^[27] was to be a way to "establish an extended human presence on the Moon" to "vastly reduce the costs of further space exploration." Inclusive to this would be the "harvesting and processing of lunar soil into rocket fuel or breathable air." According to Bush, experience gained could help "develop and test new approaches and technologies and systems"^[27] to begin a "sustainable course of long-term exploration."^[28]

When President Bush established his new space exploration policy to return humans to the moon, NASA estimated the policy would cost $230 billion (in 2004 dollars) through 2025.^[29] This figure includes the Commercial Crew and Cargo program, which is separate from the Constellation program. NASA has estimated that the Constellation program would cost over $97 billion (in 2008 dollars) through 2020, half of which would be for Ares I and Orion. However, unsolved technical and design challenges made it impossible for NASA to provide a credible estimate.^[29] To provide some perspective, in 1972 NASA estimated the life-cycle costs (development, procurement, and twelve years of operation) of the Space Shuttle program at $16.1 billion (in 1972 dollars).^[30] The actual life-cycle costs for twelve years of operation came to $25 billion (in 1972 dollars),^[31] a 55% over-run.^[32]

President Obama[link]

President Obama's stance has been that Constellation is "over budget, behind schedule, and lacking in innovation."^{[5][6][7][33]} A review had concluded that it would cost on the order of $150 billion for Constellation to reach its objective if hewing to the original schedule.^[34]

In 2009, concerned by price increases on the program, U.S. President Obama ordered a review of the project which indicated that both returning to the Moon and manned flights to Mars were out of NASA's current budget.^[35] The Augustine panel proposed various options that included two primary destination points (the Moon, and Deep Space), three different types of Super Heavy Launch vehicles, and utilizing Commercially based crew to LEO transport systems, as well as a robust research and development program that would include work on propellant depots.^[36]

After reviewing the report, following congressional testimony,^[26] the Obama administration decided to exclude Constellation from the 2011 United States federal budget.^[37][38] On February 1, 2010, the President's proposed budget was released, which included no funding for the project.^[5][6][7]

President Obama's response to critics is that the lifetime for the International Space Station would be extended by an additional five years and an additional US$6 billion would be paid to private companies for shuttling astronauts to and from it after the Space Shuttle program ends while NASA develops new technology for future space exploration missions.^[5] According to Obama, his vision embodies a "bold new approach to human space flight that embraces commercial industry, forges international partnerships, and invests in the building blocks of a more capable approach to space exploration."^[39]

President Obama hosted a Space Conference on April 15, 2010, in Florida.^[40] This came at a time when the Obama administration was taking a considerable amount of criticism for leaving the Constellation Program out of the 2011 budget. At the conference Obama and top officials as well as leaders in space discussed the future of U.S. efforts in human space flight and unveiled a plan for NASA that follows the Augustine Panel's "Flexible Path to Mars" option,^[41] modifying Obama's prior proposal in two important respects:

1. He proposed continuing development of the Orion capsule, but initially using it as an escape capsule for the ISS so that the ISS crew could be increased to seven, with the technology subsequently forming the basis for future deep space exploration vehicles (cancellation of Orion would have cost a comparable amount to keeping it).
2. He set the year 2015 as the year to choose the architecture for a heavy-lift vehicle and to commence construction.

Neil Armstrong support for Constellation[link]

Neil Armstrong, commander of Apollo 11 and the first man on the Moon, has expressed strong support for the Constellation program, unlike his former Apollo crewmate Buzz Aldrin, who has expressed strong support for the Obama administration's new plan.^[42]

Testifying before the United States Congress in 2010,^[43] Neil Armstrong opposed an administrative scrap of Constellation, stating "substantial turmoil" has arisen "by the President's proposal ... because a few planners with little or no space operation experience attempted an end run on the normal planning process." Armstrong argued that "a return to the Moon would be a most productive path to expanding the human presence in the Solar System."

Armstrong testified, "The lunar vicinity is an exceptional location to learn about traveling to difficult distant places.... The long communication delays to destinations beyond the Moon may mandate new techniques and procedures for spacecraft operations ... in the case of severe emergencies."

Armstrong clarified this point with an example: "For Mission Control on Earth to play an important and timely role in flight operations," with Moon travelers "communication delays with Earth are less than two seconds." By contrast, "Mission Control cannot provide a Mars crew their normal helpful advice if ... the time delay of radar, communications and telemetry back to Earth is 19 minutes.... Flight experience at lunar distance can provide valuable insights into practical solutions for handling such challenges."

Armstrong stated that he finds the arguments of opponents to Constellation's return to the Moon "mystifying." "Afterall, they say, we have already been there." But, he continued, "there is much to be learned on Luna – learning to survive in the lunar environment, investigating many science opportunities, determining the practicality of extracting Helium 3 from the lunar regolith, prospecting for Palladium group metals, meeting challenges not yet identified." To date the Moon "leaves more than 14 million square miles yet to be explored" (or about 36 million square kilometres).

In response to a request for what he believes U.S. spaceflight priorities ought to be, Armstrong responded:

1. Maintain U.S. leadership in space
2. Guarantee U.S. access to space
3. Continue to explore the solar system

Armstrong cited Constellation as among those federal programs that "motivate the citizenry ... inspiring them."

Justification[link]

The National Space Society (NSS) regards a return to the Moon as a high space program priority, to begin development of the knowledge and identification of the industries unique to the Moon. "Such industries can provide economic leverage and support for NASA activities, saving the government millions."^{[Tumlinson 1]} The NSS believes that the Moon may be a repository of the history and possible future of our planet, and that the six Apollo landings only scratched the surface.

According to NASA, the answer to the question, "Why should we return to the Moon?,"^[44] would be to:

1. extend human colonization,
2. further pursue scientific activities intrinsic to the Moon,
3. test new technologies, systems, flight operations and techniques to serve future space exploration missions,
4. provide a challenging, shared and peaceful activity to unite nations in pursuit of common objectives,
5. expand the economic sphere while conducting research activities that benefit our home planet,
6. engage the public and students to help develop the high-technology workforce that will be required to address the challenges of tomorrow.

In the words of former NASA Administrator, Michael D. Griffin,^[45] "The goal isn't just scientific exploration.... It's also about extending the range of human habitat out from Earth into the solar system as we go forward in time.... In the long run a single-planet species will not survive.... If we humans want to survive for hundreds of thousands or millions of years, we must ultimately populate other planets ... colonize the solar system and one day go beyond."

Congressional Support[link]

Senator Richard Shelby has stated "It is unfortunate that this administration is choosing to abandon our nation's only chance at remaining the leader in human space flight. It is ironic that Constellation, a program born out of the recommendations of the Columbia Accident Investigation Board, would be eliminated in lieu of rockets repeatedly deemed unsafe for astronauts by NASA's own Aerospace Safety Advisory Panel." Shelby argues further, "If this budget is enacted, NASA will no longer be an agency of innovation and hard science; it will be the agency of pipe dreams and fairy tales."^[39]

"As I see it, the commission didn't find anything wrong with the current program, didn't find anything safer, more reliable, cheaper or faster," former NASA Administrator Michael D. Griffin has testified to Congress.^[26] "The roots are healthy. So why throw away four years and $8 billion pulling the flowers? Let's apply some plant nutrient and watch them grow.... Exactly why does the policy which we established in law – twice – need to be changed?"^[26] According to Griffin, NASA spending has declined approximately 20% since 1993.^[26]

Further hearings regarding the program's proposed cancellation continue within the United States Congress. Particularly, the United States House Science Subcommittee on Space and Aeronautics and the United States Senate Commerce Subcommittee on Science and Space must now review and offer individual recommendations...

Hearings held to date regarding the Constellation's proposed cancellation within the House Subcommittee include NASA Aerospace Safety Advisory Panel Chairperson and retired US Navy Vice Admiral Joseph W. Dyer concluding that the proposed cancellation, without alternative "demonstrated capability or proven superiority is unwise and probably not cost-effective." Regarding any risk associated with Ares I, Admiral Dyer notes, "If the goal is to minimize the gap between the Shuttle and the follow-on, the Ares I offers the safest, quickest opportunity and probably the most cost-effective one. If the nation is willing to accept a wider gap, more risk, and a higher cost, then other opportunities avail themselves." Ranking member of the United States House Committee on Science and Technology, Representative Ralph Hall continues, it is "naïve to assume that a do-over will somehow deliver a safer, cheaper system faster than the current path we’re on."^[46]

Alternatives[link]

Proposed manned Commercial Crew Development Vehicle alternatives to Ares I for servicing the Space Station are the Boeing/Bigelow Aerospace unofficially-named "Orion-Lite" capsule^[47] launched on a future-man-rated Delta IV Heavy,^[48] the manned version of the SpaceX Dragon spacecraft,^[49] and Sierra Nevada Dreamchaser.^[50] None of these spacecraft are designed to leave low earth orbit as required for lunar missions and the majority of the Constellation program, they are purely alternative methods for space station access.

Delta IV Heavy[link]

The Delta IV is a rocket family, designed to launch payloads into orbit for the US Air Force Evolved Expendable Launch Vehicle (EELV) program as well as for commercial satellite launches. The most powerful variant of the family, Delta IV Heavy, is capable of delivering 25 tonnes of payload to LEO, matching the capability of the Ares I.

The Aerospace Corporation was asked by NASA three times, in 2005, 2008 and 2009, to assess technical feasibility and cost of human-rating an EELV. Two latter assessments addressed the possibility of replacing the Ares I with Delta IV Heavy. The reports indicate that the Delta IV Heavy meets ISS and lunar target performance requirements.^[51] Unlike other modifications of Delta IV, the Heavy variant does not use solid rocket boosters.

The first launch of a Delta IV rocket occurred in 2002. The first launch of the Heavy variant was performed in 2004.

Falcon 9/Dragon[link]

The Falcon 9 launch vehicle along with the manned version of the Dragon capsule, developed by SpaceX, have been contemplated as a possible commercial alternative.^[52] NASA has already awarded SpaceX a contract to deliver unmanned cargo to the ISS under the Commercial Orbital Transportation Services (COTS) program.^[53]

CST-100[link]

CST-100 is a planned manned vehicle, developed by Boeing and Bigelow Aerospace, that would deliver astronauts to ISS as well as Bigelow Space Station. It could be launched on an Atlas V, Delta IV, or Falcon 9 rocket.

Dreamchaser[link]

The Dream Chaser is a planned manned suborbital and orbital spacecraft being developed by SpaceDev, a wholly owned subsidiary of Sierra Nevada Corporation. It is a spaceplane based on previous NASA & Soviet spaceplane work.

Missions[link]

Like that of the Apollo Program, Constellation program will involve its main vehicle, the Orion spacecraft, flying missions in low earth orbit (LEO) with an emphasis of servicing the International Space Station, and in conjunction with the Altair and Earth Departure Stage, on flights to the polar regions of the Moon. As of 2008^[update], there are no well-defined plans for a manned flight to Mars, as flights to the Red Planet will most likely not occur before 2030, but a mission to a Near-Earth asteroid is in the initial planning phase.

International Space Station and low-Earth orbit flights[link]

After being brought together at the Kennedy Space Center from various parts of the country (Utah and Louisiana for the Ares I booster, and various Lockheed Martin facilities in the southern U.S. for the Orion) and completion of major testing, including spacecraft integrity testing in a vacuum chamber, the components of the Orion/Ares I stack would be assembled in the Vehicle Assembly Building in a manner similar to the stacking and assembly of both the Shuttle and the Saturn IB and Saturn V rockets.

Once assembly is completed and a launch date set, the Crawler-Transporter will pick up and transport the completed Orion-Ares I stack, along with the launch support tower and the Mobile Launcher Platform, out to Launch Pad 39B, which is currently undergoing conversion from use in Shuttle missions to be used for Ares I operations. Once the Crawler-Transporter reaches the pad, the Ares I and its platform is left in place and the Crawler-Transporter is taken to a safe, yet reasonable distance in order to facilitate pickup of the platform for an equipment rollback to the VAB.

After final checks, the ground crew will fill up the second stage with liquid hydrogen (LH₂) and liquid oxygen (LOX), with the crew, suited up in new all-purpose spacesuits, entering the spacecraft only three hours before liftoff. Once locked in, and after all systems are cleared by controllers at both the Cape and Mission Control in Houston, the Ares I is then launched, clearing the launch tower and (after a roll program and pitch over), heads out on the proper trajectory.

At T+120 seconds into the flight the solid-fueled first stage is jettisoned for recovery, and the onboard J-2X engine is ignited. 30 seconds later both the launch abort system and the fairings covering the Orion crew and service modules would also be jettisoned. At T+330 seconds after liftoff, the J-2X engine cuts off, and the Orion spacecraft would enter an initial entry orbit, which, 45 minutes later, is circularized by a second burn of the onboard J-2X engine, after which the Orion spacecraft separates (allowing the second stage to burn up in the atmosphere) and extends a pair of paddle-shaped solar panels.

After a two-day chase, the Orion spacecraft would meet with the International Space Station. After getting the go ahead from Houston, Orion would dock with the ISS. The six-man crew, the largest number that can fly on an Orion spacecraft, would then enter the station in order to perform numerous tasks and activities for the duration of their flight, usually lasting six months, but can be shortened to four or lengthened to eight, depending upon NASA's goals for that particular ISS Expedition. Once completed, the crew then reenters the Orion, which has been kept attached to the station as an emergency "lifeboat," seal off the hatches between it and the ISS, and then undock from the station.

Once the Orion reaches a safe distance from the ISS, the spacecraft will turn around so the main engine faces forward and fire its onboard Aerojet AJ-10 engine. After the de-orbit burn has been completed, the service module is then jettisoned, allowing it to burn up in the atmosphere while the crew module re-enters in the same manner as all NASA spacecraft prior to the Shuttle, using the ablative heat shield to both deflect heat from the spacecraft and to slow it down from a speed of 28,000 km/h (17,500 mph or Mach  5) to 480 km/h (300 mph or Mach 0.5). After reentry is completed, the forward assembly is jettisoned, and two drogue parachutes will be released, followed at 20,000 feet (6,100 m) by three main parachutes and airbags filled with nitrogen (N₂), which does not combust when exposed to heat, allowing the spacecraft to splashdown.^[54] The Orion CM is then returned to Kennedy Space Center for refurbishment for a later flight. Unlike the Apollo CM, which was used only for one flight, an Orion CM can be used up to ten times under normal operating conditions.

Lunar sortie/outpost flights[link]

Artist's conception of the Orion Spacecraft in lunar orbit

Unlike the Apollo flights, where both the Apollo Command/Service Module and the Apollo Lunar Module were launched together on the Saturn V rocket, the manned Orion craft would be launched separately from the unmanned EDS and lunar lander. The Ares V/EDS/Altair stack would be assembled at the Vehicle Assembly Building and then transported to Pad A of Kennedy Space Center Launch Complex 39. Approximately a day later, the Ares I/Orion stack would be transported to the adjacent Pad 39B. The Ares V/EDS/Altair vehicle would be launched first, into a 360 kilometers (220 mi) high circular orbit. Approximately 90 minutes later, the Ares I/Orion would launch with the crew into a nearly identical orbit.

The Orion would then rendezvous and dock with the Altair/EDS combination already in low-Earth orbit. After the necessary preparations for lunar flight, the EDS would fire for 390 seconds to make the translunar injection (TLI) maneuver, accelerating the spacecraft to 40,200 kilometers per hour (25,000 mph). Unlike Apollo, the Constellation TLI burn would be done in an "eyeballs-out" fashion (with the astronauts facing the EDS and thus being pulled from their seats by the acceleration). After the TLI burn, the EDS would be jettisoned and sent either into an orbit around the Sun or to crash into the lunar surface.^{[citation needed]}

During the three-day trans-lunar coast, the four-man crew monitor the Orion's systems, inspect their Altair spacecraft and its support equipment, and correct their flight path as necessary to allow the Altair to land at a near-polar landing site suitable for a future lunar base. Approaching the lunar far side, the Orion/Altair combination orients the Altair's engines forward and make the lunar orbit insertion (LOI) burn.

Once in lunar orbit, the crew refines the trajectory and configures the Orion CSM for unmanned flight, allowing all four crew members to transfer to the Altair and land on the Moon, while the Orion waits for its return. Upon receiving clearance from Mission Control, the Altair undocks from the Orion and performs an inspection maneuver, allowing ground controllers to inspect the spacecraft via live TV mounted on Orion for any visible problems that would prevent landing (on Apollo this was done by the Command Module Pilot). After receiving approval from ground controllers, the two craft separate to a safe distance and the Altair's descent engines fire again for powered descent to a pre-determined landing spot previously scouted out by unmanned spacecraft.

Upon landing, the crew dons their extravehicular activity (EVA) spacesuits and commence the first of five to seven lunar EVAs, collecting samples and deploying experiments. After completing their Lunar Sortie operations, the crew enters the Altair and fires the ascent stage engine to lift off from the surface, using the descent stage as a launchpad (and as a platform for future base construction). Upon entering orbit, the Altair rendezvous and docks with the waiting Orion spacecraft, and the crew then transfers, along with samples collected on the moon, back to the Orion. After jettisoning the Altair and sending it to crash into the lunar far side, the crew performs the Trans Earth Injection (TEI) burn for the return trip to Earth.

After a two-and-a-half day coast, the crew jettisons the Service Module (allowing it to burn up in the atmosphere) and the CM reenters the Earth's atmosphere using a special reentry trajectory designed to slow the vehicle from its speed of 40,200 kilometers per hour (25,000 mph) to 480 kilometers per hour (300 mph) and allow a Pacific Ocean splashdown. The Crew Module is then flown back to KSC for refurbishment, while lunar samples are routed to the Johnson Space Center's (JSC) Lunar Receiving Laboratory for analysis.

Orion asteroid mission[link]

The Orion Asteroid Mission is a proposed NASA mission to a near-Earth asteroid (NEA) which would use the standard Orion spacecraft, and a landing module based on Altair. Such a mission could assess the potential value of water, iron, nickel, platinum and other resources on the asteroid; test possible ways to extract them; and possibly examine or develop techniques which could be used to protect the Earth from asteroid impacts. This would be the first manned mission beyond both the Earth and the Moon, and would represent a step toward a manned mission to Mars, envisioned for after 2030.

The mission would start in a similar fashion to a Constellation lunar landing mission, with an Ares V launching the landing module into Low Earth orbit, followed by the launch of an Orion spacecraft, with a two or three person crew (as opposed to a four person crew for lunar missions) on an Ares I rocket. Once the Orion spacecraft docks with the landing module and the Earth Departure Stage (EDS), the EDS would then fire again and propel the Orion spacecraft to a nearby near-Earth asteroid where the crew would then land and explore its surface.

Once their task is completed, the Orion spacecraft will then depart from the asteroid and, upon reaching the vicinity of Earth, would jettison both the service module and the landing module in a manner similar to that of Apollo 13 (i.e. separating the service module before the landing module) before entering the atmosphere for a Pacific Ocean splashdown.^[55]

Orion Mars mission[link]

The Orion Mars mission plan for NASA's Constellation program is a manned mission with the intent to land humans on Mars in the 2030s. Originally the ultimate goal of NASA's Apollo Applications Program (AAP) in the 1960s, the Orion Mars Mission would utilize the hardware, primarily the Orion spacecraft (or a variation based on the Orion), and the Ares V cargo-launch vehicle, along with methods of carrying out the mission, which would be developed on board the International Space Station and the planned Lunar Outpost which is to be set up on the surface of the Moon after 2020.^[56]

Although no specific mission has yet been defined, it will most likely follow the Mars Direct concept developed by Robert Zubrin. Zubrin's concept utilizes an "Earth Return Vehicle", which would be sent out to Mars on a low-consumption trajectory which would arrive at Mars during the planet's conjunction period, when the planet is behind the Sun as seen from Earth. Once the Earth Return Vehicle lands it is planned to use an onboard Sabatier reactor in order to create liquid oxygen and methane fuel for the return trip; a second spacecraft, carrying the crew, would follow after. Arriving at Mars, the crew will land near the Earth Return Vehicle and will explore the planet for a period of nearly one Earth year. At the same time the astronaut crew explores the planet, another Earth Return Vehicle is sent to Mars, allowing NASA an "insurance policy" in the event the first Earth Return Vehicle is unable to perform its task.^[56]

Once the crew finishes its surface exploration of the planet, they will then enter the first Earth Return Vehicle and then lift off from the planet's surface. After docking with an orbiting return rocket, the crew then fires the rocket and returns to Earth, making a high-speed reentry in order to land approximately four months after leaving Mars.^[56]

Originally envisioned, along with the Apollo Lunar Base, the Voyager Mars Program, and the Manned Venus Flyby, the AAP "Man-on-Mars" program was canceled, along with the rest of the AAP program, and replaced by the Skylab "dry workshop" space station and the Space Shuttle. The Orion Mars Mission, if eventually launched, would occur in the 2030s. Had the AAP Mars mission not been canceled, the first manned landing on Mars was scheduled to have occurred around 1985.^[56]

See also[link]

Spaceflight portal

• List of Constellation missions
• Crew Space Transportation System (CSTS), European-Russian counterpart of the CEV and the Vision of Space Exploration
• Exploration Systems Architecture Study
• NASA's Vision for Space Exploration
• Soviet Moonshot
• SpaceX Dragon, Space capsule currently under development by SpaceX corporation for NASA's COTS program.

References[link]

 This article incorporates public domain material from websites or documents of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration.

• Tumlinson, Rick. Testimony to United States Senate, originally dated October 29, 2003. Senate re-dated February 2010.

Further reading

• The Next Space Age. The Reference Shelf, no. 5. 80. Bronx, New York: H. W. Wilson Company. 2008. ISBN 978-0-8242-1082-3. http://www.hwwilson.com/print/RS_nextspaceage_toc.cfm. Retrieved January 9, 2010. 

External links[link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Constellation program

• Official Constellation NASA web page
• Official Orion NASA web page
• Official Ares web page
• A Visual History of Project Constellation on tallgeorge.com
• Video animation - Manned Mission to Mars concept

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Barack Obama
44th President of the United States
Incumbent
Assumed office January 20, 2009
Vice President	Joe Biden
Preceded by	George W. Bush
Personal details
Born	Barack Hussein Obama II[1] (1961-08-04) August 4, 1961 (age 50) Honolulu, Hawaii, United States[1]
Nationality	American
Political party	Democratic
Spouse(s)	Michelle Robinson (m. 1992)
Children	Malia (b.1998) Sasha (b.2001)
Residence	The White House
Alma mater	Occidental College Columbia University (B.A.) Harvard Law School (J.D.)
Profession	Community organizer Attorney Author Constitutional law professor United States Senator President of the United States
Religion	Christian,[2] former member of United Church of Christ[3][4]
Signature
Website	WhiteHouse.gov

	This article is part of a series on Barack Obama
Background Illinois Senate US Senate Political positions Public image Family 2008 primaries Obama–Biden campaign Transition Inauguration Electoral history Presidency Timeline '09 '10 '11 '12 First 100 days Nobel Peace Prize Re-election campaign

Barack Obama being sworn in as President of the United States.

The Presidency of Barack Obama began at noon EST on January 20, 2009, when he became the 44th President of the United States. Obama was a United States Senator from Illinois at the time of his victory over Arizona Senator John McCain in the 2008 presidential election. Barack Obama is the first African-American president of the United States, as well as the first born in Hawaii.

His policy decisions have addressed a global financial crisis and have included changes in tax policies, legislation to reform the United States health care industry, foreign policy initiatives and the phasing out of detention of prisoners at the Guantanamo Bay detention camp in Cuba. He attended the G-20 London summit and later visited U.S. troops in Iraq. On the tour of various European countries following the G-20 summit, he announced in Prague that he intended to negotiate substantial reduction in the world's nuclear arsenals, en route to their eventual extinction. In October 2009, Obama was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for "his extraordinary efforts to strengthen international diplomacy and cooperation between peoples."

Transition period[link]

The presidential transition period began following Obama's election to the presidency on November 4, 2008. The Obama-Biden Transition Project was co-chaired by John Podesta, Valerie Jarrett, and Pete Rouse. During the transition period, Obama announced his nominations for his Cabinet and administration. Shortly after the election on November 4, Obama chose Representative Rahm Emanuel of Illinois as White House Chief of Staff.^[5]

Cabinet nominations included former Democratic primary opponents Hillary Rodham Clinton for Secretary of State and Bill Richardson for Secretary of Commerce (although the latter withdrew on January 4, 2009). Obama appointed Eric Holder as his Attorney General, the first African-American appointed to that position. He also nominated Timothy F. Geithner to serve as Secretary of the Treasury.^[6] On December 1, Obama announced that he had asked Robert Gates to remain as Secretary of Defense, making Gates the first Defense head to carry over from a president of a different party.^[7] He nominated former Assistant Secretary of State for African Affairs Susan Rice to the United States Ambassador to the United Nations, which he restored to a Cabinet-level position.^[8]

During his transition, he maintained a website Change.gov, on which he wrote blogs to readers and uploaded video addresses by many of the members of his new cabinet.^[9] He announced strict rules for federal lobbyists, restricting them from financially contributing to his administration and forcing them to stop lobbying while working for him.^[10] The website also allowed individuals to share stories and visions with each other and the transition team in what was called the Citizen's Briefing Book, which was given to Obama shortly after his inauguration.^[11] Most of the information from Change.gov was transferred to the official White House website whitehouse.gov just after Obama's inauguration.^[12]

Inauguration[link]

Barack Obama was inaugurated on January 20, 2009. He officially assumed the presidency at 12:00 noon, EST,^[13] and completed the oath of office at 12:05 PM, EST. He delivered his inaugural address immediately following his oath. After his speech, he went to the President's Room in the House Wing of the Capitol and signed three documents: a commemorative proclamation, a list of Cabinet appointments, and a list of sub-Cabinet appointments, before attending a luncheon with congressional and administration leaders and invited guests.^[14] To commemorate the 200th anniversary of the birth of former President Abraham Lincoln, the same Bible that was used for Lincoln's inauguration was used in Obama's inauguration.^[15]

In administering the oath, Chief Justice John G. Roberts misplaced the word "faithfully" and erroneously replaced the phrase "President of the United States" with "President to the United States" before restating the phrase correctly; since Obama initially repeated the incorrect form, some scholars argued the President should take the oath again.^[16] On January 21, Roberts readministered the oath to Obama in a private ceremony in the White House Map Room, making him the seventh U.S. president to retake the oath; White House Counsel Greg Craig said Obama took the oath from Roberts a second time out of an "abundance of caution".^[17]

First 100 days[link]

Expectations[link]

Obama's 100th day in office was April 29, 2009. In his first post-election interview with 60 Minutes, Obama said that he has been studying Franklin Roosevelt's first 100 days,^[18] while adding, "The first hundred days is going to be important, but it's probably going to be the first thousand days that makes the difference."^[19]

Obama's first 100 days were highly anticipated ever since he became the presumptive nominee.^[20] Several news outlets created web pages dedicated to covering the subject.^[21] Commentators weighed in on challenges and priorities within domestic, foreign, economic, and environmental policy.^{[22][23][24][25]} CNN lists a number of economic issues that "Obama and his team will have to tackle in their first 100 days", foremost among which is passing and implementing a recovery package to deal with the financial crisis.^[24] Clive Stafford Smith, a British human rights lawyer, expressed hopes that the new president will close Guantanamo Bay detention camp in his first 100 days in office.^[23] After aides of the president announced his intention to give a major foreign policy speech in the capital of an Islamic country, there were speculations in Jakarta that he might return to his former home city within the first 100 days.^[26]

The New York Times devoted a five-part series, which was spread out over two weeks, to anticipatory analysis of Obama's first hundred days. Each day, the analysis of a political expert was followed by freely edited blog postings from readers. The writers compared Obama's prospects with the situations of Franklin D. Roosevelt (January 16, Jean Edward Smith),^[27] John F. Kennedy (January 19, Richard Reeves),^[28] Lyndon B. Johnson (January 23, Robert Dallek),^[29] Ronald Reagan (January 27, Lou Cannon),^[30] and Richard Nixon.

Legislation and executive orders[link]

Within minutes of taking the Oath of Office on January 20, Obama's Chief of Staff, Rahm Emanuel, issued an order suspending last-minute federal regulations pushed through by outgoing President George W. Bush, planning to review everything still pending.^[31] Due to the economic crisis, the President enacted a pay freeze for Senior White House Staff making more than $100,000 per year,^[32] as well as announcing stricter guidelines regarding lobbyists in an effort to raise the ethical standards of the White House.^[33] He asked for a waiver to his own new rules, however, for the appointments of William Lynn to the position of Deputy Defense Secretary, Jocelyn Frye to the position of director of policy and projects in the Office of the First Lady, and Cecilia Muñoz to the position of director of intergovernmental affairs in the executive office of the president, leading to some criticism of hypocrisy and violation of his pledge for governmental openness.^[34][35]

In his first week in office, Obama signed Executive Order 13492 suspending all the ongoing proceedings of Guantanamo military commission and ordering the detention facility to be shut down within the year.^[36][37][38] He also signed Executive Order 13491 - Ensuring Lawful Interrogations requiring the Army Field Manual to be used as a guide for terror interrogations, banning torture and other coercive techniques, such as waterboarding.^[39] Obama also issued an executive order entitled "Ethics Commitments by Executive Branch Personnel", setting stricter limitations on incoming executive branch employees and placing tighter restrictions on lobbying in the White House.^[40] Obama signed two Presidential Memoranda concerning energy independence, ordering the Department of Transportation to establish higher fuel efficiency standards before 2011 models are released and allowing states to raise their emissions standards above the national standard.^[41] He also ended the Mexico City Policy, which banned federal grants to international groups that provide abortion services or counseling.^[42][43]

In his first week he also established a policy of producing a weekly Saturday morning video address available on whitehouse.gov and YouTube,^[44][45][46] much like those released during his transition period.^[47][48] The first address had been viewed by 600,000 YouTube viewers by the next afternoon.^[49]

The first piece of legislation Obama signed was the Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Act of 2009 on January 29, which revised the statute of limitations for filing pay discrimination lawsuits. Lilly Ledbetter joined Obama and his wife, Michelle, as he signed the bill, fulfilling his campaign pledge to nullify Ledbetter v. Goodyear.^[50] On February 3, he signed the Children's Health Insurance Program Reauthorization Act (CHIP), expanding health care from 7 million children under the plan to 11 million.^[51]

President Obama signs the ARRA into law on February 17, 2009 in Denver, Colorado. Vice President Joe Biden stands behind him. Obama addresses a joint session of Congress, with Vice President Joe Biden and House Speaker Nancy Pelosi.	Address Before a Joint Session of Congress (February 24, 2009) The American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 was a focal point of Barack Obama's February 24, 2009 Address Before a Joint Session of Congress. Address Before a Joint Session of Congress (February 24, 2009) (audio) Audio-only version
Problems listening to these files? See media help.

After much debate, the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act (ARRA) was passed by both the House and Senate on February 13, 2009. Originally intended to be a bipartisan bill, the passage of the bill was largely along party lines. No Republicans voted for it in the House, and three moderate Republicans voted for it in the Senate (Susan Collins and Olympia Snowe of Maine and Arlen Specter of Pennsylvania).^[52] The bill combined tax breaks with spending on infrastructure projects, extension of welfare benefits, and education.^[53][54] The final cost of the bill was $787 billion, and almost $1.2 trillion with debt service included.^[55] Obama signed the Act into law on February 17, 2009, in Denver, Colorado.^[56]

On March 9, 2009, Obama lifted restrictions on federal funding of embryonic stem cell research,^[57] and in doing so, called into question some of George W. Bush's signing statements. Obama stated that he too would employ signing statements if he deems upon review that a portion of a bill is unconstitutional,^[58][59] and he has issued several signing statements.^[60]

Early in his presidency, Obama signed a law raising the tobacco tax 62 cents on a pack of cigarettes.^[61] The tax is to be "used to finance a major expansion of health insurance for children", and "help some [smokers] to quit and persuade young people not to start".^[61]

In October 2011, Obama instituted the We Can't Wait program, which involved using executive orders, administrative rulemaking, and recess appointments to institute policies without the support of Congress.^[62] The initiative was developed in response to Congress's unwillingness to pass economic legislation proposed by Obama, and conflicts in Congress during the 2011 debt ceiling crisis.^[63]

Approval ratings and opinion[link]

2009[link]

After his transition period, Obama entered office with an approval rating of 82%.^[64] At the end of his first week, 68% of respondents in a Gallup poll approved of how Obama was handling his job, the second highest approval rating for a President shortly after being elected since World War II.^[65] Throughout early February polls showed scattered approval ratings: 62% (CBS News),^[66] 64% (USA Today/Gallup), 66% (Gallup), and 76% in an outlier poll (CNN/Opinion Research).^[67][68] Gallup reported the congressional address in late February boosted his approval from a term-low of 59% to 67%.^[69]

Throughout autumn 2009, Rasmussen estimated Obama's approval as fluctuating between 45% and 52% and his disapproval between 48% and 54%;^[70] as of November 11, Pew Research estimated Obama's approval between 51% and 55% and his disapproval between 33% and 37% since July.^[71]

Handling of the economy[link]

Rasmussen reported in mid-February 2009, that 55% of voters gave Obama good or excellent marks on his handling of the economy.^[72] In early March, a The Wall Street Journal survey of 49 economists gave Obama an average grade of 59 out of 100, with 42% of the respondents surveyed giving the administration's economic policies a grade below 60 percent. In comparison, only 30% of those same economists considered the response of governments around the world to the global recession to have been adequate.^[73] In April, a Gallup poll showed trust in Obama's economic policy with 71% saying they had "a fair amount" or "a great deal" of confidence in Obama's handling of the economy, higher than for Ben Bernanke, Tim Geithner, or leaders of Congress.^[74] Another Gallup poll in June showed 55% of Americans approved Obama's overall handling of the economy, but 48% and 51% disapproved of his handling of the federal budget deficit and controlling federal spending, respectively.^[75] A CBS News poll taken August 27–31 showed 53% of those polled approved of his handling of the economy.^[76] A Rasmussen poll taken on November 12 found 45% of Americans rating Obama's handling of the economy as poor and 39% rating him as doing a good or excellent job. They found 72% of Democrats rated his handling of the economy as good or excellent, while only 10% of Republicans and 27% of voters not affiliated with either party agreed.^[77]

2010[link]

On March 25, 2010, following his signing of landmark health care reform legislation into law, Obama's polling was revealed by Bloomberg to be 50%, with higher marks for relations with other countries (58%) and his running of the war in Afghanistan (54%). "Obama's approval rating is roughly equal to what Bill Clinton had at this point in his presidency, according to data maintained by Gallup (and) higher than the 45 percent Ronald Reagan recorded in April 1982" and more favorable than Democrats or Republicans office in 2010. They found Obama's approval rating was at 85% among Democrats, compared with 46% among independents and 11% among Republicans.^[78]

Fox News released the results of two polls on April 8–9, 2010. The first showed a drop in Obama's approval rating to 43%, with 48% disapproving. In that poll, Democrats approved of Obama's performance 80–12%, while independents disapproved 49–38%.^[79] The other poll, which concentrated on the economy, showed disapproval of Obama's handling of the economy by a 53–42% margin, with 62% saying they were dissatisfied with the handling of the federal deficit.^[80] According to a Gallup Poll released April 10, 2010, President Obama had a 45% approval rating, with 48% disapproving.^[81] In a poll from Rasmussen Reports, released April 10, 2010, 47% approved of the President's performance, while 53% disapproved.^[82][83]

2011[link]

Obama's approval rating jumped to a high following the death of Osama Bin Laden on May 2, 2011. A GfK poll conducted May 5, 2011 found his approval rating to be 60%. During the debt ceiling debate in August 2011, Obama's approval rating dropped to the low-40s.^[84]

This section requires expansion.

Major legislation[link]

2009[link]

• January 29: Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Act
• February 4: Children's Health Insurance Reauthorization Act
• February 11: DTV Delay Act
• February 17: American Recovery and Reinvestment Act
• March 30: Omnibus Public Lands Management Act of 2009
• April 21: Edward M. Kennedy Serve America Act
• May 20: Fraud Enforcement and Recovery Act
• May 20: Helping Families Save Their Homes Act of 2009
• May 22: Credit Card Accountability, Responsibility, and Disclosure Act of 2009
• June 22: Family Smoking Prevention and Tobacco Control Act
• August 6: Cash For Clunkers Extension Act
• October 22: Veterans Health Care Budget Reform and Transparency Act
• October 28: Matthew Shepard and James Byrd Jr. Hate Crimes Prevention Act
• October 30: Ryan White HIV/AIDS Treatment Extension Act
• November 6: Worker, Homeownership, and Business Assistance Act of 2009

2010[link]

• January 27: Emergency Aid to American Survivors of Haiti Earthquake Act
• March 4: Travel Promotion Act
• March 18: Hiring Incentives to Restore Employment Act (HIRE Act)
• March 23: Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act
• March 30: Health Care and Education Reconciliation Act of 2010
• May 5: Caregivers and Veterans Omnibus Health Services Act of 2010
• May 17: Daniel Pearl Freedom of the Press Act
• July 1: Comprehensive Iran Sanctions, Accountability, and Divestment Act
• July 21: Dodd-Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act
• July 22: Unemployment Compensation Extension Act of 2010
• July 22: Improper Payments Elimination and Recovery Act of 2010
• August 10: SPEECH Act
• September 27: Small Business Jobs and Credit Act of 2010
• December 9: Animal Crush Video Prohibition Act of 2010
• December 13: Healthy, Hunger-Free Kids Act of 2010
• December 17: Tax Relief, Unemployment Insurance Reauthorization, and Job Creation Act of 2010
• December 22: Don't Ask, Don't Tell Repeal Act of 2010

2011[link]

• January 2: James Zadroga 9/11 Health and Compensation Act of 2010 (H.R. 847)
• January 4: Food Safety and Modernization Act, Pub.L. 111-353, H.R. 2751
• August 2: Budget Control Act of 2011
• October 21: United States-Colombia Free Trade Agreement Implemention Act
• October 21: United States-Panama Free Trade Agreement Implemention Act
• October 21: United States-South Korea Free Trade Agreement Implemention Act

Personnel[link]

Cabinet appointees[link]

The Obama Cabinet
Office	Name	Term
President	Barack Obama	2009–present
Vice President	Joe Biden	2009–present
Secretary of State	Hillary Clinton	2009–present
Secretary of Treasury	Timothy Geithner	2009–present
Secretary of Defense	Robert Gates*	2006–2011
	Leon Panetta	2011–present
Attorney General	Eric Holder	2009–present
Secretary of the Interior	Ken Salazar	2009–present
Secretary of Agriculture	Tom Vilsack	2009–present
Secretary of Commerce	Gary Locke	2009–2011
	John Bryson	2011–present
Secretary of Labor	Hilda Solis	2009–present
Secretary of Health and Human Services	Kathleen Sebelius	2009–present
Secretary of Education	Arne Duncan	2009–present
Secretary of Housing and Urban Development	Shaun Donovan	2009–present
Secretary of Transportation	Ray LaHood	2009–present
Secretary of Energy	Steven Chu	2009–present
Secretary of Veterans Affairs	Eric Shinseki	2009–present
Secretary of Homeland Security	Janet Napolitano	2009–present
Chief of Staff	Rahm Emanuel	2009–2010
	William Daley	2011–2012
	Jacob Lew	2012–present
Administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency	Lisa Jackson	2009–present
Director of the Office of Management and Budget	Peter Orszag	2009–2010
	Jacob Lew	2010–2012
	Jeffrey Zients**	2012–present
Ambassador to the United Nations	Susan Rice	2009–present
United States Trade Representative	Ron Kirk	2009–present
*Retained from previous administration **Acting

Twenty-two members of the Obama administration are either in the United States Cabinet (15) or are in positions considered to be Cabinet-level (7). The members of the Cabinet are the heads of the fifteen major departments (State, Defense, Justice, etc.), and the seven cabinet-level positions are the Vice President, White House Chief of Staff, Administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency, Director of the Office of Management and Budget, U.S. Trade Representative, Ambassador to the United Nations, and the Chair of the Council of Economic Advisers.^[85][86] Since Robert Gates was a member of the previous administration, his letter of resignation (a formality at the end of a President's term) was simply not accepted, and he did not need confirmation.^[87] On January 19, 2009, Senate Democratic leaders requested fifteen of the twenty positions to be ratified by unanimous consent,^[88] and seven gained unanimous confirmation by voice vote the next day: Ken Salazar, Steven Chu, Arne Duncan, Peter Orszag, Eric Shinseki, Tom Vilsack, and Janet Napolitano.^[87][89] On January 21, Obama presided over the swearing in of the seven unanimous nominees.^[90] Later that day, the Senate confirmed Hillary Clinton by a 94–2 vote. On January 22, several more confirmations were approved unanimously: Susan E. Rice, Ray LaHood, Lisa P. Jackson, and Shaun Donovan.^[91] On January 26, the Senate confirmed Geithner by a 60–34 margin.^[92][93]

At the conclusion of Obama's first week as President, Hilda Solis, Tom Daschle, Ron Kirk, and Eric Holder had yet to be confirmed, and there had been no second appointment for Secretary of Commerce.^[93] Holder was confirmed by a vote of 75–21 on February 2,^[94] and on February 3, Obama announced Senator Judd Gregg as his second nomination for Secretary of Commerce.^[95] Daschle withdrew later that day amid controversy over his failure to pay income taxes and potential conflicts of interest related to the speaking fees he accepted from health care interests.^[96] Solis was later confirmed by a vote of 80-17 on February 24,^[97] and Ron Kirk was confirmed on March 18 by a 92-5 vote in the Senate.^[98]

Gregg, who was the leading Republican negotiator and author of the TARP program in the Senate, after publication that he had a multi-million dollar investment in the Bank of America, on February 12, withdrew his nomination as Secretary of Commerce, citing "irresolvable conflicts" with President Obama and his staff over how to conduct the 2010 census and the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009.^[99][100] Former Washington governor Gary Locke was nominated on February 26^[101] as Obama's third choice for Commerce Secretary and confirmed on March 24 by voice vote.^[102]

On March 2, Obama introduced Kansas governor Kathleen Sebelius as his second choice for Secretary of Health and Human Services. He also introduced Nancy-Ann DeParle as head of the new White House Office of Health Reform, which he suggested would work closely with the Department of Health and Human Services.^[103][104] At the end of March, Sebelius was the only remaining Cabinet member yet to be confirmed.^[102]

Six high-ranking cabinet nominees in the Obama administration had their confirmations delayed or rejected among reports that they did not pay all of their taxes, including Tom Daschle, Obama's original nominee for Health and Human Services Secretary, and Treasury Secretary Timothy Geithner.^[105] Though Geithner was confirmed, and Senator Max Baucus, chairman of the Senate Finance Committee, thought Daschle would have been confirmed, Daschle withdrew his nomination on February 3.^[96] Obama had nominated Nancy Killefer for the position of Chief Performance Officer, but Killefer also withdrew on February 3, citing unspecified problems with District of Columbia unemployment tax.^[106] A senior administration official said that Killefer's tax issues dealt with household help.^[106] Hilda Solis, Obama's nominee for Secretary of Labor, faced delayed confirmation hearings due to tax lien concerns pertaining to her husband's auto repair business,^[107] but she was later confirmed on February 24.^[97] While pundits puzzled over U.S. Trade Representative-designate Ron Kirk's failure to be confirmed by March 2009, it was reported on March 2 that Kirk owed over $10,000 in back taxes. Kirk agreed to pay them in exchange for Senate Finance Committee Chairman Max Baucus's aid in speeding up the confirmation process;^[108] he was later confirmed on March 18.^[98] On March 31, Kathleen Sebelius, Obama's nominee for Health and Human Services secretary, revealed in a letter to the Senate Finance Committee that her Certified Public Accountant found errors in her tax returns for years 2005-2007. She, along with her husband, paid more than $7,000 in back taxes, along with $878 in interest.^[109]

Notable non-Cabinet positions[link]

Appointees serve at the pleasure of the President and were nominated by Barack Obama except as noted.

• Chair of the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation
  • Sheila Bair¹ (2009–2011)
• Special envoy for Afghanistan and Pakistan
  • Richard Holbrooke (2009–2010)
  • Marc Grossman (2011–present)
• Assistant to the President for National Security Affairs
  • Retired General James L. Jones (2009–2011)
  • Thomas E. Donilon (2011–present)
• Special envoy to the Middle East
  • George J. Mitchell (2009–2011)
  • David Hale (2011–present)
• Director of the Federal Bureau of Investigation
  • Robert Mueller² (2009–present)
• Director of the Central Intelligence Agency
  • Leon Panetta (2009–2011)
  • Michael Morell (Acting-2011)
  • David Petraeus (2011–present)
• Chair of the Council of Economic Advisers
  • Christina Romer (2009–2010)
  • Austan Goolsbee (2010–2011)
  • Alan Krueger (2011–present)
• Chair of the Securities and Exchange Commission
  • Mary Schapiro (2009–present)
• Assistant to the President for Economic Policy and Director of National Economic Council
  • Lawrence Summers (2009–2010)
  • Gene Sperling (2011–present)
• Chairman of the Economic Recovery Advisory Board
  • Paul Volcker (2009–2011)
  • Replaced by Council on Jobs and Competitiveness in 2011
• Chairperson of the Council on Jobs and Competitiveness
  • Jeffrey R. Immelt (2011–present)

¹Appointed by George W. Bush in 2006 to a five-year term
²Appointed by George W. Bush in 2001 to a ten-year term

Judicial nominees[link]

United States Supreme Court[link]

Obama appointed the following Justices to the Supreme Court of the United States:

• Sonia Sotomayor – 2009
• Elena Kagan – 2010

Other courts[link]

Outside of the Supreme Court, by October 2009, Obama had nominated fewer than two dozen judges to fill judicial vacancies, of which there were close to 100. This has prompted some Democrats to criticize the pace of Obama's judicial appointments as too slow.^[110] In December 2009, Senator Patrick Leahy criticized Republicans for stalling those judicial nominations that had been made, noting that the Senate confirmed more district and circuit court nominees during the first year of the George W. Bush administration than it had approved by that point during the Barack Obama presidency.^[111]

As of July 2010, Obama's nominees to the district and circuit courts had been confirmed at a rate of only 43.5 percent, compared to 87.2 percent during Bill Clinton's administration and 91.3 percent for George W. Bush. The Center for American Progress, which compiled the data, commented:

Judicial confirmations slowed to a trickle on the day President Barack Obama took office. Filibusters, anonymous holds, and other obstructionary tactics have become the rule. Uncontroversial nominees wait months for a floor vote, and even district court nominees—low-ranking judges whose confirmations have never been controversial in the past—are routinely filibustered into oblivion. Nominations grind to a halt in many cases even after the Senate Judiciary Committee has unanimously endorsed a nominee. ^[112]

Policies[link]

Economy[link]

Upon entering office, Obama planned to center his attention on handling the global financial crisis.^[113] Even before his inauguration he lobbied Congress to pass an economic stimulus bill,^[114] which became the top priority during his first month in office.^[115] As President, Obama made a high profile trip to Capitol Hill, Washington, D.C. to dialog with Congressional Republicans and advocate for the bill.^[116] On February 17, 2009, Obama signed into law a $787 billion plan that included spending for health care, infrastructure, education, various tax breaks and incentives, and direct assistance to individuals.^[117] The tax provisions of the law reduced taxes for 98 percent of taxpayers, bringing tax rates to their lowest levels in 60 years.^[118]

As part of the 2010 budget proposal, the Obama administration has proposed additional measures to attempt to stabilize the economy, including a $2–3 trillion measure aimed at stabilizing the financial system and freeing up credit. The program includes up to $1 trillion to buy toxic bank assets, an additional $1 trillion to expand a federal consumer loan program, and the $350 billion left in the Troubled Assets Relief Program. The plan also includes $50 billion intended to slow the wave of mortgage foreclosures.^[117] The 2011 budget includes a three-year freeze on discretionary spending, proposes several program cancellations, and raises taxes on high income earners to bring down deficits during the economic recovery.^[119]

Obama speaking with former President Bill Clinton and Senior Advisor Valerie Jarrett about job creation in July 2010.

In a July 2009 interview with ABC News, Biden was asked about the sustained increase of the U.S. unemployment rate from May 2007 to October 2009^[120] despite the administration's multi-year economic stimulus package passed five months earlier. He responded "The truth is, we and everyone else, misread the economy. The figures we worked off of in January were the consensus figures and most of the blue chip indexes out there ... the truth is, there was a misreading of just how bad an economy we inherited."^[121][122] The White House indicates that 2 million jobs were created or saved due to the stimulus package in 2009^[123] and self reporting by recipients of the grants, loans, and contracts portion of the package report that the package saved or created 608,317 jobs in the final three months of 2009.^[124]

The unemployment rate rose in 2009, reaching a peak in October at 10.1% and averaging 10.0% in the fourth quarter.^[125] Following a decrease to 9.7% in the first quarter of 2010, the unemployment rate fell to 9.6% in the second quarter, where it remained for the rest of the year.^[125] Between February and December 2010, employment rose by 0.8%, which was less than the average of 1.9% experienced during comparable periods in the past four employment recoveries.^[126] GDP growth returned in the third quarter of 2009, expanding at a 1.6% pace, followed by a 5.0% increase in the fourth quarter.^[127] Growth continued in 2010, posting an increase of 3.7% in the first quarter, with lesser gains throughout the rest of the year.^[127] Overall, the economy expanded at a rate of 2.9% in 2010.^[128]

During November–December 2010, Obama and a lame duck session of the 111th Congress focused on a dispute about the temporary Bush tax cuts, which were due to expire at the end of the year. Obama wanted to extend the tax cuts for taxpayers making less than $250,000 a year. Congressional Republicans agreed but also wanted to extend the tax cuts for those making over that amount, and refused to support any bill that did not do so.^[129] All the Republicans in the Senate also joined in saying that, until the tax dispute was resolved, they would filibuster to prevent consideration of any other legislation, except for bills to fund the U.S. government.^[130][131] On 7 December, Obama strongly defended a compromise agreement he had reached with the Republican congressional leadership that included a two-year extension of all the tax cuts, a 13-month extension of unemployment insurance, a one-year reduction in the FICA payroll tax, and other measures.^[132] On December 10, Senator Bernie Sanders (I-VT) led a filibuster against the compromise tax proposal, which lasted over eight hours.^[133] Obama persuaded many wary Democrats to support the bill,^[134] but not all; of the 148 votes against the bill in the House, 112 were cast by Democrats and only 36 by Republicans.^[135] The $858 billion Tax Relief, Unemployment Insurance Reauthorization, and Job Creation Act of 2010, which The Washington Post called "the most significant tax bill in nearly a decade",^[136] passed with bipartisan majorities in both houses of Congress and was signed into law by Obama on December 17, 2010.^[134]

Ethics[link]

Lobbying reform[link]

Early in his presidential campaign, Obama stated that "they [lobbyists] won't find a job in my White House", but softened his stance later in the campaign.^[137] On January 21, 2009, Obama issued an executive order for all future appointees to his administration, which stated, no appointee who was a registered lobbyist within the two years before his appointment could participate on matters in which he lobbied for a period of two years after the date of appointment.^[40] Three formal waivers were initially issued in early 2009, out of 800 executive appointments:^[138][139] to William J. Lynn III, a lobbyist for Raytheon, to hold the position of Deputy Secretary of Defense;^[34] to Jocelyn Frye, former general counsel at the National Partnership for Women and Families, to serve as Director of Policy and Projects in the Office of the First Lady; and to Cecilia Muñoz, former senior vice president for the National Council of La Raza,^[138] to serve as Director of Intergovernmental Affairs in the Executive Office of the President.^[139] As of March 21, 2009, at least thirty officials appointed by Obama had been lobbyists in the past five years.^[137] Ten additional waivers were announced in September 2009.^[140]

Not all recent former lobbyists require waivers; those without waivers write letters of recusal stating issues from which they must refrain because of their previous jobs.^[138] USA Today reported that 21 members of the Obama administration have at some time been registered as federal lobbyists, although most have not within the previous two years.^[141] Lobbyists in the administration include William Corr, an anti-tobacco lobbyist, as Deputy Secretary of Health and Human Services^[142] and Tom Vilsack, who lobbied in 2007, for a national teachers union, as Secretary of Agriculture.^[141] Also, the Secretary of Labor nominee, Hilda Solis, formerly served as a board member of American Rights at Work, which lobbied Congress on two bills Solis co-sponsored,^[143] and Mark Patterson, Treasury Secretary Timothy Geithner's chief of staff, is a former lobbyist for Goldman Sachs.^[141]

The Citizens for Responsibility and Ethics in Washington have criticized the administration, claiming that Obama is retreating from his own ethics rules barring lobbyists from working on the issues about which they lobbied during the previous two years by issuing waivers. According to Melanie Sloan, the group's executive director, "It makes it appear that they are saying one thing and doing another."^[141]

Transparency[link]

Obama presents his first weekly address as President of the United States, discussing the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009.

The Obama administration has said that all executive orders, non-emergency legislation, and proclamations will be posted to the official White House website, whitehouse.gov, allowing the public to review and comment for five days before the President signs the legislation.^[144] The pledge was twice broken during Obama's first month in office when he signed SCHIP legislation and the Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Act with less than the full five days of "sunlight before signing". The administration has said that they are still "working through implementation procedures and some initial issues with the congressional calendar".^[145][146]

During his first week in office, Obama announced plans to post a video address each week on the site,^[44] and on YouTube,^[45] informing the public of government actions each week. During his speech at the 2008 Democratic National Convention, Obama stated, "I will also go through the federal budget, line by line, eliminating programs that no longer work and making the ones we do need work better and cost less - because we cannot meet twenty-first century challenges with a twentieth century bureaucracy."^[147]

On January 21, 2009, by executive order, Obama revoked Executive Order 13233, which had limited access to the records of former United States Presidents.^[148] Obama issued instructions to all agencies and departments in his administration to "adopt a presumption in favor" of Freedom of Information Act requests.^[149] In April 2009, the United States Department of Justice released four legal memos from the Bush administration to comply voluntarily with a Freedom of Information Act lawsuit filed by the American Civil Liberties Union.^[150] The memos were written by John Yoo^[151] and signed by Jay Bybee and Steven Bradbury, then Principal Assistant Attorneys General to the Department of Justice, and addressed to John A. Rizzo, general counsel of the Central Intelligence Agency.^[152] The memos describe in detail controversial interrogation methods the CIA used on prisoners suspected of terrorism.^[153][154] Obama became personally involved in the decision to release the memos, which was opposed by former CIA directors Michael Hayden, Porter Goss, George Tenet and John Deutch.^[152] Former Vice President Dick Cheney criticized Obama for not releasing more memos; Cheney claimed that unreleased memos detail successes of CIA interrogations.^[155]

The American Recovery and Reinvestment Act requires all recipients of the funds provided by the act to publish a plan for using the funds, along with purpose, cost, rationale, net job creation, and contact information about the plan to a website Recovery.gov so that the public can review and comment. Inspectors General from each department or executive agency will then review, as appropriate, any concerns raised by the public. Any findings of an Inspector General must be relayed immediately to the head of each department and published on Recovery.gov.^[156]

On June 16, 2009, Citizens for Responsibility and Ethics in Washington (CREW) filed a lawsuit against the Obama administration in order to get information about the visits of coal company executives. Anne Weismann, the chief counsel for CREW, stated "The Obama administration has now taken exactly the same position as the Bush administration... I don't see how you can keep people from knowing who visits the White House and adhere to a policy of openness and transparency." On June 16, MSNBC reported that its more comprehensive request for visitor logs since Obama's January 20 inauguration had been denied.^[157] The administration announced that White House visitor logs will be made available to the public on an ongoing basis, with certain limitations, for visits occurring after September 15, 2009.^[158] Beginning on January 29, 2010, the White House did begin to release the names of its visitor records.^[159] Since that time, names of visitors (which includes not only tourists, but also names of union leaders, Wall Street executives, lobbyists, party chairs, philanthropists and celebrities), have been released. The names are released in huge batches up to 75,000 names at a time.^[160] Names are released 90–120 days after having visited the White House. The complete list of names is available online by accessing the official White House website.^[161]

Obama stated during the 2008 Presidential campaign that he would have negotiations for health care reform televised on C-SPAN, citing transparency as being the leverage needed to ensure that people stay involved in the process taking place in Washington. This did not fully happen and Politifact gives President Obama a "Promise Broken" rating on this issue.^[162] After White House press secretary Robert Gibbs initially avoided addressing the issue,^[163] President Obama himself acknowledged that he met with Democratic leaders behind closed doors to discuss how best to garner enough votes in order to merge the two (House and Senate) passed versions of the health care bill. Doing this violated the letter of the pledge, although Obama maintains that negotiations in several congressional committees were open, televised hearings. Obama also cited an independent ethics watchdog group describe his administration as the most transparent in recent history.^[164]

The Obama administration has been characterized^[165] as much more aggressive than the Bush and other previous administrations in their response to whistleblowing and leaks to the press. Three people have been prosecuted under the rarely used Espionage Act of 1917. They include Thomas Andrews Drake, a former National Security Agency (NSA) employee who was critical of the NSA's Trailblazer Project,^{[166][167][168]} Stephen Jin-Woo Kim, a State Department contractor who allegedly had a conversation about North Korea with James Rosen of Fox News,^[169][170] and Jeffrey Sterling, who allegedly was a source for James Risen's book State of War. Risen has also been subpoenaed to reveal his sources, another rare action by the government.^[171]

Foreign policy[link]

The first meeting between Dmitry Medvedev and Barack Obama before the G20 summit in London on April 1, 2009.