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Qigong, chi kung, or chi gung (simplified Chinese: 气功; traditional Chinese: 氣功; pinyin: qìgōng; Wade–Giles: chi⁴ gong¹; literally "Spirit Achievement") is a practice of aligning breath, movement, and awareness for exercise, healing, and meditation.^[1] With roots in Chinese medicine, martial arts, and philosophy, qigong is traditionally viewed as a practice to cultivate and balance qi (chi) or what has been translated as "intrinsic life energy".^[2] Typically a qigong practice involves rhythmic breathing coordinated with slow stylized repetition of fluid movement, a calm mindful state, and visualization of guiding qi through the body.^[3] Qigong is now practiced throughout China and worldwide, and is considered by some to be exercise, and by others to be a type of alternative medicine or meditative practice.^[4] From a philosophical perspective qigong is believed to help develop human potential, allow access to higher realms of awareness, and awaken one's "true nature".^[5]

Qigong basics[link]

Etymology[link]

Qigong (Pinyin), ch'i kung (Wade-Giles), and chi gung (Yale) are English words for two Chinese characters: qì (氣) and gōng (功).

Qi (or chi) is usually translated as life energy, lifeforce, or energy flow, and definitions often involve breath, air, gas, or relationship between matter, energy, and spirit.^[6] Qi is the central underlying principle in traditional Chinese medicine and martial arts. Gong (or kung) is often translated as cultivation or work, and definitions include practice, skill, mastery, merit, achievement, service, result, or accomplishment, and is often used to mean gongfu (kung fu) in the traditional sense of achievement through great effort. (see MDBG dictionary entry) The two words are combined to describe systems to cultivate and balance life energy, especially for health.^[1]

Although the term qigong (氣功) has been traced back to Taoist literature of the early Tang Dynasty (618-907 AD), the term qigong as currently used was promoted in the late 1940s through the 1950s to refer to a broad range of Chinese self-cultivation exercises, and to emphasize health and scientific approaches, while de-emphasizing spiritual practices, mysticism, and elite lineages.^[7][8][9]

History[link]

With roots in ancient Chinese culture dating back more than 4,000 years, a wide variety of qigong forms have developed within different segments of Chinese society:^[10] in traditional Chinese medicine for preventive and curative functions,^[11] in Confucianism to promote longevity and improve moral character,^[1] in Taoism and Buddhism as part of meditative practice,^[5] and in Chinese martial arts to enhance fighting abilities.^[8][12] Contemporary qigong blends diverse and sometimes disparate traditions, in particular the Taoist meditative practice of "internal alchemy" (Neidan 內丹术), the ancient meditative practices of "circulating qi" (Xing qi 行氣) and "standing meditation" (Zhan zhuang 站桩), and the slow gymnastic breathing exercise of "guiding and pulling" (Tao yin 導引). Traditionally, knowledge about qigong was passed from adept master to student in elite unbroken lineages, typically with secretive and esoteric traditions of training and oral-mind transmission.^[13]

Starting in the late 1940s and the 1950s, the mainland Chinese government tried to integrate disparate qigong approaches into one coherent system, with the intention of establishing a firm scientific basis for qigong practice. This attempt is considered by some sinologists as the start of the modern or scientific interpretation of qigong.^[14][15][16] During the Great Leap Forward (1958–1963) and the Cultural Revolution (1966–1976), qigong, along with other traditional Chinese medicine, was encouraged in state-run rehabilitation centers and spread to universities and hospitals, but was under tight control with limited access among the general public. After the Cultural Revolution, qigong, along with t'ai chi, was popularized as daily morning exercise practiced en masse throughout China.

Popularity of qigong grew rapidly during the Deng and Jiang eras of the 1970s through 1990s, with estimates of between 60 and 200 million practitioners throughout China. In 1999, in response to widespread revival of old traditions of spirituality, morality, and mysticism, the Chinese government took measures to enforce control of public qigong practice, including banning groups such as Zhong Gong and Falun Gong. In 2000 a state Qigong Association was established to regulate qigong. ^[7][9][17]

Through the forces of migration of the Chinese diaspora, tourism in China, and globalization, the practice of qigong spread from the Chinese community to the world. Today, millions of people around the world practice qigong and believe in the benefits of qigong to varying degrees. Similar to its historical origin, those interested in qigong come from diverse backgrounds and practice it for different reasons, including for exercise, recreation, preventive medicine, self-healing, self-cultivation, meditation, and martial arts training.

Training methods[link]

Qigong comprises breathing, physical, and mental training methods based on Chinese philosophy.^[18] While implementation details vary, all qigong forms can be characterized as a mix of four types of training: dynamic, static, meditative, and activities requiring external aids.

• Dynamic training

involves fluid movement, usually carefully choreographed, coordinated with breath and awareness. Examples include the slow stylized movements of T'ai chi ch'uan, Baguazhang, and Xing yi.^[19] Other examples include graceful movement that mimics the motion of animals in Five Animals,^[20] White Crane,^[21] and Wild Goose (Dayan) Qigong.^[22][23]

• Static training

involves holding postures for sustained periods of time.^[24] In some cases this bears resemblance to the practice of Yoga and its continuation in the Buddhist tradition.^[25] For example Yiquan, a Chinese martial art derived from xingyiquan, emphasizes static stance training.^[26] In another example, the healing form Eight Pieces of Brocade (Baduanjin qigong) is based on a series of static postures.^[27]

• Meditative training

utilizes breath awareness, visualization, mantra, and focus on philosophical concepts such as qi circulation.^[28] For example, in the Confucius scholar tradition meditation is focused on humanity and virtue, with the aim of self-enlightenment. In various Buddhist traditions, the aim is to still the mind, either through outward focus, for example on a place, or through inward focus on the breath, a mantra, a koan, emptiness, or the idea of the eternal. In Taoist and traditional Chinese medicine practice, the meditative focus is on cultivating qi in dantian energy centers and balancing qi flow in meridian and other pathways.^[10]

• Use of external agents

Many systems of qigong training include the use of external agents such as ingestion of herbs, massage, physical manipulation, or interaction with other living organisms.^[5] For example, specialized food and drinks are used in some medical and Taoist forms, whereas massage and body manipulation are sometimes used in martial arts forms. In some medical systems a qigong master uses non-contact treatment, purportedly guiding qi through his or her own body into the body of another person.^[29]

Application[link]

People practice qigong for many different reasons, including for exercise and recreation, prevention and self-healing, meditation and self-cultivation, and training for martial arts.

Health[link]

As a form of gentle exercise, qigong is composed of movements that are typically repeated, strengthening and stretching the body, increasing fluid movement (blood, synovial, and lymph), enhancing balance and proprioception, and building awareness of how the body moves through space.^[3] In recent years a large number of books and videos have been published that focus primarily on qigong as exercise and associated health benefits. Practitioners range from athletes to the physically challenged. Because it is low impact and can be done lying, sitting, or standing, qigong is accessible for disabled persons, seniors, and people recovering from injuries.

As a healing art, qigong practitioners focus on prevention and self-healing, traditionally viewed as balancing the body's energy meridians and enhancing the intrinsic capacity of the body to heal.^[11] Qigong has been used extensively in China as part of traditional Chinese medicine, and is included in the curriculum of Chinese Universities.^[30] Throughout the world qigong is now recognized as a form of complementary and alternative medicine,^[31][32][33] with "significant results for a number of health benefits".^[34]

There are three main forms of medical qigong: 1) Qigong exercises for general health or specific diagnoses (e.g. cancer,^[35] fibromyalgia,^[36] hypertension^[37]); 2) Qigong massage by a trained Qigong practitioner to treat specific injuries and illnesses (e.g. autism);^[38] and 3) External qigong in which a trained practitioner focuses healing energy on patients without touching them.^[39]

Meditation and self-cultivation[link]

Qigong is practiced for meditation and self-cultivation as part of various philosophical and spiritual traditions. As meditation, qigong is a means to still the mind and enter a state of consciousness that brings serenity, clarity, and bliss.^[5] Many practitioners find qigong, with its gentle focused movement, to be more accessible than seated meditation.^[4]

Qigong for self-cultivation can be classified in terms of traditional Chinese philosophy:

• Confucianism

Qigong provides a means to become a Junzi (君子) through awareness of morality.^[40][41]

• Taoism

Qigong provides a way to achieve longevity and spiritual enlightenment.^[42]

• Buddhism

Qigong is part of a spiritual path that leads to spiritual enlightenment or Buddhahood.^[43]

Martial arts training[link]

The practice of qigong is an important component in both internal and external style Chinese martial arts.^[5] Focus on qi is considered to be a source of power as well as the foundation of the internal style of martial arts (Neijia). T'ai chi ch'uan, Xing yi, and Baguazhang are representative of the types of Chinese martial arts that rely on the concept of qi as the foundation. ^[44] Extraordinary feats of martial arts prowess, such as the ability to withstand heavy strikes (Iron Shirt, 鐵衫) ^[45] and the ability to break hard objects (Iron Palm, 铁掌) ^{[46] [47]} are abilities attributed to qigong training.

Forms[link]

In 2003, the Chinese Health Qigong Association officially recognized four health qigong forms:^[48]

• Muscle-Tendon Change Classic (Yì Jīn Jīng 易筋经).^[49][50]
• Five Animals (Wu Qin Xi 五禽戲).^[51]
• Six Healing Sounds (Liu Zi Jue 六字訣).^[52]
• Eight Pieces of Brocade (Ba Duan Jin 段锦气功).^[53]

In 2010, the Chinese Health Qigong Association officially recognized five additional health qigong forms:^[54]

• Tai Chi Yang Sheng Zhang: a tai chi form from the stick tradition.
• Shi Er Duan Jin: seated exercises to strengthen the neck, shoulders, waist, and legs.
• Daoyin Yang Sheng Gong Shi Er Fa: 12 routines from Daoyin tradition of guiding and pulling qi.
• Mawangdui Daoyin: guiding qi along the meridians with synchronous movement and awareness.
• Da Wu: choreographed exercises to lubricate joints and guide qi.

Other commonly practiced qigong forms include the following:

• Soaring Crane Qigong^[55]
• Pan Gu Mystical Qigong^[56]
• Wild Goose Qigong^[57]
• Dragon and Tiger Qigong^[58]
• Primordial Qigong (Wujigong)^[59][60]

Theory[link]

Traditional view[link]

Qigong practitioners in Brazil

Traditionally, the central focus of qigong practice is to cultivate and balance qi as it affects mind (心), body (身), and spirit (靈).^[10][61] In Chinese philosophy, the concept of qi as a form of pervasive life energy includes original qi that a person has at birth, and qi a person acquires from air, water, food, sunlight, and interaction with the environment.^[62][63] A person is believed to become ill or die when qi becomes diminished or unbalanced. Health is believed to be returned by rebuilding qi, eliminating qi blockages, and correcting qi imbalances.

Traditional Chinese medicine focuses on tracing and correcting underlying disharmony, in terms of deficiency and excess, using the complementary and opposing forces of yin and yang, to create a balanced flow of qi. Qi is believed to be cultivated and stored in three main dantian energy centers and to travel through the body along twelve main meridians, with numerous smaller branches and tributaries. The main meridians correspond to twelve main organs (Zàng fǔ). Qi is balanced in terms of yin and yang in the context of the traditional system of Five Phases (Wu xing 五行).^[10][11] These traditional concepts do not translate readily to modern science and medicine.

Principles[link]

Whether viewed from the perspective of exercise, health, philosophy, or martial arts training, several main principles emerge concerning the practice of qigong:^[1][3][4]

• Intentional movement: careful, flowing balanced style
• Rhythmic breathing: slow, deep, coordinated with fluid movement
• Awareness: calm, focused medititative state
• Visualization: of qi flow, philosophical tenets, aesthetics

Additional principles:

• Softness: soft gaze, expressionless face
• Solid Stance: firm footing, erect spine
• Relaxation: relaxed muscles, slightly bent joints
• Balance and Counterbalance: motion over the center of gravity

Advanced goals:

• Equanimity: more fluid, more relaxed
• Tranquility: empty mind, high awareness
• Stillness: smaller and smaller movements, eventually to complete stillness

The most advanced practice is generally considered to be with little or no motion.

Contemporary view[link]

Similar to the subject of efficacy of Traditional Chinese medicine, the chasm between the Eastern tradition of qi and the Western scientific viewpoints is not insurmountable if the analysis is limited to the effect of qigong practice on biological processes without demanding a material interpretation of qi. There is convincing argument to view the concept of qi as a metaphor for biological processes ^[64][65] and in the emerging field of energy medicine. ^[66]

The basis of qigong can also be explained in terms of contemporary views of health, science, meditation, and exercise, and using medical concepts such as stress management, ^{[67] [68]} biofeedback,^{[31] [69] [70]} and neurology.^{[71] [72]}

Health benefits[link]

Claims and medical research[link]

Qigong has been purported to enhance health and well-being with many benefits, including improving cardiovascular function, healing specific acute diseases, and increasing longevity.^[1] Many of these claims are supported only by anecdotal evidence, traditional lore, and teachings in master/student lineages.^[13] Research examining health benefits of qigong is increasing, but there is little financial incentive to support research and still only a limited number of studies meet accepted medical and scientific standards of randomized controlled trials (RCT). In a 2010 comprehensive review of qigong and tai chi,^[34] a literature search of peer-reviewed journals in medical databases for the period of 1993-2007 found a total of seventy-seven RCT studies that examined the benefits of qigong and Tai chi practice. The review reported that qigong practice played a positive role in each of nine categories:

• Bone density: prevented bone loss and increased bone mineral density;
• Cardiopulmonary effects: decreased blood pressure and heart rate, increased heart rate variability, and improved biomarkers;
• Physical function: improved performance indicators (e.g., chair rise, 50-ft walk, gait speed, muscle contraction strength, flexibility);
• Falls and related risk factors: decreased falls and increased balance;
• Quality of life: improved perceived physical health, psychological state, social relationships, etc.
• Self efficacy: improved confidence and ability to manage health problems, pain, stress, and novel situations;
• Patient reported outcomes: decreased reporting of pain, improvement of diverse symptoms including discomfort and sleeplessness;
• Psychological symptoms: decreased anxiety, depression, perceived stress, and fear; improved mood and biomarkers such as stress hormones (e.g., lower cortisol);
• Immune function and inflammation: improved immune blood markers (e.g., leukocytes, eosinophils, and antibodies) and decrease inflammation markers (e.g., cytokines, C-reactive protein, and interleukin-6).

While almost all of these studies showed positive benefits of qigong practice, many of the same studies showed similar effects with ordinary physical exercise. The authors called for further studies with standardized controls and treatment dosing (frequency, duration, and intensity of treatment). They concluded that qigong and tai chi have similar beneficial effects and have advantages of low cost, low risk, and high accessibility.

Mental health[link]

Many claims have been made that qigong can benefit or ameliorate mental health conditions,^[34][73] including improved mood, decreased stress reaction, and decreased anxiety and depression. Most medical studies have only examined psychological factors as secondary goals, however various studies have shown significant benefits such as decrease in cortisol levels, a chemical hormone produced by the body to manage stress.^[34] There are also claims that in some cases, in particular with improper teaching or improper technique, the practice of qigong can result in a mental condition known as Zou huo ru mo (走火入魔) or "qigong deviation" (氣功偏差), which, among other symptoms, can lead to a perception of an uncontrolled flow of qi in the body during or after practice.^[7][9][74]

Controversy[link]

There is little controversy concerning the benefit of qigong when the definition of qigong is limited to a series of physical movements and a set of relaxation exercises. Conflict has arisen when the claims made by proponents of qigong border on the supernatural.^[7][75]

Some researchers have labeled the subject matter of qigong as a pseudoscience.^[76] In addition, some claim that the origin and nature of qigong practice has led to misconceptions and misuses,^[77] including psychiatric problems^[16] and the formation of cults^[7]

Skepticism towards qigong is also applied to the field of Traditional Chinese medicine, and extended to the broader subject of alternative medicine. The basic problem is that the information available from those fields does not fit scientific acceptability or medical interpretation. ^{[76][77][78][79] [80] [81]} Skeptics contend that most of the benefits derived from Alternative medicine are, at best, derived from a placebo effect.^{[82] [83]}

The main arguments from the view of skeptics against the correlation between qigong practices and health-related results are:

• The existence of qi, or any form of vitalism, has not been independently verified in a experimental setting. Such a concept is not recognized in the biological sciences.^[84]
• Demonstrations in martial arts such as breaking hard objects with strikes can be fully explained using physics, without reference to the concept of qi.^[85][86]
• Reported claims of supernatural abilities appear to be tricks more suited to magic shows than to any genuine scientific discipline.^{[7][87][88][89][90][91]}
• Personal benefits for some qigong masters might have provided them with an incentive to exaggerate their claims ^[7]

Shifting views[link]

Traditionally, qigong training has been esoteric and secretive, with knowledge passed from adept master to student in lineages that maintain their own unique detailed interpretations and methods.^[13]  Over the centuries, a diverse spectrum of qigong forms developed in different segments of Chinese society,^[8] with emphasis on meditative practice by scholars, and gymnastic or dynamic practice by the working masses.^[92]  Disparate approaches to qigong were merged as part of the cultural change that occurred as China modernized.^[14]  In contemporary China, the emphasis of qigong practice has shifted away from traditional philosophy, spiritual attainment, and folklore, and increasingly to health benefits, traditional medicine and martial arts applications, and a scientific perspective.^[7][9]

Qigong is now practiced by millions worldwide, primarily for its health benefits, though many practitioners have also adopted traditional philosophical, medical, or martial arts perspectives, and even use the long history of qigong as evidence of its effectiveness.^[4][10]

See also[link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Chi Kung

References[link]

v t e Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) 中醫 TCM Practices Acupuncture (Zhēnjiǔ 針灸) · Chinese herbology (Zhōngyào xué 中藥學) · Cupping (Báguàn 拔罐) · Moxibustion (Jiǔ 灸) · Chinese massage, Tuī ná or Chin Na (Qín ná 推拿) · Qigong or Ch'i kung (Qìgōng 气功) Three Treasures (Sānbǎo 三寶) Chi (Qì 气) · Essence (Jīng 精) · Spirit (Shén 神) Five Phases (Wu Xing 五行) Earth (Tǔ 土) · Fire (Huǒ 火) · Metal (Jīn 金) · Water (Shuǐ 水) · Wood (Mù 木) Other Key TCM Topics Meridians (Jīngluò 經絡) · Organs (Zàng-fǔ 臟腑) · Yin and yang (Yīnyáng 陰陽) Yin Entities (Zàng 臟) Heart (Xīn 心) · Kidney (Shen 腎) · Pericardium (Xinbaoluo 心包) · Liver (Gān 肝) · Lung (Fei 肺) · Spleen (Pí 脾)) Yang Entities (Fǔ 腑) Gallbladder (Dan 膽) · Large Intestine (Dà cháng 大腸) · Small Intestine (Xiaochang 小腸) · Stomach (Wei 胃) · Triple Warmer (Sānjiaō 三焦) · Urinary Bladder (Pangguang 膀胱) Qiheng zhi fu Brain (Nao) • Marrow (Sui) • Bone (Gu) • Vein (Mai) • Uterus (Zigong) Noted TCM Physicians Hua Tuo 華佗 (141-208) · Li Shizhen 李時珍 (1518-1593) · Sun Simiao 孫思邈 (540–682) · Zhang Jiegu (ca. 1151-1234) · Zhang Zhongjing 張仲景 (150-219) Contemporary Related Topics Alternative medicine · Energy medicine Category · Portal

v t e Qigong 气功 Qigong Main Topics Chi (qi 气) · Chinese martial arts · Chinese philosophy · History of Qigong · Traditional Chinese medicine (zhōng yī 中医) · T'ai chi ch'uan (tàijíquán 太极拳) TCM and Philosophy Acupuncture (Zhēnjiǔ 针灸) · Chinese art · Elixir field (Dantian 丹田) · Chinese massage (Tui na 推拿) · Essence (Jing 精) · Meridian (jīngluò 经络) · Spirit (Shen 神) · Yin and yang (Yīnyáng 陰陽) Traditional Practices Internal alchemy (Neidan 內丹术) · Silk reeling (Chán sī jìng 纏絲勁) · Standing meditation (Zhan zhuang 站桩) · Taoist gymnastic breathing/Guide and Pull (Tao yin 導引) Qigong Forms Eight Pieces of Brocade (Bāduànjǐn qìgōng 段锦气功) · Five Animals (Wu Qin Xi qìgōng 五禽戲) · Muscle/Tendon Change Classic (Yijin Jing qìgōng 易筋经) · Primordial qigong (Wujigong 無極氣功) · Six Healing Sounds (Liu Zi Jue qìgōng 六字訣) Qigong Masters Hua Tuo 华陀 (141-208 AD) · Li Shizhen 李时珍 (1518-1593 AD) · Zhang Sanfeng 張三丰 (c. 12th century AD) Spiritual Movements and Politics Falun Gong 法轮功  · Zhong Gong 中功 Contemporary Related Topics Alternative medicine · Biofeedback · Energy medicine · Exercise · Meditation · Mind-body intervention · World Tai Chi and Qigong Day Category · Portal

John Chiang Chiang Hsiao-yen 蔣孝嚴
ROC Foreign Minister
In office 1996–1997
President	Lee Teng-hui
Preceded by	Fredrick Chien
Succeeded by	Jason Hu
Personal details
Political party	Kuomintang
Spouse(s)	Helen Huang
Children	Chiang Hui-lan, Chiang Hui-yun, Chiang Wan-an

John Chiang Hsiao-yen (Chinese: 蔣孝嚴; pinyin: Jiǎng Xiàoyán; born May 2, 1941), formerly surnamed Chang (章, Zhāng), is a Kuomintang politician in Taiwan.

Biography[link]

He and his twin brother, Winston Chang, both illegitimate, were born the sons of Chiang Ching-kuo and his mistress Chang Ya-juo in Guilin amid the Sino-Japanese War. Since they were born out of wedlock, the twins took their mother's surname, Chang, though they were given the Chiang generation name of Hsiao shared by all children of Chiang Ching-kuo.

Chang Ya-juo died when the brothers were one year old in August 1942, and they were raised by Chang Ya-juo's younger brother, Chang Hau-juo (章浩若) and his wife Chi Chen (紀琛). Their uncle and aunt were listed as their natural parents on official documents until December 2002, when the true parents were listed. Chou Chin-hua (周錦華), the boys' maternal grandmother, and the 7-year-old brothers moved to Taiwan amid the Chinese Civil War. The Chang Brothers went to Soochow University at the same time. John also obtained a M.S. from Georgetown University.

Chiang began his career in the foreign service, serving in the ROC embassy in Washington, DC from 1974 to 1977. In the 1980s, he held various administrative posts in the ROC Foreign Ministry specializing in North American Affairs. He was Administrative Vice Minister from 1986 to 1990, Director General, of the Overseas Affairs Department in 1990, and Political Vice Minister from 1990 to 1993. In 1993 he was appointed to the cabinet-level post of Chairman of the Overseas Chinese Affairs Commission and served as a member of the KMT Central Standing Committee. He was seleced a member of the National Assembly in 1996.

He was Foreign Minister from 1996 to 1997, vice premier in 1997, and Secretary-General of the presidential office from 1999 to 2000. He was speculated as a potential running mate for Lien Chan on the KMT ticket in the 2000 presidential elections until a sex scandal involving a mistress caused him to briefly remove himself from the political scene. Since 2002, he has been a member of the Legislative Yuan. He represented the constituency of Taipei City South from 2002 to 2005 and has represented Taipei City North since 2005. He is the Chairman of Interior Affairs Committee in the legislature.

With Helen H. Huang (黃美倫), he has two daughters, Hui-lan (惠蘭) and Hui-yun (惠筠), and a son, Wan-an (萬安). In March 2005, he officially changed his surname to "Chiang", saying, "The change represents a respect for history, a return to the facts, and a realization of my parents' wishes." He also announced that his children would follow suit.^[1]

In 2006, Chiang ran for the KMT nomination for the Taipei Mayorship election, but withdrew from the race.

At the end of March 2007, Chiang staged a rally at the Chiang Kai-shek Memorial Hall in support of his grandfather, late President Chiang Kai-shek. The Memorial hall was later renamed, in a hotly controversial move, by the Executive Yuan, to the National Taiwan Democracy Memorial Hall, striking out the name of Chiang Kai-Shek, temporarily; the Memorial's name was restored on August 21, 2008.

In the Republic of China legislative election, 2008, John Chiang won re-election in his district in Taipei City. All of the DPP candidates failed to secure a seat in Taipei City's 8 legislative election districts. In April 2011, Chiang lost the Kuomintang legislative candidacy to Lo Shu-lei, a fellow Kuomintant legislator, in his electroral district in Taipei by a margin of 0.578 percent.^[2]

John Chiang said that the Diaoyu islands, which are disputed between the Republic of China and Japan, belong "to all Chinese people".^[3]

References[link]

External links[link]

• Official site (in Traditional Chinese)

v t e Vice Premiers (Vice Presidents of Executive Yuan) of the Republic of China Feng Yuxiang · T. V. Soong Tse-ven · Chen Mingshu · T. V. Soong Tse-ven · H. H. Kung Hsiang-hsi · Chang Ch'ün · H. H. Kung Hsiang-hsi · Weng Wenhao · Wang Yunwu · Gu Mengyu · Chang Li-sheng · Wu Tiecheng · Jia Jingde · Zhu Jiahua · Chang Li-sheng · Huang Shao-ku · Wang Yunwu · Yu Ching-tang · Huang Shao-ku · Chiang Ching-kuo · Hsu Ching-chung · Chiu Chuang-huan · Lin Yang-kang · Lien Chan · Shih Chi-yang · Hsu Li-teh · John Chiang Hsiao-yen · Liu Chao-shiuan · Yu Shyi-kun · Chang Chun-hsiung · Lai In-jaw · Lin Hsin-i · Yeh Chu-lan · Wu Rong-i · Tsai Ing-wen · Chiou I-jen · Chang Chun-hsiung* · Paul Chiu Chang-hsiung · Eric Chu Li-luan · Sean Chen Chun · Jiang Yi-huah * acting

Master Li Junfeng (born October 13, 1938 in Gaocheng, Hebei) is a qigong master, the founder of Sheng Zhen Qigong, and a world-renowned wushu coach. He has also starred-in and choreographed several Chinese martial arts films.

Early life[link]

Li Junfeng was born in Gaocheng, Hebei, China (Rao 1986, p. 32). As a youth, he earned a position on the Hebei professional rifle team.

In 1960 he enrolled in Beijing Physical Education University’s wushu department and was the captain of the school’s wushu team. In 1964 he was featured in the French TV documentary Day in the Life of a Chinese College Student.

Wushu coaching career[link]

After graduation in 1965 he became a wushu coach at Beijing's Shichahai Sports School. In 1973 the Chinese Central Documentary Film House produced the documentary Beijing Sports School Wushu Team that includes footage of Li Junfeng coaching a young Jet Li. After the school won the national competition in 1974, Beijing accepted Wu Bin’s and his proposal to establish the Beijing Wushu Team, a professional team consisting of students mostly from the Shichahai Sports School.

From 1974 to 1988 Li Junfeng was a head coach of the Beijing Wushu Team. During this time the team won the national championship in the group category for 12 straight years (Udo 1998, p. 68) and his students won 56 individual gold medals. In 1984 his students won 10 of the 16 gold medals at the National Wushu Competition in Shanghai, setting the record for the most number of gold medals won by a coach’s students. Li Junfeng also traveled internationally as a national team coach and at the first Asian Wushu Championship in 1987 his team won 13 of 16 gold medals and 3 silver medals (Udo 1998, p. 68).

During his career as a wushu coach, Li Junfeng was awarded one Second Medal Certificate and four Third Medal Certificates from the State Physical Culture and Sports Commission. He was also the Deputy Director of the Chinese Wushu Coach Committee (Rao 1986, p. 32); the Commissioner of the China Wushu Association; and Councilor to the China Wushu Society.

The book In the Spirit of the 2008 Olympics: Extraordinary Chinese Martial Artists of the World highlights Li Junfeng as one of eleven prominent wushu pioneers.

Film career[link]

In 1982 Li Junfeng was selected for the leading role in Wu Lin Zhi, a Chinese martial arts film, and was ultimately awarded a Chinese National Award for “Best Performance by an Actor in a Leading Role.” The film was selected as the “Motion Picture of the Year” by the Chinese Ministry of Culture, translated into five languages and released in the United States under the names The Honor of Dongfang Xu and Deadly Fury. Li Junfeng has appeared in three additional films, was a film action choreographer and hosted the television series, Learning Wushu (Udo 1998, p. 69).

Philippines[link]

In 1988 the Philippines Wushu Federation invited Li Junfeng to become the national team’s head coach. He held the head coach position until 1991 where he began teaching qigong and taiji full time. The team's greatest achievement came shortly after this, winning 10 gold medals at the 16th Southeast Asian Games in Manila.

Sheng Zhen Qigong[link]

Li Junfeng was first drawn to qigong and taiji as a university student and has practiced and taught these disciplines throughout his adult life. He began practicing Sheng Zhen Qigong privately in 1987 and began teaching it in 1994. In 1995 the International Sheng Zhen Society was founded to promote Sheng Zhen Qigong to the world. Li Junfeng is the society's chairman and principal teacher.

Since the founding of the International Sheng Zhen Society Li Junfeng has taught Sheng Zhen Qigong in 25 countries spread across 6 continents. In 2002 Omni Film Productions created the documentary Quiet Mind: Healing Qigong about Sheng Zhen Qigong and Li Junfeng. In 2002 Li Junfeng moved to the United States and accepted a position teaching qigong at the Academy of Oriental Medicine at Austin (Austin TX, United States). He has delivered the keynote address at several conferences including the National Qigong Association Conference in 1999 and 2000; the International Psi Conference, Basle, Switzerland in 2005; and at the American Acupuncturist Association of Oriental Medicine annual conference in 2006 and 2007.

Li Junfeng is a Counselor to the World Academic Society of Medical Qigong and an Advisor to the Qigong Science Research Association of China (Stewart 2000-2001, p. 46).

Publications[link]

• Li, Junfeng. Sparring with Long Fist & Single Broad Sword/Spear. China, 1982.
• Li, Junfeng. Learn Wushu Series. China, 1985.
• Li, Junfeng. Martial Arts on Ba Gua Zhang. China, 1987.
• Li, Junfeng. Sheng Zhen Wuji Yuan Gong: A Return to Oneness. Manila, Philippines: International Sheng Zhen Society, 1995.
• Sheng Zhen Wuji Yuan Gong: A Return to Oneness (DVD). Manila, Philippines: International Sheng Zhen Society, 1996.
• Li, Junfeng. Sheng Zhen Healing Qigong: Removal of Disease in Three Parts. Manila, Philippines: International Sheng Zhen Society, 1999.
• Sheng Zhen Healing Qigong (DVD). Manila, Philippines: International Sheng Zhen Society, 1999.
• Li, Junfeng. Awakening the Soul. Manila, Philippines: International Sheng Zhen Society, 2008.

References[link]

• Rao, Fengqi (August), "The Beijing Wushu Team", China Reconstructs XXXV (8): 32–33 

• Stewart, Jampa Mackenzie (Winter), "Li Junfeng: From Wushu Glory to Qigong Wholeness", Qi: the Journal of Traditional Eastern Health & Fitness 11 (4): 46–50 

• Udo, Annabelle A. (April/May), "Master Li Junfeng, former Beijing Wushu Team Head Coach, takes the Evolutionary Path", Kungfu 7 (3): 68–70 

• Wei, Yang (2008), In the Spirit of the 2008 Olympics: Extraordinary Chinese Martial Artists of the World, Hong Kong, China: World Culture Exchange Publishing House 

Statue of Yue Fei in the Yue Fei Temple, Hangzhou. The four Chinese characters on the plaque above the statue read huan wo he shan (simplified Chinese: 还我河山; traditional Chinese: 還我河山; pinyin: huán wǒ hé shān; literally "return my rivers and mountains"), or "return my territory".
Names (details)
Known in English as:	Yue Fei, Yueh Fei, Yo Fei, Yao Fei, Ngok Fei, Nawk Fai
Traditional Chinese:	岳飛
Simplified Chinese:	岳飞
Hanyu Pinyin:	Yuè Fēi
Wade-Giles:	Yüeh Fei
Gan:	Ngok5 Fi1
Cantonese:	Ngok[1] Fei[2]
Style name:	Pengju
Traditional Chinese:	鵬舉
Simplified Chinese:	鹏举
Hanyu Pinyin:	Péngjǔ
Wade-Giles:	P'eng-chü
Cantonese:	Paang4-geui2
Posthumous name(s):	Wumu, Zhongwu
Chinese:	武穆, 忠武
Hanyu Pinyin:	Wǔmù, Zhōngwǔ
Wade-Giles:	Wu-mu, Jung-wu
Cantonese:	Mou5-muk6, Jung1-mou5

This article contains Chinese text. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Chinese characters.

Yue Fei (March 24, 1103 – January 27, 1142), style name Pengju, was a military general during the era of the Southern Song Dynasty. His ancestral home was in Xiaoti, Yonghe Village, Tangyin, Xiangzhou, Henan (in present-day Tangyin County, Anyang, Henan). He is best known for leading the defense of Southern Song against invaders from the Jurchen-ruled Jin Dynasty in northern China, before being put to death by the Southern Song government.^[2] He was granted the posthumous name of Wumu by Emperor Xiaozong in 1169, and later granted the posthumous title of Prince of E (鄂王) by Emperor Ningzong in 1211. Widely seen as a patriot and national hero in China, since after his death, Yue Fei has evolved into a standard epitome of loyalty in Chinese culture.

Yue Fei’s biographies[link]

Biography of Yue Fei[link]

Yue Fei

A biography of Yue Fei, the Eguo Jintuo Zubian (鄂國金佗稡编), was written 60 years after his death by his grandson, the poet and historian Yue Ke (岳柯) (1183-post 1240).^[3][4][5] In 1346 it was incorporated into the History of Song, a 496-chapter record of historical events and biographies of noted Song Dynasty individuals, compiled by Yuan Dynasty prime minister Toktoghan and others.^[6] Yue Fei's biography is found in the 365th chapter of the book and is numbered biography 124.^[7] Some later historians including Deng Guangming (1907–1998) now doubt the veracity of many of Yue Ke's claims about his ancestor.^[8]

According to the History of Song, Yue Fei was named "Fei", meaning to fly, because at the time he was born "a large bird like a swan landed on the roof of his house".^[9]

The Story of Yue Fei[link]

Yue Fei's second biography, a wuxia novel titled Shuo Yue Quanzhuan (simplified Chinese: 说岳全传; traditional Chinese: 說岳全傳; pinyin: Shuō Yuè Quán Zhuàn; literally "Telling the Complete Biography of Yue Fei", was written by Qian Cai (錢彩), who lived sometime during the reigns of the Kangxi and Yongzheng (1661–1735) emperors of the Qing Dynasty.^[10] A dating symbol in its preface points either to the year 1684 or to 1744.^[1] It was banned during the reign of the Qianlong Emperor. There are two main versions of this novel in existence. The original one had 80 chapters. There was an illustrated edition of this version published in 1912.^[11] The other version also had 80 chapters and was published during the reign of the Tongzhi Emperor (1861–1875). Starting in 1964 and finishing in 1995, Sir Yang Ti-liang, former Chief Justice of Hong Kong, current Chairman of the Hong Kong Red Cross, combined the first chapters of these works (in an attempt to weed out the overabundance of supernatural elements) to create a 79 chapter version with 961 pages, which he translated into English. It is currently sold under the title General Yue Fei (ISBN 978-962-04-1279-0).

Some people mistakenly take this novel to be historical fact when it is purely fiction.^[12] According to Sir Yang Ti-liang's introduction to his translation:

The work is a historical novel in form, but it is in fact based almost mainly on legends which were current amongst the common people for centuries. Indeed some of the events described there are nothing more than Qian Cai's own imagination.^[10]

Chronicle of Yue, Prince of E of Song[link]

The Song Yue E Wang Nianpu (simplified Chinese: 宋岳鄂王年谱; traditional Chinese: 宋岳鄂王年譜; pinyin: Sòng Yuè È Wáng Niánpǔ; literally "Chronicle of Yue, Prince of E of Song") was written by Qian Ruwen (钱汝雯) in 1924.^[11]

Birth and early life[link]

Several sources state that Yue was born into a poor tenant farmer's family in Tangyin County, Anyang prefecture, Henan province.^{[7][10][13][14]} According to the Shuo Yue Quanzhuan, the immortal Chen Tuan, disguised as a wandering priest, warned Yue Fei's father, Yue He (岳和), to put his wife and child inside a clay jar if the infant Yue Fei began to cry. A few days later, a young child squeezed Yue Fei's hand too hard and he began to cry. Soon, it began to rain and the Yellow River flooded, wiping out the village. Yue Fei's father held onto the clay jar as it was swept down the river, but eventually drowned. Although the much older Biography of Yue Fei also mentions the flood, it states Yue Huo survived. It reads,

After [the death of his teacher Zhou Tong], [Yue Fei] would offer sacrifices at his tomb. His father praised him for his faithfulness and asked him, "When you are employed to cope with the affairs of the time, will you then not have to sacrifice yourself for the empire and die for your duty?" (侗死，溯望設祭于其冢。父義之，曰：“汝為時用，其徇國死義乎。)^[6][7]

Yue Fei's father used his family's plot of land for humanitarian efforts, but after it was destroyed in the flood, the young Yue Fei was forced to help his father toil in the fields to survive. Yue received most of his primary education from his father. In 1122 Yue joined the army, but had to return home later that year after the death of his father.^[6] In ancient China, a person was required by law to temporarily resign from their job when their parents died so they could observe the customary period of mourning.^[15] For instance, Yue would have had to mourn his father's death for three years, but in all actually only 27 months. During this time, he would wear coarse mourning robes, caps, and slippers, while abstaining from silken garments.^[16] When his mother died in 1136, he retired from a decisive battle against the Jin Dynasty for the mourning period, but he was forced to cut the bereavement short because his generals begged him to come back.^[6]

Zhou Tong teaching Yue Fei archery.

Shuo Yue Quanzhuan gives a very detailed fictional account of Yue's early life. The novel states after being swept from Henan to Hubei, Yue and his mother are saved by the country squire Wang Ming (王明) and are permitted to stay in Wang's manor as domestic helpers. The young Yue Fei later becomes the adopted son and student of the Wang family's teacher, Zhou Tong, a famous master of military skills. (Zhou Tong is not to be confused with the similarly-named "Little Tyrant" in Water Margin.) Zhou teaches Yue and his three sworn brothers - Wang Gui (王贵), Tang Huai (湯懷) and Zhang Xian (張顯) - literary lessons on odd days and military lessons, involving archery and the eighteen weapons of war, on even days.

After years of practice, Zhou Tong enters his students into the Tangyin County military examination, in which Yue Fei wins first place by shooting a succession of nine arrows through the bullseye of a target 240 paces away. After this display of archery, Yue is asked to marry the daughter of Li Chun (李春), an old friend of Zhou and the county magistrate who presided over the military examination. However, Zhou soon dies of an illness and Yue lives by his grave through the winter until the second month of the new year when his sworn brothers come and tear it down, forcing him to return home and take care of his mother.

Yue eventually marries and later participates in the imperial military examination in the Song capital of Kaifeng. There, he defeats all competitors and even turns down an offer from Cai Gui (蔡桂), the Prince of Liang, to be richly rewarded if he forfeits his chance for the military degree. This angers the prince and both agree to fight a private duel in which Yue kills the prince and is forced to flee the city for fear of being executed. Shortly thereafter, he joins the Song army to fight the invading armies of the Jurchen-ruled Jin Dynasty.^[10]

The Yue Fei Biography states,

When [Yue] was born, a Peng flew crowing over the house, so his father named the child Fei [(飛 - "flight")]. Before [Yue] was even a month old, the Yellow River flooded, so his mother got inside of the center of a clay jar and held on to baby Yue. The violent waves pushed the jar down river, where they landed ashore ... Despite his family's poverty, [Yue Fei] was studious, and particularly favored the Zuo Zhuan edition of the Spring and Autumn Annals and the strategies of Sun Tzu and Wu Qi. (飛生時，有大禽若鵠，飛鳴室上，因以為名。未彌月，河決內黃，水暴至，母姚抱飛坐瓮中，衝濤及岸得免，人異之。-- 家貧力學，尤好【左氏春秋】、孫吳兵法。)^[7]

According to a book by martial arts master Liang Shouyu, "[A] Dapeng is a great bird that lived in ancient China. Legend has it, that Dapeng was the guardian that stayed above the head of Gautama Buddha. Dapeng could get rid of all evil in any area. Even the Monkey King was no match for it. During the Song Dynasty the government was corrupt and foreigners were constantly invading China. Sakyamuni sent Dapeng down to earth to protect China. Dapeng descended to Earth and was born as Yue Fei."^[17]

Martial training[link]

The Biography of Yue Fei states, "Yue Fei possessed supernatural power and before his adulthood, he was able to draw a bow of 300 catties and a crossbow of eight stone. [Yue Fei] learned archery from Zhou Tong. He learned everything and could fire with his left and right hands."^[7][18] Shuo Yue Quanzhuan states Zhou teaches Yue and his sworn brothers archery and all of the eighteen weapons of war. This novel also says Yue was Zhou's third student after Lin Chong and Lu Junyi of the 108 outlaws in Water Margin. The Chronicle of Yue, Prince of E of Song) says he studied the bow and military tactics under Zhou Tong and the spear under the spear master Chen Guang (陳廣). Before he was an adult, Yue could draw a bow of 300 catties and a crossbow of eight stones and could fire a bow with either his left or right hand.^[11][17][19] The E Wang Shi records, "When Yue Fei reached adulthood, his maternal grandfather, Yao Daweng (姚大翁), hired a spear expert, Chen Guang, to teach Yue Fei spear fighting."^[20][21]

Both the Biography of Yue Fei and E Wang Shi mention Yue learning from Zhou and Chen at or before his adulthood. The Chinese character representing "adulthood" in these sources is ji guan (Chinese: 及冠; pinyin: jí guàn; literally "conferring headdress"), an ancient Chinese term that means "20 years old" where a young man was able to wear a formal headdress as a social status of adulthood.^[22][23] So he gained all of his martial arts knowledge by the time he joined the army at the age of 19.^[7][19]

These chronicles do not mention Yue's masters teaching him martial arts style; just archery, spearplay and military tactics. However non-historical or scholarly sources state, in addition to those already mentioned, Zhou Tong taught Yue other skills such as hand-to-hand combat and horseback riding. Yet again, these do not mention any specific martial arts style. One legend says Zhou took young Yue to an unspecified place to meet a Buddhist hermit who taught him the Emei Dapeng qigong (峨嵋大鵬氣功) style. This is supposedly the source of his legendary strength and martial arts abilities.^[13][17] According to thirteenth generation lineage Tai He ("Great Harmony") Wudangquan master Fan Keping (范克平), a collector of rare martial arts manuals,^[24] Zhou Tong was a master of various "hard qigong" exercises.^[25][26]

Yue Fei's mother writes jin zhong bao guo on his back, as depicted in a "Suzhou style" beam decoration at the Summer Palace, Beijing.

Yue Fei's tattoo[link]

According to historical records and legend, Yue had the four Chinese characters jin zhong bao guo (simplified Chinese: 尽忠报国; traditional Chinese: 盡忠報國; pinyin: jìn zhōng bào guó; literally "serve the country with the utmost loyalty") tattooed across his back. The Biography of Yue Fei says after Qin Hui sent agents to arrest Yue and his son, he was taken before the court and charged with treason, but

Yue ripped his jacket to reveal the four brush-stroke characters of "serve the country with the utmost loyalty" on his back. This proved that he was clearly innocent of the charges. (飛裂裳以背示鑄，有“盡忠報國”四大字，深入膚理。既而閱實無左驗，鑄明其無辜。)^[7]

It does not comment when and who gave him the tattoo, though. Later fictionalizations of Yue's biography would build upon the tattoo. For instance, one of his earliest Ming era novels titled The Story of King Yue Who Restored the Song Dynasty (大宋中興岳王傳) states that after the Jurchen armies invaded China, young heroes in Yue's village suggest that they join the bandits in the mountains. However, Yue objects and has one of them tattoo the aforementioned characters on his back. Whenever others want to join the bandits, he flashes them the tattoo to change their minds.^[27]

The common legend of Yue receiving the tattoo from his mother first appeared in Shuo Yue Quanzhuan. In chapter 21 titled "By a pretext Wang Zuo swore brotherhood, by tattoos Lady Yue instructed her son", Yue denounces the pirate chief Yang Yao (杨幺) and passes on a chance to become a general in his army. Yue Fei's mother then tells her son, "I, your mother, saw that you did not accept recruitment of the rebellious traitor, and that you willingly endure poverty and are not tempted by wealth and status ... But I fear that after my death, there may be some unworthy creature who will entice you ... For these reason ... I want to tattoo on your back the four characters 'Utmost', 'Loyalty', 'Serve' and 'Nation' ... The Lady picked up the brush and wrote out on his spine the four characters for 'serving the nation with the utmost loyalty' ... [So] she bit her teeth, and started pricking. Having finished, she painted the characters with ink mixed with vinegar so that the colour would never fade."^[10]

The Kaifeng Jews, one of many pockets of Chinese Jews living in ancient China, refer to this tattoo in two of their three stele monuments created in 1489, 1512, and 1663. The first mention appeared in a section of the 1489 stele referring to the Jews' "Boundless loyalty to the country and Prince."^[28] The second appeared in a section of the 1512 stele about how Jewish soldiers and officers in the Chinese armies were "boundlessly loyal to the country."^[29]

Adult life[link]

Portrait[link]

The "Four Generals of Zhongxing" painted by Liu Songnian during the Southern Song Dynasty. Yue Fei is the second person from the left.

Southern Song era artist Liu Songnian (劉松年) (1174–1224), who was best known for his realistic works, painted a picture, "Four Generals of Zhongxing" (中興四將).^[30] The group portrait shows eight people — four generals and four attendants. Starting from the left: attendant, Yue Fei, attendant, Zhang Jun (張浚), Han Shizhong (韓世忠), attendant, Liu Guangshi (劉光世), and attendant.^[31]

According to history professor He Zongli of Zhejiang University, the painting shows Yue was more of a scholarly-looking general with a shorter stature and chubbier build than the statue of him currently displayed in his tomb in Hangzhou, which portrays him as being tall and skinny. Shen Lixin, an official with the Yue Fei Temple Administration, holds the portrait of Yue Fei from the "Four Generals of Zhongxing" to be the most accurate likeness of the general in existence.^[32]

Character[link]

Calligraphy written by Yue Fei

In his From Myth to Myth: The Case of Yüeh Fei's Biography, noted Sinologist Hellmut Wilhelm^[33] concluded that Yue Fei purposely patterned his life after famous Chinese heroes from dynasties past and that this ultimately led to his martyrdom.^[6] Apart from studying literature under his father Yue He (岳和), Yue Fei loved to read military classics. He favored the Zuo Zhuan commentary on the Spring and Autumn Annals and the strategies of Sun Tzu and Wu Qi. Although his literacy afforded him the chance to become a scholar, which was a position held in much higher regard than the common soldiery during the Song Dynasty, Yue chose the military path because there had never been any tradition of civil service in his family. Therefore he had no reason to study Confucian classics in order to surpass the accomplishments of his ancestors or to raise his family's social status to the next level. His fourth generation ancestor, Yue Huan (岳渙), had served as a lingshi (令使) (essentially a low-level functionary),^[34] but he was never a full-fledged member of the civil service rank.^[35] A second theory is that he joined the military in the hopes of emulating his favorite heroes.^[6]

Scholars were always welcome in Yue Fei's camp. He allowed them to come and tell stories and deeds of past heroes to bolster the resolve of his men. This way he was able to teach them about the warriors that he had constructed his own life after. He also hoped that one of these scholars would record his own deeds so he would become a peer amongst his idols. He is recorded in saying that he wished to be considered the equal of Guan Yu and other such famous men from the Three Kingdoms period. Yue succeeded in this endeavor since later "official mythology" placed him on the same level as Guan Yu.^[6]

Yue was careful to conduct himself as the ideal Confucian gentleman at all times for fear that any misconduct would be recorded and criticized by people of later dynasties. However he had his faults. He had a problem with alcohol during the early part of his military career. Yue drank in great excess because he believed it fitted the image of heroes of old. However once he nearly killed a colleague in a drunken rage, the emperor made him promise not to drink any more until the Jurchen invaders had been driven away.^[6]

Family[link]

Yue Yun (岳雲), Yue Fei's eldest son

According to Shuo Yue Quanzhuan, Yue had five sons and one daughter. The History of Song records that Yue Yun (岳雲) (1119–1142) was adopted by Yue Fei at the age of 12^[36] whilst others claim he was his biological son;^[21] Yue Lei (岳雷), the second, succeeded to his father's post; Yue Ting (岳霆) was the third; Yue Lin (岳霖) was the fourth; and Yue Zhen (岳震), the fifth, was still young at the time of his father's death. Yue Yinping was Yue Fei's daughter. The novel states she committed suicide after her father's death and became a fairy in heaven. However, history books do not mention her name and therefore she should be considered a fictional character.^[21] Yue Fei married the daughter of Magistrate Li when he was 16 years old (1119).^[10] However, the account of his marriage is fictional.^[21]

The Biography of Yue Fei states that Yue left his ailing mother with his first wife while he went to fight the Jin armies. However she "left him (and his mother) and remarried."^[6] He later took a second wife and even discussed "affairs" pertaining to his military career with her. He truly loved her, but his affection for her was second to his desire to rid China of the Jurchen invaders. Her faithfulness to him and his mother was strengthened by the fear that any infidelity or lacking in her care of Lady Yue would result in reprisal.^[6]

Yue forbade his sons from having concubines, which he almost took one himself. Even though she was presented by a friend, he did not accept her because she laughed when he asked her if she could "share the hardships of camp life" with him.^[6] He knew she was liberal and would have sex with the other soldiers.^[6]

Though not mentioned in the memoir written by Yue Fei's grandson, some scholarly sources claim Yue had a younger brother named Yue Fan (岳翻). He later served in the army under his brother and died in battle in 1132.^[21]

Military record[link]

This article needs attention from an expert on the subject. Please add a reason or a talk parameter to this template to explain the issue with the article. WikiProject China may be able to help recruit an expert. (November 2008)

A northern Chinese from a humble background, he participated in the Song Dynasty's attempt in 1122 to capture the 16 prefectures lost to the Jin Dynasty, and defended Kaifeng after the Jin armies withdrew in 1127. Yue moved south with other loyalist forces in 1129, and took an active part in during the Jin advance back across the Yangtze River that year. He continued to advance in rank, and to increase the size of his army as he repeatedly led successful offensives into northern China and suppressed rebellions within Song territory. Several other generals were also successful against the Jin Dynasty, and their combined efforts secured the survival of the Song Dynasty. Yue, like most of them, was committed to recapturing northern China.

Stone Lake: The Poetry of Fan Chengda 1126-1193 states, "...Yue Fei ([1103]-1141)...repelled the enemy assaults in 1133 and 1134, until in 1135 the now confident Song army was in a position to recover all of north China from the Jin Dynasty ... [In 1140,] Yue Fei initiated a general counterattack against the Jin armies, defeating one enemy after another until he set up camp within range of the Northern Song Dynasty's old capital city, Kaifeng, in preparation for the final assault against the enemy. Yet in the same year Qin [Hui] ordered Yue Fei to abandon his campaign, and in 1141 Yue Fei was summoned back to the Southern Song capital. It is believed that the emperor then ordered Yue Fei to be hanged."^[37]

Battle of Zhuxianzhen near Kaifeng in Henan where Yue Fei defeated the Jin army in 1140. Painting on the Long Corridor of the Summer Palace in Beijing.

Six methods for deploying an army[link]

Yue Ke (岳珂) states his grandfather had six special methods for deploying an army effectively:

Careful selection

He relied more on small numbers of well-trained soldiers than he did large masses of the poorly-trained variety. In this way, one superior soldier counted for as much as one hundred inferior soldiers. One example used to illustrate this was when the armies of Han Ching and Wu Xu were transferred into Yue's camp. Most of them had never seen battle and were generally too old or unhealthy for sustaining prolonged troop movement and engagement of the enemy. Once Yue had filtered out the weak soldiers and sent them home, he was only left with a meager thousand able-bodied soldiers. However, after some months of intense training, they were ready to perform almost as well as the soldiers who had served under Yue for years.^[6]

Careful training

When his troops were not on military campaigns to win back lost Chinese territory in the north, Yue put his men through intense training. Apart from troop movement and weapons drills, this training also involved them leaping over walls and crawling through moats in full battle garb. The intensity of the training was such that the men would not even try to visit their families if they passed by their homes while on movement and even trained on their days off.^[6]

Justice in rewards and punishments

He rewarded his men for their merits and punished them for their boasting or lack of training. Yue once gave a foot soldier his own personal belt, silver dinner ware, and a promotion for his meritorious deeds in battle. While on the reverse, he once ordered his son Yue Yun to be decapitated for falling off his horse after failing to jump a moat. His son was only saved after Yue's officers begged his mercy. There were a number of soldiers that were either dismissed or executed because they boasted of their skills or failed to follow orders.^[6]

Clear orders

He always delivered his orders in a simple manner that was easy for all of his soldiers to understand. Whoever failed to follow them were severely punished.^[6]

Strict discipline

While marching about the countryside, he never let his troops destroy fields or to pillage towns or villages. He made them pay a fair price for goods and made sure crops remained intact. A soldier once stole a hemp rope from a peasant so he could tie a bale of hay with it. When Yue discovered this, he questioned the soldier and had him executed.^[6]

Close fellowship with his men

He treated all of his men like equals. He ate the same food as they did and slept out in the open as they did. Even when a temporary shelter was erected for him, he made sure several soldiers could find room to sleep inside before he found a spot of his own. When there was not enough wine to go around, he would dilute it with water so every soldier would have a cup to drink from.^[6]

Death[link]

Front entrance to Yue Fei's tomb in Hangzhou (30°15′15.03″N 120°7′48.64″E / 30.254175°N 120.1301778°E / 30.254175; 120.1301778).