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![20/20 Fidel Castro interview - Barbara Walters [3of6]](http://web.archive.org./web/20121001024909im_/http://i.ytimg.com/vi/qbUgUJuI6Ak/0.jpg "Cuban Media - Capitalism Vs Socialism Barbara Walters interviews Fidel Castro from Havana, Cuba -- 25 years after her first interview with the Cuban leader. Her original interview made a little history because people got their first real look at the man. Although Castro is known for very long speeches, he rarely does interviews. Fidel Castro, 76 at the time of this interview, has outlasted nine US presidents. He's on his tenth. His rule continues to inspire both fear and devotion. He tells Barbara Walters that Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev lied to both President John F. Kennedy and Cuba, heightening the Cuban Missile Crisis.")
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Madrid
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Matanzas
Matanzas is the capital of the Cuban province of Matanzas. It is famed for its Afro-Cuban folklore.
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Mayarí
http://wn.com/Mayarí -
Moncada Barracks
The Moncada Barracks was a military barracks in Santiago de Cuba, named after General Guillermon Moncada, a hero of the War of Independence. On July 26, 1953, the barracks was the site of an armed attack by a small group of revolutionaries led by Fidel Castro. This armed attack is widely accepted as the beginning of the Cuban Revolution. The date on which the attack took place, July 26, was adopted by Castro as the name for his revolutionary movement (Movimiento 26 Julio or M 26-7) which eventually toppled the dictatorship of Fulgencio Batista in 1959.
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Moscow
Moscow ( or ; ; see also ) is the capital, the most populous city, and the most populous federal subject of Russia. The city is a major political, economic, cultural, religious, financial, educational, and transportation centre of Russia and the world, a global city. Moscow is the most populous city on the continent of Europe and the seventh largest city proper in the world, a megacity. The population of Moscow (as of 1 January 2010) is 10,563,038.
http://wn.com/Moscow -
Namibia
Namibia, officially the Republic of Namibia (, ), is a country in southern Africa whose western border is the Atlantic Ocean. It shares land borders with Angola and Zambia to the north, Botswana to the east and South Africa to the south and east. It gained independence from South Africa on 21 March 1990 following the Namibian War of Independence. Its capital and largest city is Windhoek. Namibia is a member state of the United Nations (UN), the Southern African Development Community (SADC), the African Union (AU), and the Commonwealth of Nations.
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NATO
The North Atlantic Treaty Organization or NATO ( ; ), also called the "(North) Atlantic Alliance", is an intergovernmental military alliance based on the North Atlantic Treaty which was signed on 4 April 1949. The NATO headquarters are in Brussels, Belgium, and the organization constitutes a system of collective defence whereby its member states agree to mutual defence in response to an attack by any external party.
http://wn.com/NATO -
Nazi Germany
http://wn.com/Nazi_Germany -
Nicaragua
Nicaragua ( ) officially the Republic of Nicaragua (, ), is a representative democratic republic. It is the largest country in Central America with an area of 130,373 km2. The country is bordered by Honduras to the north and Costa Rica to the south. The Pacific Ocean lies to the west of the country, the Caribbean Sea to the east. The country's Caribbean coast is part of the Western Caribbean Zone. Falling within the tropics, Nicaragua sits between 11 degrees and 14 degrees north of the Equator in the Northern Hemisphere. Nicaragua's abundance of biologically significant and unique ecosystems contribute to Mesoamerica's designation as a biodiversity hotspot. The capital city of Nicaragua is Managua. Roughly one quarter of the nation's population lives in the Nicaraguan capital, making it the second largest city and metropolitan area in Central America (following Guatemala City).
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North Korea
http://wn.com/North_Korea -
Ogaden
http://wn.com/Ogaden -
Pan-European Picnic
The Pan-European Picnic (; ) was a peace demonstration held on the Austrian-Hungarian border near the town of Sopron on 19 August 1989, an important event in political developments which led to the fall of the Iron Curtain and the reunification of Germany.
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Pinar del Río
http://wn.com/Pinar_del_Río -
Poznań 1956 protests
http://wn.com/Poznań_1956_protests -
Red Cross
http://wn.com/Red_Cross -
Red Square
http://wn.com/Red_Square -
Santa Clara, Cuba
Santa Clara is the capital city of the Cuban province of Villa Clara. It is located in the most central region of the province and almost in the most central region of the country.
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Santiago de Cuba
Santiago de Cuba is the capital city of Santiago de Cuba Province in the south-eastern area of the island nation of Cuba, some east south-east of the Cuban capital of Havana.
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Senate of Spain
http://wn.com/Senate_of_Spain -
Sierra Maestra
:For the Cuban band,see Sierra Maestra (band).
http://wn.com/Sierra_Maestra -
South Africa
The Republic of South Africa is a country located at the southern tip of Africa, with a coastline on the Atlantic and Indian Oceans. To the north lie Namibia, Botswana and Zimbabwe; to the east are Mozambique and Swaziland; while Lesotho is an independent country wholly surrounded by South African territory.
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South Yemen
http://wn.com/South_Yemen -
Spanish Empire
http://wn.com/Spanish_Empire -
Suriname
http://wn.com/Suriname -
Tajik SSR
http://wn.com/Tajik_SSR -
Turkmen SSR
http://wn.com/Turkmen_SSR -
Tuxpan, Veracruz
http://wn.com/Tuxpan_Veracruz -
University of Havana
The University of Havana or UH (in Spanish, Universidad de La Habana) is a university located in the Vedado district of Havana, Cuba. Founded in 1728, the University of Havana is the oldest university in Cuba and one of the first to be founded in the Americas. Founded as a religious institution, today the University of Havana has 15 faculties (colleges) at its Havana campus and distance learning centers throughout Cuba.
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USS Pueblo (AGER-2)
{|
http://wn.com/USS_Pueblo_(AGER-2) -
Venezuela
http://wn.com/Venezuela -
Veracruz
http://wn.com/Veracruz -
West Germany
West Germany () is the common English name for the Federal Republic of Germany or FRG () in the period between its creation in May 1949 to German reunification on 3 October 1990. This period, during which Germany and Berlin were divided, ended when communist East Germany was dissolved and its five states joined the eleven states of the Federal Republic of Germany. The enlarged Federal Republic of Germany with sixteen states (known simply as "Germany") is thus the continuation of the pre-1990 Federal Republic of Germany, and not its successor.
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Western Hemisphere
The Western Hemisphere, also Western hemisphere or western hemisphere, is a geographical term for the half of the Earth that lies west of the Prime Meridian (which crosses Greenwich in London, England, United Kingdom), the other half being the eastern hemisphere. It is also used, mainly in North America, to specifically refer to the Americas (or the New World) and adjacent waters, while excluding other territories that lie geographically in Western Hemisphere (parts of Africa, Europe, Antarctica, and Asia); thus, it is sometimes referred to as the American hemisphere.
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Windhoek
Windhoek (, sometimes in ) is the capital and largest city of the Republic of Namibia. It is located in central Namibia in the Khomas Highland plateau area around above sea level. The 2001 census determined Windhoek's population was 233,529. A population influx from all over Namibia has caused researchers to estimate the figure to be well over 300,000.
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Yalta Conference
http://wn.com/Yalta_Conference
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Abel Prieto
http://wn.com/Abel_Prieto -
Adam Malik
http://wn.com/Adam_Malik -
Adolfo Suárez
http://wn.com/Adolfo_Suárez -
Afro-Cuban
The term Afro-Cuban refers to Cubans of Sub Saharan African ancestry, and to historical or cultural elements in Cuba thought to emanate from this community. The term can refer to the combining of African and other cultural elements found in Cuban society such as religion, music, language, the arts, and class culture.
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Agostinho Neto
http://wn.com/Agostinho_Neto -
Ahmad Shah Massoud
http://wn.com/Ahmad_Shah_Massoud -
Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr
http://wn.com/Ahmed_Hassan_al-Bakr -
Alain Poher
http://wn.com/Alain_Poher -
Alberto Bayo
http://wn.com/Alberto_Bayo -
Alcide De Gasperi
Alcide De Gasperi (3 April 1881 – 19 August 1954) was an Italian statesman and politician and founder of the Christian Democratic Party. From 1945 to 1953 he was the prime minister of eight successive coalition governments. His eight-year rule remains a landmark of political longevity for a leader in modern Italian politics. A conservative Catholic, he was one of the Founding fathers of the European Union, along with the Frenchman Robert Schuman and the German Konrad Adenauer.
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Aldo Moro
http://wn.com/Aldo_Moro -
Alexander Dubček
http://wn.com/Alexander_Dubček -
Alina Fernández
http://wn.com/Alina_Fernández -
Anastas Mikoyan
Anastas Mikoyan (, Anastas Hovhannesi Mikoyan; , Anastas Ivanovich Mikoyan; – October 21, 1978) was an Armenian Old Bolshevik and Soviet statesman during the Stalin and Khrushchev years. Mikoyan became an early convert to the Bolshevik cause. He supported Stalin after Vladimir Lenin's death in 1924 left a power vacuum. During Stalin's rule, Mikoyan held several high governmental posts, including that of Minister of Trade. After Stalin's death, he backed Nikita Khrushchev and his de-stalinization policy.
http://wn.com/Anastas_Mikoyan -
Andrei Gromyko
http://wn.com/Andrei_Gromyko -
Andrés Rivero Agüero
http://wn.com/Andrés_Rivero_Agüero -
Anthony Eden
http://wn.com/Anthony_Eden -
António de Spínola
http://wn.com/António_de_Spínola -
Anwar Sadat
http://wn.com/Anwar_Sadat -
Aníbal Cavaco Silva
http://wn.com/Aníbal_Cavaco_Silva -
Arnaldo Ochoa
http://wn.com/Arnaldo_Ochoa -
Arthur Miller
Arthur Asher Miller (October 17, 1915 – February 10, 2005) was an American playwright and essayist. He was a prominent figure in American theatre, writing dramas that include award-winning plays such as All My Sons, Death of a Salesman, and The Crucible.
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Augusto Pinochet
http://wn.com/Augusto_Pinochet -
Axel Munthe
http://wn.com/Axel_Munthe -
Babrak Karmal
http://wn.com/Babrak_Karmal -
Benigno Aquino, Jr.
http://wn.com/Benigno_Aquino_Jr -
Benny Moré
http://wn.com/Benny_Moré -
Betrand Russell
http://wn.com/Betrand_Russell -
Bettino Craxi
http://wn.com/Bettino_Craxi -
Bolesław Bierut
http://wn.com/Bolesław_Bierut -
Boris Yeltsin
http://wn.com/Boris_Yeltsin -
Borisav Jović
http://wn.com/Borisav_Jović -
Branko Kostić
http://wn.com/Branko_Kostić -
Brian Mulroney
Martin Brian Mulroney, PC, CC, GOQ (; born March 20, 1939) was the 18th Prime Minister of Canada from September 17, 1984, to June 25, 1993 and was leader of the Progressive Conservative Party of Canada from 1983 to 1993. His tenure as Prime Minister was marked by the introduction of highly contentious economic reforms, such as the Canada-U.S. Free Trade Agreement and the Goods and Services Tax, and the failure of equally contentious constitutional reforms through the Meech Lake and Charlottetown Accords. Prior to his political career, he was a prominent lawyer and businessman in Montreal.
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Cambodian Civil War
The Cambodian Civil War was a conflict that pitted the forces of the Communist Party of Kampuchea (known as the Khmer Rouge) and their allies the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (North Vietnam) and the Viet Cong against the government forces of Cambodia (after October 1970, the Khmer Republic), which were supported by the United States (U.S.) and the Republic of Vietnam (South Vietnam).
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Camilo Cienfuegos
http://wn.com/Camilo_Cienfuegos -
Canarian people
The Canarians are an ethnic group living in the archipelago of the Canary Islands (an autonomous community of Spain), near the coast of Western Africa. The variety of the Spanish language spoken in the region is the Habla Canaria (Canary speech) or the Dialecto Canario (Canarian dialect), a distinctive dialect of Spanish spoken in the islands.
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Carlos Hevia
http://wn.com/Carlos_Hevia -
Carlos Prío Socarrás
http://wn.com/Carlos_Prío_Socarrás -
Caspar Weinberger
Caspar Willard "Cap" Weinberger (August 18, 1917 – March 28, 2006), was an American politician, vice president and general counsel of Bechtel Corporation, and Secretary of Defense under President Ronald Reagan from January 21, 1981, until November 23, 1987, making him the third longest-serving defense secretary to date, after Robert McNamara and Donald Rumsfeld. He is also known for his role in the Strategic Defense Initiative and the Iran-Contra Affair.
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Celia Sanchez
http://wn.com/Celia_Sanchez -
Celia Sánchez
http://wn.com/Celia_Sánchez -
Chai Ling
http://wn.com/Chai_Ling -
Charles de Gaulle
http://wn.com/Charles_de_Gaulle -
Che Guevara
http://wn.com/Che_Guevara -
Chechnya
http://wn.com/Chechnya -
Chiang Ching-kuo
http://wn.com/Chiang_Ching-kuo -
Chiang Kai-shek
http://wn.com/Chiang_Kai-shek -
Chinese Cuban
A Chinese Cuban (, Cantonese Jyutping: Gu2 Baa1 Waa4 jan4; ) is a Cuban of Chinese ancestry who was born in or has immigrated to Cuba. They are part of the ethnic Chinese diaspora (or Overseas Chinese).
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Ciboney people
The Ciboney were pre-Columbian indigenous inhabitants of the Greater Antilles in the Caribbean Sea. The name Ciboney derives from the indigenous Taino people which means Cave Dwellers; evidence has shown that a number of the Ciboney people have lived in caves at some time. Over the years, many theories has been brought forth as to how the Ciboney people arrived to the Caribbean. Many of these theories have a weak foundation due to insufficient evidence. It is explained in the book Liberties Lost: Caribbean Indigenous Societies and Slave Systems, "The most popular view now is that the Ciboney were from pre-farming cultures that entered the Antilles from South America, not as one ethnic group, but as waves of different migrants over a very long period of time."
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Clement Attlee
http://wn.com/Clement_Attlee -
Compay Segundo
http://wn.com/Compay_Segundo -
Congo Crisis
http://wn.com/Congo_Crisis -
Corazon Aquino
http://wn.com/Corazon_Aquino -
Cristina Fernández
http://wn.com/Cristina_Fernández -
Cuban American
A Cuban American () is a United States citizen who traces his or her "national origin" to Cuba. Cuban Americans are also considered native born Americans with Cuban parents or Cuban-born persons who were raised and educated in US. Cuban Americans form the third-largest Hispanic group in the United States and also the largest group of Hispanics of European ancestry as a percentage within the group in the US.
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Cuban Five
http://wn.com/Cuban_Five -
Cuban-American
http://wn.com/Cuban-American -
Cubans
This article is about the native people of Cuba. For citizens of Cuban "national origin" inhabiting the United States of America, see Cuban American.
http://wn.com/Cubans -
Cultural Revolution
http://wn.com/Cultural_Revolution -
Daniel Ortega
http://wn.com/Daniel_Ortega -
Deng Xiaoping
Deng Xiaoping (; 22 August 1904 19 February 1997) was a Chinese politician, statesman, theorist, and diplomat. As leader of the Communist Party of China, Deng was a reformer who led China towards a market economy. While Deng never held office as the head of state, head of government or General Secretary of the Communist Party of China (historically the highest position in Communist China), he nonetheless served as the paramount leader of the People's Republic of China from 1978 to the early 1990s.
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Desi Arnaz
http://wn.com/Desi_Arnaz -
Dmitry Medvedev
Dmitry Anatolyevich Medvedev (; born 14 September 1965) is the third and current President of the Russian Federation, inaugurated on 7 May 2008. He won the presidential election held on 2 March 2008 with 71.25% of the popular vote.
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Dobrica Ćosić
http://wn.com/Dobrica_Ćosić -
Dwight D. Eisenhower
http://wn.com/Dwight_D_Eisenhower -
Earl T. Smith
Earl Edward Tailer Smith (1903–1991) was a United States foreign diplomat, ambassador to Cuba (1957–1959), mayor of Palm Beach (1971–1977), and husband of model Florence Pritchett Smith (1920–1965).
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Eduard Shevardnadze
Eduard Shevardnadze (, ; , Eduard Amvrosiyevich Shevardnadze; born 25 January 1927 / 28 is written in papers) served as the second President of Georgia from 1995 until he resigned on 23 November 2003 as a consequence of the bloodless Rose Revolution. Prior to his presidency, he served under Mikhail Gorbachev as the Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Soviet Union from 1985 to 1991. Shevardnadze's political skills earned him the nickname of tetri melia (white fox).
http://wn.com/Eduard_Shevardnadze -
Eduardo Chibás
http://wn.com/Eduardo_Chibás -
Edward Gierek
Edward Gierek (; January 6, 1913 - July 29, 2001) was a Polish communist politician.
http://wn.com/Edward_Gierek -
Edward Heath
http://wn.com/Edward_Heath -
Egon Krenz
Egon Krenz (born 19 March 1937) is a former politician from East Germany (the German Democratic Republic), and that country's last Communist leader. He succeeded Erich Honecker as leader of the ruling Socialist Unity Party of Germany (SED) and head of state in October 1989, but was ousted just under three months later amid the collapse of the communist regime.
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Enrico Berlinguer
http://wn.com/Enrico_Berlinguer -
Enver Hoxha
(pronounced , 16 October 1908 11 April 1985) was the leader of Albania from the end of World War II until his death in 1985, as the First Secretary of the Party of Labour of Albania. He also served as Prime Minister of Albania from 1944 to 1954, Minister of Defense from 1944 to 1953, Minister of Foreign Affairs from 1946 to 1953, Chairman of the Democratic Front from 1945 to his death, and as Commander-in-Chief of the Albanian armed forces from 1944 to his death.
http://wn.com/Enver_Hoxha -
Erich Honecker
http://wn.com/Erich_Honecker -
Ernest Bevin
http://wn.com/Ernest_Bevin -
Ernest Hemingway
http://wn.com/Ernest_Hemingway -
Ernesto Samper
http://wn.com/Ernesto_Samper -
Ethiopian Civil War
http://wn.com/Ethiopian_Civil_War -
Evo Morales
Juan Evo Morales Ayma (born October 26, 1959), popularly known as Evo (), has been the President of Bolivia since 2006.
http://wn.com/Evo_Morales -
Felipe González
http://wn.com/Felipe_González -
Felipe Pazos
http://wn.com/Felipe_Pazos -
Feng Congde
http://wn.com/Feng_Congde -
Ferdinand Marcos
http://wn.com/Ferdinand_Marcos -
Fidel Castro
Fidel Alejandro Castro Ruz (born August 13, 1926) is a Cuban politician. One of the primary leaders of the Cuban Revolution, Castro served as the Prime Minister of Cuba from February 1959 to December 1976, and then as the President of the Council of State of Cuba and the President of Council of Ministers of Cuba until his resignation from the office in February 2008. He currently serves as First Secretary of the Communist Party of Cuba, a position he has held since 1965.
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Fidel V. Ramos
Fidel "Eddie" Valdez Ramos (born March 18, 1928), popularly known as FVR, was the 12th President of the Philippines from 1992 to 1998. During his six years in office, Ramos was widely credited and admired by many for revitalizing and renewing international confidence in the Philippine economy.
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Francesco Cossiga
http://wn.com/Francesco_Cossiga -
Francisco Franco
http://wn.com/Francisco_Franco -
Frank Pais
http://wn.com/Frank_Pais -
François Duvalier
http://wn.com/François_Duvalier -
François Mitterrand
http://wn.com/François_Mitterrand -
Friedrich Engels
http://wn.com/Friedrich_Engels -
Fulgencio Batista
http://wn.com/Fulgencio_Batista -
Fyodor Dostoyevsky
http://wn.com/Fyodor_Dostoyevsky -
Félix Lancís Sánchez
http://wn.com/Félix_Lancís_Sánchez -
Félix Varela
http://wn.com/Félix_Varela -
Gamal Abdel Nasser
:''This is an Arabic patronymic name; the family name is Abdel Nasser, taken from his father's given name.''
http://wn.com/Gamal_Abdel_Nasser -
Gennady Yanayev
Gennady Ivanovich Yanayev (; 26 August 1937 – 24 September 2010) was a Soviet Russian politician and statesman whose career spanned the rules of Khrushchev, Brezhnev, Andropov and Chernenko, and culminated during the Gorbachev years. Yanayev was born in Perevoz, Gorky Oblast. After years in local politics, he rose to prominence as Chairman of the All-Union Central Council of Trade Unions, but he also held other lesser posts such as deputy of the Union of Soviet Societies for Friendship and Cultural Relations with Foreign Countries.
http://wn.com/Gennady_Yanayev -
George H. W. Bush
http://wn.com/George_H_W_Bush -
George Marshall
George Catlett Marshall (December 31, 1880 – October 16, 1959) was an American military leader, Chief of Staff of the Army, Secretary of State, and the third Secretary of Defense. Once noted as the "organizer of victory" by Winston Churchill for his leadership of the Allied victory in World War II, Marshall served as the United States Army Chief of Staff during the war and as the chief military adviser to President Franklin D. Roosevelt. As Secretary of State, his name was given to the Marshall Plan, for which he was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1953.
http://wn.com/George_Marshall -
George P. Shultz
George Pratt Shultz (born December 13, 1920) is an American economist, statesman, and businessman. He served as the United States Secretary of Labor from 1969 to 1970, as the U.S. Secretary of the Treasury from 1972 to 1974, and as the U.S. Secretary of State from 1982 to 1989. Before entering politics, he was professor of economics at MIT and the University of Chicago, serving as Dean of the University of Chicago Graduate School of Business from 1962 to 1969. Between 1974 and 1982, Shultz was an executive at Bechtel, eventually becoming the firm's president. He is currently a distinguished fellow at Stanford University's Hoover Institution.
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George W. Bush
George Walker Bush (; born July 6, 1946, in New Haven, Connecticut) was the 43rd President of the United States, serving from 2001 to 2009, and the 46th Governor of Texas, serving from 1995 to 2000.
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Georges Pompidou
Georges Jean Raymond Pompidou (; 5 July 1911 2 April 1974) was a French politician. He was Prime Minister of France from 1962 to 1968, holding the longest tenure in this position, and later President of the French Republic from 1969 until his death in 1974.
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Gerald Ford
Gerald Rudolph Ford, Jr. (born Leslie Lynch King, Jr.; July 14, 1913 – December 26, 2006) was the 38th President of the United States, serving from 1974 to 1977, and the 40th Vice President of the United States serving from 1973 to 1974. As the first person appointed to the vice-presidency under the terms of the 25th Amendment, when he became President upon Richard Nixon's resignation on August 9, 1974, he also became the only President of the United States who was elected neither President nor Vice-President.
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German Cuban
http://wn.com/German_Cuban -
Getúlio Vargas
http://wn.com/Getúlio_Vargas -
Giulio Andreotti
http://wn.com/Giulio_Andreotti -
Gonzalo Güell
http://wn.com/Gonzalo_Güell -
Goulash Communism
http://wn.com/Goulash_Communism -
Great Leap Forward
The Great Leap Forward () of the People's Republic of China (PRC) was an economic and social campaign of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP), reflected in planning decisions from 1958 to 1961, which aimed to use China's vast population to rapidly transform the country from an agrarian economy into a modern communist society through the process of agriculturalization, industrialization, and collectivization. Mao Zedong led the campaign based on the Theory of Productive Forces, and intensified it after being informed of the impending disaster from grain shortages.
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Gregorio Honasan
Gregorio Ballesteros Honasan II (born March 14, 1948), better known as Gringo Honasan, is a Filipino political figure. He played a key role in the 1986 EDSA Revolution that toppled the dictatorship of President Ferdinand Marcos. He led a series of deadly coup attempts against the administration of Corazon Aquino, none of which were successful. President Fidel Ramos granted him amnesty in 1992. He entered politics and became a senator from 1995 to 2004 and again since 2007.
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Hafez al-Assad
Hafez al-Assad ( ) (October 6, 1930 – June 10, 2000) was the president of Syria for three decades. Assad's rule stabilized and consolidated the power of the country's central government after decades of coups and counter-coups. He was succeeded by his son and current president Bashar al-Assad in 2000.
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Hafizullah Amin
http://wn.com/Hafizullah_Amin -
Harold Macmillan
http://wn.com/Harold_Macmillan -
Harold Wilson
http://wn.com/Harold_Wilson -
Harry S. Truman
http://wn.com/Harry_S_Truman -
Helmut Kohl
http://wn.com/Helmut_Kohl -
Helmut Schmidt
Helmut Heinrich Waldemar Schmidt (; born 23 December 1918) is a German Social Democratic politician who served as Chancellor of West Germany from 1974 to 1982. Prior to becoming chancellor, he had served as Minister of Defence and Minister of Finance. He had also served briefly as Minister of Economics and as acting Foreign Minister. He is the oldest surviving German Chancellor and the last surviving person to have been solely Chancellor of West Germany (Helmut Kohl was Chancellor of both West Germany and reunified Germany). He also is the oldest Federal German Minister surviving after the death of his Interior Minister Werner Maihofer.
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Heng Samrin
http://wn.com/Heng_Samrin -
Henry Kissinger
Henry Alfred Kissinger (; born May 27, 1923) is a German-born American political scientist, diplomat, and recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize. He served as National Security Advisor and later concurrently as Secretary of State in the administrations of Presidents Richard Nixon and Gerald Ford. After his term, his opinion was still sought out by many following presidents.
http://wn.com/Henry_Kissinger -
Herbert Matthews
http://wn.com/Herbert_Matthews -
Herberto Padilla
http://wn.com/Herberto_Padilla -
Hirohito
http://wn.com/Hirohito -
Ho Chi Minh
http://wn.com/Ho_Chi_Minh -
Hosni Mubarak
http://wn.com/Hosni_Mubarak -
Houari Boumediène
http://wn.com/Houari_Boumediène -
Hua Guofeng
http://wn.com/Hua_Guofeng -
Hugo Chávez
http://wn.com/Hugo_Chávez -
Ibrahim Ferrer
http://wn.com/Ibrahim_Ferrer -
Idi Amin
http://wn.com/Idi_Amin -
Igor Gouzenko
Igor Sergeyevich Gouzenko (January 13, 1919 – June 28, 1982) was a cipher clerk for the Soviet Embassy to Canada in Ottawa, Ontario. He defected on September 5, 1945, with 109 documents on Soviet espionage activities in the West. This forced Prime Minister Mackenzie King to call a Royal Commission to investigate espionage in Canada.
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Imelda Marcos
Imelda R. Marcos (born Imelda Remedios Visitacion Romualdez on July 2, 1929) is a Filipino politician and wife of 10th Philippine President Ferdinand Marcos. Upon the ascension of her husband to political power, she held various positions to the government until 1986. She is the first politician elected as member of the Philippine legislature in three geographical locations (Manila, Leyte, Ilocos Norte). In 2010, she was elected to become a member of the House of Representatives to represent Ilocos Norte's second district. She is sometimes referred to as the Steel Butterfly or the Iron Butterfly. She is often remembered for symbols of the extravagance of her husband's political reign such as her collection of 2700 pairs of shoes.
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Immanuel Kant
http://wn.com/Immanuel_Kant -
Imre Nagy
http://wn.com/Imre_Nagy -
Indira Gandhi
http://wn.com/Indira_Gandhi -
Isleño
http://wn.com/Isleño -
James Callaghan
http://wn.com/James_Callaghan -
Jawaharlal Nehru
http://wn.com/Jawaharlal_Nehru -
Jean Chrétien
http://wn.com/Jean_Chrétien -
Jimmy Carter
James Earl "Jimmy" Carter, Jr. (born October 1, 1924) served as the 39th President of the United States from 1977 to 1981 and was the recipient of the 2002 Nobel Peace Prize, the only U.S. President to have received the Prize after leaving office. Before he became President, Carter served two terms as a Georgia State Senator and one as Governor of Georgia, from 1971 to 1975, and was a peanut farmer and naval officer.
http://wn.com/Jimmy_Carter -
Joachim Gauck
http://wn.com/Joachim_Gauck -
Joe Clark
Charles Joseph "Joe" Clark, PC, CC, AOE (born June 5, 1939) is a Canadian journalist, politician, statesman, businessman, and university professor. He served as the 16th Prime Minister of Canada, from June 4, 1979, to March 3, 1980.
http://wn.com/Joe_Clark -
John Diefenbaker
http://wn.com/John_Diefenbaker -
John F. Kennedy
http://wn.com/John_F_Kennedy -
John Foster Dulles
John Foster Dulles (February 25, 1888 – May 24, 1959) served as U.S. Secretary of State under President Dwight D. Eisenhower from 1953 to 1959. He was a significant figure in the early Cold War era, advocating an aggressive stance against communism throughout the world. He advocated support of the French in their war against the Viet Minh in Indochina and it is widely believed that he refused to shake the hand of Zhou Enlai at the Geneva Conference in 1954. He also played a major role in the Central Intelligence Agency operation to overthrow the democratic Mossadegh government of Iran in 1953 (Operation Ajax) and the democratic Arbenz government of Guatemala in 1954 (Operation PBSUCCESS).
http://wn.com/John_Foster_Dulles -
John Turner
John Napier Wyndham Turner, PC, CC, QC (born June 7, 1929) is a retired Canadian lawyer and politician, who served as the 17th Prime Minister of Canada from June 30 to September 17, 1984.
http://wn.com/John_Turner -
Jonas Savimbi
Jonas Malheiro Savimbi (August 3, 1934 – February 22, 2002) was an Angolan rebel leader. Savimbi led UNITA, a rebel group that fought against the initially pro-Soviet MPLA in the Angolan Civil War until his death in a clash with Government troops in 2002.
http://wn.com/Jonas_Savimbi -
Jorge García Montes
http://wn.com/Jorge_García_Montes -
Jorge Rafael Videla
http://wn.com/Jorge_Rafael_Videla -
Jose Maria Sison
Jose Maria Sison (born February 8, 1939, Cabugao, Ilocos Sur, Philippines) is a writer and activist who reorganized the Communist Party of the Philippines and added elements of Maoism to its philosophy.
http://wn.com/Jose_Maria_Sison -
Joseph McCarthy
Joseph Raymond McCarthy (November 14, 1908 – May 2, 1957) was an American politician who served as a Republican U.S. Senator from the state of Wisconsin from 1947 until his death in 1957. Beginning in 1950, McCarthy became the most visible public face of a period in which Cold War tensions fueled fears of widespread Communist subversion.
http://wn.com/Joseph_McCarthy -
Joseph Stalin
http://wn.com/Joseph_Stalin -
Josip Broz Tito
http://wn.com/Josip_Broz_Tito -
José Martí
http://wn.com/José_Martí -
José María Aznar
http://wn.com/José_María_Aznar -
José Miguel Gómez
http://wn.com/José_Miguel_Gómez -
José Miró Cardona
http://wn.com/José_Miró_Cardona -
João Goulart
http://wn.com/João_Goulart -
Juan Domingo Perón
http://wn.com/Juan_Domingo_Perón -
Juan Perón
http://wn.com/Juan_Perón -
Juan Ponce Enrile
Juan "Manong/Manong Johnny/Johnny" Ponce Enrile (born February 14, 1924) is a political figure in the Philippines. Originally a protege of late dictator Ferdinand Marcos he later became one of the leaders (along with then General Fidel V. Ramos) in the 1986 People Power Movement that drove President Ferdinand Marcos from power. Enrile has been the President of the Senate of the Philippines since November 2008.
http://wn.com/Juan_Ponce_Enrile -
Juanita Castro
http://wn.com/Juanita_Castro -
Julius Nyerere
Julius Kambarage Nyerere (13 April 1922 - 14 October 1999) was a Tanzanian politician who served as the first President of Tanzania and previously Tanganyika, from the country's founding in 1961 until his retirement in 1985.
http://wn.com/Julius_Nyerere -
János Kádár
http://wn.com/János_Kádár -
Karl Marx
http://wn.com/Karl_Marx -
Kenneth Kaunda
Kenneth David Kaunda, affectionately known as KK (born April 28, 1924) served as the first President of Zambia, from 1964 to 1991.
http://wn.com/Kenneth_Kaunda -
Kim Campbell
Avril Phaedra Douglas "Kim" Campbell, PC, CC, QC (born March 10, 1947) is a Canadian politician who was the 19th Prime Minister of Canada, serving from June 25, 1993, to November 4, 1993 (132 days). Campbell was the first and to date the only female Prime Minister of Canada, the first baby boomer to hold that office and the first to have been born in British Columbia.
http://wn.com/Kim_Campbell -
Kim Il-sung
http://wn.com/Kim_Il-sung -
Kim Philby
http://wn.com/Kim_Philby -
Konrad Adenauer
http://wn.com/Konrad_Adenauer -
Konstantin Chernenko
Konstantin Ustinovich Chernenko (; 24 September 1911 – 10 March 1985) was a Soviet politician and the fifth General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. He led the Soviet Union from 13 February 1984 until his death thirteen months later, on 10 March 1985. Chernenko was also Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet from 11 April 1984 until his death.
http://wn.com/Konstantin_Chernenko -
Korean War
http://wn.com/Korean_War -
Kwame Nkrumah
Osagyefo Kwame Nkrumah (21 September 1909 - 27 April 1972) was an influential 20th century advocate of Pan-Africanism. He was the first President of Ghana, the first Prime Minister of Ghana and a founding member of the Organization of African Unity. Kwame Nkrumah was the leader of Ghana and its predecessor state, the Gold Coast, from 1952 to 1966, and was the winner of the Lenin Peace Prize in 1963.
http://wn.com/Kwame_Nkrumah -
Károly Grósz
http://wn.com/Károly_Grósz -
Le Duan
http://wn.com/Le_Duan -
Lech Wałęsa
http://wn.com/Lech_Wałęsa -
Leonel Brizola
Leonel de Moura Brizola (Carazinho, Rio Grande do Sul, January 22, 1922 — Rio de Janeiro, June 21, 2004) was a Brazilian politician. He was governor of the state of Rio Grande do Sul from 1959 to 1962 and served two terms as governor of Rio de Janeiro state (1983–1987 and 1991–1994). He was also vice-president of the Socialist International, as well as Honorary President of that organization for a few months, from October 2003 until his death. Brizola and his party (Democratic Labour Party) preached and practiced a kind of social democratic left-wing policy.
http://wn.com/Leonel_Brizola -
Leonid Brezhnev
http://wn.com/Leonid_Brezhnev -
Leopoldo Galtieri
Leopoldo Fortunato Galtieri Castelli (July 15, 1926January 12, 2003) was an Argentine general and President of Argentina from December 22, 1981 to June 18, 1982, during the last military dictatorship (known officially as the National Reorganization Process). The death squad Intelligence Battalion 601 directly reported to him. He was removed from power soon after the British retook the Falklands Islands, whose invasion he had ordered.
http://wn.com/Leopoldo_Galtieri -
Lester B. Pearson
http://wn.com/Lester_B_Pearson -
Lincoln Diaz-Balart
http://wn.com/Lincoln_Diaz-Balart -
Louis St. Laurent
http://wn.com/Louis_St_Laurent -
Luis Echeverría
http://wn.com/Luis_Echeverría -
Luis Eduardo Garzón
http://wn.com/Luis_Eduardo_Garzón -
Luis Posada Carriles
Luis Clemente Faustino Posada Carriles (born February 15, 1928) (nicknamed Bambi by some Cuban exiles) is a Cuban-born Venezuelan anti-communist activist. A former Central Intelligence Agency agent, Posada has been convicted in absentia of involvement in various terrorist attacks and plots in the Western hemisphere, including: involvement in the 1976 bombing of a Cuban airliner that killed seventy-three people; admitted involvement in a string of bombings in 1997 targeting fashionable Cuban hotels and nightspots; involvement in the Bay of Pigs invasion; involvement in the Iran-Contra affair; and, according to conspiracy theorists, involvement in the assassination of John F. Kennedy. In addition, he was jailed under accusations related to an assassination attempt on Fidel Castro in Panama in 2000, although he was later pardoned by Panamanian President Mireya Moscoso in the final days of her term.
http://wn.com/Luis_Posada_Carriles -
Lula da Silva
http://wn.com/Lula_da_Silva -
Luís Cabral
http://wn.com/Luís_Cabral -
Luís Carlos Prestes
http://wn.com/Luís_Carlos_Prestes -
Lyndon B. Johnson
http://wn.com/Lyndon_B_Johnson -
Mahathir bin Mohamad
http://wn.com/Mahathir_bin_Mohamad -
Malcolm X
Malcolm X (; May 19, 1925 February 21, 1965), born Malcolm Little and also known as El-Hajj Malik El-Shabazz (), was an African-American Muslim minister, public speaker, and human rights activist. To his admirers, he was a courageous advocate for the rights of African Americans, a man who indicted white America in the harshest terms for its crimes against black Americans. His detractors accused him of preaching racism, black supremacy, antisemitism, and violence. He has been described as one of the greatest, and most influential, African Americans in history. In 1998, Time named The Autobiography of Malcolm X one of the ten most influential nonfiction books of the 20th century.
http://wn.com/Malcolm_X -
Manuel Noriega
Manuel Antonio Noriega Moreno (; born February 11, 1934) is a Panamanian politician and soldier. He was military dictator of Panama from 1983 to 1989.
http://wn.com/Manuel_Noriega -
Manuel Urrutia Lleó
http://wn.com/Manuel_Urrutia_Lleó -
Mao Zedong
Mao Zedong (; December 26, 1893 September 9, 1976) was a Han Chinese revolutionary, political theorist and communist leader. He led the People's Republic of China (PRC) from its establishment in 1949 until his death in 1976. His theoretical contribution to Marxism-Leninism, military strategies, and his brand of Communist policies are now collectively known as Maoism.
http://wn.com/Mao_Zedong -
Marcelo Caetano
http://wn.com/Marcelo_Caetano -
Marcos Pérez Jiménez
http://wn.com/Marcos_Pérez_Jiménez -
Margaret Thatcher
http://wn.com/Margaret_Thatcher -
Mario Diaz-Balart
Mario Rafael Diaz-Balart (born September 25, 1961) is a Cuban-American politician. Since 2003 he has been a Republican member of the United States House of Representatives, representing ([http://nationalatlas.gov/printable/images/preview/congdist/fl25_109.gif map]). The district includes most of western Miami-Dade County, the mainland portion of Monroe County, and much of eastern Collier County.
http://wn.com/Mario_Diaz-Balart -
Mario García Menocal
http://wn.com/Mario_García_Menocal -
Mathieu Kérékou
http://wn.com/Mathieu_Kérékou -
Maurice Bishop
http://wn.com/Maurice_Bishop -
Menachem Begin
http://wn.com/Menachem_Begin -
Mervyn M. Dymally
http://wn.com/Mervyn_M_Dymally -
Michel Aflaq
http://wn.com/Michel_Aflaq -
Miguel Mariano Gómez
http://wn.com/Miguel_Mariano_Gómez -
Mikhail Gorbachev
Mikhail Sergeyevich Gorbachev ( Mikhail Sergeyevich Gorbachyov ; born 2 March 1931) was the sixth General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, serving from 1985 until 1991, and the last head of state of the USSR, serving from 1988 until its collapse in 1991.
http://wn.com/Mikhail_Gorbachev -
Milouš Jakeš
http://wn.com/Milouš_Jakeš -
Mirta Diaz-Balart
http://wn.com/Mirta_Diaz-Balart -
Mirta Díaz-Balart
http://wn.com/Mirta_Díaz-Balart -
Mobutu Sese Seko
http://wn.com/Mobutu_Sese_Seko -
Mohammad Hatta
(12 August 1902 - 14 March 1980) was born in Bukittinggi, West Sumatra, Dutch East Indies (now Indonesia). He was Indonesia's first vice president, later also serving as the country's Prime Minister. Known as "The Proclamator", he and a number of Indonesians, including the first president of Indonesia, Sukarno, fought for the independence of Indonesia from the Dutch. Despite his efforts to gain Indonesian independence, he studied in the Netherlands from 1921 until 1932. Moreover, since his early education, he studied in Dutch schools in Indonesia.
http://wn.com/Mohammad_Hatta -
Mohammad Mosaddegh
Prime Minister
http://wn.com/Mohammad_Mosaddegh -
Mohammad Najibullah
Mohammad Najibullah Ahmadzai (), originally just Najib, (August 6, 1947September 28, 1996) was the fourth and last President of the Soviet-backed Democratic Republic of Afghanistan. He is also considered the second President of the Republic of Afghanistan.
http://wn.com/Mohammad_Najibullah -
Mozambican Civil War
The Mozambican Civil War began in 1977, two years after the end of the war of independence. The ruling party, Front for Liberation of Mozambique (FRELIMO), was violently opposed from 1977 by the Rhodesian- and (later) South African-funded Mozambique Resistance Movement (RENAMO). Over 900,000 died in fighting and from starvation, five million civilians were displaced, many were made amputees by landmines, a legacy from the war that continues to plague Mozambique. Fighting ended in 1992 and the country's first multi-party elections were held in 1994.
http://wn.com/Mozambican_Civil_War -
Muammar Gaddafi
http://wn.com/Muammar_Gaddafi -
Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq
http://wn.com/Muhammad_Zia-ul-Haq -
Mário Soares
http://wn.com/Mário_Soares -
Mátyás Rákosi
http://wn.com/Mátyás_Rákosi -
Máximo Gómez
http://wn.com/Máximo_Gómez -
Ne Win
Ne Win ( ; 24 May or 14 May 1911 or 10 July 1910 – 5 December 2002) was a Burmese politician and military commander. He was Prime Minister of Burma from 1958 to 1960 and 1962 to 1974 and also head of state from 1962 to 1981. He also was the founder and from 1963 to 1988 the chairman of the Burma Socialist Programme Party, which from 1964 until 1988 was the sole political party in the Burmese nation state.
http://wn.com/Ne_Win -
Neelam Sanjiva Reddy
Neelam Sanjiva Reddy () (19 May 1913 - 1 June 1996) was the sixth President of India, serving from 1977 to 1982 and was the only person to be elected President of India unopposed.
http://wn.com/Neelam_Sanjiva_Reddy -
Ngo Dinh Diem
http://wn.com/Ngo_Dinh_Diem -
Nicolae Ceauşescu
http://wn.com/Nicolae_Ceauşescu -
Nicolás Guillén
http://wn.com/Nicolás_Guillén -
Nikita Khruschev
http://wn.com/Nikita_Khruschev -
Nikita Khrushchev
http://wn.com/Nikita_Khrushchev -
Nur Misuari
Nur Misuari (born in 1942 in Jolo, Sulu, Philippines) is a Filipino politician and former leader of the Moro National Liberation Front. He completed his education through academic scholarships in the University of the Philippines and became a student activist. Misuari was a lecturer at the University of the Philippines in political science and in the 1960s, he established the Mindanao Independence Movement which aimed to organized an independent Islamic state in the southern Philippines. The Mindanao Independence Movement formed the Moro National Liberation Front (MNLF). which sought political reforms from the Government of the Philippines. Unable to gained reforms, the MNLF engaged in military conflict against the Philippine government and its supporters between 1972 to 1976 under the leadership of Misuari. The military resistance to the government of former Philippine president Ferdinand Marcos did not produce autonomy for the Moro people. He departed to Saudi Arabia in exile but returned to the Philippines after Marcos was removed from office during the People Power Revolution in 1986.
http://wn.com/Nur_Misuari -
Nur Muhammad Taraki
http://wn.com/Nur_Muhammad_Taraki -
Omar Torrijos
http://wn.com/Omar_Torrijos -
Omara Portuondo
http://wn.com/Omara_Portuondo -
Pablo Milanés
http://wn.com/Pablo_Milanés -
Palmiro Togliatti
Palmiro Togliatti (26 March 1893 - 21 August 1964) was an Italian politician and leader of the Italian Communist Party from 1927 until his death.
http://wn.com/Palmiro_Togliatti -
Patrice Lumumba
http://wn.com/Patrice_Lumumba -
Peaceful coexistence
Peaceful coexistence ( or, "Peaceful co-existence - as a form of the continuation of the class struggle") was a theory developed and applied by the Soviet Union at various points during the Cold War in the context of its ostensibly Marxist-Leninist foreign policy and was adopted by Soviet-influenced Communist states that they could peacefully coexist with the "capitalist" bloc (i.e., non-communist states). This was in contrast to the antagonistic contradiction principle that Communism and capitalism could never coexist in peace. The Soviet Union applied it to relations between the western world and in particular, the United States and NATO countries and the nations of the Warsaw Pact.
http://wn.com/Peaceful_coexistence -
Pentarchy of 1933
http://wn.com/Pentarchy_of_1933 -
Peter Bourne
Dr. Peter Bourne (born 1939) is a physician, anthropologist, biographer, author and international civil servant with experience in several senior government positions. He is currently chairman of the board of the American Association for World Health, and Professor and Vice Chancellor Emeritus at St. George's University Medical School, Grenada.
http://wn.com/Peter_Bourne -
Pierre Trudeau
http://wn.com/Pierre_Trudeau -
Ping Pong Diplomacy
http://wn.com/Ping_Pong_Diplomacy -
Pol Pot
http://wn.com/Pol_Pot -
Pope John Paul II
http://wn.com/Pope_John_Paul_II -
Pope John XXIII
Blessed Pope John XXIII (; ), born Angelo Giuseppe Roncalli (25 November 1881 – 3 June 1963), known as Blessed John XXIII since his beatification, was elected as the 261st Pope of the Catholic Church and Sovereign of Vatican City on 28 October 1958.
http://wn.com/Pope_John_XXIII -
Ramiro Valdés
http://wn.com/Ramiro_Valdés -
Ramiz Alia
(born October 18, 1925) was the second and last communist leader of Albania from 1985 to 1991, and the President of People's Socialist Republic of Albania from 1982 to 1991, and also the first President of the post communist Albania elected in 1991 until 1992. He had been designated as successor by Enver Hoxha and took power after Hoxha died.
http://wn.com/Ramiz_Alia -
Ramon Castro Ruz
http://wn.com/Ramon_Castro_Ruz -
Ramón Zaydín
http://wn.com/Ramón_Zaydín -
Raúl Castro
http://wn.com/Raúl_Castro -
Raúl Chibás
http://wn.com/Raúl_Chibás -
Red Cross
http://wn.com/Red_Cross -
Richard Nixon
Richard Milhous Nixon (January 9, 1913 – April 22, 1994) was the 37th President of the United States from 1969 to 1974, having formerly been the 36th Vice President of the United States from 1953 to 1961. A member of the Republican Party, he was the only President to resign the office as well as the only person to be elected twice to both the Presidency and the Vice Presidency.
http://wn.com/Richard_Nixon -
Robert McNamara
Robert Strange McNamara (June 9, 1916 – July 6, 2009) was an American business executive and the eighth Secretary of Defense, serving under Presidents John F. Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson from 1961 to 1968. Following that he served as President of the World Bank from 1968 until 1981. McNamara was responsible for the institution of systems analysis in public policy, which developed into the discipline known today as policy analysis.
http://wn.com/Robert_McNamara -
Robert Mugabe
Robert Gabriel Mugabe (, ; born 21 February 1924) is the second and current President of Zimbabwe. One of the leaders of the liberation movement against white-minority rule, he was elected into power as the head of government since 1980, as Prime Minister from 1980 to 1987, and as the first executive head of state since 1987.
http://wn.com/Robert_Mugabe -
Ronald Reagan
http://wn.com/Ronald_Reagan -
Ruhollah Khomeini
http://wn.com/Ruhollah_Khomeini -
Rómulo Betancourt
http://wn.com/Rómulo_Betancourt -
Saddam Hussein
http://wn.com/Saddam_Hussein -
Salah Jadid
http://wn.com/Salah_Jadid -
Salgueiro Maia
http://wn.com/Salgueiro_Maia -
Sali Berisha
Sali Berisha (; born 15 October 1944) is an Albanian politician, currently the Prime Minister of Albania and the leader of Democratic Party of Albania (PD).
http://wn.com/Sali_Berisha -
Salvador Allende
http://wn.com/Salvador_Allende -
Saparmurat Niyazov
http://wn.com/Saparmurat_Niyazov -
Siad Barre
http://wn.com/Siad_Barre -
Sigmund Freud
http://wn.com/Sigmund_Freud -
Silvio Rodríguez
http://wn.com/Silvio_Rodríguez -
Sino-Albanian split
The Sino-Albanian split () in 1978 saw the parting of the People's Republic of China (PRC) and Socialist People's Republic of Albania, which was the only Eastern European nation to side with the PRC in the Sino-Soviet split of the early 1960s.
http://wn.com/Sino-Albanian_split -
Sino-Indian War
The Sino-Indian War (), also known as the Sino-Indian Border Conflict (), was a war between China and India that occurred in 1962. A disputed Himalayan border was the main pretext for war, but other issues played a role. There had been a series of violent border incidents after the 1959 Tibetan uprising, when India had granted asylum to the Dalai Lama. India initiated a Forward Policy in which it placed outposts along the border, including several north of the McMahon Line, the eastern portion of a Line of Actual Control proclaimed by Chinese Premier Zhou Enlai in 1959.
http://wn.com/Sino-Indian_War -
Sino-Vietnamese War
http://wn.com/Sino-Vietnamese_War -
Somerset Maugham
http://wn.com/Somerset_Maugham -
Spanish Civil War
http://wn.com/Spanish_Civil_War -
Stjepan Mesić
http://wn.com/Stjepan_Mesić -
Suharto
http://wn.com/Suharto -
Sukarno
http://wn.com/Sukarno -
Syngman Rhee
http://wn.com/Syngman_Rhee -
Sékou Touré
http://wn.com/Sékou_Touré -
Tank Man
http://wn.com/Tank_Man -
Thabo Mbeki
Thabo Mvuyelwa Mbeki
http://wn.com/Thabo_Mbeki -
Todor Zhivkov
Todor Hristov Zhivkov (; ) (7 September 1911 – 5 August 1998) was a communist politician and leader of the People's Republic of Bulgaria (PRB) from March 4, 1954 until November 10, 1989.
http://wn.com/Todor_Zhivkov -
Tomás Estrada Palma
http://wn.com/Tomás_Estrada_Palma -
Tony Snow
Robert Anthony "Tony" Snow (June 1, 1955 – July 12, 2008) was an American journalist, political commentator, television news anchor, syndicated columnist, radio host, musician, and the third White House Press Secretary under President George W. Bush. Snow also worked for President George H. W. Bush as chief speechwriter and Deputy Assistant of Media Affairs. He served as White House Press Secretary from May 2006 until his resignation effective September 2007.
http://wn.com/Tony_Snow -
Toshiki Kaifu
is a Japanese politician who was the 76th and 77th Prime Minister of Japan from 1989 to 1991.
http://wn.com/Toshiki_Kaifu -
Tôn Đức Thắng
http://wn.com/Tôn_Đức_Thắng -
U Nu
For other people with the Burmese name Nu, see Nu (Burmese name).
http://wn.com/U_Nu -
Urho Kekkonen
:Kekkonen redirects here. For other uses, see Kekkonen (disambiguation).
http://wn.com/Urho_Kekkonen -
Van 't Wout
'''Van 't Wout''' is the last name of a Dutch family that conducts it business through Indiana Finance BV (formerly Fondel Finance B.V.), conducting 70 to 80 percent of Dutch trade with Cuba.
http://wn.com/Van_'t_Wout -
Viacheslav Chornovil
Viacheslav Chornovil () (born December 24, 1937 in Yerky, Katerynopil Raion, Cherkasy Oblast - died March 25, 1999, near Boryspil, Kiev Oblast) was a Ukrainian politician. A prominent Ukrainian dissident to the Soviet policies, he was arrested multiple times in the 1960s and 1970s for his political views. A long-time advocate of Ukrainian independence, he was one of the most prominent political figures of the late 1980s and early 1990s who paved the path of the contemporary Ukraine to its independence.
http://wn.com/Viacheslav_Chornovil -
Vicente Fox
Vicente Fox Quesada (; born July 2, 1942) is a Mexican politician who served as President of Mexico from 2000 to 2006 and currently serves as co-President of the Centrist Democrat International, an international organization of Christian democratic political parties.
http://wn.com/Vicente_Fox -
Vietnam War
http://wn.com/Vietnam_War -
Violeta Chamorro
http://wn.com/Violeta_Chamorro -
Virgin Mary
http://wn.com/Virgin_Mary -
Vladimir Lenin
http://wn.com/Vladimir_Lenin -
Vyacheslav Molotov
http://wn.com/Vyacheslav_Molotov -
Václav Havel
http://wn.com/Václav_Havel -
Walter Hallstein
Walter Hallstein (17 November 1901–29 March 1982) was a German politician and professor.
http://wn.com/Walter_Hallstein -
Walter Lippmann
http://wn.com/Walter_Lippmann -
Walter Ulbricht
Walter Ulbricht (30 June 1893 – 1 August 1973) was a German communist politician. As General Secretary of the Socialist Unity Party from 1950 to 1971, he played a leading role in the early development and establishment of the German Democratic Republic (East Germany).
http://wn.com/Walter_Ulbricht -
Warsaw Pact
http://wn.com/Warsaw_Pact -
Wayne S. Smith
http://wn.com/Wayne_S_Smith -
William Gopallawa
William Gopallawa, MBE (17 September 1897 - 31 January 1981) was the last Governor General of Ceylon from 1962 to 1972 and became the first (non-executive) President of Sri Lanka when Ceylon declared itself a republic in 1972 and changed its name to Sri Lanka. Until 1972, Ceylon was an Commonwealth realm with the Queen Elizabeth II as the head of state and Queen of Ceylon. He was well known as an austere, nonpartisan and statesmanlike figure who commanded the respect of all political parties.
http://wn.com/William_Gopallawa -
William Shakespeare
William Shakespeare (baptised 26 April 1564; died 23 April 1616) was an English poet and playwright, widely regarded as the greatest writer in the English language and the world's pre-eminent dramatist. He is often called England's national poet and the "Bard of Avon". His surviving works, including some collaborations, consist of about 38 plays, 154 sonnets, two long narrative poems, and several other poems. His plays have been translated into every major living language and are performed more often than those of any other playwright.
http://wn.com/William_Shakespeare -
Willy Brandt
Willy Brandt, born Herbert Ernst Karl Frahm (; 18 December 1913 - 8 October 1992), was a German politician, Chancellor of West Germany 1969–1974, and leader of the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD) 1964–1987.
http://wn.com/Willy_Brandt -
Winston Churchill
http://wn.com/Winston_Churchill -
Wojciech Jaruzelski
Wojciech Witold Jaruzelski (pronounced ; born 6 July 1923) was the last commander-in-chief of the communist Polish People's Army (LWP) and the chairman of the Polish United Workers Party from 1981 to 1989, Prime Minister from 1981 to 1985 and the country's head of state from 1985 to 1990. He was the country's last communist leader and dictator and resigned from power after the Polish Round Table Agreement in 1989 led to democratic elections in Poland.
http://wn.com/Wojciech_Jaruzelski -
Wu Guanzheng
Wu Guanzheng (; born August 1938) was the head of the Central Commission for Discipline Inspection of the Communist Party of China, an anti-corruption body from 2002 to 2007.
http://wn.com/Wu_Guanzheng -
Wu'erkaixi
'''Wu'erkaixi (sometimes spelled Wu'er Kaixi'''; born 17 February 1968) was a Chinese student leader of Uyghur ethnicity in the Tiananmen protests of 1989. He was born in Beijing, but listed as a native of Yili, Xinjiang Autonomous Region. He achieved prominence while studying at Beijing Normal University as a hunger striker who rebuked Chinese Premier Li Peng on national television. He now resides in Taiwan.
http://wn.com/Wu'erkaixi -
Władysław Gomułka
http://wn.com/Władysław_Gomułka -
Yuri Andropov
http://wn.com/Yuri_Andropov -
Zail Singh
http://wn.com/Zail_Singh -
Zhao Ziyang
Zhao Ziyang (17 October 1919 – 17 January 2005) was a high-ranking politician in the People's Republic of China (PRC). He was the third Premier of the People's Republic of China from 1980 to 1987, and General Secretary of the Communist Party of China from 1987 to 1989.
http://wn.com/Zhao_Ziyang -
Zhou Enlai
http://wn.com/Zhou_Enlai -
Zianon Pazniak
Zianon Pazniak (, born April 24, 1944) is a Belarusian nationalist politician, one of the founders of the Belarusian Popular Front and leader of the Christian Conservative Party of the BPF. He has lived in emigration since 1996.
http://wn.com/Zianon_Pazniak -
Zulfikar Ali Bhutto
Zulfikar Ali Bhutto (Urdu: lang|ur|, , ) (January 5, 1928 – April 4, 1979) was a Pakistani politician who served as the fourth President of Pakistan from 1971 to 1973 and as the ninth Prime Minister of Pakistan from 1973 to 1977. He was the founder of the Pakistan Peoples Party (PPP), the largest and most influential political party in Pakistan. His daughter Benazir Bhutto also served twice as prime minister. She was assassinated on December 27, 2007.
http://wn.com/Zulfikar_Ali_Bhutto -
Álvaro Cunhal
http://wn.com/Álvaro_Cunhal -
Ángel Castro y Argiz
http://wn.com/Ángel_Castro_y_Argiz -
Óscar Gans
http://wn.com/Óscar_Gans
Castro, Fidel Filmography
- King Kennedy (2012)
- Marilyn Monroe: Murder on Fifth Helena Drive (2012)
- La Cuba De Fidel (2011)
- Santiago Files (2011)
- Kennedys' Home Movies (2011)
- Sexocracy: The man of Bunga Bunga (2011)
- Zombies: A Living History (2011)
- Moi otetz Evgeni (2010)
- Fidel Castro: A Life of Revolution (2010)
- Will the Real Terrorist Please Stand Up? (2010)
- Memorias del desarrollo (2010)
- Dans la peau de Fidel Castro (2010)
- The Kennedy Detail (2010)
- My Father Evgeni (2010)
- Double Take (2009)
- La rabbia di Pasolini (2008)
- A President to Remember (2008)
- The Power of Their Song: The Untold Story of Latin America's New Song Movement (2008)
- How the West Was Lost (2008)
- Maradona by Kusturica (2008)
- Superpower (2008)
- Oswald's Ghost (2007)
- The War on Democracy (2007)
- Atrapats pel cap d'any (2007)
- Tasmanian Devil: The Fast and Furious Life of Errol Flynn (2007)
- Far from the Island (2007)
- Alberto Iglesias, el músico fiel (2006)
- 638 Ways to Kill Castro (2006)
- Hércules 56 (2006)
- The Good Shepherd (2006)
- The First Miracle: 1960 US Olympic Hockey Team (2006)
- Rendezvous mit dem Tod: Warum John F. Kennedy sterben musste (2006)
- Jonestown: The Life and Death of Peoples Temple (2006)
- Cuba, el valor de una utopía (2006)
- Looking for Fidel (2006)
- Soy Cuba, O Mamute Siberiano (2005)
- 50 y más (2005)
- The Adventures of Errol Flynn (2005)
- Fidel Castro: L'enfance d'un chef (2005)
- Príbehy obycejného sílenství (2005)
- Kordavision (2005)
- The Big Fat Quiz of the Year (2004)
- Moi Fidel Castro (2004)
- Allende - Der letzte Tag des Salvador Allende (2004)
- Fidel Castro. Ewiger Revolutionär (2004)
- Kung fu 2003 (2004)
- Last Laugh '04 (2004)
- Salvador Allende (2004)
- Seres extravagantes (2004)
- The Doomsday Clock (2004)
- Bola de Nieve (2003)
- Castro (2003)
- Comandante (2003)
- Glauber o Filme, Labirinto do Brasil (2003)
- Les dix (2003)
- Peter Jennings Reporting: The Kennedy Assassination - Beyond Conspiracy (2003)
- Surplus: Terrorized Into Being Consumers (2003)
- The Fog of War: Eleven Lessons from the Life of Robert S. McNamara (2003)
- The Weather Underground (2002)
- Dreaming a New Cuba (2002)
- Balseros (2002)
- Reel Radicals: The Sixties Revolution in Film (2002)
- Power and Beauty (2002)
- Naqoyqatsi (2002)
- Orientaciones son orientaciones (2001)
- The Secret KGB Paranormal Files (2001)
- Our Manics in Havana (2001)
- Fidel (2001)
- Roots of the Cuban Missile Crisis (2001)
- Sacrificio: Who Betrayed Che Guevara (2001)
- Lieber Fidel - Maritas Geschichte (2001)
- The Kennedys: The Curse of Power (2000)
- Before Night Falls (2000)
- The Secret KGB JFK Assassination Files (1999)
- Hidden Hollywood II: More Treasures from the 20th Century Fox Vaults (1999)
- ABC 2000: The Millennium (1999)
- Film 1 (1999)
- Blast from the Past (1999)
- Ricardo, Miriam y Fidel (1997)
- The Fifties (1997)
- Dangerous World: The Kennedy Years (1997)
- On the Brink: Doomsday (1997)
- Cronkite Remembers (1997)
- Wide World of Sports 35th Anniversary Special (1996)
- 100 Years of Olympic Glory (1996)
- Juan Carlos I: Crónica de 20 años (1995)
- The Perez Family (1995)
- Ernesto Che Guevara (1995)
- Nixon (1995)
- The Making of a Leader (1919-1968) (1994)
- Moon Shot (1994)
- The Art of Governing (1968-1972) (1994)
- The Century of Warfare (1994)
- American Justice: Target - Mafia (1993)
- Fame in the Twentieth Century (1993)
- The JFK Assassination: The Jim Garrison Tapes (1992)
- Beyond 'JFK': The Question of Conspiracy (1992)
- The JFK Conspiracy (1992)
- Tribulation 99: Alien Anomalies Under America (1992)
- JFK (1991)
- ABC's Wide World of Sports 30th Anniversary Special (1991)
- 11-22-63: The Day the Nation Cried (1989)
- The 1950's: Music, Memories & Milestones (1988)
- The 1960's: Music, Memories & Milestones (1988)
- Cuando pienso en el Che (1987)
- Cuba: In the Shadow of Doubt (1986)
- Araaayyyyy!!! (1986)
- Mauvaise conduite (1984)
- Call to Glory (1984)
- Scarface (1983)
- A Good Turn Daily (1983)
- Cuba (1979)
- The Late Great Planet Earth (1979)
- Le fond de l'air est rouge (1977)
- Ritratto di Fidel (1975)
- Waiting for Fidel (1974)
- Général Idi Amin Dada: Autoportrait (1974)
- La société du spectacle (1973)
- Malcolm X (1972)
- La bataille des dix millions (1971)
- I due Kennedy (1969)
- First Tuesday (1969)
- Topaz (1969)
- La hora de los hornos: Notas y testimonios sobre el neocolonialismo, la violencia y la liberación (1968)
- Loin du Vietnam (1967)
- Kuuba tänään (1966)
- ¡Cuba Sí! (1961)
- The Truth About Fidel Castro Revolution (1959)
- Holiday in Mexico (1946)
- Easy to Wed (1946)
Castro, Fidel Filmography
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Fidel Castro - Mini Bio
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:27
- Published: 10 Sep 2009
- Updated: 10 Sep 2012
A short biography of Fidel Castro. Cuban dictator Fidel Castro was born near Biran in August 13, 1926. In 1959 he used guerilla warfare to successfully overthrow Cuban leader Batista and was sworn in as Prime Minister of Cuba, remaining so until his presidency in 1976. As prime minister, Castro's government established covert military and economic relations with the Soviet Union, leading to the Cuban Missile.
http://wn.com/Fidel_Castro_Mini_Bio
20/20 Fidel Castro interview - Barbara Walters [3of6]
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 6:38
- Published: 09 Jul 2008
- Updated: 06 Sep 2012
Cuban Media - Capitalism Vs Socialism Barbara Walters interviews Fidel Castro from Havana, Cuba -- 25 years after her first interview with the Cuban leader. Her original interview made a little history because people got their first real look at the man. Although Castro is known for very long speeches, he rarely does interviews. Fidel Castro, 76 at the time of this interview, has outlasted nine US presidents. He's on his tenth. His rule continues to inspire both fear and devotion. He tells Barbara Walters that Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev lied to both President John F. Kennedy and Cuba, heightening the Cuban Missile Crisis.
http://wn.com/20_20_Fidel_Castro_interview_Barbara_Walters_3of6_
Fidel Castro on Face the Nation
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:03
- Published: 13 Mar 2012
- Updated: 03 Sep 2012
Shortly after leading rebel forces in overthrowing Cuban dictator Fulgencio Batista, Fidel Castro appeared on the Jan. 11, 1959 edition of Face the Nation.
http://wn.com/Fidel_Castro_on_Face_the_Nation
Fidel Castro mocks UK over Falklands
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:50
- Published: 07 Feb 2012
- Updated: 07 Sep 2012
In a two hour broadcast the former Cuban leader painted a bleak picture of the world as he talked about Britain's claim to the Falklands and expressed concerns over Syria, Iran and even the US elections.
http://wn.com/Fidel_Castro_mocks_UK_over_Falklands
Fidel Castro full movie
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 90:41
- Published: 09 Dec 2011
- Updated: 04 Sep 2012
Fidel Alejandro Castro Ruz (Spanish: [fiˈðel ˈkastro]; born August 13, 1926) is a Cuban revolutionary and politician, having held the position of Prime Minister of Cuba from 1959 to 1976, and then President from 1976 to 2008. He also served as the First Secretary of the Communist Party of Cuba from the party's foundation in 1961 until 2011. Politically a Marxist-Leninist, under his administration the Republic of Cuba was converted into a one-party socialist state, with industry and business being nationalised under state ownership and socialist reforms implemented in all areas of society. Born the illegitimate son of a wealthy farmer, Castro became involved in leftist anti-imperialist politics whilst studying law at the University of Havana. Subsequently involving himself in armed rebellions against right wing governments in the Dominican Republic and Colombia, he went on to conclude that the US-backed Cuban President Fulgencio Batista, who was widely seen as a dictator, had to be overthrown; to this end he led a failed armed attack on the Moncada Barracks in 1953. Imprisoned for a year, he then traveled to Mexico, and with the aid of his brother Raúl Castro and friend Che Guevara, he assembled together a group of Cuban revolutionaries, the July 26 Movement. Returning with them to Cuba, he took a key role in the Cuban Revolution, leading a successful guerrilla war against Batista's forces, with Batista himself fleeing into exile in 1959. Castro subsequently became <b>...</b>
http://wn.com/Fidel_Castro_full_movie
RetroBites: Fidel Castro (1959)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:51
- Published: 22 Oct 2008
- Updated: 05 Sep 2012
Fidel Castro shares his ideology. (1959)
http://wn.com/RetroBites_Fidel_Castro_1959
Fidel Castro: US Wrongdoing
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 62:18
- Published: 15 Nov 2009
- Updated: 11 Sep 2012
Fidel Castro in his prime, providing an excellent example of his wit, idealism, analysis. This is offered particularly to those under the spell of US propaganda's demonization of Castro, to see and hear Fidel for themselves. Fidel explains the US has been making cruel economic war against Cuba, not only refusing to trade with it, but using its great power to prevent most other countries from trading with Cuba, and resorting to tactics of assassination and persistent subversion. Cuba was forced to turn to the USSR to trade its sugar for necessities and when the USSR falls, Cuba has to endure the loss of 70% of its trade. But the Cuban people endure this painful "Special Period" because of their deep love of their revolution and revolutionary government. Fidel talks of the Cuban government's deep commitment to principle, like how during their revolution they never resorted to torture or mistreatment of prisoners to gain information. This is all the more ironic with the US eventually choosing Guantanamo to carry on torture against Muslims. Fidel here addresses an appreciative World Solidarity with Cuba Conference in Havana, November 1994. His 2 hour speech is seamlessly edited to about an hour by Dale Trescott as directed by Joe Friendly from video shot by Joe Friendly and by TVMarti.
http://wn.com/Fidel_Castro_US_Wrongdoing
Pope Benedict XVI meets Fidel Castro in Cuba
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:12
- Published: 28 Mar 2012
- Updated: 10 Sep 2012
Pope Benedict XVI met with Cuba's now frail revolutionary icon after saying mass in Havana before hundreds of thousands at Revolution Plaza.
http://wn.com/Pope_Benedict_XVI_meets_Fidel_Castro_in_Cuba
Elektrick Mann - FIDEL CASTRO
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:02
- Published: 11 Jan 2007
- Updated: 11 Sep 2012
new video HC-Alko-HipHop group Elektrick Mann from Valmez/Czech Republic. title KOKAR PIČKAN/2006
http://wn.com/Elektrick_Mann_FIDEL_CASTRO
Fidel Castro in South Africa with Nelson Mandela
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 6:55
- Published: 11 Jul 2008
- Updated: 11 Sep 2012
.
http://wn.com/Fidel_Castro_in_South_Africa_with_Nelson_Mandela
Fidel Castro's Warning to the World "Israel/US Strike on Iran will bring about Nuclear World War 3"
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 7:03
- Published: 26 Aug 2012
- Updated: 11 Sep 2012
Fidel Castro communist Marxist Leninist dictator retired politician Republic of Cuba socialist capital capitalist democracy party politics economy message talk speech nuclear atomic chemical missile rocket ballistic cruise war world global crisis destruction devastation end days nuke bomb bombing security defence warning potential ww3 NWO Zion Zionist weapons revolution president ending destroying Destruction vaporize albert Einstein respect peace attack Israel Iran Islamic nation human humanitarian power collateral damage innocent people civilians humanity blast Fidel Castro is a Cuban communist revolutionary and politician, having held the position of Prime Minister of Cuba from 1959 to 1976, and then President from 1976 to 2008. He also served as the First Secretary of the Communist Party of Cuba from the party's foundation in 1961 until 2011. Politically a Marxist-Leninist, under his administration the Republic of Cuba was converted into a one-party socialist state, with industry and business being nationalized under state ownership and socialist reforms implemented in all areas of society. On the international stage, he also served as the Secretary-General of the Non-Aligned Movement from 1979 to 1983 and 2006 to 2008. Born the illegitimate son of a wealthy farmer, Castro became involved in leftist anti-imperialist politics while studying law at the University of Havana. Involving himself in armed rebellions against right-wing governments in the Dominican Republic <b>...</b>
http://wn.com/Fidel_Castro's_Warning_to_the_World_Israel_US_Strike_on_Iran_will_bring_about_Nuclear_World_War_3
Evo Morales, President of Bolivia on Fidel Castro and American Foreign Policy
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:45
- Published: 01 Jun 2011
- Updated: 16 Aug 2012
Bolivia has joined with Iran, Venezuela and Cuba in a global uprising against capitalism.
http://wn.com/Evo_Morales,_President_of_Bolivia_on_Fidel_Castro_and_American_Foreign_Policy
Fidel Castro's letter to George Galloway
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:07
- Published: 12 May 2012
- Updated: 04 Sep 2012
GG talks about receiving a letter from Uncle Fidel.
http://wn.com/Fidel_Castro's_letter_to_George_Galloway
Ozzie Guillen Loves Cuba's Fidel Castro???
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:16
- Published: 11 Apr 2012
- Updated: 07 Sep 2012
The Miami Marlins baseball team suspended manager Ozzie Guillen on Tuesday for five games, effective immediately, after he praised Cuba's Fidel Castro in a magazine interview. Mr Guillen told reporters at a bilingual news conference that he accepts the punishment and apologized again for his comments. The manager caused an uproar in south Florida when he told Time magazine he loves Castro and respects the retired Cuban leader for staying in power so long.
http://wn.com/Ozzie_Guillen_Loves_Cuba's_Fidel_Castro???
Fidel Castro Drawing Speed Art!
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:13
- Published: 09 Aug 2012
- Updated: 03 Sep 2012
I hope everyone enjoyed this drawing of Fidel Castro. My friends brother wanted me to draw this exact photo and I decided to make a video out of it. Expect more speed arts in the future. I would like to say thanks in advance for 8k subscribers. It means a lot to have that many subscribers and I hope to keep uploading content for my subscribers for a long time to come. Make sure to subscribe for videos. Stay Connected: Twitter: twitter.com Facebook: www.facebook.com Thanks for watching, Jake/ aka "DALLMYD" ------------------------------------------------------ Music Information: Hoodie Allen - Hey Now (Prod. by Something Silent) Free Download @ ow.ly Link provided by "NoCopyrightSounds" Support Hoodie Allen: www.youtube.com www.facebook.com twitter.com www.hoodieallen.com
http://wn.com/Fidel_Castro_Drawing_Speed_Art!
Ozzie Guillen Fidel Castro Remarks Lead to 5-Game Suspension From Miami Marlins for Manager
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:00
- Published: 10 Apr 2012
- Updated: 12 Aug 2012
Suspended Miami Marlins coach apologizes for comments made about Fidel Castro. abcnews.go.com
http://wn.com/Ozzie_Guillen_Fidel_Castro_Remarks_Lead_to_5-Game_Suspension_From_Miami_Marlins_for_Manager
Fidel Castro: Life of the Cuban Leader
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:55
- Published: 10 Dec 2011
- Updated: 15 Aug 2012
In this www.WatchMojo.com video, we take a look at the life and rule of Cuban leader Fidel Castro.
http://wn.com/Fidel_Castro_Life_of_the_Cuban_Leader
Fidel Castro y Che Guevara
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:21
- Published: 27 Jan 2012
- Updated: 10 Sep 2012
Romney on Fidel Castro
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:47
- Published: 25 Jan 2012
- Updated: 27 Aug 2012
hapblog.com
http://wn.com/Romney_on_Fidel_Castro
Fidel Castro talks nuclear war to Prof. Michel Chossudovsky
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:07
- Published: 22 Oct 2010
- Updated: 10 Sep 2012
Check out this video RT obtained of Fidel Castro delivering a message about nuclear war and the potential of the United States using these weapons again, potentially ending the world.
http://wn.com/Fidel_Castro_talks_nuclear_war_to_Prof_Michel_Chossudovsky
Black Ops 2 Zombies New Map! Cuba Map? Fidel Castro Explanation! Cuba Map?
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 9:23
- Published: 08 Jun 2012
- Updated: 08 Sep 2012
LIKE&FAV?! Subscribe to my Channel - www.youtube.com call of duty black ops 2 zombies trailer gameplay analysis call of duty black ops 2 zombies trailer gameplay analysis call of duty black ops 2 zombies trailer gameplay analysis call of duty black ops 2 zombies trailer gameplay analysis...
http://wn.com/Black_Ops_2_Zombies_New_Map!_Cuba_Map?_Fidel_Castro_Explanation!_Cuba_Map?
NUCLEAR WAR! Fidel Castro delivering a message about the potential of US ENDING THE WORLD!
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:07
- Published: 25 Aug 2012
- Updated: 05 Sep 2012
NUCLEAR WAR! Fidel Castro delivering a message about the potential of US ENDING THE WORLD! Fidel Castro delivering a message about nuclear war and the potential of the United States using these weapons again, potentially ending the world. Fidel Castro is a Cuban communist revolutionary and politician, having held the position of Prime Minister of Cuba from 1959 to 1976, and then President from 1976 to 2008. He also served as the First Secretary of the Communist Party of Cuba from the party's foundation in 1961 until 2011. Politically a Marxist-Leninist, under his administration the Republic of Cuba was converted into a one-party socialist state, with industry and business being nationalized under state ownership and socialist reforms implemented in all areas of society. On the international stage, he also served as the Secretary-General of the Non-Aligned Movement from 1979 to 1983 and 2006 to 2008. Born the illegitimate son of a wealthy farmer, Castro became involved in leftist anti-imperialist politics while studying law at the University of Havana. Involving himself in armed rebellions against right-wing governments in the Dominican Republic and Colombia, he concluded that the US-backed Cuban President Fulgencio Batista, who was widely seen as a dictator, had to be overthrown; to this end he led a failed armed attack on the Moncada Barracks in 1953. Imprisoned for a year, he traveled to Mexico, and with the aid of his brother Raúl Castro and friend Che Guevara <b>...</b>
http://wn.com/NUCLEAR_WAR!_Fidel_Castro_delivering_a_message_about_the_potential_of_US_ENDING_THE_WORLD!
FIDEL CASTRO Caudal de Rio (4-4)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 13:12
- Published: 23 Jun 2012
- Updated: 05 Aug 2012
FIDEL CASTRO Caudal de Rio
http://wn.com/FIDEL_CASTRO_Caudal_de_Rio_4-4
Creative Commons / Bobak Ha'Eri
AP / Osservatore Romano
AP / Ramon Espinosa
AP / Cubadebate, Roberto Chile
AP / Cubadebate, Roberto Chile
AP / Cubadebate, Cuba Presidency
AP / Jeff Robbins
AP / Javier Galeano
AP / Javier Galeano
UN / Saw Lim
AP / Cubadebate, Estudios Revolucion
AP / Cubadebate, Estudios Revolucion
Creative Commons
Public Domain / Giorgiopilato
Creative Commons / Ricardo Stuckert/PR
Creative Commons / Ricardo Stuckert/PR
Creative Commons / Antônio Milena/ABr
Creative Commons / Ricardo Stuckert/ABr.
AP / Franklin Reyes
Creative Commons / Ricardo Stuckert / PR
AP / Ismael Francisco, Prensa Latina
Creative Commons / Scewing
Creative Commons / Ricardo Stuckert/PR
AP / AIN, Omara Garcia
AP / Javier Galeano
AP / Javier Galeano
AP / Franklin Reyes
AP / Javier Galeano
Creative Commons / Carlosar
AP / Esteban Felix
Photo: AP / Chris Pizzello
28 Sep 2012
Mallika Sherawat has claimed that she does not want to get married. The actress is currently filming the romantic comedy Kismat Love Paisa Dilli. Sherawat told The Times of India: "I don't think I...
Photo: US Navy / Chief Mass Communication Specialist Michael B. Watkins
30 Sep 2012
KABUL, Afghanistan -- U.S. military deaths in the Afghan war have reached 2,000, a cold reminder of the human cost of an 11-year-old conflict that garners little public interest at home as the United...
Photo: AP / Alan Diaz
28 Sep 2012
The financial and banking industries are on high alert tonight as a massive cyberattack continues, with potentially millions of customers of Bank of America, PNC and Wells Fargo finding themselves...
Photo: AP / Kenya Ministry for Defense
29 Sep 2012
Islamist militants in Somalia say they have withdrawn from their southern stronghold of Kismayo, following an African Union military attack. Kenyan and Somali forces launched a beach assault on...
Photo: AP / Richard Drew
29 Sep 2012
The US president and the Israeli PM have expressed agreement on the goal of preventing Iran from acquiring a nuclear weapon, the White House said. Barack Obama and Binyamin Netanyahu sought on Friday...
Photo: WN / Ahmed Deeb
27 Sep 2012
First came the hullaballoo over the "Mosque at Ground Zero". Then there was Pastor Terry Jones of Gainesville, Florida, grabbing headlines as he promoted "International Burn-a-Quran Day". Most...
Photo: WN / Marzena J.
25 Sep 2012
Cuba, bonita Cuba! They've given us salsa, cigars and sexy Che Guevara T-shirts and what are we offering to send them? Sue Ramsey, Jim Wells and a committee clerk from Stor-mount (as so many people...
Photo: WN / Marzena J.
24 Sep 2012
SHARE AND DISCUSS Tweet Cuban comfort Suspended in time and content with its colourful Cadillacs and smoked cigars, Cuba's musical charm and idle, meandering ways will have you question your place in...
Alina Fernandez, daughter of Fidel Castro shares her story at Wingate University (15965282)
21 Sep 2012
noodls
(Source: Wingate University) News Alina Fernandez, daughter of Fidel Castro shares her story at Wingate University 9/21/2012 NEWS RELEASE Contact: Kim Williams Communications Writer k.williams@wingate.edu 704-233-8320 Wingate, NC - Alina Fernandez, the daughter of Fidel Castro, will share her first...(size: 3.1Kb)
Fidel Castro is lucid and working hard, says son
19 Sep 2012
Newstrack India
Tweet Havana, Sep 19 (IANS/EFE) The eldest son of former Cuban president Fidel Castro said Monday that his father is "lucid and working hard", despite having made no public appearance for several months. "You've seen his message from the other day to (Venezuelan) President (Hugo) Chavez - as always,...(size: 2.1Kb)
Did U.S. leaders discuss murder of Fidel Castro?
10 Sep 2012
The Miami Herald
It only took half a century, but we finally have direct evidence of U.S. government leaders cryptically discussing ideas about assassinating Fidel Castro just months before the Cuban Missile Crisis. Due to congressional investigations in the 1970s, we have long known of (unsuccessful) Central...(size: 4.3Kb)
DNA India
Cuba's former leader Fidel Castro is still in good health and working on a new book with Venezuelan President Hugo Chavez, an official blogger said in Havana Wednesday. The state-run Yohandry's Weblog denied recent Internet rumors Castro was dead or in...(size: 1.7Kb)
Fidel Castro working on new book with Chavez
23 Aug 2012
Newstrack India
Tweet Havana, Aug. 22 (Xinhua-ANI): Cuba's former leader Fidel Castro is still in good health and working on a new book with Venezuelan President Hugo Chavez, an official blogger said here Wednesday. The state-run Yohandry's Weblog denied recent Internet rumors Castro was dead or in poor health,...(size: 2.5Kb)
Fidel Castro Writing A Book With Hugo Chavez
23 Aug 2012
Huffington Post
By Jeff Franks HAVANA (Reuters) - Former Cuban leader Fidel Castro, who has been out of the public eye for more than two months, is working on a book with Venezuelan President Hugo Chavez and is not at death's door, a pro-government blogger said on Wednesday....(size: 4.8Kb)
Reuters
HAVANA (Reuters) - Former Cuban leader Fidel Castro, who has been out of the public eye for more than two months, is working on a book with Venezuelan President Hugo Chavez and is not at death's door, a pro-government blogger said on Wednesday. Yohandry Fontana, who often is first to report official...(size: 2.8Kb)
The Star
HAVANA (Reuters) - Former Cuban leader Fidel Castro, who has been out of the public eye for more than two months, is working on a book with Venezuelan President Hugo Chavez and is not at death's door, a pro-government blogger said on Wednesday. Former Cuban leader Fidel Castro attends the closing...(size: 3.0Kb)
Is Fidel Castro Alive? So We're Told.
17 Aug 2012
Huffington Post
One day my grandchildren will ask me, "What was his name... Grandma, what was his name? Gastro...? Mastro...?" And I'll be annoyed with them for their forgetfulness, for their flippancy... but when I turn my back I'll laugh, relieved, compensated. With her long plastic nails she deals the cards on a...(size: 6.2Kb)
The Daily Mail
He may not have...(size: 0.1Kb)
This name uses Spanish naming customs; the first or paternal family name is Castro and the second or maternal family name is Ruz.
| Fidel Castro | |
|---|---|
 |
|
| Castro in 2003 | |
| First Secretary of the Communist Party of Cuba |
|
| In office October 3, 1965 – April 19, 2011 |
|
| Deputy | Raúl Castro |
| Preceded by | Position established |
| Succeeded by | Raúl Castro |
| 15th President of Cuba | |
| In office December 2, 1976 – February 24, 2008* |
|
| Prime Minister | Himself |
| Vice President | Raúl Castro |
| Preceded by | Osvaldo Dorticós Torrado |
| Succeeded by | Raúl Castro |
| 16th Prime Minister of Cuba | |
| In office February 16, 1959 – February 24, 2008 |
|
| President | Manuel Urrutia Lleó Osvaldo Dorticós Torrado Himself |
| Preceded by | José Miró Cardona |
| Succeeded by | Raúl Castro |
| 7th and 23rd Secretary-General of the Non-Aligned Movement | |
| In office September 16, 2006 – February 24, 2008 |
|
| Preceded by | Abdullah Ahmad Badawi |
| Succeeded by | Raúl Castro |
| In office September 10, 1979 – March 6, 1983 |
|
| Preceded by | Junius Richard Jayawardene |
| Succeeded by | Neelam Sanjiva Reddy |
| Personal details | |
| Born | Fidel Alejandro Castro Ruz (1926-08-13) August 13, 1926 (age 85) Birán, Cuba |
| Political party | Communist Party of Cuba |
| Spouse(s) | Mirta Diaz-Balart (1948–1955) Dalia Soto del Valle (1980–present) |
| Relations | (siblings) Raúl Castro Enma Castro Agustina Castro Ramon Castro Ruz Angelita Castro |
| Children | Fidel Ángel Castro Diaz-Balart Alina Fernández-Revuelta Alexis Castro-Soto Alejandro Castro-Soto Antonio Castro-Soto Angel Castro-Soto Alex Castro-Soto Jorge Angel Castro Francisca Pupo |
| Alma mater | University of Havana |
| Profession | Lawyer |
| Religion | Deist[1] |
| Signature |  |
| *Acting presidential powers were transferred to Raúl Castro from July 31, 2006. | |
Fidel Alejandro Castro Ruz (Spanish: [fiˈðel ˈkastro]; born August 13, 1926) is a Cuban revolutionary and politician, having held the position of Prime Minister of Cuba from 1959 to 1976, and then President from 1976 to 2008. He also served as the First Secretary of the Communist Party of Cuba from the party's foundation in 1961 until 2011. Politically a Marxist-Leninist, under his administration the Republic of Cuba was converted into a one-party socialist state, with industry and business being nationalized under state ownership and socialist reforms implemented in all areas of society. On the international stage, he also served as the Secretary-General of the Non-Aligned Movement from 1979 to 1983 and 2006 to 2008.
Born the illegitimate son of a wealthy farmer, Castro became involved in leftist anti-imperialist politics while studying law at the University of Havana. Involving himself in armed rebellions against right-wing governments in the Dominican Republic and Colombia, he concluded that the U.S.-backed Cuban President Fulgencio Batista, who was widely seen as a dictator, had to be overthrown; to this end he led a failed armed attack on the Moncada Barracks in 1953. Imprisoned for a year, he traveled to Mexico, and with the aid of his brother Raúl Castro and friend Che Guevara, assembled a group of revolutionaries, the July 26 Movement. Returning with them to Cuba, he took a key role in the Cuban Revolution, leading a successful guerrilla war against Batista's forces, overthrowing him in 1959. Castro subsequently became Commander in Chief of the armed forces and shortly thereafter became Prime Minister. The United States was alarmed by his involvement in the overthrow of Batista and relationship with Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev, implementing an economic blockade of the island. U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower also ordered the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) to overthrow him, which they unsuccessfully tried through multiple assassination attempts and the failed Bay of Pigs invasion of 1961. To counter this threat, Castro forged an economic and military alliance with the Soviet Union and allowed them to place nuclear weapons on the island, leading to the events of the Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962.
Adopting Marxism-Leninism as his guiding ideology, in 1961 Castro proclaimed the socialist nature of the Cuban revolution, and in 1965 became First Secretary of the newly founded Communist Party, with all other parties being abolished. He then led the transformation of Cuba into a socialist republic, nationalizing industry, introducing free healthcare and education, and suppressing internal opposition. A keen internationalist, Castro introduced Cuban medical brigades who worked throughout the developing world, and aided foreign revolutionary socialist groups in the hope of toppling world capitalism, thereby involving Cuba in the Angolan Civil War and the Ogaden War between Ethiopia and Somalia. In 1976 he stepped down as Prime Minister to become President of both the Council of State and Council of Ministers. Following the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, Castro led Cuba into its economic "Special Period", before taking the country into the Bolivarian Alliance for the Americas in 2006 and forging alliances with other nations in the Latin American "Pink Tide". Amidst failing health, in 2006 Castro transferred his responsibilities to Vice-President Raúl Castro, who was then elected President when Fidel stepped down in 2008.
Castro is a controversial and highly divisive world figure, being lauded as a champion of anti-imperialism, humanitarianism, socialism and environmentalism by his supporters, but his critics have accused him of being a dictator whose authoritarian administration has overseen multiple human rights abuses both at home and abroad. A prolific author on various topics, he has had a significant influence on the politics of various individuals and groups across the world, including senior leaders like Nelson Mandela, Hugo Chávez and Evo Morales.
Early life[link]
Childhood and education: 1926–1945[link]
Fidel's father, Ángel Castro y Argiz (1875–1956) was a Spaniard born to a poor peasant family in rural Galicia, Northwest Spain. Working as a manual laborer on local farms, in 1895 he was conscripted into the Spanish Army to fight in the Cuban War of Independence against the Cuban revolutionaries who wished to secede from the Spanish Empire. Wishing to gain greater influence in the Caribbean, the United States subsequently declared war on Spain, leading to the Spanish-American War of 1898, in which the U.S. seized control of Cuba, setting up their own government on the island. In 1902, the Republic of Cuba was proclaimed, however it remained only partially independent of the U.S., which retained economic and political dominance over it. For a time, Cuba enjoyed economic growth, and Ángel Castro decided to migrate there permanently in search of employment.[3][4][5] Doing so, he undertook various jobs, eventually earning enough money to set up his own business growing sugar cane on a farm in Birán, near Mayarí in Oriente Province.[4][5][6]
Ángel took a wife, María Luisa Argota, with whom he had two daughters, but they separated after several years and he began a relationship with a household servant who was thirty years his junior.[7][8] This woman, Lina Ruz González (September 23, 1903 – August 6, 1963),[9] came from an impoverished Cuban family of Canarian descent, but became Ángel's domestic partner, bearing him three sons and four daughters.[7][10][11]
Fidel was Lina's third child, being born at his father's farm on August 13, 1926,[7][12][13] and was given his mother's surname of Ruz rather than his father's because he had been born out of wedlock, something that carried a particular social stigma at the time.[14][15] Although he was from a prosperous background, with his father's business proving ever more profitable, his father ensured that he grew up alongside the children of the farm's workforce, many of whom were Haitian economic migrants of African descent,[8][16] something that Fidel would later relate prevented him from absorbing "bourgeois culture" at an early age.[17] Aged six, Fidel, along with his elder siblings Ramón and Angela, was sent to live with their teacher in Santiago de Cuba, and it was here that the children dwelt in cramped conditions and in relative poverty, often failing to have enough to eat because of their tutor's poor economic situation.[18][19] Aged eight, Fidel was then baptized into the Roman Catholic Church, although later gave up his faith in Christianity, becoming an atheist.[18][20][21] Being baptized enabled Fidel to begin attending the La Salle boarding school in Santiago, but here he often got into trouble with the school authorities for misbehavior, and so he was instead sent to the privately-funded, Jesuit-run Dolores School in Santiago.[22][23]
In 1945 he transferred to the more prestigious Jesuit-run El Colegio de Belén in Havana.[24] Although Fidel took an interest in history and debating at Belén, he did not excel academically, instead devoting much of his time to playing sport, including swimming, mountain climbing, table tennis, athletics, basketball and baseball.[25][26] Meanwhile, Ángel Castro finally dissolved his first marriage when Fidel was fifteen, allowing him to marry Fidel's mother; Fidel was formally recognized by his father when he was seventeen, when his surname was legally changed from Ruz to Castro.[14][15]
University and early political activism: 1945–1947[link]
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Grau and Prío, two Cuban presidents whose administrations were marked by corruption, political repression and obedience to U.S. interests. Castro protested against both of them whilst a student.
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In late 1945, Castro began studying law at the University of Havana.[27][28][29] Here he became immediately embroiled in the student protest movement, which in Cuba at that time was particularly volatile: under the regimes of center-left Cuban Presidents Gerardo Machado (1925–1933), Fulgencio Batista (1933–1944) and Ramón Grau (1944–1948) there had been a government crackdown on student protesters, with student leaders being killed or terrorized by violent gangs.[30][31][32] This led to a form of gangsterismo culture within the university that was dominated by a variety of violent and often armed student groups who spent much of their time fighting one another and running criminal enterprises rather than opposing the government.[33][34] Becoming surrounded by this gang culture, Castro focused on political objectives, unsuccessfully campaigning for the position of President of the Federation of University Students (FEU). To do so he put forward a platform of "honesty, decency and justice" and emphasized his opposition to political corruption, something that he increasingly associated with the involvement of the U.S. government in Cuban politics.[35][36] He became passionate about anti-imperialism and opposing U.S. intervention in the Caribbean, joining the University Committee for the Independence of Puerto Rico and the Committee for Democracy in the Dominican Republic.[37]
He was in contact with members of several student leftist groups at the time, including the Popular Socialist Party (Partido Socialista Popular – PSP), the Socialist Revolutionary Movement (Movimiento Socialista Revolucionaria – MSR) and the Insurrectional Revolutionary Union (Unión Insurrecional Revolucionaria – UIR), although did not adopt the Marxist ideas of the former and mistrusted some of MSR's connections to the Grau government. Castro had become critical of the corruption and violence of Grau's regime, delivering a public speech on the subject in November 1946 that earned him a place on the front page of several newspapers. Instead, it was to the UIR that he grew closest to, although whether he ever became a member or not has remained unknown.[38][39] In 1947, Castro joined a newly founded socialist group, the Party of the Cuban People (Partido Ortodoxo), which had been formed by veteran politician Eduardo Chibás (1907–1951). A charismatic figure, Chibás attracted many Cubans with his message of social justice, honest government, and political freedom. The Partido Ortodoxo publicly exposed corruption and demanded governmental and social reform. Though Chibás lost the election, Castro, considering Chibás his mentor, remained committed to his cause, working fervently on his behalf.[40][41][42][43]
Meanwhile, the student gang violence had escalated after Grau employed several prominent gang leaders, including members of the MSR, as officers in the police force, and Castro soon received a threat urging him to either leave the university and its political arena or be killed. He did not give in to the threat, instead carrying a gun and surrounding himself with friends who were similarly armed.[44][45] Various accusations would arise in later years alleging that Castro carried out gang-related assassination attempts at this time, including of prominent UIR member Lionel Gómez, MSR leader Manolo Castro and university policeman Oscar Fernandez, but these are supported by "scant evidence" and remain unproven.[46][47][48]
Latin American rebellions: 1947–1948[link]
In June 1947, Castro learned of a planned international expedition to invade the Dominican Republic and overthrow its right-wing president, Rafael Trujillo, a military general widely seen as a dictator who had overseen a system of "repressive brutality" through the use of a violent secret police which routinely murdered and tortured opponents.[49] An ally of the United States, Trujillo angered many across the world when he ordered the Parsley Massacre that killed 20,000–30,000 impoverished Haitian migrants.[50] Castro had become a heavy critic of Trujillo's regime, rising to the presidency of the University Committee for Democracy in the Dominican Republic, and decided to join the military expedition, which was led by General Juan Rodríguez, a Dominican exile, and supported by Grau's Cuban government which feared Trujillo's militaristic behavior.[46][51][52] The invasion was carried out on July 29, 1947, by around 1,200 men, most of whom were exiled Dominicans or Cubans, although other volunteers came from across Latin America. However, both Dominican and U.S. intelligence had gained foreknowledge of the event, and it was soon quashed by the Dominican army and the Cuban government, who had been pressured by the U.S. to cease their support for it. Whilst Grau's government immediately arrested many of those involved, Castro managed to escape the police by jumping off of the naval frigate he was aboard and swimming to shore in the dark of night.[53][54]
"I joined the people; I grabbed a rifle in a police station that collapsed when it was rushed by a crowd. I witnessed the spectacle of a totally spontaneous revolution... [T]hat experience led me to identify myself even more with the cause of the people. My still incipient Marxist ideas had nothing to do with our conduct – it was a spontaneous reaction on our part, as young people with Martí-an, anti-imperialist, anti-colonialist and pro-democratic ideas."
—Fidel Castro on the Bogotazo, 2009.[55]
The botched mission only served to further Castro's opposition to the Grau administration, and returning to Havana, he took a leading role in the student protests that were centered against the killing of a high school pupil by government bodyguards.[56][57] The protests, accompanied by a U.S.-imposed crackdown on those considered to be communists, led to violent clashes between protesters and police in February 1948, in which Castro was badly beaten.[58] It was at this point that his public speeches took on a distinctively leftist slant, condemning the social and economic inequalities of Cuba under the Grau government, something that was in contrast to his former public criticisms, which had centered around condemning corruption and U.S. imperialism. Castro's biographer Leycester Coltman would later remark that "Castro was not yet expressing a Marxist viewpoint, but he was moving in that direction."[59]
After a quick visit to Venezuela and Panama, in April 1948 Castro traveled to the city of Bogotá in Colombia with a number of other Cuban students on a trip sponsored by the government of Argentine President Juan Perón, whose anti-imperialist politics impressed Castro. Once there, the assassination of popular leftist leader Jorge Eliécer Gaitán Ayala led to widespread rioting that came to be known as the Bogotazo. Leaving three thousand dead, the riots revolved around clashes between rightist Conservatives, who then controlled the country's government and who were backed by the army, and leftist Liberals who were supported by a number of Colombian socialist groups. Castro, along with his fellow Cuban visitors, joined in in support of the Liberal cause by stealing guns from a police station, but subsequent police investigations came to the conclusion that neither Castro nor any of the other Cubans had been involved in the killings.[60][61][62][63]
Marriage and Marxism: 1948–1950[link]
Returning to Cuba, Castro became a prominent figure in the widespread protests against the government's attempts to raise bus fares, with buses being the only form of transport available to most students and workers.[64][65] It was also in 1948 that Castro married Mirta Díaz Balart, a student from a wealthy Cuban family through whom he was exposed to the lifestyle of the Cuban elite. The relationship was a love match and was disapproved of by both of their families. Mirta's father gave them tens of thousands of dollars to spend in a three-month honeymoon in New York City, and the couple also received a U.S. $1,000 wedding gift from the military general and former president Fulgencio Batista, a friend of Mirta's family.[66][67][68] That same year, Grau decided not to stand for re-election, and his party instead nominated Carlos Prío Socarrás as their presidential candidate. Prío would go on to win the election, becoming President of Cuba.[69][70] However, he faced widespread protests when members of the MSR, which by this time was allied to the police force, assassinated Justo Fuentes, a "self-taught black man" and prominent member of the UIR who was a friend and ally of Castro's. In response, Prío agreed to try to quell the gangs, but found them to be too powerful to control.[71]
"Marxism taught me what society was. I was like a blindfolded man in a forest, who doesn't even know where north or south is. If you don't eventually come to truly understand the history of the class struggle, or at least have a clear idea that society is divided between the rich and the poor, and that some people subjugate and exploit other people, you're lost in a forest, not knowing anything."
—Fidel Castro on discovering Marxism, 2009.[72]
Castro had begun to move further to the left in his political views, being influenced by the writings of prominent Marxists like Karl Marx, Friedrich Engels and Vladimir Lenin. He came to interpret the problems facing Cuba as being an integral part of capitalist society, or the "dictatorship of the bourgeoisie", rather than the failings of corrupt politicians. Coming to believe the Marxist idea that meaningful political change could only be brought about by a revolution led by the working class, Castro set about visiting Havana's poorest neighborhoods, witnessing the nation's huge social and racial inequalities, and became active in the University Committee for the Struggle against Racial Discrimination.[73][74]
In September 1949, Mirta gave birth to a son, Fidelito, and so the couple moved to a larger flat in Havana.[73] Despite the need to care for his family, Castro continued to put himself at risk, staying active in the city's political arena and joining a new organization, the September 30 Movement, which contained within it both communists and members of the Partido Ortodoxo. The group's purpose was to oppose the influence of the violent gangs within the university; despite his promises, President Prío had failed to control the situation, instead offering many of their senior members jobs in government ministries.[75][76] Castro volunteered to deliver a speech for the Movement on November 13, in which he exposed the government's secret deals with the gangs and identified many of their key members. Attracting the attention of the national press, the speech angered the gangs, and Castro was forced to go into hiding, first in various rural areas and then in the U.S.[75] Returning to Havana several weeks later, Castro lay low and focused on his university studies, graduating from university as a Doctor of Law in September 1950.[74][75][77]
Career in law and politics: 1950–1952[link]
Now a Doctor of Law, Castro became a professional lawyer, founding his own legal partnership with two fellow leftist students, Jorge Azpiazu and Rafael Resende, whose intention was to focus on helping poor Cubans in asserting their rights. It was a financial failure, with its main client being a timber merchant who paid them in timber to furnish their office.[78][79] Castro cared little for money or material goods, something his wife found difficult, particularly when their furniture was reposessed and their electricity cut off, in both instances because Castro had failed to pay his bills.[80]
Castro remained active in politics, taking part in a high-school protest in Cienfuegos in November 1950 that involved students fighting a four-hour battle with police in protest at the Education Ministry's ban on the founding of student associations in schools. He was arrested and charged with using violence against police officers, but the magistrate later dismissed the charges.[81] He also became an active member of the Cuban Peace Committee, a part of the international campaign led by British intellectual Betrand Russell to oppose western involvement in the Korean War.[81] His hopes for Cuba still largely centered around Eduardo Chibás and his left wing Partido Ortodoxo; however Chibás had made a mistake when he accused Education Minister Aureliano Sánchez of purchasing a Guatemalan ranch with misappropriated funds, but was unable to substantiate his allegations. The government used this as an opportunity to go on the offensive against Chibás, accusing him of being a liar and a troublemaker. In 1951, while running for president again, Chibás shot himself in the stomach during a radio broadcast in an attempt to issue a "last wake-up call" to the Cuban people. Castro was present and accompanied him to the hospital where he died of his injuries.[82][83][84][85]
Although his political views were further left than the Partido Ortodoxo, Castro believed that those parties on the far left, namely the PSP, were too unpopular to achieve a revolutionary leftist movement in Cuba, and for this reason remained in the Ortodoxo. Seeing himself as the heir to Chibás, Castro wanted to run for Congress in the June 1952 elections, but senior party members feared his radical reputation and refused to nominate him. Instead he gained the support of enough Ortodoxo members in Havana's poorest districts to be nominated as a candidate for the House of Representatives, and put all his energies into campaigning.[86][87] It was at the time that Castro held a meeting with General Fulgencio Batista, the former president who had recently returned to politics by winning a seat in the Senate and founding the Unitary Action Party; although they both opposed the Prío administration, their meeting never got beyond "polite generalities" with no indication that they would later become bitter enemies.[86]
The Ortodoxo had gained a considerable level of support, and there was a "fair chance that the Ortodoxos and Castro would both have succeeded in the election."[88] However, this was quashed in March 1952 when General Batista seized power in a military coup, removing the widely discredited President Prío from office, who then fled to Mexico. Subsequently declaring himself president, Batista cancelled the planned presidential elections, describing his new system as "disciplined democracy": Castro, like many others, instead saw it as the establishment of a one-man dictatorship with no benefit to the Cuban populace.[82][89][90] Although in his earlier democratic terms as president Batista had taken a center-left stance, he now moved to the right and went on to solidify his ties with the United States, severing diplomatic relations with the Soviet Union, suppressing trade unions and persecuting socialist groups in Cuba.[82][91] Intent on opposing the Batista administration, Castro brought several legal cases against them, arguing that Batista had committed sufficient criminal acts to warrant at least 100 years imprisonment and accusing various ministers of breaching labor laws. These came to nothing, leading Castro to begin thinking of alternative ways to oust the new government.[92]
Cuban Revolution[link]
Main article: Cuban Revolution
The Movement and the Moncada Barracks attack: 1952–1953[link]
"In a few hours you will be victorious or defeated, but regardless of the outcome – listen well, friends – this Movement will triumph. If you win tomorrow, the aspirations of Martí will be fulfilled sooner. If we fail, our action will nevertheless set an example for the Cuban people, and from the people will arise fresh new men willing to die for Cuba. They will pick up our banner and move forward... The people will back us in Oriente and in the whole island. As in '68 and '92, here in Oriente we will give the first cry of Liberty or Death!"
—Fidel Castro's speech to the Movement just before the Moncada Attack, 1953.[93]
Dissatisfied with the Ortodoxo's policy of non-violent opposition to Batista's regime, Castro formed a group known simply as "The Movement". Consisting of both a civil and a military committee, the former conducted political agitation through an underground newspaper, El Acusador (The Accuser), while the latter armed and trained recruits to take violent action against Batista. With Castro as the Movement's head, the organization was based upon a clandestine cell system, with each cell containing ten members, none of whom knew the whereabouts or activities of the other cells.[94][95] A dozen individuals formed the nucleus of the movement, many of whom were also dissatisfied Ortodoxo members, although from July 1952 the Movement went on a recruitment drive, and within a year it had around 1,200 members, organized into over a hundred cells, with the majority of members coming from the poorer districts of Havana.[96][97][98] Although Castro's political ideology was that of revolutionary socialism, he avoided an alliance with the communist PSP, fearing that this would frighten away the political moderates who were members of the Movement,[99] but did keep in contact with some of the PSP's members, who included his brother and fellow conspirator Raúl.[100] He would later relate that the members of the Movement were on the whole simply anti-Batista, and few had strong socialist or anti-imperialist views, something which Castro attributed to "the overwhelming weight of the Yankees' ideological and advertising machinery" which he felt had suppressed class consciousness amongst Cuba's working class.[98]
Castro's Movement was not the only militant group that wanted to oust Batista. One of the Orthodoxo's founding members, the Professor of Philosophy Rafael García Bárcena, had founded the National Revolutionary Movement (Movimiento Nacional Revolucionaria – MNR). Consisting largely of middle-class members, it contrasted with Castro's predominantly working class support base. In March 1953, the MNR had planned to attack and seize control of the barracks at Camp Colombia, but police had been alerted to the plot, with the conspirators being rounded up and tortured. In all, fourteen people were sentenced to imprisonment for the attack.[101][102][103] Meanwhile, Castro had been having similar ideas, stockpiling weapons in order to lead the armed wing of the Movement in an attack on the Moncada Barracks, a military garrison just outside Santiago de Cuba in Oriente. The plan was for Castro's members to dress in army uniforms and arrive at the base in cars on July 25, the festival of St James, when many of the officers would be on leave or celebrating in the nearby town. The rebels would then seize control of the barracks before the alarm could be raised, raid the armory and then escape before the army could bring in reinforcements.[104] Supplied with a wealth of new weaponry, Castro believed that the Movement could arm local supporters and spark a revolution in Oriente, which was dominated by a population of impoverished cane-cutters. The plan was to then seize control of a radio station in Santiago, from which the Movement could broadcast their manifesto and promote widespread uprisings against Batista.[105] In doing so, Castro's plan was directly emulating those of the 19th century Cuban independence fighters who had raided Spanish barracks, and in keeping with this Castro saw himself as the heir to independence leader and national hero José Martí, both leading national liberation struggles against foreign dominance.[106][107]
Castro had gathered together 165 members of the Movement to take part in the mission, 138 of which were stationed in Santiago, with the other 27 instead positioned in Bayamo. The majority of them were young men from Havana and Pinar del Río, and Castro ensured that, with the exception of himself, none of the volunteers had children.[108] The plan had been carefully orchestrated, and Castro ordered his troops not to cause bloodshed unless they met armed resistance.[109] The attack took place on July 26, 1953, but before it had even begun it ran into trouble; of the sixteen cars that had set out from Santiago, one broke down on the way and two others got separated from the main convoy. When they eventually reached the barracks, further problems arose and soon the alarm was raised by the guards, with most of the rebels being pinned down outside of the base by machine gun fire. Those that managed to get inside faced heavy resistance, and four of them were killed by gunfire before Castro, realizing that he was heavily outnumbered, ordered his men to retreat.[110][111] In the attack, the rebels had suffered 6 fatalities and 15 other casualties, whilst the government forces had faced a heavier toll, with 19 dead and 27 wounded.[112] Meanwhile, some of the other rebels had taken over a civilian hospital, but as the main attack on the barracks failed, government soldiers stormed the hospital, rounding up the rebels, before torturing them for information and finally summarily executing 22 of them without trial.[112] Those rebels that had been able to escape, and who included both Fidel and his brother Raúl, had assembled at their base, the Siboney Farm, where some debated surrender, while others wished to flee to Havana. Accompanied by 19 comrades, Castro however decided to set out for the rugged Gran Piedra mountains several miles to the north, where they could establish a guerrilla base and continue their revolutionary activities.[113][114][115]
In response to the Moncada attack, Batista's government ordered a violent crackdown on all dissent (orchestrated by both the army and the SIM police), declaring martial law and imposing strict censorship on the media. Government propaganda began broadcasting misinformation about the event, claiming that the rebels had murdered patients in the civilian hospital and asserting that the Movement was a communist group financed by the exiled President Prío (ignoring the fact that the latter was a fierce anti-communist). Despite this censorship, news and photographs soon spread of the army's use of torture and summary executions in Oriente, causing widespread public and even some governmental disapproval.[116][117]
Arrest and trial: 1953[link]
"I warn you, I am just beginning! If there is in your hearts a vestige of love for your country, love for humanity, love for justice, listen carefully... I know that the regime will try to suppress the truth by all possible means; I know that there will be a conspiracy to bury me in oblivion. But my voice will not be stifled – it will rise from my breast even when I feel most alone, and my heart will give it all the fire that callous cowards deny it... Condemn me. It does not matter. History will absolve me."
—Fidel Castro in "History Will Absolve Me", 1953.[118]
Over the next few days all of the rebels hiding in the mountains were rounded up by government forces and transported to a prison north of Santiago, although Castro was not executed on the spot as many of his comrades had been.[119][120] Believing that Castro had been incapable of planning the attack by himself, the government accused politicians from the Ortodoxo and communist PSP of being involved in masterminding the attack, and in all 122 defendants, amongst them Castro, were put on trial on September 21 at the Palace of Justice in Santiago.[121][122] Although censored from reporting on it, journalists were permitted to attend the proceedings, which proved an embarrassment for the Batista administration. Acting as his own defense council, Castro convinced the three presiding judges to overrule the army's decision to keep all defendants handcuffed in court, before proceeding to argue that the charge with which they were all accused – of 'organizing an uprising of armed persons against the Constitutional Powers of the State' – was incorrect, for they had risen up not against the Constitutional Powers of the State but against Batista, who had seized power in an unconstitutional manner. When asked who was the intellectual author of the attack, Castro claimed that it was the long deceased national icon José Martí, before quoting some of Martí's works that justified uprisings against tyrannical regimes.[123][124]
As the trial went on, knowledge of the torture that army officers inflicted on their captives emerged. These included castration using a razor and the gouging out of eyes with bayonets; the judges agreed that full investigations into these crimes would have to be undertaken. These revelations proved to be a great embarrassment to the army, who tried unsuccessfully to prevent Castro from testifying any further by claiming that he was too ill to leave his cell.[125] The trial came to an end on October 5, with all of the politicians and many of the rebels being acquitted, although 55 were sentenced to prison terms of between 7 months and 13 years. Castro was sentenced separately, on October 16, during which he proceeded to deliver a speech that would later be printed under the title of History Will Absolve Me.[126][127] Although the maximum penalty for leading an uprising was a 20 year prison sentence, Castro was sentenced to 15 years, being imprisoned in the hospital wing of the Model Prison (Presidio Modelo) on the Isla de Pinos, sixty miles off of Cuba's southwest coast.[127][128]
Imprisonment and the July 26 Movement: 1953–1955[link]
"I would honestly love to revolutionize this country from one end to the other! I am sure this would bring happiness to the Cuban people. I would not be stopped by the hatred and ill will of a few thousand people, including some of my relatives, half the people I know, two-thirds of my fellow professionals, and four-fifths of my ex-schoolmates."
Imprisoned in the Presidio Modelo with 25 of his fellow conspirators, Castro devoted himself to politics once more, changing the name of "The Movement" to the "July 26 Movement", in memory of the date of the failed Moncada attack. Forming a school for prisoners, the Abel Santamaría Ideological Academy, Castro organized five hours a day of teaching, with himself and other Movement members lecturing on such subjects as ancient and modern history, philosophy and the English language.[131][132] Making use of the prison library and gifts from friends outside of prison, he continued reading widely, enjoying the works of Marx, Lenin, and Martí but also reading books by Sigmund Freud, Immanuel Kant, William Shakespeare, Axel Munthe, Somerset Maugham and Fyodor Dostoyevsky, analyzing most of them within a Marxist framework.[133][134] He corresponded with those outside of prison, trying to maintain control over his Movement without giving too much away to the prison censors, who read all of his letters, and also organized the publication of his History Will Absolve Me speech.[135][136] Although at first having a fair amount of freedom within the prison, this came to an end after prison inmates embarrassed the guards by singing anti-Batista songs on a visit by the President in February 1954. In retaliation, the prison authorities removed most of the privileges that Castro and other prisoners were allowed, locking Castro up in solitary confinement indefinitely.[137][138]
Meanwhile, Castro's wife Mirta, who did not share his obsession with political activism, had gained employment in the Ministry of the Interior, thereby working for Batista's government. She had been encouraged to do by her brother, who had been a friend and ally of Batista for many years. This was kept a secret from Castro, who eventually found out through a radio announcement. Appalled, he raged that he would rather die "a thousand times" than "suffer impotently from such an insult". Both Fidel and Mirta initiated divorce proceedings, with Mirta taking custody of their son Fidelito; this angered Castro, who did not want his son growing up in a bourgeois environment.[139][140]
In 1954, Batista's government went ahead with their earlier promises and held presidential elections, but no politician had risked standing against Batista lest they face violent reprisals. Batista won comfortably, but the election was widely recognized as fraudulent. It had however allowed some political opposition to be openly voiced, and supporters of Castro and his Movement had begun agitating for an amnesty for all those imprisoned over the Moncada incident. Some government politicians suggested that such an amnesty would provide good publicity, and the Congress and Batista eventually agreed. Backed by the U.S. government and major corporations, Batista believed that Castro would be no political threat to his regime, and on May 15, 1955 the prisoners were released.[141][142]
Returning to Havana, Castro was met by his supporters, being carried along on the shoulders of students, and set about giving various radio interviews and press conferences.[143][144] Now divorced, Castro had sexual affairs with two of his female supporters, Naty Revuelta and Maria Laborde, who each conceived him a child.[143][145] He also set about to strengthen his anti-Batista revolutionary Movement, welcoming members of the now defunct MNR into it, and establishing an eleven-person National Directorate of the 26 July Revolutionary Movement (or MR-26-7). Despite these structural changes, there was still dissent within the group, with some members questioning Castro's autocratic leadership. Castro dismissed their proposals for the leadership to be transferred to a democratic board, arguing that a successful revolution could not be run by a committee. Some of them subsequently abandoned the MR-26-7, labeling Castro a caudillo (dictator), although the majority accepted his reasoning and remained loyal.[146][147]
Mexico and guerrilla training: 1955–1956[link]
In 1955, a series of bomb attacks and violent demonstrations against Batista's administration led to a crackdown on dissent in Cuba, with Castro being placed under armed guard by his supporters as protection from possible assassination attempts. His brother Raúl was accused of one bomb attack and fled the county, with Fidel deciding to follow on July 7. Those members of the MR-26-7 that remained in Cuba were left with orders to prepare cells for revolutionary action in all of the country's main towns and cities, and await Castro's return, when he would bring with him an army to topple Batista.[149][150] He sent a letter to the country's political leaders and the press, declaring that he was "leaving Cuba because all doors of peaceful struggle have been closed to me. Six weeks after being released from prison I am convinced more than ever of the dictatorship's intention, masked in many ways, to remain in power for twenty years, ruling as now by the use of terror and crime and ignoring the patience of the Cuban people, which has its limits. As a follower of Martí, I believe the hour has come to take our rights and not beg for them, to fight instead of pleading for them."[151]
The Castro brothers and a number of other MR-26-7 members traveled to Mexico, a country with a long history of offering asylum to left-wing exiles.[152][153] Raúl had befriended one such exile, an Argentine doctor and Marxist-Leninist named Ernesto "Che" Guevara (1928–1967), who was a proponent of guerrilla warfare and who was keen to join the Cuban Revolution as a part of his deeply held belief in overthrowing U.S. imperialism in Latin America. Upon meeting Guevara, Fidel took a liking to him, later describing him as being "a more advanced revolutionary than I was."[154][155][156] Another socialist revolutionary whom Castro began associating with was the Cuban-born Spaniard Colonel Alberto Bayo (1892–1967), who had fought for the leftist Republican side in the Spanish Civil War during the 1930s, before being exiled upon the victory of the fascist General Francisco Franco and his Falange. Bayo agreed to teach Fidel's rebels the skills in guerrilla warfare that they would need if they were to return to Cuba to battle Batista, clandestinely meeting them at various premises.[157][158][159]
In desperate need of money to finance his activities, Castro went on a tour of the United States in search of wealthy sympathizers, including the exiled former President Prío (who contributed the considerable sum of $100,000), during which time he was monitored by agents of Batista's government who at one point allegedly orchestrated a failed plot to kill him. These agents also bribed Mexican police to arrest Castro and other MR-26-7 members in the country, but ultimately the revolutionaries were all released, particularly as several members of the Mexican government sympathized with their cause.[160][161] Castro had also kept in contact with the MR-26-7 agents who had remained in Cuba, where they had succeeded in getting a large clandestine support base in several towns in Oriente.[157][162] Other militant groups had also sprung up to oppose Batista within the country, primarily from the ranks of the student movement; most notable of these was the Revolutionary Directorate (DR), which had been founded by the Federation of University Students (FEU) President José Antonio Echevarría. Antonio traveled to Mexico City to meet with Castro, but the two disagreed widely on tactics, with Castro opposing with the young student's policy of supporting indiscriminate assassinations of anyone in the government.[163][164]
Purchasing a decrepit old yacht, the Granma, it was on the 25 November 1956 that Castro set sail from Tuxpan in Veracruz, Mexico with a group of 81 revolutionaries, armed with 90 rifles, 3 machine guns, around 40 pistols and 2 hand-held anti-tank guns.[165][166][167] The 1,200 mile crossing to Cuba was harsh, and in the overcrowded conditions of the ship (which was designed to hold around 20 passengers), many of the men suffered from seasickness, and food supplies began to run low. At some points they had to bail water caused by a leak, and at another a man fell overboard, delaying their journey.[168][169] The plan had been for the journey to take five days, and on the Granma's scheduled day of arrival, 30 November, members of the MR-26-7 in Cuba under the leadership of Frank Pais led an armed uprising against government buildings in Santiago, Manzanillo and several other towns.[168][170] However, the crossing in the Granma ultimately lasted for seven days, and with Castro and his men unable to provide immediate back-up, Pais and those MR-26-7 members under his leadership dispersed to their homes after two days of intermittent attacks, having "suffered very few casualties and arrests".[168]
Guerrilla war in the Sierra Maestra: 1956–1958[link]
File:Pico Torquino in the Sierra Maestra, Cuba's highest mountain, 1974 meters.jpg
The thickly forested mountain range of the Sierra Maestra, from where Castro and his revolutionaries led guerrilla attacks against Batista's forces for two years.
The Granma landed in Cuba on 2 December 1956, crashing in a mangrove swamp at Playa Las Coloradas, close to Los Cayuelos. Batista's forces had been expecting them, and within several hours of their arrival they were bombarded from a naval vessel. Fleeing inland, they headed for the Sierra Maestra in Oriente, a large forested mountain range from where they could lead a guerrilla war against Batista.[171][172] At daybreak on 5 December they were unexpectedly attacked by a detachment of Batista's Rural Guard; in the confusion, the rebels scattering into different groups which continued making their journey to the Sierra Maestra independently.[173][174] With only two comrades, Castro made it to the mountains, along the way meeting up with others who had survived the attack; ultimately it was discovered that of the 82 rebels who had arrived on the Granma, only 19 had made it to the Sierra Maestra, the rest being killed or captured by Batista's forces.[175][176]
Setting up an encampment in the thick jungle of the Sierra Maestra, the survivors, who included Fidel Castro, Che Guevara, Raúl Castro and Camilo Cienfuegos,[177] began launching attacks on small army posts in the region in order to steal weaponry. In January 1957 they attacked the outpost near to the beach at La Plata, defeating the soldiers stationed there. Being a doctor, Guevara treated the soldiers for any injuries, but the revolutionaries executed the local mayoral (land company overseer) Chicho Osorio, who was despised by the local peasants and who had boasted of killing one of the MR-26-7 rebels several weeks previously.[178] The execution of Osorio aided the rebels in gaining the trust of local people, who typically hated the mayorals as enforcers of the much-despised wealthy landowners. Nonetheless, the locals were initially unenthusiastic in their support for the guerrillas, viewing them with suspicion as outsiders.[179][180] As trust grew between the two communities, some locals joined the rebels, although the majority of new recruits came from urban areas, traveling to the Sierra Maestra in order to aid the revolutionary effort.[181][182] With rising levels of support and increasing number of volunteers joining the rebel army, which now numbered over 200, in July 1957 Castro eventually divided his men into three columns, keeping charge of one and giving control of the others to his brother and Che Guevara.[183] The MR-26-7 members operating in urban areas continued agitating against the government, sending supplies to the Sierra Maestra rebels and on 16 February 1957 Castro met with other leading members of the group to discuss tactics; it was here that he met Celia Sánchez, who would become a close friend.[181][184]
"The story of our beards is very simple: it arose out of the difficult conditions we were living and fighting under as guerrillas. We didn't have any razor blades... everybody just let their beards and hair grow, and that turned into a kind of badge of identity. For the campesinos and everybody else, for the press, for the reporters we were "los barbudos" - the bearded ones. It had its positive side: in order for a spy to infiltrate us, he had to start preparing months ahead of time - he'd have had to have six-months' growth of beard, you see... Later, with the triumph of the Revolution, we kept our beards to preserve the symbolism."
—Fidel Castro on his iconic beard, 2009.[185]
The Cuban Revolution was not contained to the MR-26-7, and across Cuba militant groups were beginning to rise up against Batista. Most notably, Antonio and his DR had been carrying out bombings and acts of sabotage, leading the police to respond with mass arrests, the torture of suspects and extra-judicial killings. In March 1957 the DR launched an attack on the presidential palace, with Batista himself narrowly surviving. The rebels were eventually defeated, and Antonio was shot dead by police in the street as he attempted to issue a radio broadcast. His death would prove beneficial for Castro, removing a charismatic rival to his leadership of the anti-Batista movement.[186][187] Although already a Marxist-Leninist, Castro kept his beliefs a secret from many of the MR-26-7, something in contrast to Guevara and Raúl, whose beliefs were well known. In this way he hoped to gain a wider support base amongst those of other political persuasions, and in 1957 he met with leading members of the Partido Ortodoxo. Castro and the Ortodoxo leaders Raúl Chibás and Felipe Pazos drafted and signed a document called the Sierra Maestra Manifesto in which they laid out their plans for a post-Batista Cuba. Rejecting the idea that Cuba should be run by a provisional military junta following Batista's demise, it demanded that a provisional civilian government be set up that was "supported by all" and which would implement moderate agrarian reform, industrialization and a campaign to wipe out illiteracy before introducing "truly fair, democratic, impartial, elections". It also insisted on both press freedom and free elections within Cuba's trade unions.[188][189][190]
Batista's government censored the Cuban media, and so Castro felt it would be beneficial to reach out and contact foreign media sources in order to spread his message. A U.S. journalist from the The New York Times named Herbert Matthews came to interview Castro, attracting international interest to the rebel's cause and turning him into a celebrity. The New York Times front page story presented Castro as a romantic and appealing revolutionary, and exaggerated the number of troops and resources that he had at his command, with Matthews declaring that "Batista cannot possibly hope to suppress the Castro revolt".[191][192][193][194] Soon, other reporters followed in Matthews' footsteps by traveling to the Sierra Maestra to interview Castro, sent by such news agencies as CBS,[195] while a reporter from Paris Match stayed with the rebels for around 4 months, documenting their daily routine.[196] The number of attacks that Castro's guerrilla's undertook against military outposts in and around the mountains increased, forcing the government to withdraw from all its posts in the region.[183][197] By the spring of 1958 the rebels controlled all of the mountainous areas in Oriente province, controlling a hospital, schools, a printing press, slaughterhouse, land-mine factory and a cigar-making factory.[198]
Countering Operation Verano: 1958[link]
President Batista was coming under increasing pressure by 1958. His army's military failures in Oriente, coupled with his censorship of the media and the repressive techniques of torture and extra-judicial killings employed by the police and armed forces were being increasingly criticized both at home and abroad. Influenced by a wave of anti-Batista sentiment amongst their citizens, the U.S. government made the decision to stop supplying him with weaponry, which he had been using against the rebels, leading him to instead begin buying arms from the United Kingdom.[199] The opposition used this as an opportunity to rise up across the country, proposing a general strike which would be accompanied by armed attacks from the MR-26-7. The strike began on 9 April, and while receiving strong support in the center and east of Cuba, in Havana and other urbanized western parts of the country most workers continued working as usual.[200][201]
"When I saw the [U.S. supplied] rockets being fired at Mario's house, I swore to myself that the Americans would pay dearly for what they are doing. When this war is over a much wider and bigger war will begin for me: the war that I am going to wage against them. I know that this is my real destiny."
Batista's response was to launch an all-out-attack on Castro's guerrilla forces, known as Operation Verano. The army began aerial bombardment of forested areas and villages that were suspected of aiding and hiding the militants, whilst 10,000 soldiers under the command of General Eulogio Cantillo surrounded the Sierra Maestra, driving north to the areas where the rebels were camped. Despite their massive superiority of numbers and weaponry, the army were at a disadvantage, having no experience with guerrilla warfare or the mountainous region. Castro, who by this time had around 300 men at his command, avoided open confrontation, instead using land mines and ambushes to halt the enemy offensive.[204] The army suffered heavy losses and a number of embarrassments; in June 1958 a battalion was trapped in a valley by the rebels and forced to surrender. Their weapons were confiscated, and they were handed over to the Red Cross.[205] Many of Batista's soldiers, appalled at the human rights abuses that they were being ordered to carry out, defected to Castro's rebel force, who also benefited from "overwhelming" popular support in those areas that they captured.[206]
In the summer, the MR-26-7 went on the offensive, pushing the government forces back, out of the mountain range and into the lowlands, with Castro using his columns in a pincer movement to surround the main army concentration in Santiago. By November, Castro's forces had most of Oriente and Las Villas under his control, and although the capitals of Santiago and Santa Clara remained in government hands, their grip on them was slipping. Through control of Las Villas, the rebels had been able to divide the country in two by closing the major roads and rail lines, severely disadvantaging Batista's forces.[207][208]
Batista's fall and Cantillo's military junta: 1958–1959[link]
The U.S. government had come to realize that Batista would probably lose the war, and fearing that Castro, under the influence of known Marxist-Leninists like Che Guevara, would displace U.S. interests with socialist reforms, they decided to support Batista's removal in support of a military junta led by centrist or right wing officers, believing that General Cantillo, who then commanded most of the country's armed forces, would be best placed to lead it. After being approached with this proposal, Cantillo decided to secretly meet with Castro to see if they could bring an end to the fighting, and ultimately it was agreed that the two would call a ceasefire, following which Batista would be apprehended and tried as a war criminal.[210][211] Double crossing Castro, Cantillo warned Batista of the revolutionary's intentions. Wishing to avoid a war crimes tribunal, Batista resigned on 31 December 1958, informing the armed forces that they were now under Cantillo's control. With his family and closest advisers, Batista then fled into exile, taking with him an amassed fortune of more than US$ 300,000,000.[212][211] The following morning Cantillo entered the Presidential Palace in Havana, proclaimed the Supreme Court judge Carlos Piedra to be the new President, and began appointing new members of the government.[212]
Still in Oriente, Castro was furious at Cantillo's actions, recognizing it as the establishment of a military junta. He told his troops to end the ceasefire and continue on the offensive against government forces.[212][213] The MR-26-7 put together a plan to oust the Cantillo-Piedra junta, freeing the high ranking military officer Colonel Barquin from the Isle of Pines prison (where he had been held captive for plotting to overthrow Batista), and commanding him to fly to Havana to place Cantillo under house arrest.[212][213] While there was widespread celebrations as news of Batista's downfall spread across Cuba on 1 January 1959, Castro gave an order to MR-26-7 members to take on the responsibility of policing the country, in order to prevent the widespread looting and vandalism that he had witnessed in the Bogotazo.[214][215]
Whilst Cienfuegos and Guevara led their columns of soldiers into Havana onto 2 January, Castro entered Santiago, where he accepted the surrender of the Moncada Barracks, before giving a speech to the assembled crowds in which he invoked the 19th century wars of independence against the Spanish Empire. He proceeded to speak out against the Cantillo-Piedra junta but highlighted that the majority of soldiers in the armed forces were honorable, and that only the few who had committed human rights abuses would be brought to justice. He also praised the role that women had played in the MR-26-7, and proclaimed that they would have equal rights in the new Cuba.[216] Along the way he also met with the mother of the dead revolutionary, José Antonio Echevarría.[217] Castro immediately became a heroic figure to the Cuban people, striking a "Christ-like figure" and wearing a medallion of the Virgin Mary, with cheering crowds meeting him at every town on his way to Havana. Along the way he gave speeches, press conferences and interviews, with U.S. and other foreign reporters noting that the public adulation of Castro was on an unprecedented scale.[218][219][220]
Provisional government: 1959[link]
In the Sierra Maestra, Castro had made his opinion clear that the lawyer Manuel Urrutia Lleó (1901–1981) should become the new Cuban president and leader of a provisional civilian government following Batista's fall. A political moderate, Urrutia had defended several MR-26-7 revolutionaries in court during the Batista administration, and had argued that the attack on the Moncada Barracks was legal according to the Cuban constitution. For this reason Castro believed that Urrutia would make a good leader, being both established yet sympathetic to the revolutionary cause. Following the house arrest of Cantillo and the ensuing collapse of the junta, Urrutia was proclaimed to be Cuba's provisional president, with Castro erroneously announcing that he had been selected for the position by "popular election".[221][222] On January 8, 1959, Castro's army rolled victoriously into Havana, and he would shortly thereafter declare that "power does not interest me, and I will not take it."[223] Proclaiming himself to be the Representative of the Rebel Armed Forces of the Presidency,[224] Castro, along with a number of close aides and family members, set up both home and office in the penthouse of the Havana Hilton Hotel, there meeting with journalists, foreign visitors and government ministers.[225][224]
While he officially had no role within the provisional civilian government, in reality Castro exercised a great deal of political control, largely because of his overwhelming popularity with the Cuban populace and his control of the rebel armed forces. He ensured that the government implemented a number of policies designed to cut corruption and fight illiteracy, but did not initially force through any radical proposals. Attempting to rid Cuba's government of Batistanos and their corruption, the Congress that had been elected under Batista was abolished, and all those elected in the rigged elections of 1954 and 1958 were banned from political life. With the government now ruling by decree, Castro ordered a temporary ban on all political parties, but repeatedly claimed that the government would get around to organizing multiparty elections, which ultimately it never did.[226][227] He began secretly meeting with leading members of the banned communist Popular Socialist Party, believing that they had the intellectual capacity to form a socialist government where the MR-26-7 did not.[228][229] He nonetheless kept his true political persuasions a secret from the public eye, and repeatedly denied being a communist.[230]
"We are not executing innocent people or political opponents. We are executing murderers and they deserve it."
In trying to suppress the revolution, Batista's government had orchestrated mass human rights abuses, with estimates putting the death toll in the region of 20,000, and now popular uproar across Cuba demanded that those figures who had been complicit in the widespread torture and killing of civilians be brought to justice. Although he remained a moderating force and tried to prevent the mass reprisal killings of Batistanos advocated by many Cubans, Castro helped to set-up trials of many figures involved in the old regime across the country, resulting in hundreds of executions. Critics, in particular from the U.S. press, argued that many of these did not meet the standards of a fair trial, and condemned Cuba's new government as being more interested in vengeance than justice. Castro retaliated strongly against such accusations, proclaiming that "revolutionary justice is not based on legal precepts, but on moral conviction". In a show of support for this "revolutionary justice", he organized the first Havana trial to take place before a mass audience of 17,000 at the Sports Palace stadium; when a group of aviators accused of bombing a village were found not guilty, he ordered a retrial in which they were instead found guilty and sentenced to life imprisonment.[233][234]
Widely acclaimed as a hero across Latin America, he soon traveled to Venezuela to attend the first anniversary celebrations of the overthrow of the former right wing president, Marcos Pérez Jiménez. Meeting President-elect Rómulo Betancourt, Castro proposed greater relations between the two nations, unsuccessfully requesting a loan of $300,000,000 and a new deal to obtain Venezuelan oil.[235] Returning home, an argument between Castro and senior government figures broke out when the government banned the National Lottery and closed down the casinos and brothels that had flourished under Batista's regime. While agreeing that gambling and prostitution should be eradicated, Castro was furious with the manner in which this law had been passed, leaving thousands of Cuban waiters, croupiers and prostitutes unemployed, usually with no other skills to fall back on. As a result of the argument, Prime Minister José Miró Cardona resigned, going into exile in the U.S. and eventually involving himself in the militant anti-Castro movement.[236][237]
Premiership[link]
Consolidating leadership: 1959[link]
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Castro in Washington, D.C., arriving at the MATS Terminal (left) and visiting the Lincoln Memorial (right). | |
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Castro in Washington, D.C., arriving at the MATS Terminal (left) and visiting the Lincoln Memorial (right).
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On February 16, 1959, Castro took the vacancy left by Miró, being sworn in as Prime Minister of Cuba. Initially proclaiming his reluctance in taking the role, he agreed to accept it on the condition that the Prime Minister's powers be increased, in part to the detriment of the President.[238][239] One of his first acts as Prime Minister was to travel to the United States between 15 and 26 April, accompanied by a delegation of industrial and diplomatic representatives. Castro hired one of the country's best public relations firms for a charm offensive, appearing as a "man of the people" by answering impertinent questions jokingly and eating hot dogs and hamburgers. The U.S. President, Dwight D. Eisenhower of the Republican Party, avoided meeting with Castro, who instead met with Vice President Richard Nixon, a man Castro took an instant dislike to.[240][241][242] Rather than returning straight to Cuba, Castro traveled to Canada, Trinidad, Brazil, Uruguay and Argentina, attending an economic conference in Buenos Aires, where he unsuccessfully proposed that the U.S. fund a "Marshall Plan" for Latin America.[243][244]
Castro took a great interest in rural life, and appointed himself to the presidency of the newly created National Institute of Agrarian Reform (INRA). On 17 May 1959, Castro signed into law the First Agrarian Reform, which limited landholdings to 993 acres (4.02 km2) per owner and forbade further foreign land ownership. As a result, all of the large land-holdings were broken up, and the land redistributed to the peasants who worked it; an estimated 200,000 peasants received title deeds as a result of its implementation. To Castro, this was an important progressive step, breaking the control of the wealthy landowning class over Cuba's agriculture; it proved popular among the working class, but also alienated many in the middle classes who had previously supported Castro.[245][246][247] In March 1959, Castro ordered that rents for those who paid less than $100 a month should be cut in half, with measures implemented to increase the Cuban people's purchasing powers, although productivity decreased and the country's financial reserves were drained within two years.[248]
Although at the time he refused to categorize his regime as socialist, Castro appointed known Marxists to senior positions throughout Cuban society. He controversially appointed Che Guevara, an Argentinian with no training in economics, to the position of Governor of the Central Bank and then Minister of Industries, while Marxists took control of most of the country's trade unions. Castro appointed Marxists to senior positions in the armed forces, leading to a backlash from various high ranking anti-communist officers; the commander of the Air Force, Díaz Lanz, soon defected to the United States, calling for the U.S. government to do something before a Marxist regime took over in Cuba.[249][250] These defections were denounced by President Manuel Urrutia Lleó, but he too publicly expressed concern with the rising influence of Marxism. This angered Castro, who publicly announced that he was resigning from his position as Prime Minister because Urrutia "complicated" government, arguing that the president's "fevered anti-Communism" was having a detrimental effect. Castro's sentiments received widespread support as organized crowds of over half a million Castro-supporters surrounded the Presidential Palace demanding Urrutia's resignation, which was duly received. On July 23, Castro resumed his position as Prime Minister and appointed the Marxist Osvaldo Dorticós to be the new President.[251][252]
"Until Castro, the U.S. was so overwhelmingly influential in Cuba that the American ambassador was the second most important man, sometimes even more important than the Cuban president."
—Earl T. Smith, former American Ambassador to Cuba, during 1960 testimony to the U.S. Senate.[253]
Castro made use of radio and the newly developed technology of television to communicate with the Cuban populace, developing what he called a "dialogue with the people", during which he would pose questions and make intentionally provocative statements.[254] Such tactics proved successful, and Castro's regime remained highly popular with workers, peasants and students, all of whom had benefited from its policies.[255] Nonetheless, opposition continued to grow, particularly within the Cuban middle classes, with thousands of educated doctors, engineers and other professionals emigrating to Florida in the U.S., causing a brain drain on the island's economy.[256][257] Militant anti-Castro groups sprung up, undertaking armed attacks against government forces, with some setting up guerrilla bases in Cuba's mountainous regions. They were funded and armed by various foreign sources, including the exiled Cuban community, the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), and the Dominican government of General Rafael Trujillo.[256] Castro's government began a crackdown on this opposition movement, labeling it counter-revolutionary, and arresting hundreds of dissidents.[255][258][259] Although it rejected the methods of physical torture which had been employed by Batista's regime, Castro's government sanctioned the use of psychological torture, subjecting some prisoners to solitary confinement, rough treatment, hunger and threatening behavior.[260] After conservative editors and journalists began expressing hostility towards the government following its leftward turn, the pro-Castro printers' trade union began to harass and disrupt editorial staff. In January 1960 the government proclaimed that each newspaper would be obliged to publish a "clarification" written by the printers' union to the end of any articles which were critical of the government. This would prove to be the start of press censorship in Castro's Cuba.[261][262]
Soviet support and U.S. opposition: 1960[link]
At the start of the 1960s, the Cold War was raging between the Earth's two great superpowers, the United States, a liberal democracy with a capitalist economy, and the Soviet Union, a Marxist-Leninist one-party state with a socialist economy. Castro had long expressed contempt for the U.S. government and their support of Batista's regime, as well as their imperialist and exploitative attitude towards Cuba, while he shared the ideological views of the Soviet government. Castro subsequently met with a Soviet KGB agent operating in Havana, and discussed the possibility of initiating a trading relationship with the Soviet Union (USSR). Meeting with Soviet First Deputy Premier Anastas Mikoyan, Castro agreed to provide the USSR with sugar in return for crude oil, fertilizers and industrial goods.[263][264] Relations were also established with other Marxist-Leninist governments, such as the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, the People's Republic of Poland and the People's Republic of China.[265]
The Cuban government ordered the country's refineries (then controlled by the U.S. corporations Shell, Esso and Standard Oil) to process this Soviet oil, but under pressure from the U.S. government, they refused. Castro responded by expropriating the refineries and nationalizing them under state control. In retaliation, the U.S. cancelled its import of Cuban sugar, provoking Castro to nationalize most U.S.-owned assets on the island, including banks and sugar mills.[266][267] Relations between Cuba and the U.S. were further strained following the explosion and sinking of a French vessel, the Le Coubre, in Havana harbor in March 1960. Carrying weapons purchased from Belgium, the cause of the explosion was never determined, but Castro publicly accused the U.S. government of sabotage.[268][269] Secretly, on 17 March 1960, President Eisenhower authorized the CIA to covertly overthrow Castro's government, permitting them to ally with the Mafia criminal organization in doing so; the Mafia despised Castro for closing down their casinos and other businesses in Cuba.[270][265] In October 1960, the U.S. government then prohibited most exports to Cuba, marking the start of an economic embargo that would devastate the island's economy for decades to come.[271]
In September 1960, Castro flew to New York City for the General Assembly of the United Nations. Taking offense at the attitude of the elite Shelburne Hotel, he and his entourage instead stayed at the cheap, run-down Hotel Theresa in the impoverished area of Harlem. Here, he met with a number of journalists as well as anti-establishment figures like the African-American leader Malcolm X. At the hotel he was also visited by the Soviet Premier, Nikita Khruschev, and the two leaders used the occasion as a press opportunity to highlight the poverty faced by many U.S. citizens in areas like Harlem; Castro would later describe New York as a "city of persecution" in reference to the treatment of working class and African-Americans by the establishment. Relations between Castro and Khrushchev were warm, with the two leading the applause to one another's speeches at the General Assembly. Although Castro still publicly denied being a Marxist or even a socialist, Khrushchev would privately inform his entourage that the Cuban would become "a beacon of Socialism in Latin America."[272][273] During the trip, Castro was also visited by two other senior world leaders, the socialists President Gamal Abdel Nasser of Egypt and President Jawaharlal Nehru of India.[274]
Returning to Cuba, Castro feared that the U.S. would attempt to overthrow his government, and so purchased tanks and other weaponry from the Soviets.[275] In September 1960, he created the Committees for the Defense of the Revolution, a nationwide organization of civilian groups who implemented neighborhood spying in an effort to weed out "counter-revolutionary" activities and who could back up the regular army in the case of invasion. Eventually, 80% of the Cuban population would be involved in these Committees.[275] Health care was socialised.[276]
The Bay of Pigs Invasion: 1961[link]
By January 1961, the U.S. Embassy in Havana had 300 staff, of whom 80% were believed by Castro to be spies. He ordered the Embassy to reduce its size to match that of the Cuban Embassy in Washington D.C. The U.S. response was to cut off all diplomatic relations with Cuba, with the CIA increasing its support for militant dissidents in exile. Such dissident groups began attacking ships trading with Cuba, and organized raiding parties to destroy Cuban factories and sugar mills in an attempt to disrupt the island's economy.[277] Under the Eisenhower administration, the CIA had organized a plan to invade Cuba using exiled Cuban dissidents as soldiers, thereby avoiding an international condemnation that would have arisen if they used U.S. troops. Following the election of Democratic Party nominee John F. Kennedy as U.S. President in 1961, the CIA gained his support for continuing with the plan, which would result in the Bay of Pigs Invasion of April 1961. Brigade 2506, made up of around 1,400 Cuban dissidents, divided into five infantry and one paratrooper battalions, had assembled in Guatemala, a U.S. ally, before being transported to another pro-U.S. state, Nicaragua, from which they set off aboard seven ships toward Cuba on 13 April. On 15 April, eight CIA-supplied B-26 bombers took off from Nicaragua and bombed three Cuban military airfields, damaging runways and fighter planes, as well as killing 7 and injuring 52. The U.S. government immediately proclaimed that the bombers had belonged to Cuba's air force and had been commandeered by dissidents who wanted to defect to the U.S.; in retaliation, Castro publicly went on state television to denounce their claims, providing evidence to expose their misinformation.[278]
Castro feared that the bombing was a prelude to an invasion, putting the armed forces on maximum alert and ordering the arrest of anyone suspected of having counter-revolutionary sympathies. This constituted at least 20,000 people, who were detained in prisons, theaters and sport centres. At the funerals of the dead airmen on 16 April, he publicly proclaimed that "What the imperialists cannot forgive us, is that we have made a Socialist revolution under their noses." This was his first ever declaration that the Cuban revolutionary movement was socialist in character, and he proceeded to declare that his movement was "a revolution of the humble, with the humble, for the humble, democratic and Socialist."[279]
At night, the invasion fleet landed in Cuba largely undetected along the narrow inlet known as the Bay of Pigs. A local revolutionary militia opened fire on the invaders, but was forced back by heavy fire from the landing craft. Castro had not expected this to be their landing site, and as a result it was a poorly defended stretch of coast. He ordered Captain José Ramón Fernández to launch an immediate counter-offensive, and ordered the country's small air force to destroy the Brigade 2506's ships which contained weapons, food and medical supplies for the dissidents. Eventually taking direct command of the operation, Castro oversaw the counter-offensive, bringing in reinforcements and tanks to use against the rebel army. President Kennedy was unwilling to directly intervene with U.S. military support, and so on 20 April 1189 men of the Brigade 2506 surrendered to the Cuban army.[280]
"Havana gleefully noted the wealth of the captured invaders: 100 plantation owners, 67 landlords of apartment houses, 35 factory owners, 112 businessmen, 179 lived off unearned income, and 194 ex-soldiers of Batista."
Celebrating his victory, Castro ordered that the rebels be interrogated on live television by a panel of journalists. He himself took over the questioning on 25 April, walking in among them with a microphone and asking them why they had taken part in the invasion. 14 of them were then put on trial for crimes that they allegedly committed before the revolution, while all of the others were returned to the U.S. in exchange for medicine and food valued at around U.S. $25 million.[280] Castro's victory was a powerful symbol for his supporters, both at home and across Latin America, but also served to increase some internal opposition, particularly among the thousands of primarily middle-class Cubans who had been detained in the run-up to the invasion. Although most were freed within a few days, many decided to flee Castro's Cuba for Florida.[282]
Embracing Socialism: 1961–1962[link]
Following the Bay of Pigs Invasion, on May Day 1961, Castro officially declared the Cuban government to be socialist.[283] He founded a new political organization, the ORI, under which he united the MR-26-7, the Communists and the Revolutionary Directorate.[284] The Soviet government were hesitant over Cuba's open embrace of socialism, fearing U.S. retaliation, but relations between the two nations deepened, with Castro supporting the USSR during the Sino-Soviet Split and sending his son Fidelito to be schooled in Moscow.[284] In December 1961, Castro officially proclaimed himself to be a Marxist-Leninist, and in his subsequent Second Declaration of Havana called on the peoples of Latin America to rise up in violent revolution against their governments.[285] In response, the U.S.-dominated Organization of American States expelled Cuba, while the Soviet government privately reprimanded Castro for being reckless, believing that other Latin American governments would now crack down on communists, ultimately hindering the cause of socialism.[285]
Castro's government brought in measures to shape society using the Soviet model, persecuting both political opponents and perceived social deviants such as prostitutes and homosexuals. Castro expressed the opinion that homosexuality was a bourgeois decadence absent from working class rural areas, proclaiming that "in the country, there are no homosexuals".[286] Members of his government spoke out against the treatment of gay people, noting the support of homosexual intellectuals in the Cuban Revolution, and ultimately Castro agreed that while they would be prevented from involvement in education, they would not be punished.[287] Nevertheless, many homosexuals were rounded up by police and forced into a manual labor organization for criminals, the Military Units for the Support of Production (UMAP).[288] Decades later, Castro expressed deep regret for these actions, taking full responsibility and calling them "moments of great injustice, great injustice!".[289]
"The revolution has no time for elections. There is no more democratic government in Latin America than the revolutionary government. ... If Mr. Kennedy does not like Socialism, we do not like imperialism. We do not like capitalism"
Castro, 1961.[290]
By 1962, the Cuban economy was in steep decline, a result of poor economic management coupled with the interference and trade embargo of the U.S. government. There were major food shortages, and the government introduced rationing, with a riot breaking out in Cárdenas.[288] Security reports indicated that the Cuban people were increasingly associating the governing communists with austerity, shortages and persecution, and so in March 1962 Castro removed the most prominent "Old Communists" from office, labeling them too "sectarian".[291] On a personal level, Castro was feeling increasingly lonely and isolated in his position as Prime Minister, and relations with his old friend Che Guevara became strained as the latter became increasingly anti-Soviet, instead favoring the Chinese Marxist-Leninist government of Mao Zedong in the Sino-Soviet Split.[292]
The Cuban Missile Crisis: 1962[link]
Main article: Cuban Missile Crisis
Soviet Premier Khrushchev believed that the USSR was vulnerable to attack from the U.S. and its NATO allies, who were both militarily superior and who had nuclear weapons in Western Europe and Turkey, within striking distance of the USSR. He developed a plan to alter the balance of power by placing Soviet nuclear missiles on Cuba, from where they could target the U.S.[293] Khrushchev approached Castro with this idea, and while the Cuban leader felt conflicted, he ultimately agreed, believing that it would guarantee Soviet protection of Cuba and enhance the power of the socialist camp.[294] In July 1962, Raúl Castro traveled to Moscow to work out the specifics.[295]
The operation was undertaken in strict secrecy, with only the Castro brothers, Guevara, President Dorticós and security chief Ramiro Valdés knowing the full picture.[295] It was agreed to deploy Soviet R-12 MRBMs on Cuban soil, all of which had the capacity to fire nuclear warheads at all of the U.S.' major cities. However, American Lockheed U-2 reconnaissance discovered the construction of the missile installations on October 15, 1962 before the weapons had actually been deployed. The U.S. government viewed the installation of Soviet nuclear weapons 90 miles (145 km) south of Key West as an aggressive act and a threat to U.S. security. As a result, the U.S. publicly announced its discovery on October 22, 1962, and implemented a quarantine around Cuba that would actively intercept and search any vessels heading for the island. Castro hit back at Kennedy, insisting that Cuba had a right to defend itself from foreign aggression.[296]
Castro privately urged Khrushchev to heighten tensions by threatening a nuclear strike on the U.S. should Cuba be attacked, but Khrushchev was desperate to avoid nuclear war.[297][298] Negotiations took place between Kennedy and Khrushchev, with Castro having no involvement. Ultimately, Khrushchev agreed to remove the missiles in exchange for a U.S. commitment not to invade Cuba and an understanding that the US would secretly remove American MRBMs targeting the Soviet Union from Turkey and Italy, a measure that the U.S. implemented a few months later.[299] After learning of the deal, Castro was furious, believing that Khrushchev had betrayed him and given in to U.S. demands.[300] Depressed, he lost his appetite and became ill.[301]
Furthering Socialism: 1963–1970[link]
In February 1963, Castro received a personal letter from Khrushchev, in which the Soviet Premier had emotionally set out his reasons for coming to an agreement with the U.S. government and in which he invited Castro to come and visit the USSR. Deeply touched by the letter, Castro set aside his resentment and traveled to the country in April, ultimately staying for five weeks. Visiting 14 cities, he gave speeches and met with locals, addressing a rally in Red Square and watching the May Day parade from the wall of the Kremlin. During his visit, he was also awarded the Order of Lenin, becoming the first foreigner to do so.[302] Despite the Soviet government's misgivings, Castro continued to call for armed revolution across the capitalist world, providing funding and support for various militant leftist groups. He supported Guevara's plan for the "Andean project", an unsuccessful plan to set up a guerrilla movement in the highlands of Bolivia, Peru and Argentina, and allowed revolutionary groups from across the world, from the Viet Cong of Vietnam to the Black Panthers of the US, to train in Cuba.[303] In particular, he thought that Sub-Saharan Africa, much of which was dominated by western powers, was rife for revolutionary change, and in 1965 authorized Guevara to travel to Congo Kinshasa in order to train militant revolutionaries.[304]
"The greatest threat presented by Castro's Cuba is as an example to other Latin American states which are beset by poverty, corruption, feudalism, and plutocratic exploitation ... his influence in Latin America might be overwhelming and irresistible if, with Soviet help, he could establish in Cuba a Communist utopia."
Domestically, Castro agreed to allow anyone wishing to leave Cuba – with the exception of males aged between 15 and 26 – to do so. This helped rid the government of many of its opponents, but thousands took up the government's offer, many more than Castro had wanted.[306] In October 1965, the government officially changed its name to the Cuban Communist Party, and published the membership of its Central Committee.[306] In 1966 he staged the first Tri-Continental Conference of Africa, Asia and Latin America in Havana, further establishing himself as a significant player on the world stage despite the small and dependent nature of Cuba's economy.[307] Castro himself suffered personal tragedy when his friend Guevara was killed by CIA-backed troops in Bolivia in October 1967, publicly attributing it to Che's disregard for his own safety in the revolutionary cause.[308]
In 1968, Castro proclaimed a Great Revolutionary Offensive in Cuba, influenced by the Great Leap Forward in China. As a part of this, any remaining privately-owned shops and businesses were shut down, with Castro denouncing their owners as capitalist counter-revolutionaries.[309] On August 23, 1968, Castro made a public gesture to the USSR that caused the Soviet leadership to reaffirm their support for him. Two days after the Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia to repress the Prague Spring, Castro took to the airwaves and publicly denounced the Czech rebellion. Castro warned the Cuban people about the Czechoslovakian "counterrevolutionaries", who "were moving Czechoslovakia towards capitalism and into the arms of imperialists". He called the leaders of the rebellion "the agents of West Germany and fascist reactionary rabble."[310][311]
In January 1969, Castro publicly celebrated the tenth anniversary of his administration in Revolution Square, but used the occasion to ask the assembled crowds if they would tolerate greater sugar rations, reflecting the economic problems facing the country.[309] The majority of the country's sugar crop was being sent to the Soviet Union to maintain Cuba's trade quota, but the 1969 crop was heavily damaged by a hurricane. As a result, the government postponed the Christmas and New Year holidays of 1969/1970 so that the harvest could continue with detailed monthly targets being set for every mill, while the military were drafted in to aid in the agricultural effort.[312] Ultimately, the country failed to achieve that year's production quota for sugar. Castro publicly proclaimed it to be a worse set-back for the Revolution than the failed Moncada Barracks Attack, and offered to resign, but assembled crowds denounced the idea, cheering their support for Castro.[313] Despite the country's economic problems, Castro remained hugely popular in Cuba, whose population were largely supportive of the "Achievements of the Revolution" in education, medical care and road construction, as well as the government's policy of "direct democracy".[313]
Economic stagnation and Third World politics: 1970–1974[link]
In May 1970, Alpha 66, a militant Cuban dissident group based in Florida, sank two Cuban fishing boats and captured their crews, demanding the release of Alpha 66 members imprisoned in Cuba. Under U.S. government pressure, the hostages were released, with Castro welcoming them back as heroes.[313] In April 1971, Castro gained international condemnation after ordering the arrest of Herberto Padilla, a Cuban poet who had won an international prize but whose views were critical of the government. Padilla fell ill, with Castro visiting him in hospital; soon after, the poet publicly confessed his guilt and was released. Soon, the government formed the National Cultural Council through which it ensured that intellectuals and artists produced work that supported their administration.[314]
In 1971, Castro made his first foreign visit since 1964, this time to Chile, where the Marxist President Salvador Allende (1908–1973) had just been elected as the head of a left-wing coalition. Implementing socialist reforms by nationalizing industry, Allende gained Castro's support, and Castro spent 23 days touring the country, giving speeches and press conferences, talking to both admiring socialists and right wing opponents. He was however cautious of the Chilean military, which remained staunchly right wing and anti-socialist and advised Allende to purge such opponents from the armed forces before they led a coup. Castro was proven right. In 1973, the military, backed by the U.S. government, led a coup d'etat against Allende's government, banning elections and establishing a military junta led by Commander-in-Chief Augusto Pinochet. Castro considered it a tragedy, but was unsurprised.[315]
Following his trip to Chile, Castro traveled to West Africa to meet with Sékou Touré (1922–1984), the President of Guinea. A socialist and nationalist, Touré had much in common with Castro, and they forged an alliance; the Cuban even told a crowd of Guineans that theirs was the greatest leader in Africa.[316] From Guinea he went on a seven-week tour visiting various other leftist allies in Africa and Eurasia: Algeria, Bulgaria, Hungary, Poland, East Germany, Czechoslovakia and the then Soviet Union. On every trip he seemed eager to travel among the people by visiting factories and farms, and chatted and joked with those whom he met. Although publicly highly supportive of these governments, in private he urged them to do more to aid revolutionary socialist movements in other parts of the world, and in particular in Vietnam, where the Vietnam War was then raging between the Soviet-backed communists and U.S.-backed capitalists.[317] In September 1973 he returned to Algiers to attend the Fourth Summit of the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM). Various members of the NAM were critical of Castro's attendance, claiming that Cuba was aligned to the USSR and the Eastern Bloc and therefore should not be at the conference, particularly as he praised the Soviet Union in his speech and asserted that it was not imperialistic in nature.[318]
In 1974, Castro broke off relations with the Israeli government over both their treatment of Palestinian civilians during the Israel-Palestine conflict and their increasingly close relationship with the United States. This earned him respect from leaders throughout the Arab world. In particular he was praised by Muammar Gaddafi (1942–2011), the socialist president of the Libyan Arab Republic, with Castro and Gaddafi becoming friends and allies.[319] That year, Cuba also experienced an economic boost, due primarily to the high international price of sugar, but also influenced by new trade credits with Canada, Argentina, and various countries in Western Europe.[320] With such economic growth, the Cuban government decided to call the first National Congress of the Cuban Communist Party. It adopted a new constitution based upon the Soviet model, which abolished both the position of President and Prime Minister.[321]
Presidency[link]
Foreign wars and NAM Presidency: 1975–1979[link]
On November 4, 1975, Castro ordered the deployment of Cuban troops to Angola, southern Africa, to aid the Marxist MPLA-ruled government against the South African-backed UNITA opposition forces in the Angolan Civil War. Altogether, 15,000 Cuban troops had been stationed in the country by January 1976, and played a major part in defeating UNITA and the invading South African military.[322] Considering Africa to be "the weakest link in the imperialist chain", Castro celebrated the Angolan victory with Angolan President Agostinho Neto, Guinean President Sékou Touré and Guinea-Bissaun President Luís Cabral, together agreeing to support the government of Mozambique from the threat of white supremacist Rhodesia.[323] Heading north in February, Castro visited his allies in Algeria and then Libya, where he spent ten days in the company of friend and ally President Muammar Gadaffi. Moving on to talks with the Marxist government of South Yemen, he then traveled to Somalia, Tanzania, Mozambique and Angolan, being greeted by crowds as a hero for Cuba's role in opposing the apartheid government of South Africa.[324]
In 1977, the Ogaden War broke out between Somalia and Ethiopia as the government of the former, headed by pro-Soviet President Siad Barre, decided to annex the Ethiopian region of Ogaden to create Greater Somalia. In his earlier talks with Barre, Castro had advised him not to take such action, and as war broke out, Castro sided with the Ethiopians, whose Marxist President Mengistu Haile Mariam of the Workers' Party of Ethiopia appealed to fellow Marxist governments for help. Like the Soviet Union, Castro complied, sending troops under the command of General Arnaldo Ochoa to aid the overwhelmed Ethiopian army.[325] In addition, Castro extended support to Marxist revolutionary movements throughout Latin America, such as aiding the Sandinista National Liberation Front in overthrowing the government of right-wing president Anastasio Somoza Debayle in Nicaragua, leading to their victory in July 1979.[326] It has been claimed by the anti-Castro Carthage Foundation-funded Center for a Free Cuba that an estimated 14,000 Cubans were killed in Cuban military actions abroad.[327][328][329]
"There is often talk of human rights, but it is also necessary to talk of the rights of humanity. Why should some people walk barefoot, so that others can travel in luxurious cars? Why should some live for thirty-five years, so that others can live for seventy years? Why should some be miserably poor, so that others can be hugely rich? I speak on behalf of the children in the world who do not have a piece of bread. I speak on the behalf of the sick who have no medicine, of those whose rights to life and human dignity have been denied."
Castro's message at the UN General Assembly, 1979.[325]
In 1979, the Conference of the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) was held in Havana, while that year Castro was selected as the president of the NAM, a position that he would hold till 1982. In his capacity as both President of the NAM and of Cuba he appeared at the United Nations General Assembly in October 1979, giving a speech on the disparity between the world's rich and poor. His speech was greeted with much applause from other world leaders, although American anti-communist protesters demonstrated against him outside the building.[325] Relations between Cuba and other North American states improved, with the Mexican President Luis Echeverría reiterating ties between the two countries in the face of U.S. domination and the Canadian Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau even proclaiming "Viva Castro!".[330] Relations with the U.S. also improved following the election of Democratic Party candidate Jimmy Carter in 1977. Carter continued to criticize the human rights abuses of Castro's government, but took a more respectful approach which gained Castro's attention. Believing Carter to be well meaning and sincere, Castro freed certain political prisoners and allowed some Cuban exiles to visit relatives on the island, hoping that in turn Carter would abolish the U.S. economic embargo and halt the CIA's support for militant dissident groups.[331]
Reagan and Gorbachev: 1980–1989[link]
By the start of the 1980s, the Cuban economy was again in trouble, following a decline in the price of sugar on the open market and a decimated harvest following 1979's bad weather and plant infestations.[332] Increasing numbers of Cubans began hijacking boats and fleeing toward Florida, enticed by the wealth and consumer goods of the U.S., leading Castro to call them traitorous "scum".[333] In one incident, 10,000 Cubans eager to leave had stormed the Peruvian Embassy requesting asylum, embarrassing both the Peruvians and Cubans. The U.S. agreed that it would accept 3,500 Cubans, and so an angry Castro agreed that those who wanted to leave could do so from the port of Mariel. Hundreds of boats arrived from the U.S., leading to a mass exodus of 120,000; Castro's government took advantage of the situation by unloading criminals and the mentally ill onto the boats destined for Florida.[334]
In 1980, the Republican Party nominee Ronald Reagan was elected to the U.S. Presidency, pursuing a hard line approach against Castro,[335] and by 1981, Castro was accusing the U.S. of undertaking biological warfare against Cuba.[335] Although he despised the right wing military junta in Argentina, Castro supported them in the 1982 Falklands War against the British, whom he viewed as an imperialist aggressor, even offering military aid to the Argentinians, although British forces had won the war before this ever materialized.[336] Castro had also been supportive of the leftist New Jewel Movement that had seized power in Grenada in 1979, sending in doctors, teachers, and technicians to aid the country's development, and befriending the Grenadine Marxist president, Maurice Bishop. When Bishop was murdered by members of his own government in October 1983, Castro cautiously continued supporting the Grenadine government, which remained Marxist. However, the U.S. and six Caribbean nations opposed the coup as a basis for invading the island and overthrowing the government; those Cuban soldiers who fought alongside their Grenadian comrades were killed. Castro denounced the invasion and compared the U.S. to Nazi Germany, with condemnation also coming from the Soviet Union and the U.N. General Assembly.[337] Fearing a U.S. invasion of Nicaragua, Castro sent General Ochoa to help train the Sandinistas, particularly in the tactics of guerrilla warfare, but received little support from the Soviet Union.[338]
The Cuban government were desperate for money to boost the economy and fund its internationalist ambitions, in doing so turning to almost any economic transaction, however un-socialist. They began secretly selling off paintings from the national collections on the international market and illicitly traded to obtain U.S. electronic goods through Panama.[339] Castro became passionate in his denunciation of the Third World debt problem, arguing that the Third World would never escape the debt that the First World banks and governments had imposed upon it. In 1985 alone Havana hosted five international conferences on the world debt problem.[339]
In October 1985, Castro gave up regularly smoking Cuban cigars on medical advice, helping to set an example for the rest of the populace.[340]
Cuba's "Special Period": 1990–2000[link]
When Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev visited Cuba in 1989, the camaraderie between Havana and Moscow was strained by Gorbachev's implementation of economic and political reforms in the USSR. "We are witnessing sad things in other socialist countries, very sad things", lamented Castro in November 1989, in reference to the changes that were sweeping such communist allies as the Soviet Union, East Germany, Hungary, and Poland.[341] The subsequent dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 had an immediate and devastating effect on Cuba.
José María Aznar, former Spanish Prime Minister, wrote that the embargo was Castro's greatest ally, and that Castro would lose his presidency within three months if the embargo was lifted.[342] Castro retained control after Cuba became bankrupt and isolated following the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991. The synergistic contraction of Cuban economy resulted in eighty-five percent of its markets disappearing, along with subsidies and trade agreements that had supported it, causing extended gas and water outages, severe power shortages, and dwindling food supplies.[343] In 1994, the island's economy plunged into what was called the "Special Period"; teetering on the brink of collapse. Cuba legalized the US dollar, turned to tourism, and encouraged the transfer of remittances in US dollars from Cubans living in the USA to their relatives on the Island. After massive damage caused by Hurricane Michelle in 2001, Castro proposed a one-time cash purchase of food from the U.S. while declining a U.S. offer of humanitarian aid.[344]
The U.S. authorized the shipment of food in 2001, the first since the embargo was imposed.[345] During 2004, Castro shut down 118 factories, including steel plants, sugar mills and paper processors to compensate for the crisis due to fuel shortages,[346] and in 2005 directed thousands of Cuban doctors to Venezuela in exchange for oil imports.[347]
Cuba and the Pink Tide: 2001–2008[link]
"As I have said before, the ever more sophisticated weapons piling up in the arsenals of the wealthiest and the mightiest can kill the illiterate, the ill, the poor and the hungry, but they cannot kill ignorance, illness, poverty or hunger."— Fidel Castro, 2002[348]
Cuba and Panama restored diplomatic ties in 2005 after breaking them off a year prior when Panama's former president pardoned four Cuban exiles accused of attempting to assassinate Cuban President Fidel Castro in 2000. The foreign minister of each country re-established official diplomatic relations in Havana by signing a document describing a spirit of fraternity that has long linked both nations.[349] Cuba, once shunned by many of its Latin American neighbors, now has full diplomatic relations with all but Costa Rica and El Salvador.[349]
Although the relationship between Cuba and Mexico remains strained, each side appears to make attempts to improve it. In 1998, Fidel Castro apologized for remarks he made about Mickey Mouse which led Mexico to recall its ambassador from Havana. He said he intended no offense when he said earlier that Mexican children would find it easier to name Disney characters than to recount key figures in Mexican history. Rather, he said, his words were meant to underscore the cultural dominance of the US.[350] Mexican president Vicente Fox apologized to Fidel Castro in 2002 over statements by Castro, who had taped their telephone conversation, to the effect that Fox forced him to leave a United Nations summit in Mexico so that he would not be in the presence of President Bush, who also attended.[351]
At a summit meeting of sixteen Caribbean countries in 1998, Castro called for regional unity, saying that only strengthened cooperation between Caribbean countries would prevent their domination by rich nations in a global economy.[352] Caribbean nations have embraced Cuba's Fidel Castro while accusing the US of breaking trade promises. Castro, until recently a regional outcast, has been increasing grants and scholarships to the Caribbean countries, while US aid has dropped 25% over the past five years.[353] Cuba has opened four additional embassies in the Caribbean Community including: Antigua and Barbuda, Dominica, Suriname, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines. This development makes Cuba the only country to have embassies in all independent countries of the Caribbean Community.[354]
Castro was known to be a friend of former Canadian Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau and was an honorary pall bearer at Trudeau's funeral in October 2000. They had continued their friendship after Trudeau left office until his death. Canada became one of the first American allies openly to trade with Cuba. Cuba still has a good relationship with Canada. In 1998, Canadian Prime Minister Jean Chrétien arrived in Cuba to meet President Castro and highlight their close ties. He is the first Canadian government leader to visit the island since Pierre Trudeau was in Havana in 1976.[355]
The European Union accuses the Castro regime of "continuing flagrant violation of human rights and fundamental freedoms".[356] In December 2001, European Union representatives described their political dialogue with Cuba as back on track after a weekend of talks in Havana. The EU praised Cuba's willingness to discuss questions of human rights. Cuba is the only Latin American country without an economic co-operation agreement with the EU. However, trade with individual European countries remains strong since the US trade embargo on Cuba leaves the market free from American rivals.[357]
In 2005, EU Development Commissioner Louis Michel ended his visit to Cuba optimistic that relations with the communist state will become stronger. The EU is Cuba's largest trading partner. Cuba's imprisonment of 75 dissidents and the execution of three hijackers have strained diplomatic relations. However, the EU commissioner was impressed with Fidel Castro's willingness to discuss these concerns, although he received no commitments from Castro. Cuba does not admit to holding political prisoners, seeing them rather as mercenaries in the pay of the United States.[358]
Castro is seen as an icon by leaders of recent socialist governments in Latin America. Hugo Chávez of Venezuela is a long-time admirer and reached agreements with Cuba to provide subsidized petroleum in exchange for Cuban medical assistance. Evo Morales of Bolivia has described him as "the grandfather of all Latin American revolutionaries".[359]
Speculation on illness: 1998–2005[link]
Due to the issue of presidential succession and Castro's longevity, there have long been rumors, speculation and hoaxing about Castro's health and demise. In 1998 there were reports that he had a serious brain disease, later discredited.[360] In June 2001, he apparently fainted during a seven-hour speech under the Caribbean sun.[361] Later that day he finished the speech, walking buoyantly into the television studios in his military fatigues, joking with journalists.[362]
In January 2004, Luis Eduardo Garzón, the mayor of Bogotá, said that Castro "seemed very sick to me" following a meeting with him during a vacation in Cuba.[363] In May 2004, Castro's physician denied that his health was failing, and speculated that he would live to be 140 years old. Dr. Eugenio Selman Housein said that the "press is always speculating about something, that he had a heart attack once, that he had cancer, some neurological problem", but maintained that Castro was in good health.[364]
On October 20, 2004, Castro tripped and fell following a speech he gave at a rally, breaking his kneecap and fracturing his right arm.[365] He was able to recover his ability to walk and publicly demonstrated this two months later.[366]
In 2005, the CIA said it thought Castro had Parkinson's disease.[367][368] Castro denied such allegations, while also citing the example of Pope John Paul II in saying that he would not fear the disease.[369]
Transfer of duties, speculation on illness 2006–2007[link]
On July 31, 2006, Castro delegated his duties as President of the Council of state, President of the Council of Ministers, First Secretary of the Cuban Communist Party and the post of commander in chief of the armed forces to his brother Raúl Castro. This transfer of duties was described at the time as temporary while Fidel recovered from surgery he underwent due to an "acute intestinal crisis with sustained bleeding".[370] Fidel Castro was too ill to attend the nationwide commemoration of the 50th anniversary of the Granma boat landing on December 2, 2006, which also became his belated 80th birthday celebrations. Castro's non-appearance fueled reports that he had terminal pancreatic cancer and was refusing treatment,[371] but on December 17, 2006 Cuban officials stated that Castro had no terminal illness and would eventually return to his public duties.[372]
However, on December 24, 2006, Spanish newspaper El Periódico de Catalunya reported that Spanish surgeon José Luis García Sabrido had been flown to Cuba on a plane chartered by the Cuban government. Dr. García Sabrido is an intestinal expert who further specializes in the treatment of cancer. The plane that Dr. García Sabrido traveled in also was reported to be carrying a large quantity of advanced medical equipment.[373][374] On December 26, 2006, shortly after returning to Madrid, Dr. García Sabrido held a news conference in which he answered questions about Castro's health. He stated that "He does not have cancer, he has a problem with his digestive system", and added, "His condition is stable. He is recovering from a very serious operation. It is not planned that he will undergo another operation for the moment."[375] Although most Cubans acknowledge that they are aware Castro is seriously ill, most also seem worried about a future without Castro.[376]
On January 16, 2007, the Spanish newspaper, El País, citing two unnamed sources from the Gregorio Marañón hospital —who employs Dr. García Sabrido— in Madrid, reported Castro was in "very grave" condition, having trouble wound healing, after three failed operations and complications from an intestinal infection caused by a severe case of diverticulitis. However, Dr. García Sabrido told CNN that he was not the source of the report and that "any statement that doesn't come directly from [Castro's] medical team is without foundation."[377] Also, a Cuban diplomat in Madrid said the reports were lies and declined to comment, while White House press secretary Tony Snow said the report appeared to be "just sort of a roundup of previous health reports. We've got nothing new."[378][379][380] On January 30, 2007, Cuban television and the paper Juventud Rebelde showed fresh video and photos from a meeting between Castro and Hugo Chávez said to have taken place the previous day.[381][382]
In mid-February 2007, it was reported by the Associated Press that Acting President Raúl Castro had said that Fidel Castro's health was improving and he was taking part in all important issues facing the government. "He's consulted on the most important questions", Raúl Castro said of Fidel. "He doesn't interfere, but he knows about everything."[383] On February 27, 2007, Reuters reported that Fidel Castro had called into Aló Presidente, a live radio talk show hosted by Hugo Chávez, and chatted with him for thirty minutes during which time he sounded "much healthier and more lucid" than he had on any of the audio and video tapes released since his surgery in July. Castro reportedly told Chávez, "I am gaining ground. I feel I have more energy, more strength, more time to study", adding with a chuckle, "I have become a student again." Later in the conversation, he made reference to the fall of the world stock markets that had occurred earlier in the day and remarked that it was proof of his contention that the world capitalist system is in crisis.[384][385]
Reports of improvements in his condition continued to circulate throughout March and early April. On April 13, 2007, Chávez was quoted by the Associated Press as saying that Castro has "almost totally recovered" from his illness. That same day, Cuban Foreign Minister Felipe Roque confirmed during a press conference in Vietnam that Castro had improved steadily and had resumed some of his leadership responsibilities.[386] On April 21, 2007, the official newspaper Granma reported that Castro had met for over an hour with Wu Guanzheng, a member of the Politburo of the Chinese Communist Party who was visiting Havana. Photographs of their meeting showed the Cuban president looking healthier than he had in any previously released since his surgery.[387]
As a comment on Castro's recovery, U.S. President George W. Bush said: "One day the good Lord will take Fidel Castro away", Hearing about this, Castro, who is thought to be atheist, ironically replied: "Now I understand why I survived Bush's plans and the plans of other presidents who ordered my assassination: the good Lord protected me."[388]
In January 2009 Castro asked Cubans not to worry about his lack of recent news columns, his failing health, and not to be disturbed by his future death.[389] At the same time pictures were released of Castro's meeting with the Argentine president Cristina Fernández on January 21, 2009.[390]
Later years and retirement: 2008-present[link]
"I'm really happy to reach 80. I never expected it, not least having a neighbor – the greatest power in the world – trying to kill me every day."— Fidel Castro, July 21, 2006[391]
In a letter dated February 18, 2008, Castro announced that he would not accept the positions of president and commander in chief at the February 24, 2008 National Assembly meetings, saying "I will not aspire to nor accept—I repeat I will not aspire to or accept—the post of President of the Council of State and Commander in Chief,"[392] effectively announcing his retirement from official public life.[393][394][395] The letter was published online by the official Communist Party newspaper Granma. In it, Castro stated that his health was a primary reason for his decision, stating that "It would betray my conscience to take up a responsibility that requires mobility and total devotion, that I am not in a physical condition to offer".[396]
On February 24, 2008, the National Assembly of People's Power unanimously chose his brother, Raúl Castro, as Fidel's successor as President of Cuba.[397] In his first speech as Fidel's successor, he proposed to the National Assembly of People's Power that Fidel continue to be consulted on matters of great importance, such as defense, foreign policy and "the socioeconomic development of the country". The proposal was immediately and unanimously approved by the 597 members of the National Assembly. Raúl described his brother as "not substitutable".[398] Castro had already given up the post of First Secretary of the Communist Party of Cuba on July 31, 2006.[399][400]
Since his retirement, Castro has written a regular column in Granma called "Reflections", in which he writes on world affairs, and has occasionally made pre-taped appearances on television greeting visitors such as Hugo Chávez in his room. In July 2010, he made his first public appearance greeting workers at a science center and gave his most prominent television interview since falling ill, on the Cuban program Mesa Redonda speaking for an extended period about tensions between the United States, Iran and North Korea.[401]
On August 7, 2010, Castro gave his first speech to the Cuban National Assembly in four years. He addressed the body for ten minutes on international affairs and then remained to listen and respond to questions for a further 70 minutes. In his comments he urged the United States not to go to war with Iran or North Korea and warning about the dangers of a nuclear holocaust. When asked whether Castro may be re-entering government, Culture minister Abel Prieto told the BBC, "I think that he has always been in Cuba's political life but he is not in the government...He has been very careful about that. His big battle is international affairs."[402][403][404][405]
On April 19, 2011, Castro resigned from the Communist Party central committee,[406] thus stepping down as leader of the party. Raúl Castro was selected as his successor.[407]
Politics[link]
Main article: Politics of Fidel Castro
Castro has proclaimed himself to be "a Socialist, a Marxist, and a Leninist".[408] As a socialist, Castro believes strongly in converting Cuba, and the wider world, from a capitalist system in which business and industry is owned by private individuals and organizations, into a socialist system in which all business and industry are owned by the state on behalf of the populace. In the former, there is a class divide between the wealthy classes who control the means of production (i.e. the factories, farms, media etc) and the poorer working classes who labor on them, whilst in the latter, socialists argue, this class divide would be obliterated as society becomes more egalitarian.
Marxism is the sociopolitical theory developed by German sociologists Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels in the mid-19th century. It holds as its foundation the idea of class struggle; that society mainly changes and progresses as one socioeconomic class takes power from another. Thus Marxists believe that capitalism replaced feudalism in the Early Modern period as the wealthy industrial class, or bourgeoisie, took political and economic power from the traditional land-owning class, the aristocracy and monarchy. In the same process, Marxists predict that socialism will replace capitalism as the industrial working class, or proletariat, seize power from the bourgeoisie through revolutionary action. In this way, Marxism is believed by its supporters to provide a scientific explanation for why socialism should, and will, replace capitalism in human society.
"What talent and abilities! What thought, what resolve, what moral strength! He formulated a doctrine, he propounded a philosophy of independence and an exceptional humanistic philosophy."
—Fidel Castro on Martí, 2009.[409]
Leninism refers to the theories put forward by Russian revolutionary, political theorist and politician Vladimir Lenin, the leader of the Bolshevik Party who was a leading figure in the October Revolution that overthrew the Russian capitalist government and replaced it with a socialist alternative in 1917. Taking Marxism as its basis, Leninism revolves around putting forward ideas for how to convert a capitalist state into a socialist one. Castro used Leninist thought as a model upon which to convert the Cuban state and society into a socialist form.
Castro has described two historical figures as being particular influences on his political viewpoints; the Cuban anti-imperialist revolutionary José Martí (1853–1895) and the German sociologist and theorist Karl Marx (1818–1883).[410] Castro has taken a relatively socially conservative stance on many issues, opposing alcohol, drugs, gambling and prostitution, which he viewed as moral evils. Instead he has advocated hard work, family values, integrity and self-discipline.[411]
Personal and public life[link]
In his biography of the Cuban leader, entitled The Real Fidel Castro (2003), the Briton Leycester Coltman described the Cuban as being "fiercely hard-working, dedicated[,] loyal... generous and magnanimous" but also noted that he could be "vindictive and unforgiving" at times. He went on to note that Castro "always had a keen sense of humor and could laugh at himself" but could equally be "a bad loser" who would act with "ferocious rage if he thought that he was being humiliated."[412] Similarly, another of Castro's biographers, Peter Bourne, noted that Castro "suffers fools poorly" and that in his younger years he was "intolerant" of those who did not share his views for Cuba's future.[413] In her book, Red Heat: Conspiracy, Murder and the Cold War in the Caribbean (2011), the British historian Alex Von Tunzelmann commented that "though ruthless, [Castro] was a patriot, a man with a profound sense that it was his mission to save the Cuban people", contrasting him strongly to his Haitian contemporary François Duvalier.[414]
Castro was known for his busy working hours, often only going to bed at 3 am or 4 am in the morning.[415] He described Ernest Hemingway as his favorite writer,[416] and enjoyed reading but was uninterested in music, and also spent much of his time trying to keep fit, undertaking regular exercise.[340] He took a great interest in gastronomy, as well as wine and whisky, and as Cuban leader was known to wander into his kitchen to discuss ingredients and cookery with his chefs.[340]
Fidel Castro's religious beliefs have been a matter of some debate. Castro was baptized and raised a Roman Catholic as a child but did not practice as one. He has publicly stated that "I have never been a believer", and has total conviction that there is only one life.[417] Pope John XXIII excommunicated Castro in 1962 after Castro suppressed Catholic institutions in Cuba.[418] Castro has publicly criticized what he sees as elements of the Bible that have been used to justify the oppression of both women and people of African descent throughout history.[419] In his 2009 spoken autobiography, Castro said that Christianity exhibited "a group of very humane precepts" which gave the world "ethical values" and a "sense of social justice", before relating that "If people call me Christian, not from the standpoint of religion but from the standpoint of social vision, I declare that I am a Christian."[420]
Family and friends[link]
By his first wife Mirta Díaz-Balart, whom he married on October 11, 1948, Castro has a son named Fidel Ángel "Fidelito" Castro Díaz-Balart, born on September 1, 1949. Díaz-Balart and Castro were divorced in 1955, and she remarried Emilio Núñez Blanco. After a spell in Madrid, Díaz-Balart reportedly returned to Havana to live with Fidelito and his family.[421] Fidelito grew up in Cuba; for a time, he ran Cuba's atomic-energy commission before being removed from the post by his father.[422] Díaz-Balart's nephews are Republican U.S. Congressmen Lincoln Diaz-Balart and Mario Diaz-Balart, vocal critics of the Castro government.[citation needed]
Fidel has five other sons by his second wife, Dalia Soto del Valle: Antonio, Alejandro, Alexis, Alexander "Alex" and Ángel Castro Soto del Valle.[422] While Fidel was married to Mirta, he had an affair with Natalia "Naty" Revuelta Clews, born in Havana in 1925 and married to Orlando Fernández, resulting in a daughter named Alina Fernández-Revuelta.[422] Alina left Cuba in 1993, disguised as a Spanish tourist,[423] and sought asylum in the United States. She has been a vocal critic of her father's policies.[citation needed] Alina was assisted by Elena Diaz-Vernon Amos, wife of AFLAC founder John Amos. Alina lived with Elena in Columbus, Georgia, for several years. By an unnamed woman he had another son, Jorge Ángel Castro. Fidel has another daughter, Francisca Pupo (born 1953) the result of a one night affair. Pupo and her husband now live in Miami.[424][425]
His sister Juanita Castro has been living in the United States since the early 1960s. When she went into exile, she said "I cannot longer remain indifferent to what is happening in my country. My brothers Fidel and Raúl have made it an enormous prison surrounded by water. The people are nailed to a cross of torment imposed by international Communism."[426]
While in power, Castro's two closest male friends were the former Mayor of Havana Pepin Naranjo and his own personal physician, René Vallejo. [427] From 1980 until his death in 1995, Naranjo headed Castro's team of advisors[428] He also had a deep friendship with fellow revolutionary Celia Sanchez, who accompanied him almost everywhere during the 1960s, and controlled almost all access to the leader.[429]
Public image[link]
By wearing military-style uniforms and leading mass demonstrations, Castro projected an image of a perpetual revolutionary. He was mostly seen in military attire, but his personal tailor, Merel Van 't Wout, convinced him to occasionally change to a business suit.[430] Within Cuba, Castro is often nicknamed "El Caballo", meaning "The Horse", a label that was first attributed to Cuban entertainer Benny Moré, who on hearing Castro passing in the Havana night with his entourage, shouted out "Here comes the horse!" The name itself is an allusion to Castro's well known womanizing during the 1950s and early 1960s.[415][431] During this period, Castro himself was widely recognized as a sex symbol within Cuba, and a minor sensation was caused when footage was publicly broadcast showing that he had skinny legs.[427]
Large throngs of people gathered to cheer at Castro's fiery speeches, which typically lasted for hours. Many details of Castro's private life, particularly involving his family members, are scarce as the media is forbidden to mention them.[432] Castro's image appears frequently in Cuban stores, classrooms, taxicabs, and national television.[433] Despite this, Castro has stated that he does not promote a cult of personality.[434]
In the United States, Castro achieved a very different public image from that in Cuba. After his leftward turn, the U.S. media began considering Castro to be "a dangerous eccentric" who posed a threat to the U.S. with his "radical, subversive thinking."[435]
Recognition and legacy[link]
"What will be his legacy? ... The answers to those questions are mixed. Castro first and foremost is and always has been a committed egalitarian. He despises any system in which one class or group of people lives much better than another. He wanted a system that provided the basic needs to all—enough to eat, health care, adequate housing and education. The authoritarian nature of the Cuban Revolution stems largely from his commitment to that goal. Castro was convinced that he was right, and that his system was for the good of the people. Thus, anyone who stood against the revolution stood also against the Cuban people and that, in Castro’s eyes, was simply unacceptable. There is, then, very little in the way of individual freedoms – especially freedom of expression and assembly. And there are political prisoners ... (However) before 1959, Cuba was considered as something of a banana republic. It played virtually no role in the international arena. But under Castro, it has played a prominent role, indeed at times a role that often resembled that of a world power. Wherever Castro has gone in the hemisphere over the past few years, he has been received with warm applause. Why? Because he stood up to the United States, has defied Washington and gone his own way. That is something virtually all Latin Americans respect and admire."
Various leftist governments across the world have granted Castro awards for his work in promoting socialism and providing international humanitarian aid. The Juche government of North Korea for instance awarded him "the Golden Medal (Hammer and Sickle) and the First Class Order of the National Flag",[437] whilst Muammar Gaddafi's Arab socialist government of Libya bestowed upon him a "Libyan human rights award".[438] On a visit to South Africa in 1998 he was warmly received by President Nelson Mandela.[439] President Mandela gave Castro South Africa's highest civilian award for foreigners, the Order of Good Hope.[440]
In Harlem, Castro is seen as an icon because of his historic visit with Malcolm X in 1960 at the Hotel Theresa.[441]
After the fall of apartheid and the independence of Namibia, the country's capital, the city of Windhoek, renamed many streets, including one that now bears the name of Fidel Castro Street.[442][443]
Honors and awards[link]
- Hero of the Soviet Union[444]
- Order of Lenin, three times; (Soviet Union) 1963, "for their successful struggle for freedom and independence of heroic Cuban people, who has made a worthy contribution to the great cause of peace and socialism and his great role in strengthening and development of the fraternal Soviet-Cuban";[445] 1972;[446] 1986 "for his contribution to the promotion of fraternal relations between the USSR and Cuba".[447]
- Lenin Peace Prize for Strengthening International Peace Among Peoples (Soviet Union, 1961)
- Jubilee Medal "Thirty Years of Victory in the Great Patriotic War 1941-1945" (Soviet Union, 1975)[448]
- Order of the October Revolution (Soviet Union, 1976)[449]
- Star of the Republic of Indonesia, Fourth Class
- Guerrilla Star (Indonesia, 1960)
- Order of the Star of the Romanian Socialist Republic, First Class (1972; "for special merits in the revolutionary struggle for national liberation and social development of Cuba, for the defense of national independence and sovereignty of the motherland socialism against imperialism, for the special contribution made to the expansion of multilateral relations of cooperation, international friendship and solidarity between the Communist Party of Cuba and the Romanian Communist Party, between the Republic of Cuba and the Socialist Republic of Romania, between Cuba and the Romanian people".[450]
- Order of the White Lion, First Class (Czechoslovakia, 1972)[451]
- Order of Georgi Dimitrov (Bulgaria, 1972)[452]
- Grand Cross of the Order of Polonia Restituta (1973)[453]
- Order of Courage (Libya) (1977)
- Somali Order, First Class (1977)[454]
- Order of Jamaica (1977)[455]
- Order of Merit of Jamaica[456]
- Great Order of the Star Honor of Socialist Ethiopia (1978), for Cuban aid to victory in the Ogaden War[457]
- Jorge Dimitrov Prize for Peace (Bulgaria, 1980)[458]
- Order of the Gold Star (Vietnam, 1982)
- Hero of the People's Republic of Korea[459]
- Order of National Flag, First Class (North Korea, 1986)[459]
- Order of Karl Marx (German Democratic Republic)[460]
- Collar of the Order of the Aztec Eagle (Mexico, 1987)
- Gold Medal of the Senate of Spain (1988)
- Order of Klement Gottwald (Czechoslovakia, 1989) "for outstanding personal merits for the expansion of fraternal and friendly partnership and cooperation between Cuban and Czechoslovak Communist parties, the two countries and their peoples".[461]
- Order Agostinho Neto (Angola, 1992)[462]
- Order of Merit of Duarte, Sanchez and Mella, Grand Cross Gold Plate (Dominican Republic, 1998)[463]
- Order of Good Hope, First Degree (South Africa, 1998)[464]
- Grand Cross of the Order Mali National (July 1998)[465]
- Order of Prince Yaroslav the Wise (Ukraine, 2000), for medical assistance to victims of the Chernobyl disaster[466]
- Independence Medal of Qatar (15 September 2000)[467]
- Order of the Republic of Yemen (2000)[468]
- Grand Collar of the Order of the Liberator (Venezuela, October 2000)[469]
- Grand Collar of the Order Agostura Congress (Venezuela, 2001)[470]
- Honorary Medal of the Algerian Liberation Army (May 6, 2001)[471]
- Order of the Crown of the Realm (Malaysia, 11/05/2001)[472]
- Medal of the City of Buenos Aires (2003)[473]
- Hero of Working (North Korea, 2006)[474]
- Order of National Flag First Class (North Korea, 2006) to "promote the reunification of the Korean peninsula and build socialism"[474]
- Amilcar Cabral Medal (Guinea Bissau, 2007) for "having contributed to the establishment and strengthening of Guinea Bissau"[475]
- Sports Merit Medal (Ministry of Sports of Ecuador, 2007)[476]
- Order of the Ancient Welwitschia Mirabilis (Namibia, March 2008) "for his support of African liberation struggles"[477]
- Ubuntu Award (National Heritage Council of South Africa, 2008) "a life dedicated to solidarity and ethics, highlighting the importance of human values and dedication to humanity"[478]
- Medal of Honor of Dominica (November 2008) for "the support provided by Cuba and its leader since independence in Dominica"[479]
- Great Extraordinary Cross of Order of Omar Torrijos Herrera (Panama, January 2009)[480]
- Grand Collar of the Order of the Quetzal (February 2009) "in appreciation for the more than 17 million consultations and more than 40,000 operations of the Operation Miracle Eye, made by Cuban doctors for the benefit of the Guatemalan people"[481]
- Order of Oliver Reginald Tambo, Fellow in Grade Gold South Africa "for his contribution to the eradication of racism, colonialism, apartheid and inequality in human society"[482]
- Order of Honour and Glory (Russian Orthodox Church, October 19, 2008) - for his contribution to strengthening inter-religious cooperation in connection with the consecration of the church of Our Lady of Kazan in Havana
- Order of the Eagle of Zambia, First Degree (Zambia, September 2009) "for having inspired many to fight for dignity and equality"[483]
- Order of Merit, first grade (Ukraine, March 2010) "for his important contribution to restoring the health of the children of Chernobyl, after an accident in 1986 in the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic"[484]
- General Eloy Alfaro Award (Ecuador, May 2010) for its "exceptional merit and dignity"[485]
- East Timor Order, Great Collar (November 2010) "for Cuban support in health and education"[486]
Controversy and criticism[link]
Main articles: Human rights in Cuba and Censorship in Cuba
Description as a dictator[link]
Many observers refer to Castro as a "dictator",[487][488][489][490][491][492] and his rule was the longest to-date in modern Latin American history.[489][490][491][492]
Castro publicly refuted allegations that he was a dictator and repeatedly told foreign journalists that under his government, Cuba was more democratic than the liberal democracies in the West, with greater consultation of the populace. He repeatedly emphasized that constitutionally, he held less political power than most heads of state, including that of the U.S. president, although critics nonetheless argued that he held an enormous amount of unofficial influence over the country.[493]
Allegations of human rights abuses[link]
The Human Rights Watch organization has suggested that Castro constructed a "repressive machinery" which "continues to deprive Cubans of their basic rights".[494]
Castro has publicly defended his government from such accusations, using the "standard Marxist answers" to such criticisms; that the state must limit the freedoms of individuals in order to protect the rights of the collective populace, such as the right to employment, education and health care.[495]
Allegations of corruption[link]
In their book, Corruption in Cuba, Sergio Diaz-Briquets and Jorge F. Pérez-López Servando state that Castro "institutionalized" corruption and that "Castro's state-run monopolies, cronyism, and lack of accountability have made Cuba one of the world's most corrupt states".[496] Servando Gonzalez, in The Secret Fidel Castro, calls Castro a "corrupt tyrant".[497]
In 1959, according to Gonzalez, Castro established "Fidel's checking account", from which he could draw funds as he pleased. The "Comandante's reserves" were created in 1970, from which Castro allegedly "provided gifts to many of his cronies, both home and abroad". Gonzalez asserts that Comandante's reserves have been linked to counterfeiting business empires and money laundering.[497]
As early as 1968, a once-close friend of Castro's wrote that Castro had huge accounts in Swiss banks. Castro's secretary was allegedly seen using Zürich banks. Gonzalez wrote that Cuba's paucity of trade with Switzerland contrasts oddly with the National Office of Cuba's relatively large office in Zurich.[497] Castro has denied having a bank account abroad with even a dollar in it.[498]
Allegations of wealth[link]
A KGB officer, Alexei Novikov, stated that Castro's personal life, like the lives of the rest of the Communist elite, is "shrouded under an impenetrable veil of secrecy". Among other things, he asserted that Castro has a personal guard of more than 9,700 men and three luxurious yachts.[497]
In 2005, American business and financial magazine Forbes listed Castro among the world's richest people, with an estimated net worth of US$550 million. The estimates, which the magazine admitted were "more art than science",[499] claimed that the Cuban leader's personal wealth was nearly double that of Britain's Queen Elizabeth II, despite anecdotal evidence from diplomats and businessmen that the Cuban leader's personal life was notably austere.[498] This assessment was drawn by making economic estimates of the net worth of Cuba's state-owned companies, and used the assumption that Castro had personal economic control.[500] Forbes later increased the estimates to US$900 million, adding rumors of large cash stashes in Switzerland.[498] The magazine offered no proof of this information,[499] and according to CBS News, Castro's entry on the rich list was notably brief compared to the amount of information provided on other figures.[499] Castro, who had considered suing the magazine, responded that the claims were "lies and slander", and that they were part of a US campaign to discredit him.[498] He declared: "If they can prove that I have a bank account abroad, with US$900m, with US$1m, US$500,000, US$100,000 or US$1 in it, I will resign."[498] President of Cuba's Central Bank, Francisco Soberón, called the claims a "grotesque slander", asserting that money made from various state owned companies is pumped back into the island's economy, "in sectors including health, education, science, internal security, national defense and solidarity projects with other countries."[500]
Authored works[link]
Fully or partially by Fidel Castro
- Capitalism in Crisis: Globalization and World Politics Today, Ocean Press, 2000, ISBN 1-876175-18-4
- Che: A Memoir, Ocean Press, 2005, ISBN 1-920888-25-X
- Cuba at the Crossroads, Ocean Press, 1997, ISBN 1-875284-94-X
- Fidel Castro: My Life: A Spoken Autobiography, Scribner, 2008, ISBN 1-4165-5328-2
- Fidel Castro Reader, Ocean Press, 2007, ISBN 1-920888-88-8
- Fidel My Early Years, Ocean Press, 2004, ISBN 1-920888-09-8
- Fidel & Religion: Conversations with Frei Betto on Marxism & Liberation Theology, Ocean Press, 2006, ISBN 1-920888-45-4
- How Far We Slaves Have Come! South Africa and Cuba in Today's World, by Nelson Mandela & Fidel Castro, Pathfinder Press, 1991, ISBN 0-87348-729-X
- Playa Giron: Bay of Pigs: Washington's First Military Defeat in the Americas, Pathfinder Press, 2001, ISBN 0-87348-925-X
- Political Portraits: Fidel Castro reflects on famous figures in history, Ocean Press, 2008, ISBN 1-920888-94-2
- The Declarations of Havana, Verso, 2008, ISBN 1-84467-156-9
- The Prison Letters of Fidel Castro, Nation Books, 2007, ISBN 1-56025-983-3
- The Strategic Victory: The War Against Batista in the Sierra Maestra [La contraofensiva estratégica: De la Sierra Maestra a Santiago de Cuba], Ocean Press, 2012 [2011], ISBN 0-9870779-0-2
- Time Warrior [Guerrillero del Tiempo], by Fidel Castro Ruz and Katiuska Blanco, Abril, 2012
- War, Racism and Economic Justice: The Global Ravages of Capitalism, Ocean Press, 2002, ISBN 1-876175-47-8
See also[link]
References[link]
Footnotes[link]
- ^ Bardach, Ann Louise. "LOVE, FIDEL Letters From Prison: Castro Revealed." The Washington Post. February 23, 2007. Retrieved on October 15, 2011.
- ^ Coltman 2003. p. 08.
- ^ Coltman 2003. pp. 01–02.
- ^ a b Bourne 1986. pp. 14–15.
- ^ a b Castro and Ramonet 2009. pp. 24–29.
- ^ Coltman 2003. pp. 2–3.
- ^ a b c Coltman 2003. p. 03.
- ^ a b Bourne 1986. p. 16.
- ^ "Ancestry of Fidel Castro". wargs.com. http://www.wargs.com/other/castro.html. Retrieved December 25, 2010.
- ^ Bourne 1986. pp. 16–17.
- ^ Castro and Ramonet 2009. pp. 31–32.
- ^ Bourne 1986. p. 14.
- ^ Castro and Ramonet 2009. pp. 23–24.
- ^ a b Raffy, Serge. 2004 Castro el Desleal. Santillana Ediciones Generales, S.L. Madrid. ISBN 84-03-09508-2
- ^ a b Fuentes, Norberto 2005 La Autobiografia de Fidel Castro. Destino Ediciones. ISBN 970-749-001-2
- ^ Coltman 2003. pp. 04–05.
- ^ Castro and Ramonet 2009. pp. 42–43.
- ^ a b Coltman 2003. pp. 05–06.
- ^ Castro and Ramonet 2009. pp. 45–48, 52–57.
- ^ Castro and Ramonet 2009. pp. 59–60.
- ^ Bourne 1986. pp. 29–30.
- ^ Coltman 2003. pp. 06–07.
- ^ Castro and Ramonet 2009. pp. 64–67.
- ^ Coltman 2003. pp. 08–09.
- ^ Coltman 2003. p. 09.
- ^ Castro and Ramonet 2009. p. 68.
- ^ Coltman 2003. p. 16.
- ^ Castro and Ramonet 2009. pp. 91–92.
- ^ Bourne 1986. p. 31.
- ^ Coltman 2003. pp. 16–17.
- ^ Bourne 1986. pp. 9–10.
- ^ Castro and Ramonet 2009. pp. 91–93.
- ^ Coltman 2003. p. 18.
- ^ Bourne 1986. pp. 34–35.
- ^ Coltman 2003. pp. 18–19.
- ^ Bourne 1986. pp. 32–33.
- ^ Coltman 2003. p. 20.
- ^ Coltman 2003. pp. 21–24.
- ^ Bourne 1986. pp. 34–37, 63.
- ^ Coltman 2003. pp. 23–27.
- ^ Bourne 1986. pp. 39–40.
- ^ Castro and Ramonet 2009. pp. 83–85.
- ^ Benjamin 1992. p. 131.
- ^ Coltman 2003. pp. 27–28.
- ^ Castro and Ramonet 2009. pp. 95–97.
- ^ a b Von Tunzelmann 2011. p. 39.
- ^ Coltman 2003. pp. 23–24, 37–38, 46.
- ^ Bourne 1986. pp. 35–36, 54.
- ^ Coltman 2003. p. 30.
- ^ Von Tunzelmann 2011. pp. 30–33.
- ^ Coltman 2003. p. 31.
- ^ Bourne 1986. pp. 40–41.
- ^ Coltman 2003. pp. 32–34.
- ^ Bourne 1986. pp. 41–42.
- ^ Castro and Ramonet 2009. p. 98.
- ^ Coltman 2003. pp. 34–35.
- ^ Bourne 1986. p. 42.
- ^ Coltman 2003. pp. 36–37.
- ^ Coltman 2003. p. 36.
- ^ Von Tunzelmann 2011. p. 40.
- ^ Castro and Ramonet 2009. pp. 98–99.
- ^ Coltman 2003. pp. 40–45.
- ^ Bourne 1986. pp. 46–52.
- ^ Coltman 2003. pp. 46–49.
- ^ Bourne 1986. pp. 54, 56.
- ^ Von Tunzelmann 2011. p. 41.
- ^ Coltman 2003. pp. 47–48.
- ^ Bourne 1986. p. 55.
- ^ Coltman 2003. p. 46.
- ^ Bourne 1986. pp. 54–55.
- ^ Coltman 2003. p. 49.
- ^ Castro and Ramonet 2009. p. 100.
- ^ a b Coltman 2003. p. 50.
- ^ a b Bourne 1986. p. 57.
- ^ a b c Coltman 2003. p. 51.
- ^ Bourne 1986. pp. 39.
- ^ Castro and Ramonet 2009. p. 89.
- ^ Coltman 2003. pp. 51–52.
- ^ Bourne 1986. pp. 57–58.
- ^ Coltman 2003. pp. 52–53.
- ^ a b Coltman 2003. p. 53.
- ^ a b c Von Tunzelmann 2011. p. 44.
- ^ Castro and Ramonet 2009. pp. 85–87.
- ^ Coltman 2003. pp. 46, 53–55.
- ^ Bourne 1986. pp. 58–59.
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- ^ "CUBA: Raúl Shares His Seat with Fidel". Ipsnews.net. http://ipsnews.net/news.asp?idnews=41321. Retrieved March 16, 2011.
- ^ Castro, Fidel (March 22, 2011). "My Shoes Are Too Tight". Juventud Rebelde. http://www.juventudrebelde.co.cu/cuba/2011-03-22/my-shoes-are-too-tight/. Retrieved April 14, 2011.
- ^ "Castro says he resigned as Communist Party chief 5 years ago". CNN. March 22, 2011. http://articles.cnn.com/2011-03-22/world/cuba.castro.party_1_raul-castro-cuban-people-cuba-plans?_s=PM:WORLD. Retrieved April 14, 2011.
- ^ "Fidel Castro makes rare TV appearance", Globe and Mail, July 12, 2010
- ^ "Fidel Castro addresses parliament after four-year gap", BBC News, August 7, 2010
- ^ "Fidel Castro to attend session of Cuba parliament". The Associated Press. 8/7/2010
- ^ Weissert, Will (August 8, 2010). "Fidel Castro warns of nuclear risk in 1st speech to Cuban parliament in 4 years". The Washington Post. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2010/08/07/AR2010080702549.html. Retrieved March 16, 2011.
- ^ "Fidel Castro Addresses Parliament on Iran Issue". Nytimes.com (2010-08-07). Retrieved on September 25, 2011.
- ^ "Fidel quits Communist Party leadership as Cuba looks to reform". Euronews.net. April 19, 2011. http://www.euronews.net/2011/04/19/fidel-quits-communist-party-leadership-as-cuba-looks-to-reform/. Retrieved April 19, 2011.
- ^ "Cuban communists opt for old guard to lead reforms". Reuters. April 19, 2011. http://uk.reuters.com/article/2011/04/19/uk-cuba-congress-idUKTRE73I3GQ20110419. Retrieved April 20, 2011.
- ^ Castro and Ramonet 2009. p. 157.
- ^ Castro and Ramonet 2009. p. 147.
- ^ Castro and Ramonet 2009. pp. 101–102.
- ^ Bourne 1986. p. 200.
- ^ Coltman 2003. p. 14.
- ^ Bourne 1986. p. 178.
- ^ Von Tunzelmann 2011. p. 94.
- ^ a b Coltman 2003. p. 219.
- ^ Bourne 1986. p. 204.
- ^ Comandante – Fidel Castro & Oliver Stone on YouTube
- ^ "Pope Excommunicates Castro". Chronicle Telegram. January 3, 1962. http://www.nytimes.com/library/world/012698pope-cuba-rdp.html.
- ^ Castro and Ramonet 2009. pp. 40–41.
- ^ Castro and Ramonet 2009. p. 156.
- ^ Ann Louise Bardach: Cuba Confidential. p. 67. "One knowledgeable source claims that Mirta returned to Cuba in early 2002 and is now living with Fidelito and his family."
- ^ a b c Jon Lee Anderson, "Castro's Last Battle: Can the revolution outlive its leader?" The New Yorker, July 31, 2006. 51.
- ^ Boadle, Anthony (August 8, 2006). "Cuba's first family not immune to political rift". Reuters. http://www.canada.com/topics/news/world/story.html?id=2ef037b4-5f82-4283-b1fb-2cc9e2442977. Retrieved August 10, 2006.
- ^ Roberto Duarte VIDA SECRETA DEL TIRANO CASTRO. CANF.org. October 29, 2003
- ^ Cuba confidential: Love and Vengeance in Miami and Havana By Ann Louise Bardach; Random House, Inc., 2002; ISBN 978-0-375-50489-1
- ^ "The Bitter Family (page 1 of 2)". Time. July 10, 1964. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,871241-1,00.html. Retrieved February 19, 2008.
- ^ a b Bourne 1986. p. 201.
- ^ {cite news| url=http://www.spokesman.com/stories/1995/dec/26/castro-adviser-66-dies-of-heart-attack/%7C title=Castro Adviser, 66, Dies Of Heart Attack| work=The Spokesman Review| date=December 26, 1995| accessdate=May 31, 2012}}
- ^ Bourne 1986. pp. 200–201.
- ^ 1995/01_5_m.html "In brief". Arizona Daily Wildcat. February 10, 1995. http://secure-wildcat.arizona.edu//papers/old-wildcats/spring95/February/February10, 1995/01_5_m.html. Retrieved August 12, 2006. [dead link]
- ^ Richard Gott, Cuba : A new history. p. 175. Yale press.
- ^ Admservice (October 8, 2000). "Fidel Castro's Family". Latinamericanstudies.org. http://www.latinamericanstudies.org/fidel/castro-family.htm. Retrieved January 13, 2010.
- ^ "Americas | Ailing Castro still dominates Cuba". BBC News. August 11, 2006. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/4779529.stm. Retrieved January 13, 2010.
- ^ "Fidel Castro" PBS Online Newshour February 12, 1985.
- ^ Bourne 1986. p. 210.
- ^ Castro's Legacy by Wayne S. Smith, US Interests Section in Havana Chief from 1979 to 1982, February 02, 2007
- ^ "Democratic Korea decorates President Fidel Castro". Granma. http://granmai.co.cu/ingles/2006/diciembre/mar12/51conde.html.
- ^ "Libyan human rights prize awarded to Fidel Castro of Cuba". BBC News. August 11, 1998. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/149414.stm. Retrieved June 13, 2006.
- ^ "Castro's state visit to South Africa". BBC News. September 4 1998. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/164687.stm. Retrieved May 21, 2000.
- ^ "Castro ends state-visit to South Africa". BBC News. September 6 1998. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/165566.stm. Retrieved May 21, 2006.
- ^ "Malcolm X Chronology". Columbia University. Archived from the original on September 16, 2007. http://web.archive.org/web/20070716112121/http://www.columbia.edu/cu/ccbh/mxp/ministermalcolm.html.
- ^ Windhoek Streets Renamed
- ^ Fidel Castro Street travel guide
- ^ Кастро Рус Фидель Алехандро, Герой Советского Союза
- ^ Concediendo a Fidel Castro Ruz el título de Héroe de la Unión Soviética, La Prensa.
- ^ Fidel Castro
- ^ Un día como hoy: 11 de noviembre
- ^ CASTRO, PCC OFFICIALS RECEIVE SOVIET DECORATION
- ^ Биография Фиделя Кастро
- ^ Castro Speech Data Base
- ^ Castro to keep his state and university distinctions
- ^ Dimitrov Order Presentation to Fidel Castro
- ^ Visita de la delegación del gobierno polaco a Cuba el 25 de abril de 1973.
- ^ The International Who's Who, 2004, Europa Publications
- ^ Discurso pronunciado por Fidel Castro Ruz en el acto en que le fue impuesta la "Orden de Jamaica", la más alta distinción nacional que se confiere a gobernantes de otros países, en Kingston, Jamaica, October 16, 1977.
- ^ Order of Merit (OM)
- ^ «Fidel's visit to Ethiopia», September 24 edition, 1978, p. 2, Granma.
- ^ Breve biografía de Fidel Castro
- ^ a b Confiere la República Popular Democrática de Corea a Fidel, Orden Héroe del Trabajo
- ^ Kuba: Das Ende der Ära Castro. Fidels Finale: Jetzt gibt Castro, schwer krank, die Macht ab
- ^ 1989 Speech Czechoslovak - Jakes Presents Award To Castro
- ^ Discurso pronunciado por el Comandante en Jefe Fidel Castro Ruz en el acto de imposición de la Orden "Agostinho Neto", efectuado en el Palacio de la Revolución, el 9 de julio de 1992.
- ^ Discurso pronunciado por Fidel Castro Ruz al recibir la Orden del Mérito de Duarte, Sánchez y Mella en el grado Gran Cruz Placa de Oro e imponer al Presidente de la República Dominicana, Dr. Leonel Fernández, la Orden José Martí. Santo Domingo, August 22, 1998.
- ^ Discurso pronunciado por el Comandante en Jefe Fidel Castro Ruz, Primer Secretario del Comité Central del Partido Comunista de Cuba y Presidente de los Consejos de Estado y de Ministros, en el acto de imposición de la Orden de Buena Esperanza, efectuado en Ciudad del Cabo, Sudáfrica, el día 4 de septiembre de 1998.
- ^ Breves de Cuba
- ^ Asistencia a los niños en Cuba
- ^ The Amir visit Cuba
- ^ CUBA IN THE MIDDLE EAST: 2000-2002
- ^ La Guerra Sucia Sobra
- ^ Discurso pronunciado al recibir la Orden Congreso de Angostura, en la Plaza Bolívar, Ciudad Bolívar, Venezuela, el 11 de agosto del 2001.
- ^ Reciben condecoraciones Presidentes de Cuba y Argelia
- ^ Rey malasio condecoró a Fidel
- ^ Fidel Castro percibe clima de "optimismo" en Argentina
- ^ a b Fidel Castro recibe condecoraciones de Corea del Norte
- ^ Otorgan medalla "Amílcar Cabral" a Fidel Castro
- ^ Ecuador otorga a Fidel Castro la Medalla al Mérito Deportivo
- ^ Conceden en Namibia condecoración a Fidel Castro
- ^ Otorgado a líder cubano Fidel Castro Premio Ubuntu, de Sudáfrica
- ^ Fidel Castro recibe Medalla de Honor de Dominica
- ^ Torrijos condecora a Fidel Castro y recibe medalla cubana
- ^ Conceden a Fidel Castro la Orden del Quetzal de Guatemala
- ^ Sudáfrica impondrá a Fidel Castro su condecoración de mayor grado
- ^ Distinguen a Fidel Castro con Orden Águila de Zambia
- ^ Yanukóvich condecora a Fidel y Raúl Castro por ayuda consecuencias Chernóbil
- ^ Legislativo ecuatoriano reconoce méritos e impronta de Fidel
- ^ Fidel Castro recibe la mayor distinción de Timor Oriental
- ^ Paul C. Sondrol (1991). "Totalitarian and Authoritarian Dictators: A Comparison of Fidel Castro and Alfredo Stroessner". Journal of Latin American Studies 23 (03): 599–620. DOI:10.1017/S0022216X00015868. JSTOR 157386.
- ^ Jay Mallin. Covering Castro: rise and decline of Cuba's communist dictator. Transaction Publishers. ISBN 978-1-56000-156-0.
- ^ a b D. H. Figueredo. The complete idiot's guide to Latino history and culture. ISBN 0-02-864360-7.
- ^ a b "Farewell Fidel: The man who nearly started World War III". Daily Mail (London). February 20, 2008. http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-516539/Farewell-Fidel-The-man-nearly-started-World-War-III.html.
- ^ a b Catan, Thomas (February 20, 2008). "Fidel Castro bows to illness and age as he quits centre stage after 50 years – Times Online". The Times (London). http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/us_and_americas/article3399819.ece. Retrieved April 22, 2009.
- ^ a b "Fidel's fade-out". http://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2008/feb/24/fidels-fade-out/.
- ^ Coltman 2003. p. 292.
- ^ "Cuba: Fidel Castro's Abusive Machinery Remains Intact". Human Rights Watch. February 18, 2008. http://www.hrw.org/en/news/2008/02/18/cuba-fidel-castro-s-abusive-machinery-remains-intact. Retrieved October 7, 2009.
- ^ Coltman 2003. p. 247.
- ^ Sergio Diaz-Briquets, Jorge F. Pérez-López. Corruption in Cuba.
- ^ a b c d Servando Gonzalez. The Secret Fidel Castro. ISBN 0-9711391-0-5.
- ^ a b c d e Castro denies huge fortune claim. BBC News.
- ^ a b c Castro: I am not rich. CBS News. Assessed April 24, 2007.
- ^ a b Castro blasts Forbes over wealth report., Associated Press. Retrieved December 13. 2006.
Bibliography[link]
- Benjamin, Jules R. (1992). The United States and the Origins of the Cuban Revolution: An Empire of Liberty in an Age of National Liberation.
- Bohning, Don (2005). The Castro Obsession: U.S. Covert Operations Against Cuba, 1959–1965. Washington, D.C.: Potomac Books, Inc.
- Bourne, Peter G. (1986). Fidel: A Biography of Fidel Castro. New York: Dodd, Mead & Company.
- Castro, Fidel; Elliot, Jeffrey M. and Dymally, Mervyn M. (interviewers) (1986). Nothing Can Stop the Course of History. New York: Pathfinder Press. ISBN 0-87348-661-7.
- Castro, Fidel; Ramonet, Ignacio (interviewer) (2009). My Life: A Spoken Autobiography. New York: Scribner. ISBN 978-1-4165-6233-7.
- Coltman, Leycester (2003). The Real Fidel Castro. New Haven and London: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-10760-9.
- Von Tunzelmann, Alex (2011). Red Heat: Conspiracy, Murder, and the Cold War in the Caribbean. New York: Henry Holt and Company. ISBN 978-0-8050-9067-3.
Further reading[link]
- Castro, Fidel; Deborah Shnookal, Pedro Alvarez Tabío (2005). Fidel: my early years. Ocean Press. ISBN 1-920888-09-8. http://books.google.ca/books?id=8RVaBPGRcUcC&lpg=PP1&dq=Fidel%20Castro&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=true.
- Castro, Fidel; Ignacio Ramonet (2008). Fidel Castro: my life: a spoken autobiography. Scribner Book Company. ISBN 1-4165-5328-2. http://books.google.ca/books?id=Z4H45OczqPYC&lpg=PP1.
- Fuentes, Norberto; Anna Kushner (2010). The Autobiography of Fidel Castro. Norton & Co. ISBN 978-0-393-06899-3. http://books.google.ca/books?id=Fazd9dOLUmUC&lpg=PP1.
- Geyer, Georgie Anne (2001). Guerrilla Prince: The Untold Story of Fidel Castro. Andrews McMeel. ISBN 0-7407-2064-3. http://books.google.ca/books?id=dRhJGLnJjugC&lpg=PP1.
- Halperin, Maurice (1972). The rise and decline of Fidel Castro: an essay in contemporary history. University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-02182-7. http://books.google.ca/books?id=_B9LOCZuDnQC&lpg=PP1.
- Leonard, Thomas M (2004). Fidel Castro: a biography. Greenwood Press. ISBN 0-313-32301-1. http://books.google.ca/books?id=63sFubdrEVcC&lpg=PP1&dq=Fidel%20Castro&pg=PP1.
- Marsico, Katie (2009). Fidel Castro: Cuban President & Revolutionary. ABDO Pub. Co. ISBN 978-1-60453-522-8. http://books.google.ca/books?id=XgP9n-E7oTwC&lpg=PP1.
- Skierka, Volker (2006). Fidel Castro: a biography. Polity. ISBN 0-7456-3006-5. http://books.google.ca/books?id=x9-U3FWiW_UC&lpg=PP1.
External links[link]
| Find more about Fidel Castro on Wikipedia's sister projects: | |
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Images and media from Commons |
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News stories from Wikinews |
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Quotations from Wikiquote |
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Source texts from Wikisource |
- By Fidel Castro
- Archive of Fidel Castro's speeches in 6 languages
- Fidel Castro History Archive at Marxists Internet Archive.
- Collection of Castro's speeches
- "We Don't Hope for Favors from the Worst of Empires"
- "Where Have All the Bees Gone?"
- "In Spite of Everything: Reflections on the Pan-American Games"
- "Time for an Alliance of Civlizations Against Empire"
- Fidel Castro in His Own Words
- Images
- Castro: Early Years (1953–1961) – slideshow by Life magazine
- Fidel Castro: A Revolutionary Life – slideshow by Life magazine
- Fidel Castro: A Life in Pictures – slideshow by BBC News
- Fidel Castro's Five Decades in Power – slideshow by The Washington Post
- Fidel Castro Resigns as President – slideshow by New York Times
- About Fidel Castro
- Fidel Castro: From Rebel to El Presidente – timeline by NPR
- Arthur Miller: A Visit With Castro by The Nation, December 24, 2003
- BBC Video: Fidel Castro Visits Boyhood Home of Che Guevara
- New York Times –- Interactive Feature: Three Days With Fidel
- PBS American Experience Interactive site on Fidel Castro with a teacher's guide
- Guide to the Cuban Revolution Collection, Manuscripts and Archives, Yale University Library
- Deena Stryker Photographs of Cuba, 1963–1964, Duke University Libraries Digital Collections
- NPR Audio: Cuba's Castro an Inspiration, Not a Role Model by Tom Gjelten, September 15, 2006
- The Guardian: "The Fidel I Think I Know" by Gabriel García Márquez, August 12, 2006
- Washington Post: Fidel Castro Will Always Lead Cuba, Locals Say February 22, 2008
- Castro's Legacy by Wayne S. Smith, US Interests Section in Havana Chief from 1979 to 1982
| Party political offices | ||
|---|---|---|
| New office | First Secretary of the Communist Party of Cuba Incapacitated in 2006 1961–2011 |
Succeeded by Raúl Castro |
| Political offices | ||
| Preceded by José Miró Cardona |
Prime Minister of Cuba 1959–1976 |
Position abolished |
| Preceded by Osvaldo Dorticós Torrado as President of Cuba |
President of the Council of State of Cuba Incapacitated in 2006 1976–2008 |
Succeeded by Raúl Castro |
| Preceded by Himself as Prime Minister |
President of the Council of Ministers of Cuba Incapacitated in 2006 1976–2008 |
|
| Military offices | ||
| New office | Commander-in-Chief of the Revolutionary Armed Forces Incapacitated in 2006 1959–2008 |
Succeeded by Raúl Castro |
| Diplomatic posts | ||
| Preceded by Junius Richard Jayewardene |
Secretary-General of the Non-Aligned Movement 1979–1983 |
Succeeded by Abdullah Ahmad Badawi |
| Preceded by Neelam Sanjiva Reddy |
Secretary-General of the Non-Aligned Movement Incapacitated in 2006 2005–2008 |
Succeeded by Raúl Castro |
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| Persondata | |
|---|---|
| Name | Castro, Fidel |
| Alternative names | Fidel Alejandro Castro Ruz |
| Short description | President of Cuba |
| Date of birth | August 13, 1926 |
| Place of birth | Birán, Holguín Province, Cuba |
| Date of death | |
| Place of death | |
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This page contains text from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fidel_Castro
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This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
| Barbara Walters | |
|---|---|
 Barbara Walters in New York City, June 2011 |
|
| Born | Barbara Jill Walters (1929-09-25) September 25, 1929 (age 82) Boston, Massachusetts, U.S. |
| Occupation | Journalist |
| Years active | 1961–present |
| Notable credit(s) | Co-anchor and contributor of ABC Evening News and ABC World News Today show anchor (1961–1976) Not For Women Only host (1971–1976) ABC Evening News anchor (1976–1978) 20/20 host (1984–2004) The View creator/co-host (1997–present) |
| Salary | $12 million (2007)[1] |
| Spouse | Robert Henry Katz (m.1955–1958; annulled) Lee Guber (m.1963–1976; divorced) Merv Adelson (m.1981–1984; divorced) Merv Adelson (m.1986–1992; divorced) |
| Children | 1 |
Barbara Jill Walters[2] (born September 25, 1929) is an American broadcast journalist, author, and television personality. She has hosted morning television shows (Today and The View), the television news magazine (20/20), former co-anchor of the ABC World News, and current contributor to ABC News.
Walters was first known as a popular TV morning news anchor for over 10 years on NBC's Today, where she worked with Hugh Downs and later hosts Frank McGee and Jim Hartz. Walters later spent 25 years as co-host of ABC's news magazine 20/20. She was the first female co-anchor of network evening news, working with Harry Reasoner on the ABC Evening News, and continuing as a contributor to the network news division and its flagship program, ABC World News.
In 1996, Walters was ranked #34 on TV Guide's 50 Greatest TV Stars of All Time.[3]
Contents |
Early life[link]
Walters was born in 1929 in Boston, the daughter of Dena (née Seletsky) and Louis "Lou" Walters (born Louis Warmwater).[4] Her parents were both Jewish[5] and descendants of refugees from the former Russian Empire, now Eastern Europe.[6] Walters' paternal grandfather, Abraham Isaac, was from what is now Łódź, Poland, and first immigrated to England, changing his name first to Warmwater and later to Abraham Walters (the original family surname was Waremwasser).[6][7][8] Walters' father was born there c. 1894, and moved to the United States with his family in 1900.[9] In 1937, her father opened the New York version of the Latin Quarter; he also worked as a Broadway producer (he produced the Ziegfeld Follies of 1943).[10][11] He also was the Entertainment Director for the Tropicana Resort and Casino in Las Vegas, Nevada, where he imported the "Folies Bergere" stage show from Paris to the resort's main showroom.[12] Walters' brother, Burton, died in 1932 of pneumonia.[13] Walters' elder sister, Jacqueline, was born mentally disabled[14] and died of ovarian cancer in 1985. She has another half sister, Walda Walters Anderson, born to a different mother.[citation needed]
According to Walters, being surrounded by celebrities when she was young kept her from being "in awe" of them.[14] When she was a young woman, Walters' father lost his nightclubs and the family's penthouse on Central Park West. As Walters recalled, "He had a breakdown. He went down to live in our house in Florida, and then the Government took the house, and they took the car, and they took the furniture." Of her mother, she said, "My mother should have married the way her friends did, to a man who was a doctor or who was in the dress business."[15]
After attending Ethical Culture Fieldston School and Birch Wathen Lenox School[16][17] private schools in New York City,[13] Walters graduated from Miami Beach High School in 1947. In 1951 she received a B.A. in English from Sarah Lawrence College.[18]
Career and accolades[link]
After a brief period as a publicist with Tex McCrary Inc. and a job as a writer at CBS News, Walters joined NBC's The Today Show as a writer and researcher in 1961.[14] She moved up to become that show's regular "Today Girl", handling lighter assignments and the weather. In her autobiography, she describes this era before the Women's Movement as a time when it was believed that nobody would take a woman seriously reporting "hard news". Previous "Today Girls" (whom Walters called "tea pourers") included Florence Henderson, Helen O'Connell, Estelle Parsons and Lee Meriwether.[19] Within a year she had become a reporter-at-large developing, writing, and editing her own reports and interviews.[14] When Frank McGee was named host, he refused to do joint interviews with Walters unless he was given the first four questions. She was not named co-host of the show until McGee's death in 1974, when NBC officially designated Walters as the program's first female co-host.
Walters has seldom minced words when describing the visible, on-the-air disdain her co-anchor, Harry Reasoner, displayed for her when she was teamed up with him on the ABC Evening News in 1976–78. Reasoner had a difficult relationship with Walters because he disliked having a co-anchor, even though he worked with former CBS colleague Howard K. Smith nightly on ABC for several years. In 1981, five years after the start of their short-lived ABC partnership and well after Reasoner returned to CBS News, Walters and her former co-anchor had a memorable (and cordial) 20/20 interview on the occasion of Reasoner's new book release.[citation needed]
Walters is also known for her years on the ABC newsmagazine 20/20 where she joined host Hugh Downs in 1979.[14] Throughout her career at ABC, Walters has appeared on ABC news specials as a commentator, including presidential inaugurations and the coverage of 9/11. She was also chosen to be the moderator for the third and final debate between candidates Jimmy Carter and Gerald Ford, held on the campus of the College of William and Mary at Phi Beta Kappa Memorial Hall in Williamsburg, Virginia, during the 1976 Presidential Election.[20] In 1984, she moderated a Presidential debate held at the Dana Center for the Humanities at Saint Anselm College in Goffstown, New Hampshire.[21] Many of her regular and special programs are syndicated around the world. As of 2004, she is in semi-retirement as a broadcast journalist, but remains a correspondent for ABC News as well as a host of ABC's special programs.
Awards[link]
On June 14, 2007, Walters received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame. She has won Daytime and Prime Time Emmy Awards, a Women in Film Lucy Award, and a GLAAD Excellence in Media award. Her impact on the popular culture is illustrated by Gilda Radner's "Baba Wawa" impersonation of her on Saturday Night Live,[14] featuring her idiosyncratic speech with its rounded "R". In 2008, she was honored with the Disney Legends award, an award given to those who made an outstanding contribution to The Walt Disney Company, which owns the network ABC. That same year, she received the Lifetime Achievement Award from the New York Women's Agenda. On September 21, 2009, Walters was honored with a Lifetime Achievement Award at the 30th Annual News and Documentary Emmy Awards at New York City's Lincoln Center.
Interviews[link]
On March 7, 2010, Barbara Walters announced she would no longer hold Oscar interviews, but will still be working with ABC and on her show, The View.[22]
In a November 2010 episode of The View, while interviewing Larry King on his retirement from CNN, Walters alluded to her impending retirement, stating, "I know when my time's coming."
Walters is known for "personality journalism" and her "scoop" interviews.[14] In November 1977, she achieved a joint interview with Egypt's President, Anwar Al Sadat, and Israel's Prime Minister, Menachem Begin. Her interviews with world leaders from all walks of life are a chronicle of the latter part of the 20th century.[14] They include the Shah of Iran Mohammad Reza Pahlavi and his wife the Empress Farah Pahlavi; Russia's Boris Yeltsin; China's Jiang Zemin; the UK's Margaret Thatcher; Cuba's Fidel Castro, as well as India's Indira Gandhi, Václav Havel, Muammar al-Gaddafi, King Hussein of Jordan, King Abdullah of Saudi Arabia, Venezuelan President Hugo Chavez, Bashar al-Assad president of Syria among many others. Other interviews with influential people include pop icon Michael Jackson, Katharine Hepburn, Anna Wintour, and in 1980 Laurence Olivier. Walters considered Dr. Robert Smithdas, a deaf-blind man who spent his life improving the life of other individuals who are deaf-blind, as her most inspirational interview.
Walters was widely lampooned in 1981 (and often since) for having posed the question, during an interview with actress Katharine Hepburn: "If you were a tree, what kind would you be?" But as she has often pointed out (and the video clips confirm) Hepburn initiated the discussion by saying that she would like to be a tree, and Walters merely followed up with the question, "What kind of a tree?"[14][23]
During a story about Cuban leader Fidel Castro, Walters claimed that "for Castro, freedom begins with education." Some critics[who?] point to her characterization of Castro as freedom-loving and argue that it painted an inaccurate picture of his government.[citation needed]
On March 3, 1999, her interview of Monica Lewinsky was seen by a record 74 million viewers, the highest rating ever for a journalist's interview. Walters asked Lewinsky, "What will you tell your children about this matter?" and Lewinsky replied, "I guess Mommy made some mistakes," at which point Walters brought the program to a dramatic conclusion, turning to the viewers, saying, "And that is the understatement of the year."
[edit] The View
Main article: The View (U.S. TV series)
Walters is a part-time host of the daytime talk show The View, of which she is also co-creator and co-executive producer with her business partner Bill Geddie.[14] Walters described the show in its original opening credits as a forum for women of "different generations, backgrounds, and views." She added, "Be careful what you wish for..." The show's current co-hosts are Whoopi Goldberg, Joy Behar, Elisabeth Hasselbeck and Sherri Shepherd. Previous co-hosts include Meredith Vieira, Lisa Ling, Rosie O'Donnell, Star Jones, and Debbie Matenopoulos.
In 2007 Barbara defended co-host O'Donnell about remarks the latter made against Donald Trump and the winner of the Miss USA pageant. Trump firmly responded by saying, "Barbara is off the list..."[24]
Personal life[link]
Walters has been married four times to three different men. "I'm convinced that you stay married when the sex is bad, only because you really want to be," she told The New York Times in 1996. "But I always had an out. I had this job, and this life and enough money. I didn't have to fight the bad days."[15] Her husbands were:
- Robert Henry Katz, a business executive and former Navy lieutenant. They married on June 20, 1955, at The Plaza Hotel in New York City. The marriage was reportedly annulled in 1958.[2][25]
- Lee Guber, theatrical producer and theater owner. They married on December 8, 1963, and divorced in 1976. They have one daughter, Jacqueline Dena Guber (born 1968, adopted the same year).
- Merv Adelson, the CEO of Lorimar Television. They married in 1981 and divorced in 1984 and were married again on May 10, 1986, and divorced in 1992.
She dated gay lawyer[26][27] Roy Cohn in college, and the lawyer said that he proposed marriage to Walters the night before her wedding to Lee Guber, but Walters denied this.[13] She explained her lifelong devotion to Cohn as gratitude for his help in her adoption of her daughter, Jacqueline.[28] In her autobiography, Walters says that Cohn got her father's warrant for "failure to appear" dismissed.[29]
Walters dated future U.S. Federal Reserve Chairman Alan Greenspan in the 1970s,[30] and was linked romantically to United States Senator John Warner in the 1990s.[31]
In Walters's autobiography, Audition, she claimed that she had an affair in the 1970s with Edward Brooke, then a married United States Senator from Massachusetts. It is not clear whether Walters also was married at the time. Walters said that the affair ended to protect their careers from scandal.[32]
She announced on the May 10, 2010 episode of The View, that she would be undergoing open heart surgery to replace a faulty aortic valve. Walters added that she knew for quite a while that she was suffering from aortic valve stenosis, even though she was symptom-free. The procedure to fix the faulty heart valve "went well, and the doctors are very pleased with the outcome," Walters' spokeswoman, Cindi Berger, said in a statement on May 14, 2010.[33]
On July 9, 2010, it was announced that Walters would return to The View and her Sirius XM satellite show Here's Barbara in September 2010.[34][35]
Walters has been close friends with Fox News head Roger Ailes since the late 1960s.[36]
Books[link]
In the late 1960s, Walters wrote a magazine article, How to Talk to Practically Anyone About Practically Anything, which drew upon the kinds of things people said to her, which were often mistakes.[37] Shortly after the article appeared, she received a letter from Doubleday expressing interest in expanding it into a book. Walters felt that it would help "tongue-tied, socially awkward people — the many people who worry that they can't think of the right thing to say to start a conversation."[37] She published the book in 1970, with the assistance of ghostwriter June Callwood.[38] To Walters' great surprise, the book was a phenomenon. As of 2008, it had gone through eight printings, sold hundreds of thousands of copies worldwide, and had been translated into at least 6 different languages.[37]
In 2008, she published her autobiography, Audition: A Memoir.
Awards and nominations[link]
- 1975 Award for Daytime Emmy for Outstanding Talk Show Host (Today)
- 1998 Nomination for Best Talk Show (The View)
- 1998 Nomination for Best Talk Show Host (The View)
- 1999 Nomination for Best Talk Show (The View)
- 1999 Nomination for Best Talk Show Host (The View)
- 2000 Nomination for Best Talk Show (The View)
- 2000 Nomination for Best Talk Show Host (The View)
- 2001 Nomination for Best Talk Show (The View)
- 2001 Nomination for Best Talk Show Host (The View)
- 2002 Nomination for Best Talk Show (The View)
- 2002 Nomination for Best Talk Show Host (The View)
- 2003 Award for Best Talk Show (The View)
- 2003 Nomination for Best Talk Show Host (The View)
- 2004 Nomination for Best Talk Show (The View)
- 2004 Nomination for Best Talk Show Host (The View)
- 2005 Nomination for Best Talk Show (The View)
- 2005 Nomination for Best Talk Show Host (The View)
- 2006 Nomination for Best Talk Show (The View)
- 2006 Nomination for Best Talk Show Host (The View)
- 2007 Nomination for Best Talk Show (The View)
- 2007 Nomination for Best Talk Show Host (The View)
- 2008 Nomination for Best Talk Show (The View)
- 2008 Nomination for Best Talk Show Host (The View)
- 2009 Award for Daytime Emmy for Outstanding Talk Show Host (The View) (with Whoopi Goldberg, Joy Behar, Elisabeth Hasselbeck and Sherri Shepherd)
- 2010 Nomination for Best Talk Show Host (The View)
- 2009 Award for Best Talk Series (The View)
- 2010 Nomination for Best Talk Series
Women in Film Crystal + Lucy Award
- 1998 Lucy Award in recognition of her excellence and innovation in her creative works that have enhanced the perception of women through the medium of television.[39]
See also[link]
References[link]
- ^ "Barbara Walters". Forbes.com. 2007. http://www.forbes.com/lists/2007/53/07celebrities_Barbara-Walters_O4HQ.html. Retrieved 2008-05-08.
- ^ a b "Miss Walters engaged". The New York Times: p. 96. 1955-05-01.
- ^ "Special Collectors' Issue: 50 Greatest TV Stars of All Time". TV Guide (December 14–20). 1996.
- ^ Stated on Finding Your Roots, PBS, April 1, 2012
- ^ Quinn, Sally (2006-12-22). "Television Personality Looks Anew At Religion". Washington Post/Newsweek. http://newsweek.washingtonpost.com/onfaith/guestvoices/2006/12/television_personality_looks_a.html. Retrieved 2006-12-22.
- ^ a b Walters, Barbara (2008). Audition: A Memoir. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. pp. 7–13. ISBN 978-0-307-26646-0.
- ^ http://www.npr.org/2012/03/23/149222907/helping-celebrities-find-their-roots
- ^ http://sfluxe.com/2012/03/21/owen-tv-celebrities-trace-their-genealogy-on-finding-your-roots/
- ^ Ancestry of Barbara Walters. Genealogy.com (2002-03-22). Retrieved on 2011-10-27.
- ^ "Lou Walters, Nightclub Impresario and Founder of Latin Quarter, Dies". The New York Times. 1977-08-16. p. 36.
- ^ Lou Walters at Internet Broadway Database
- ^ Tropicana – Las Vegas Strip. A2zlasvegas.com. Retrieved on 2011-10-27.
- ^ a b c James Conaway, "How to talk with Barbara Walters about practically anything," The New York Times, 10 September 1972, page SM40, 43–44
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j Stated in interview at Inside the Actors Studio
- ^ a b Elisabeth Bumiller, "So Famous, Such Clout, She Could Interview Herself", The New York Times, April 21, 1996, page H1
- ^ Can Barbara Walters's Career Survive Rosie and Donald's War?- New York Magazine. Nymag.com (2007-03-05). Retrieved on 2011-10-27.
- ^ Dowd, Maureen (1990-03-25). "And Now Back To You, Barbara". The New York Times. http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9C0CE2D71531F936A15750C0A966958260&sec=&spon=&partner=permalink&exprod=permalink. Retrieved 2010-04-26.
- ^ "WALTERS, BARBARA: U.S. Broadcast Journalist". museum.tv. http://www.museum.tv/archives/etv/W/htmlW/waltersbarb/waltersbarb.htm. Retrieved 2008-05-09.
- ^ Audition, pp. 107–114
- ^ CNN: 1976 Presidential Debates. Retrieved on June 14, 2008.
- ^ [1]
- ^ Allen, Nick (2010-03-07). "Barbara Walters to host last Oscars special amid 'overexposure' of stars". Telegraph (London: Telegraph Media Group Limited 2010). http://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/film/oscars/7393741/Barbara-Walters-to-host-last-Oscars-special-amid-overexposure-of-stars.html. Retrieved 2010-03-08.
- ^ Kate the Great, The Katharine Hepburn Forum – The Barbara Walters Interview Retrieved 2008-05-10[unreliable source?]
- ^ "Trump Says Barbara's Off "The List"". CBS News. 2007-03-27.
- ^ "Katz—Walters", The New York Times, June 21, 1955, page 36
- ^ Miller, Neil (2005). Out of the Past: Gay and Lesbian History from 1869 to the Present. Advocate Books. pp. Ch. 18. ISBN 1-55583-870-7. http://www2.english.uiuc.edu/finnegan/English%20256/Miller.htm.
- ^ Wolfe, Tom (April 3, 1988). "Dangerous Obsessions". The New York Times. http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=940DE6D9163BF930A35757C0A96E948260&sec=&pagewanted=print.
- ^ Jerry Oppenheimer (1990), Barbara Walters: An Unauthorized Biography, St. Martin's Press
- ^ Wiegand, David (2008-05-05). "Barbara Walters gets personal. This time, she's candid about her own life.". San Francisco Chronicle. http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2008/05/05/DDTU10H1P9.DTL.
- ^ Terry Keenan (2007-09-23). "LISTEN TO SHILLER, NOT THE TV SHILLS". The New York Post. http://www.nypost.com/seven/09232007/business/listen_to_shiller__not_the_tv_.htm. Retrieved 2007-10-13.
- ^ "Barbara Walters". NNDb. 2007. http://www.nndb.com/people/440/000023371. Retrieved 2007-10-13.
- ^ "Barbara Walters: I had affair with U.S. senator", Associated Press, May 1, 2008
- ^ Associated Press (14 May 2010). "Barbara Walters' heart valve surgery 'went well'". The Boston Globe. http://www.boston.com/ae/tv/articles/2010/05/14/barbara_walters_heart_valve_surgery_went_well/. Retrieved 14 April 2012.
- ^ "Making Moves: Thursday, July 8, 2010". Radio-Info.com. July 8, 2010. http://www.radio-info.com/news/making-moves-thursday-july-8-2010.
- ^ "Barbara Walters Returns to Media Hosting Her Weekly SIRIUS XM Radio Show on July 12". Yahoo! Finance. http://finance.yahoo.com/news/Barbara-Walters-Returns-to-prnews-1477182584.html?x=0&.v=1.
- ^ Fehrman, Craig (2011-01-21) When Roger Ailes was honest about what he does, Salon.com
- ^ a b c Audition: A Memoir, pp. 186–9
- ^ June Callwood interview by Patrick Watson, September 21, 1979 Retrieved 18 October 2009.
- ^ Past Recipients. Wif.org. Retrieved on 2011-10-27.
External links[link]
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- Barbara Walters at the Internet Movie Database
- ABC News' "Time Tunnel" page containing clips of numerous newscasts on which Walters appeared
- Excerpts from 2008 autobiography, Audition: A Memoir
- Barbara Walters Archive of American Television Interview
| Media offices | ||
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| Preceded by Maureen O'Sullivan |
Today Girl 1964 |
Succeeded by Position abolished Female co-host precedent set by Barbara Walters |
| Preceded by John Chancellor |
Today Show Host June 13, 1966 – June 4, 1976 Hugh Downs and herself 1966–1971 Frank McGee and herself 1971–1974 Jim Hartz and herself 1974–1976 |
Succeeded by Tom Brokaw and Jane Pauley |
| Preceded by Harry Reasoner |
ABC Evening News Anchor Co-anchor with Harry Reasoner 1976–1978 |
Succeeded by Frank Reynolds, Max Robinson, and Peter Jennings |
| Preceded by Hugh Downs As sole host |
20/20 Host 1979–2004 Hugh Downs and herself 1979–1999 Solo 1999–2002 John Miller and herself 1/2002–1/2003 John Stossel and herself 2002–2004 |
Succeeded by Elizabeth Vargas and John Stossel |
| Preceded by None |
The View co-host 1997–present |
Incumbent |
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| Persondata | |
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| Name | Walters, Barbara Jill |
| Alternative names | |
| Short description | Journalist, television news anchor and talk show host |
| Date of birth | 1929-09-25 |
| Place of birth | Brookline, Massachusetts, U.S. |
| Date of death | |
| Place of death | |
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| Benedict XVI | |
|---|---|
_4.jpg) Pope Benedict XVI in St. Peter's Square, Rome. 2010. |
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| Papacy began | 19 April 2005 |
| Predecessor | John Paul II |
| Orders | |
| Ordination | 29 June 1951 by Michael von Faulhaber |
| Consecration | 28 May 1977 by Josef Stangl |
| Created Cardinal | 27 June 1977 |
| Personal details | |
| Birth name | Joseph Aloisius Ratzinger |
| Born | (1927-04-16) 16 April 1927 (age 85) Marktl, Bavaria, Germany |
| Nationality | German (along with Vatican citizenship) |
| Denomination | Roman Catholic |
| Parents | Joseph Ratzinger, Sr., Maria Ratzinger |
| Previous post |
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| Motto | cooperatores veritatis (cooperators of the truth)[1] |
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Benedict XVI (Latin: Benedictus PP. XVI; Italian: Benedetto XVI; German: Benedikt XVI.; born Joseph Aloisius Ratzinger on 16 April 1927) is the 265th Pope,[2] a position in which he serves dual roles as Sovereign of the Vatican City State and leader of the Catholic Church. As pope he is regarded as the successor of Saint Peter. Benedict XVI was elected on 19 April 2005 in a papal conclave, celebrated his Papal Inauguration Mass on 24 April 2005, and took possession of his cathedral, the Archbasilica of St. John Lateran, on 7 May 2005. A native of Bavaria, Pope Benedict XVI has both German and Vatican citizenship.
After a long career as an academic, serving as a professor of theology at various German universities—the last being the University of Regensburg—he was appointed Archbishop of Munich and Freising and cardinal by Pope Paul VI in 1977. In 1981, he settled in Rome when he became Prefect of the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, one of the most important dicasteries of the Roman Curia. From 2002 until his election as Pope, he was also Dean of the College of Cardinals, and as such the primus inter pares among the cardinals. Prior to becoming Pope, he was "a major figure on the Vatican stage for a quarter of a century" as "one of the most respected, influential and controversial members of the College of Cardinals"; he had an influence "second to none when it came to setting church priorities and directions" as one of Pope John Paul II's closest confidants.[3]
Like his predecessor, Benedict XVI is theologically conservative and his teaching and prolific[4] writings defend traditional Catholic doctrine and values. During his papacy, Benedict XVI has advocated a return to fundamental Christian values to counter the increased secularisation of many developed countries. He views relativism's denial of objective truth, and the denial of moral truths in particular, as the central problem of the 21st century. He teaches the importance of both the Catholic Church and an understanding of God's redemptive love. He has reaffirmed the "importance of prayer in the face of the activism and the growing secularism of many Christians engaged in charitable work."[5] Pope Benedict has also revived a number of traditions including elevating the Tridentine Mass to a more prominent position.[6]
Contents
|
Overview[link]
_mod.jpg)
Benedict XVI was elected Pope at the age of 78. He is the oldest person to have been elected Pope since Pope Clement XII (1730–40). He had served longer as a cardinal than any Pope since Benedict XIII (1724–30). He is the ninth German Pope, the eighth having been the Dutch-German Pope Adrian VI (1522–23) from Utrecht. The last Pope named Benedict was Benedict XV, an Italian who reigned from 1914 to 1922, during World War I (1914–18).
Born in 1927 in Marktl, Bavaria, Germany, Ratzinger had a distinguished career as a university theologian before being appointed Archbishop of Munich and Freising by Pope Paul VI (1963–78). Shortly afterwards, he was made a cardinal in the consistory of 27 June 1977. He was appointed Prefect of the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith by Pope John Paul II in 1981 and was also assigned the honorific title of the cardinal bishop of Velletri-Segni on 5 April 1993. In 1998, he was elected sub-dean of the College of Cardinals. On 30 November 2002, he was elected dean, taking, as is customary, the title of cardinal bishop of the suburbicarian diocese of Ostia. He was the first Dean of the College elected Pope since Paul IV (1555–59) and the first cardinal bishop elected Pope since Pius VIII (1829–30).
Even before becoming Pope, Ratzinger was one of the most influential men in the Roman Curia, and was a close associate of John Paul II. As Dean of the College of Cardinals, he presided over the funeral of John Paul II and over the Mass immediately preceding the 2005 conclave in which he was elected. During the service, he called on the assembled cardinals to hold fast to the doctrine of the faith. He was the public face of the church in the sede vacante period, although, technically, he ranked below the Camerlengo in administrative authority during that time. Like his predecessor, Benedict XVI affirms traditional Catholic doctrine.
In addition to his native German, Benedict speaks French and Italian fluently. He also has a very good command of Latin and speaks English and Spanish adequately. Furthermore, he has some knowledge of Portuguese. He can read Ancient Greek and biblical Hebrew.[7] He has stated that his first foreign language is French. He is a member of several scientific academies, such as the French Académie des sciences morales et politiques. He plays the piano and has a preference for Mozart and Bach.[8]
Early life: 1927–51[link]
Main article: Early life of Pope Benedict XVI
Joseph Aloisius Ratzinger was born on 16 April, Holy Saturday, 1927, at Schulstraße 11, at 8:30 in the morning in his parents' home in Marktl, Bavaria, Germany. He was baptised the same day. He was the third and youngest child of Joseph Ratzinger, Sr., a police officer, and Maria Ratzinger (née Peintner). His mother's family was originally from South Tyrol (now in Italy).[citation needed] Pope Benedict XVI's brother, Georg Ratzinger, a priest and former director of the Regensburger Domspatzen choir, is still alive. His sister, Maria Ratzinger, who never married, managed Cardinal Ratzinger's household until her death in 1991. Their grand-uncle was the German politician Georg Ratzinger.
At the age of five, Ratzinger was in a group of children who welcomed the visiting Cardinal Archbishop of Munich with flowers. Struck by the cardinal's distinctive garb, he later announced the very same day that he wanted to be a cardinal.
Ratzinger attended the elementary school in Aschau am Inn, which was renamed in his honour in 2009.[9]
Following his 14th birthday in 1941, Ratzinger was conscripted into the Hitler Youth—as membership was required by law for all 14-year-old German boys after December 1939[10]—but was an unenthusiastic member who refused to attend meetings, according to his brother.[11] In 1941, one of Ratzinger's cousins, a 14-year-old boy with Down syndrome, was taken away by the Nazi regime and killed during the Action T4 campaign of Nazi eugenics.[12] In 1943, while still in seminary, he was drafted into the German anti-aircraft corps as Luftwaffenhelfer (air force child soldier).[11] Ratzinger then trained in the German infantry.[13] As the Allied front drew closer to his post in 1945, he deserted back to his family's home in Traunstein after his unit had ceased to exist, just as American troops established their headquarters in the Ratzinger household.[14] As a German soldier, he was put in a POW camp but was released a few months later at the end of the war in the summer of 1945.[14] He reentered the seminary, along with his brother Georg, in November of that year.
Thus, following repatriation in 1945, the two brothers entered Saint Michael Seminary in Traunstein, later studying at the Ducal Georgianum (Herzogliches Georgianum) of the Ludwig-Maximilian University in Munich. They were both ordained in Freising on 29 June 1951 by Cardinal Michael von Faulhaber of Munich. Ratzinger recalled:
...at the moment the elderly Archbishop laid his hands on me, a little bird – perhaps a lark – flew up from the altar in the high cathedral and trilled a little joyful song.[15]
Ratzinger's 1953 dissertation was on St. Augustine and was titled The People and the House of God in Augustine's Doctrine of the Church. His Habilitation (which qualified him for a professorship) was on Bonaventure. It was completed in 1957 and he became a professor of Freising College in 1958.
Pre-papal career[link]
Academic career: 1951–77[link]
Ratzinger became a professor at the University of Bonn in 1959; his inaugural lecture was on "The God of Faith and the God of Philosophy". In 1963, he moved to the University of Münster.
During this period, Ratzinger participated in the Second Vatican Council (1962–65). Ratzinger served as a peritus (theological consultant) to Cardinal Frings of Cologne. He was viewed during the time of the Council as a reformer, cooperating with theologians like Hans Küng and Edward Schillebeeckx. Ratzinger became an admirer of Karl Rahner, a well-known academic theologian of the Nouvelle Théologie and a proponent of church reform.
In 1966, Ratzinger was appointed to a chair in dogmatic theology at the University of Tübingen, where he was a colleague of Hans Küng. In his 1968 book Introduction to Christianity, he wrote that the pope has a duty to hear differing voices within the Church before making a decision, and he downplayed the centrality of the papacy. During this time, he distanced himself from the atmosphere of Tübingen and the Marxist leanings of the student movement of the 1960s that quickly radicalised, in the years 1967 and 1968, culminating in a series of disturbances and riots in April and May 1968. Ratzinger came increasingly to see these and associated developments (such as decreasing respect for authority among his students) as connected to a departure from traditional Catholic teachings.[16] Despite his reformist bent, his views increasingly came to contrast with the liberal ideas gaining currency in theological circles.[17]
Some voices, among them Hans Küng, deem this a turn towards conservatism, while Ratzinger himself said in a 1993 interview, "I see no break in my views as a theologian [over the years]".[18] Ratzinger has continued to defend the work of the Second Vatican Council, including Nostra Aetate, the document on respect of other religions, ecumenism and the declaration of the right to freedom of religion. Later, as the Prefect for the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, Ratzinger most clearly spelled out the Catholic Church's position on other religions in the 2000 document Dominus Iesus which also talks about the Roman Catholic way to engage in "ecumenical dialogue".
During his years at Tübingen University, Ratzinger published articles in the reformist theological journal Concilium, though he increasingly chose less reformist themes than other contributors to the magazine such as Hans Küng and Edward Schillebeeckx.
In 1969, he returned to Bavaria, to the University of Regensburg. He founded the theological journal Communio, with Hans Urs von Balthasar, Henri de Lubac, Walter Kasper and others, in 1972. Communio, now published in seventeen languages, including German, English and Spanish, has become a prominent journal of contemporary Catholic theological thought. Until his election as Pope, he remained one of the journal's most prolific contributors. In 1976, he suggested that the Augsburg Confession might possibly be recognised as a Catholic statement of faith.[19][20]
Archbishop of Munich and Freising: 1977–82[link]
On 24 March 1977, Ratzinger was appointed Archbishop of Munich and Freising. He took as his episcopal motto Cooperatores Veritatis (Co-workers of the Truth) from 3 John 8, a choice he comments upon in his autobiographical work, Milestones. In the consistory of the following 27 June, he was named Cardinal-Priest of Santa Maria Consolatrice al Tiburtino by Pope Paul VI. By the time of the 2005 Conclave, he was one of only 14 remaining cardinals appointed by Paul VI, and one of only three of those under the age of 80. Of these, only he and William Wakefield Baum took part in the conclave.[21]
Prefect of the Sacred Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith: 1981–2005[link]
On 25 November 1981, Pope John Paul II named Ratzinger as the Prefect of the Sacred Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, formerly known as the "Sacred Congregation of the Holy Office", the historical Inquisition. Consequently, he resigned his post at Munich in early 1982. He was promoted within the College of Cardinals to become Cardinal Bishop of Velletri-Segni in 1993 and was made the college's vice-dean in 1998 and dean in 2002.
Ratzinger defended and reaffirmed Catholic doctrine, including teaching on topics such as birth control, homosexuality, and inter-religious dialogue. The theologian Leonardo Boff, for example, was suspended, while others were censured. Other issues also prompted condemnations or revocations of rights to teach: for instance, some posthumous writings of Jesuit priest Anthony de Mello were the subject of a "notification". Ratzinger and the congregation viewed many of them, particularly the later works, as having an element of religious indifferentism (i.e., Christ was "one master alongside others"). In particular, Dominus Iesus, published by the congregation in the jubilee year 2000, reaffirmed many recently "unpopular" ideas, including the Catholic Church's position that "Salvation is found in no one else, for there is no other name under heaven given to men by which we must be saved." The document angered many Protestant churches by claiming that they are not actually churches, but "ecclesial communities".[22]
Ratzinger's 2001 letter De delictis gravioribus clarified the confidentiality of internal church investigations, as defined in the 1962 document Crimen Sollicitationis, into accusations made against priests of certain crimes, including sexual abuse. This became a target of controversy during the sex abuse scandal.[23] As a Cardinal, Raztinger had been for twenty years the man in charge of enforcing the document.[24] While bishops hold the secrecy pertained only internally, and did not preclude investigation by civil law enforcement, the letter was often seen as promoting a coverup.[25] Later, as Pope, he was accused in a lawsuit of conspiring to cover up the molestation of three boys in Texas, but sought and obtained diplomatic immunity from prosecution.[26]
On 12 March 1983, Ratzinger, as prefect, notified the lay faithful and the clergy that archbishop Pierre Martin Ngo Dinh Thuc had incurred excommunication latae sententiae for illicit episcopal consecrations without the apostolic mandate.
In 1997, when he turned 70, Ratzinger asked Pope John Paul II for permission to leave the Congregation of the Doctrine of Faith and to become an archivist in the Vatican Secret Archives and a librarian in the Vatican Library, but the pope refused such permission.[27][28]
Medjugorje[link]
A number of quotes about the apparitions of Medjugorje have been attributed to Benedict XVI.[29] In 1998, when a certain German gathered various statements which were supposedly made by Pope John Paul II and Cardinal Ratzinger, and then forwarded them to the Vatican in the form of a memorandum, Ratzinger responded in writing on 22 July 1998: “The only thing I can say regarding statements on Medjugorje ascribed to the Holy Father and myself is that they are complete invention”[30]
Papacy[link]
Election to the papacy[link]
Main article: Papal conclave, 2005
Prediction[link]
On 2 January 2005, Time magazine quoted unnamed Vatican sources as saying that Ratzinger was a front runner to succeed John Paul II should the pope die or become too ill to continue as pope. On the death of John Paul II, the Financial Times gave the odds of Ratzinger becoming pope as 7–1, the lead position, but close to his rivals on the liberal wing of the church. In April 2005, before his election as pope, he was identified as one of the 100 most influential people in the world by Time. While Prefect of the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, Ratzinger repeatedly stated he would like to retire to his house in the Bavarian village of Pentling near Regensburg and dedicate himself to writing books.
Though Ratzinger was increasingly considered the front runner by much of the international media, others maintained that his election was far from certain, since very few papal predictions in modern history had come true. The elections of both John Paul II and his predecessor, John Paul I had been rather unexpected. Despite being the favorite (or perhaps because he was the favorite), it was a surprise to many that he was actually elected, as traditionally the frontrunners are passed over by the conclave for someone else.
Election[link]
On 19 April 2005, Ratzinger was elected as the successor to Pope John Paul II on the second day of the papal conclave after four ballots. Ratzinger had hoped to retire peacefully and said that "At a certain point, I prayed to God 'please don't do this to me'...Evidently, this time He didn't listen to me."[31] Coincidentally, 19 April is the feast of St. Leo IX, the most important German pope of the Middle Ages, known for instituting major reforms during his pontificate.
Before his first appearance at the balcony of Saint Peter's Basilica after becoming pope, he was announced by Jorge Medina Estévez, Cardinal Protodeacon of the Holy Roman Church. Cardinal Medina Estévez first addressed the massive crowd as "dear(est) brothers and sisters" in Italian, Spanish, French, German and English, with each language receiving cheers from the international crowd, before continuing with the traditional Habemus Papam announcement in Latin.
At the balcony, Benedict's first words to the crowd, given in Italian before he gave the traditional Urbi et Orbi blessing in Latin, were:
| “ | Dear brothers and sisters, after the great Pope John Paul II, the Cardinals have elected me, a simple, humble labourer in the vineyard of the Lord. The fact that the Lord knows how to work and to act even with insufficient instruments comforts me, and above all I entrust myself to your prayers. In the joy of the Risen Lord, confident of his unfailing help, let us move forward. The Lord will help us, and Mary, His Most Holy Mother, will be on our side. Thank you.[32] | ” |
On 24 April, he celebrated the Papal Inauguration Mass in St. Peter's Square, during which he was invested with the Pallium and the Ring of the Fisherman. Then, on 7 May, he took possession of his cathedral church, the Archbasilica of St. John Lateran.
Choice of name[link]
Ratzinger chose the pontifical name Benedict, which comes from the Latin word meaning "the blessed", in honour of both Pope Benedict XV and Saint Benedict of Nursia. Pope Benedict XV was Pope during the First World War, during which time he passionately pursued peace between the warring nations. St. Benedict of Nursia was the founder of the Benedictine monasteries (most monasteries of the Middle Ages were of the Benedictine order) and the author of the Rule of Saint Benedict, which is still the most influential writing regarding the monastic life of Western Christianity.
The pope explained his choice of name during his first General Audience in St. Peter's Square, on 27 April 2005:
| “ | Filled with sentiments of awe and thanksgiving, I wish to speak of why I chose the name Benedict. Firstly, I remember Pope Benedict XV, that courageous prophet of peace, who guided the Church through turbulent times of war. In his footsteps I place my ministry in the service of reconciliation and harmony between peoples. Additionally, I recall Saint Benedict of Nursia, co-patron of Europe, whose life evokes the Christian roots of Europe. I ask him to help us all to hold firm to the centrality of Christ in our Christian life: May Christ always take first place in our thoughts and actions![33] | ” |
Tone of papacy[link]
During his inaugural Mass, the previous custom of every cardinal submitting to the Pope was replaced by having twelve people, including cardinals, clergy, religious, a married couple and their child, and newly confirmed people, greet him. (The cardinals had formally sworn their obedience upon his election.) He began using an open-topped papal car, saying that he wanted to be closer to the people. Pope Benedict has continued the tradition of his predecessor John Paul II and baptises several infants in the Sistine Chapel at the beginning of each year, in his pastoral role as Bishop of Rome.
Beatifications[link]
On 9 May 2005, Benedict XVI began the beatification process for his predecessor, Pope John Paul II. Normally, five years must pass after a person's death before the beatification process can begin. However, in an audience with Pope Benedict, Camillo Ruini, Vicar General of the Diocese of Rome and the official responsible for promoting the cause for canonization of any person who dies within that diocese, cited "exceptional circumstances" which suggested that the waiting period could be waived. This happened before, when Pope Paul VI waived the five year rule and announced beatification processes for his predecessors, Pope Pius XII and Pope John XXIII. Benedict XVI followed this precedent when he waived the five year rule for John Paul II.[34] The decision was announced on 13 May 2005, the Feast of Our Lady of Fátima and the 24th anniversary of the attempt on John Paul II's life.[35] John Paul II often credited Our Lady of Fátima for preserving him on that day. Cardinal Ruini inaugurated the diocesan phase of the cause for beatification in the Lateran Basilica on 28 June 2005.[36]
The first beatification under the new Pope was celebrated on 14 May 2005, by José Cardinal Saraiva Martins, Cardinal Prefect of the Congregation for the Causes of Saints. The new Blesseds were Mother Marianne Cope and Mother Ascensión Nicol Goñi. Cardinal Clemens August Graf von Galen was beatified on 9 October 2005. Mariano de la Mata was beatified in November 2006 and Rosa Eluvathingal was beatified 3 December of that year, and Fr. Basil Moreau was beatified September 2007.[37] In October 2008 the following beatifications took place: Celestine of the Mother of God, Giuseppina Nicoli, Hendrina Stenmanns, Maria Rosa Flesch, Marta Anna Wiecka, Michael Sopocko, Petrus Kibe Kasui and 187 Companions, Susana Paz-Castillo Ramirez, Maria Isbael Salvat Romero, and John Henry Newman.
Unlike his predecessor, Benedict XVI delegated the beatification liturgical service to a Cardinal. On 29 September 2005, the Congregation for the Causes of Saints issued a communiqué announcing that henceforth beatifications would be celebrated by a representative of the Pope, usually the Prefect of that Congregation.[38]
Canonizations[link]
Pope Benedict XVI celebrated his first canonizations on 23 October 2005 in St. Peter's Square when he canonized Josef Bilczewski, Alberto Hurtado SJ, Zygmunt Gorazdowski, Gaetano Catanoso, and Felice da Nicosia. The canonizations were part of a Mass that marked the conclusion of the General Assembly of the Synod of Bishops and the Year of the Eucharist.[39] Pope Benedict XVI canonized Bishop Rafael Guizar y Valencia, Mother Theodore Guerin, Filippo Smaldone, and Rosa Venerini on 15 October 2006.
During his visit to Brazil in 2007, Pope Benedict XVI presided over the canonization of Frei Galvão on 11 May, while George Preca, founder of the Malta based M.U.S.E.U.M., Szymon of Lipnica, Charles of Mount Argus, and Marie-Eugénie de Jésus were canonized in a ceremony held at the Vatican on 3 June 2007.[40] Preca is the first Maltese saint since the country's conversion to Christianity in 60 A.D. when St. Paul converted the inhabitants.[41] In October 2008 the following canonizations took place: Saint Alphonsa of India,[42] Gaetano Errico, Narcisa de Jesus Martillo Moran, Maria Bernarda Bütler. In April 2009 he canonized Arcangelo Tadini, Bernardo Tolomei, Nuno Álvares Pereira, Geltrude Comensoli, Caterina Volpicelli.[43] In October of the same year he canonized Jeanne Jugan, Jozef Damian de Veuster, Zygmunt Szczęsny Feliński, Francisco Coll Guitart and Rafael Arnáiz Barón.[44][45]
On 17 October 2010, Pope Benedict XVI formally declared sainthood for Saint André Bessette, a French-Canadian; Stanislaw Soltys, a 15th-century Polish priest; Italian nuns Giulia Salzano and Camilla Battista da Varano; Spanish nun Candida Maria de Jesus Cipitria y Barriola and an Australian nun, Mother Mary MacKillop.[46]
On 23 October 2011, Pope Benedict XVI canonized three saints: a Spanish nun Bonifacia Rodriguez y Castro, Italian archbishop Guido Maria Conforti, and Italian priest Luigi Guanella.[47]
In December 2011, Pope Benedict formally recognized the validity of the miracles necessary to proceed with the canonizations of Kateri Tekakwitha, who will be the first Native American saint, Marianne Cope, a nun working with lepers in what is now the state of Hawaii, Giovanni Battista Piamarta, an Italian priest, Jacques Berthieu a French Jesuit priest and African martyr, Carmen Salles y Barangueras, a Spanish nun and founder of the Sisters of the Immaculate Conception, Peter Calungsod, a lay catechist and martyr from the Philippines, and Anna Schaffer whose desire to be a missionary was unfulfilled on account of her illness.[48] They will be canonized on 21 October 2012.[49]
Curia reform[link]
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Pope Benedict began downsizing the Roman Curia when he merged four existing pontifical councils into two in March 2006. The Pontifical Council for Migrants was merged with the Pontifical Council for Justice and Peace headed by Cardinal Martino. Likewise, Cardinal Poupard, who headed the Pontifical Council for Culture, now also oversees the operations of what had been the Pontifical Council for Interreligious Dialogue, though both Councils maintained separate officials and staffs while their status and competencies continued unchanged. In May 2007 it was decided that Interreligious Dialogue would again become a separate body under a different President. In June 2010 Benedict created the Pontifical Council for the Promotion of the New Evangelisation. He appointed Archbishop Salvatore Fisichella as its first president.
Teachings[link]
See also: Theology of Pope Benedict XVI
As Pope, one of Benedict XVI's main roles is to teach about the Catholic faith and the solutions to the problems of discerning and living the faith,[50] a role that he can play well as a former head of the Church's Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith. The main points of emphasis of his teachings are stated in more detail in Theology of Pope Benedict XVI.
"Friendship with Jesus Christ"[link]
At the conclusion of his first homily as Pope, Benedict referred to both Jesus Christ and John Paul II. Citing John Paul II's well-known words, "Do not be afraid! Open wide the doors for Christ!", Benedict XVI said:
| “ | Are we not perhaps all afraid in some way? If we let Christ enter fully into our lives, if we open ourselves totally to Him, are we not afraid that He might take something away from us?...And once again the Pope said: No! If we let Christ into our lives, we lose nothing, nothing, absolutely nothing of what makes life free, beautiful and great. No! Only in this friendship do we experience beauty and liberation....When we give ourselves to Him, we receive a hundredfold in return. Yes, open, open wide the doors to Christ – and you will find true life.[51] | ” |
"Friendship with Jesus Christ" is a frequent theme of his preaching.[52][53] He stressed that on this intimate friendship, "everything depends."[54] He has also said: "We are all called to open ourselves to this friendship with God... speaking to him as to a friend, the only One who can make the world both good and happy... That is all we have to do is put ourselves at his disposal...is an extremely important message. It is a message that helps to overcome what can be considered the great temptation of our time: the claim, that after the Big Bang, God withdrew from history."[55] Thus, in his book Jesus of Nazareth, his main purpose was "to help foster [in the reader] the growth of a living relationship" with Jesus Christ.[54]
He took up this theme in his first encyclical Deus Caritas Est. In his personal explanation and summary of the encyclical, he stated: "If friendship with God becomes for us something ever more important and decisive, then we will begin to love those whom God loves and who are in need of us. God wants us to be friends of his friends and we can be so, if we are interiorly close to them."[56] Thus, he said that prayer is "urgently needed...It is time to reaffirm the importance of prayer in the face of the activism and the growing secularism of many Christians engaged in charitable work."
"Dictatorship of Relativism"[link]
Continuing what he said in the pre-conclave Mass about what he has often referred to as the "central problem of our faith today",[57] on 6 June 2005 Pope Benedict also said:
| “ | Today, a particularly insidious obstacle to the task of education is the massive presence in our society and culture of that relativism which, recognising nothing as definitive, leaves as the ultimate criterion only the self with its desires. And under the semblance of freedom it becomes a prison for each one, for it separates people from one another, locking each person into his or her own ego.[58] | ” |
He said that "a dictatorship of relativism"[59] was the core challenge facing the church and humanity. At the root of this problem, he said, is Kant's "self-limitation of reason". This, he said, is contradictory to the modern acclamation of science whose excellence is based on the power of reason to know the truth. He said that this self-amputation of reason leads to pathologies of religion such as terrorism and pathologies of science such as ecological disasters.[60] Benedict traced the failed revolutions and violent ideologies of the 20th century to a conversion of partial points of view into absolute guides. He said "Absolutizing what is not absolute but relative is called totalitarianism."[61]
In an address to a conference of the Diocese of Rome held at the basilica of St. John Lateran 6 June 2005, Benedict remarked on the issues of same sex marriage and abortion:
- The various forms of the dissolution of matrimony today, like free unions, trial marriages and going up to pseudo-matrimonies by people of the same sex, are rather expressions of an anarchic freedom that wrongly passes for true freedom of man...from here it becomes all the more clear how contrary it is to human love, to the profound vocation of man and woman, to systematically close their union to the gift of life, and even worse to suppress or tamper with the life that is born.[62]
Christianity as religion according to reason[link]
In the discussion with secularism and rationalism, one of Benedict's basic ideas can be found in his address on the "Crisis of Culture" in the West, a day before Pope John Paul II died, when he referred to Christianity as the Religion of the Logos (the Greek for "word", "reason", "meaning", or "intelligence"). He said:
| “ | From the beginning, Christianity has understood itself as the religion of the Logos, as the religion according to reason...It has always defined men, all men without distinction, as creatures and images of God, proclaiming for them...the same dignity. In this connection, the Enlightenment is of Christian origin and it is no accident that it was born precisely and exclusively in the realm of the Christian faith....It was and is the merit of the Enlightenment to have again proposed these original values of Christianity and of having given back to reason its own voice... Today, this should be precisely [Christianity's] philosophical strength, in so far as the problem is whether the world comes from the irrational, and reason is not other than a 'sub-product,' on occasion even harmful of its development—or whether the world comes from reason, and is, as a consequence, its criterion and goal...In the so necessary dialogue between secularists and Catholics, we Christians must be very careful to remain faithful to this fundamental line: to live a faith that comes from the Logos, from creative reason, and that, because of this, is also open to all that is truly rational.[63] | ” |
Benedict also emphasised that "Only creative reason, which in the crucified God is manifested as love, can really show us the way."
Encyclicals[link]
Pope Benedict has to date written three encyclicals: Deus Caritas Est (Latin for "God is Love"), Spe Salvi ("Saved by Hope"), and Caritas in Veritate ("Love in Truth").
In his first encyclical, Deus Caritas Est, he said that a human being, created in the image of God who is love, is able to practice love: to give himself to God and others (agape), by receiving and experiencing God's love in contemplation. This life of love, according to him, is the life of the saints such as Teresa of Calcutta and the Blessed Virgin Mary, and is the direction Christians take when they believe that God loves them in Jesus Christ.[64]
The encyclical contains almost 16,000 words in 42 paragraphs. The first half is said to have been written by Benedict in German, his mother tongue, in the summer of 2005; the second half is derived from uncompleted writings left by his predecessor, Pope John Paul II.[65] The document was signed by Pope Benedict on Christmas Day, 25 December 2005.[66] The encyclical was promulgated a month later in Latin and was translated into English, French, German, Italian, Polish, Portuguese and Spanish. It is the first encyclical to be published since the Vatican decided to assert copyright in the official writings of the Pope.[67]
Pope Benedict's second encyclical titled Spe Salvi ("Saved by Hope"), about the virtue of hope, was released on 30 November 2007.[68][69]
Benedict's third encyclical titled Caritas in Veritate ("Love in Truth" or "Charity in Truth"), was signed on 29 June 2009 (the Feast of Sts. Peter and Paul) and released on 7 July 2009.[70] In it, the Pope continued the Church's teachings on social justice. He condemned the prevalent economic system "where the pernicious effects of sin are evident," and called on people to rediscover ethics in business and economic relations.[70]
Post-synodal apostolic exhortation[link]
Sacramentum Caritatis (The Sacrament of Charity) signed 22 February 2007, released in Latin, Italian, English, French, German, Portuguese, Spanish, and Polish. It was made available in various languages 13 March 2007 in Rome. The English edition from Libera Editrice Vaticana is 158 pages. This apostolic exhortation "seeks to take up the richness and variety of the reflections and proposals which emerged from the recent Ordinary General Assembly of the Synod of Bishops..." which was held in 2006.[71]
Motu proprio on Tridentine Mass[link]
See also: Summorum Pontificum
The high altar of a church was usually preceded by three steps, below which were said the Prayers at the Foot of the Altar. Side altars usually had only one step.
On 7 July 2007, Benedict XVI issued the motu proprio Summorum Pontificum, declaring that upon "the request of the faithful", celebration of Mass according to the Missal of 1962 (commonly known as the Tridentine Mass), was to be more easily permitted. Stable groups who previously had to petition their bishop to have a Tridentine Mass may now merely request permission from their local priest.[72] While Summorum Pontificum directs that pastors should provide the Tridentine Mass upon the requests of the faithful, it also allows for any qualified priest to offer private celebrations of the Tridentine Mass, to which the faithful may be admitted if they wish.[73] For regularly scheduled public celebrations of the Tridentine Mass, the permission of the priest in charge of the church is required.[74]
In an accompanying letter, the Pope outlined his position concerning questions about the new guidelines.[73] As there were fears that the move would entail a reversal of the Second Vatican Council,[75] Benedict emphasised that the Tridentine Mass would not detract from the Council, and that the Mass of Paul VI would still be the norm and priests were not permitted to refuse to say the Mass in that form. He pointed out that use of Tridentine Mass "was never juridically abrogated and, consequently, in principle, was always permitted."[73] The letter also decried "deformations of the liturgy ... because in many places celebrations were not faithful to the prescriptions of the new Missal" as the Second Vatican Council was wrongly seen "as authorising or even requiring creativity", mentioning his own experience.[73]
The Pope considered that allowing the Tridentine Mass to those who request it was a means to prevent or heal schism, stating that, on occasions in history, "not enough was done by the Church’s leaders to maintain or regain reconciliation and unity" and that this "imposes an obligation on us today: to make every effort to enable for all those who truly desire unity to remain in that unity or to attain it anew."[73] Many feel the decree aimed at ending the schism between the Holy See and traditionalist groups such as the Society of St. Pius X (SSPX). Cardinal Darío Castrillón Hoyos, the president of the Pontifical Commission established for the purpose of facilitating full ecclesial communion of those associated with that Society,[76] stated that the decree "opened the door for their return". Bishop Bernard Fellay, superior general of the SSPX, expressed "deep gratitude to the Sovereign Pontiff for this great spiritual benefit".[72]
Unicity and Salvific Universality of the Church[link]
Near the end of June 2007, the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith issued a document approved by Benedict XVI "because some contemporary theological interpretations of Vatican II's ecumenical intent had been 'erroneous or ambiguous' and had prompted confusion and doubt."[77] The document has been seen as restating "key sections of a 2000 text the pope wrote when he was prefect of the congregation, Dominus Iesus."[77]
Consumerism[link]
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Benedict XVI has condemned excessive consumerism, especially among youth. He stated in December 2007 that "[A]dolescents, youths and even children are easy victims of the corruption of love, deceived by unscrupulous adults who, lying to themselves and to them, draw them into the dead-end streets of consumerism."[78]
In June 2009, he blamed outsourcing for greater availability of consumer goods which lead to downsizing of social security systems.[79]
Ecumenical efforts[link]
Main article: Pope Benedict XVI and Ecumenism
Speaking at his weekly audience in St Peter's Square on 7 June 2006, Pope Benedict asserted that Jesus himself had entrusted the leadership of the Church to his apostle Peter. "Peter's responsibility thus consists of guaranteeing the communion with Christ," said Pope Benedict. "Let us pray so that the primacy of Peter, entrusted to poor human beings, may always be exercised in this original sense desired by the Lord, so that it will be increasingly recognised in its true meaning by brothers who are still not in communion with us."
Dialogue with other religions[link]
Pope Benedict is open to dialogue with other religious groups, and has sought to improve relations with them throughout his pontificate.[80][81] He has, however, generated certain controversies in doing so.
Judaism[link]
Main article: Pope Benedict XVI and Judaism
When Benedict ascended to the Papacy his election was welcomed by the Anti-Defamation League who noted "his great sensitivity to Jewish history and the Holocaust".[82] However, his election received a more reserved response from the United Kingdom's Chief Rabbi Jonathan Sacks, who hoped that Benedict would "continue along the path of Pope John XXIII and Pope John Paul II in working to enhance relations with the Jewish people and the State of Israel."[83] The Foreign Minister of Israel also offered more tentative praise, though the Minister believed that "this Pope, considering his historical experience, will be especially committed to an uncompromising fight against anti-Semitism."[83]
Critics have accused Benedict's papacy of insensitivity towards Judaism. The two most prominent instances were the expansion of the use of the Tridentine Mass and the lifting of the excommunication on four bishops from the Society of St. Pius X (SSPX). In the Good Friday service, the traditional Mass rubrics include a prayer that asks God to lift the veil so they [Jews] may be delivered from their darkness. This prayer has historically been contentious in Judaic-Catholic relations and several groups saw the restoration of the Tridentine Mass as problematic.[84][85][86][87][88] Among those whose excommunications were lifted was Bishop Richard Williamson, an outspoken historical revisionist misinterpreted as a Holocaust denier.[89][90][91][92] The lifting of his excommunication led critics to charge that the Pope was condoning his historical revisionist views.[93]
Islam[link]
Main article: Pope Benedict XVI and Islam
Pope Benedict's relations with Islam have been strained at times. On 12 September 2006 Pope Benedict XVI delivered a lecture which touched on Islam at the University of Regensburg in Germany. The pope had previously served as professor of theology at the university, and his lecture was entitled "Faith, Reason and the University—Memories and Reflections". The lecture received much attention from political and religious authorities. Many Islamic politicians and religious leaders registered their protest against what they said was an insulting mischaracterisation of Islam, although his focus was aimed towards the rationality of religious violence, and its effect on the religion.[94][95] Muslims were particularly offended by the following quotation from the Pope's speech:
| “ | Show me just what Muhammad brought that was new and there you will find things only evil and inhuman, such as his command to spread by the sword the faith he preached.[95] | ” |
The passage originally appeared in the "Dialogue Held With A Certain Persian, the Worthy Mouterizes, in Anakara of Galatia[96][97] written in 1391 as an expression of the views of the Byzantine emperor Manuel II Paleologus, one of the last Christian rulers before the Fall of Constantinople to the Muslim Ottoman Empire, on such issues as forced conversion, holy war, and the relationship between faith and reason. According to the German text, the Pope's original comment was that the emperor "addresses his interlocutor in an astoundingly harsh—to us surprisingly harsh—way" (wendet er sich in erstaunlich schroffer, uns überraschend schroffer Form).[98] Pope Benedict apologised for any offence he had caused and made a point of visiting Turkey, a predominantly Muslim country, and praying in its Blue Mosque.
Pope Benedict XVI planned on 5 March 2008, to meet with Muslim scholars and religious leaders autumn 2008 at a Catholic-Muslim seminar in Rome.[99] That meeting, the "First Meeting of the Catholic-Muslim Forum," was held from 4–6 November 2008.[100]
On 9 May 2009 H.H. Pope Benedict XVI visited the King Hussein Mosque, Amman, Jordan where he was addressed by H.R.H. Prince Ghazi bin Muhammad bin Talal.[80]
Tibetan Buddhism[link]
The Dalai Lama congratulated Pope Benedict XVI upon his election,[101] and visited him in October 2006 in the Vatican City. In 2007 China was accused of using its political influence to stop a meeting between the Pope and the Dalai Lama.[102]
Indigenous American beliefs[link]
While visiting Brazil in May 2007, "the pope sparked controversy by saying that native populations had been 'silently longing' for the Christian faith brought to South America by colonizers."[103] The Pope continued, stating that "the proclamation of Jesus and of his Gospel did not at any point involve an alienation of the pre-Columbus cultures, nor was it the imposition of a foreign culture."[103] President of Venezuela Hugo Chávez demanded an apology, and an indigenous organisation in Ecuador issued a response which stated that "representatives of the Catholic Church of those times, with honourable exceptions, were accomplices, deceivers and beneficiaries of one of the most horrific genocides of all humanity."[103] Later, the pope, speaking Italian, said at a weekly audience that it was:
"not possible to forget the suffering and the injustices inflicted by colonizers against the indigenous population, whose fundamental human rights were often trampled."[104]
International Society for Krishna Consciousness[link]
While visiting the United States on 17 April 2008, Benedict met with International Society for Krishna Consciousness representative Radhika Ramana Dasa;[105] a notable Hindu scholar[106] and disciple of Hanumatpreshaka Swami.[107] On behalf of the Hindu American community, Radhika Ramana Dasa presented a gift of an Om symbol to Benedict.[108][109]
Apostolic ministry[link]
Main article: List of journeys of Pope Benedict XVI
As Pontiff, Benedict XVI carries out numerous Apostolic activities including journeys across the world and in the Vatican.
Benedict travelled extensively during the first three years of his papacy. In addition to his travels within Italy, Pope Benedict XVI has made two visits to his homeland, Germany, one for World Youth Day and another to visit the towns of his childhood. He has also visited Poland and Spain, where he was enthusiastically received.[110] His visit to Turkey, an overwhelmingly Muslim nation, was initially overshadowed by the controversy about a lecture he had given at Regensburg. His visit was met by nationalist and Islamic protesters[111] and was placed under unprecedented security measures.[112] However, the trip went ahead and Benedict made a joint declaration with Ecumenical Patriarch Bartholomew I in an attempt to begin to heal the rift between the Catholic and Orthodox churches.
In 2007, Pope Benedict visited Brazil in order to address the Bishops' Conference there and canonize Friar Antônio Galvão, an 18th century Franciscan. In June 2007, Benedict made a personal pilgrimage and pastoral visit to Assisi, the birthplace of St. Francis. In September, Benedict undertook a three day visit to Austria,[113] during which he joined Vienna's Chief Rabbi, Paul Chaim Eisenberg, in a memorial to the 65,000 Viennese Jews who perished in Nazi death camps.[114] During his stay in Austria, he also celebrated Mass at the Marian shrine Mariazell and visited Heiligenkreuz Abbey.[115]
In April 2008, Pope Benedict XVI made his first visit to the United States since becoming pope.[116] He arrived in Washington, DC where he was formally received at the White House and met privately with U.S. President George W. Bush.[117] While in Washington, the pope addressed representatives of US Catholic universities, met with leaders of other world religions, and celebrated Mass at the Washington Nationals' baseball stadium with 47,000 people.[118] The Pope also met privately with victims of sexual abuse by priests. The pope travelled to New York where he addressed the United Nations General Assembly.[119] Also while in New York, the pope celebrated Mass at St. Patrick's Cathedral, met with disabled children and their families, and attended an event for Catholic youth, where he addressed some 25,000 young people in attendance.[120] On the final day of the pope's visit, he visited the World Trade Center site and later celebrated Mass at Yankee Stadium.[121]
In July 2008, the Pope travelled to Australia to attend World Youth Day 2008 in Sydney. On 19 July, in St. Mary's Cathedral, he made an apology for child sex abuse perpetrated by the clergy in Australia.[122][123] On 13 September 2008, at an outdoor Paris Mass attended by 250,000 people, Pope Benedict XVI condemned the modern materialism – the world's love of power, possessions and money as a modern-day plague, comparing it to paganism.[124][125]
In 2009, he visited Africa (Cameroon and Angola) for the first time as a Pope. During his visit, he suggested that altering sexual behavior was the answer to Africa's AIDS crisis, and urged Catholics to reach out and convert believers in sorcery.
He visited the Middle East (Jordan, Israel and Palestine) in May 2009.
Pope Benedict's main arena for pastoral activity is the Vatican itself, his Christmas and Easter homilies and Urbi et Orbi are delivered from St Peter's Basilica. The Vatican is also the only regular place where the Pope travels via motor without the protective bulletproof case common to most popemobiles. Despite the more secure setting Pope Benedict has been victim to security risks several times inside Vatican City. On Wednesday, 6 June 2007 during his General Audience a man lept across a barrier, evaded guards and nearly mounted the Pope's vehicle, although he was stopped and Benedict seemed to be unaware of the event. On Thursday, 24 December 2009, while Pope Benedict was proceeding to the altar to celebrate Christmas Eve Mass at St Peter's Basilica, a woman later identified as 25-year-old Susanna Maiolo, who holds Italian and Swiss citizenships, jumped the barrier and grabbed the pope by his vestments and pulled him to the ground. The 82-year-old fell but was assisted to his feet and he continued to proceed towards the altar to celebrate Mass. Roger Etchegaray, 87, the vice-dean of the College of Cardinals, fell also and suffered a hip fracture. Italian police revealed that the woman had previously attempted to accost the Pope at the previous Christmas Eve Mass, but was prevented from doing so.[126][127]
In his homily, Pope Benedict forgave Susanna Maiolo[128] and urged the world to "wake up" from selfishness and petty affairs, and find time for God and spiritual matters.[126]
Between 17 and 18 April, Pope Benedict made an Apostolic Journey to the Republic of Malta. Following meetings with various dignitaries on his first day on the island, 50,000 people gathered in a drizzle for Papal Mass on the granaries in Floriana. The Pope also met with the Maltese youth at the Valletta Waterfront, where an estimated 10,000 young people turned up to greet him.[129] During his visit the Pope was moved to tears while expressing his shame at cases of abuse on the island during a 20 minute meeting with victims.[130]
Sexual abuse in the Catholic Church[link]
See also: Catholic sex abuse cases
Prior to 2001, the primary responsibility for investigating allegations of sexual abuse and disciplining perpetrators rested with the individual dioceses. In 2001, Ratzinger convinced John Paul II to put the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith in charge of all investigations and policies surrounding sexual abuse in order to combat such abuse more efficiently.[131][132] According to John L. Allen, Jr., Ratzinger in the following years "acquired a familiarity with the contours of the problem that virtually no other figure in the Catholic church can claim" and "driven by that encounter with what he would later refer to as 'filth' in the church, Ratzinger seems to have undergone something of a 'conversion experience' throughout 2003–04. From that point forward, he and his staff seemed driven by a convert's zeal to clean up the mess".[133] In his role as Head of the CFD, he "led important changes made in church law: the inclusion in canon law of internet offences against children, the extension of child abuse offences to include the sexual abuse of all under 18, the case by case waiving of the statute of limitation and the establishment of a fast-track dismissal from the clerical state for offenders."[134] As the Head of the CDF, Ratzinger developed a reputation for handling these cases. According to Charles J. Scicluna, a former prosecutor handling sexual abuse cases, "Cardinal Ratzinger displayed great wisdom and firmness in handling those cases, also demonstrating great courage in facing some of the most difficult and thorny cases, sine acceptione personarum (without exceptions)".[133][135]
One of the cases Ratzinger pursued involved Father Marcial Maciel Degollado, a Mexican priest and founder of the Legion of Christ, who had been accused repeatedly of sexual abuse. Biographer Andrea Tornielli suggested that Cardinal Ratzinger had wanted to take action against Marcial Maciel Degollado, but that John Paul II and other high-ranking officials, including several cardinals and notably the pope's influential secretary Stanisław Dziwisz, prevented him from doing so.[132][136] According to Jason Berry, Angelo Sodano "pressured" Cardinal Ratzinger, who was "operating on the assumption that the charges were not justified", to halt the proceedings against Maciel in 1999[137] When Maciel was honored by the Pope in 2004, new accusers came forward[137] and Cardinal Ratzinger "took it on himself to authorize an investigation of Maciel"[132] After Ratzinger became pope he began proceedings against Maciel and the Legion of Christ that forced Maciel out of active service in the church.[131] On 1 May 2010 the Vatican issued a statement denouncing Maciel's "very serious and objectively immoral acts", which were "confirmed by incontrovertible testimonies" and represent "true crimes and manifest a life without scruples or authentic religious sentiment." Pope Benedict also said he would appoint a special commission to examine the Legionaries’ constitution and open an investigation into its lay affiliate Regnum Christi.[138] Cardinal Christoph Schönborn explained that Ratzinger "made entirely clear efforts not to cover things up but to tackle and investigate them. This was not always met with approval in the Vatican".[131][139] According to Schönborn, Cardinal Ratzinger had pressed John Paul II to investigate Hans Hermann Groër, an Austrian cardinal and friend of John Paul accused of sexual abuse, resulting in Groër's resignation.[136]
In March 2010, the Pope sent a Pastoral Letter to the Catholic Church in Ireland addressing cases of sexual abuse by Catholic priests to minors, expressing sorrow, and promising changes in the way accusations of abuse are dealt with.[140] Victim groups claim the letter failed to clarify if secular law enforcement has priority over canon law confidentiality pertaining to internal investigation of abuse allegations.[141][142][143][144] The Pope then promised to introduce measures that would 'safeguard young people in the future' and 'bring to justice' priests who were responsible for abuse.[130] In April, the Vatican issued guidelines on how existing church law should be implemented. The guideline dictates that "Civil law concerning reporting of crimes... should always be followed."[145] The guideline was intended to follow the norms established by U.S. bishops, but it does not require the reporting of "allegations" or crimes where reporting is not required by law.[146]
Attire[link]
Main article: Ceremonial of Benedict XVI
Pope Benedict XVI has re-introduced several papal garments which had previously fallen into disuse. Pope Benedict XVI resumed the use of the traditional red papal shoes, which had not been used since early in the pontificate of Pope John Paul II. Contrary to the initial speculation of the press that the shoes had been made by the Italian fashion house Prada, the Vatican announced that the shoes were provided by the pope's personal shoemaker.[147]
On 21 December 2005, the pope once only wore the camauro, the traditional red papal hat usually worn in the winter. It had not been seen since the pontificate of Pope John XXIII (1958–1963). On 6 September 2006 the pope began wearing the red cappello romano (also called a saturno), a wide-brimmed hat for outdoor use. Rarely used by John Paul II, it was more widely worn by his predecessors.
Health[link]
Prior to his election as Pope in 2005, Joseph Ratzinger had hoped to retire—on account of age-related health problems, a long-held desire to have free time to write, and the retirement age for bishops (75)—and submitted his resignation as Prefect of the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith three times, but continued at his post in obedience to the wishes of Pope John Paul II. In September 1991, Ratzinger suffered a hemorrhagic stroke, which slightly impaired his eyesight temporarily but he recovered completely.[148] This was never affirmed – the official news was that Cardinal Ratzinger fell and struck his head against a radiator – but an open secret known to the Conclave that elected him Pope.[149]
Since his election in April 2005 there have been several rumors about the Pope's health but none of them have ever been confirmed. Early in his pontificate Pope Benedict XVI predicted a short reign which led to concerns about his health.[150] In May 2005, the Vatican revealed that he had subsequently suffered another mild stroke. French Cardinal Philippe Barbarin further revealed that since the first stroke, Ratzinger had been suffering from a heart condition as a result of his age, for which he is currently on medication. In late November 2006, Vatican insiders told the international press that the Pope had a routine examination of the heart.[149] A few days later an unconfirmed rumor emerged that Pope Benedict had undergone an operation in preparation for an eventual bypass operation but this rumor was only published by a small left-wing Italian newspaper and was never confirmed by any Vatican insider.[151]
On Friday 17 July 2009 Benedict was hospitalized after falling and breaking his right wrist while on vacation in the Alps. His injuries were reported to be minor.[152]
Titles and style[link]
| Papal styles of Pope Benedict XVI |
|
|---|---|
|
|
| Reference style | His Holiness |
| Spoken style | Your Holiness |
| Religious style | Holy Father |
The official style of the Pope is His Holiness Pope Benedict XVI; in Latin, Benedictus XVI, Episcopus Romae.
However, his rarely used full title is: His Holiness Pope Benedict XVI, Bishop of Rome, Vicar of Christ, Successor of the Prince of the Apostles, Supreme Pontiff of the Universal Church, Primate of Italy, Archbishop and Metropolitan of the Roman province, Sovereign of the State of the Vatican City, Servant of the Servants of God.
Before 1 March 2006, the list of titles also used to contain that of a "Patriarch of the West", which traditionally appeared in that list of titles before "Primate of Italy". The title of "Patriarch of the West" was first adopted in the year 642 by Pope Theodore I, but was rarely used since the East-West Schism of 1054. From the Orthodox perspective, authority in the Church could be traced to the five patriarchates of Rome, Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch and Jerusalem. However, some Catholic theologians have argued that the term "Patriarch of the West" has no clear historical or theological basis and was introduced into the papal court in 1870 at the time of the First Vatican Council. Pope Benedict chose to remove the title at a time when discussions with the Orthodox churches have centred on the issue of papal primacy.
Arms[link]
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Positions on moral and political issues[link]
Birth control and HIV/AIDS[link]
In 2005, the Pope listed several ways to combat the spread of HIV, including chastity, fidelity in marriage and anti-poverty efforts; he also rejected the use of condoms.[154] The alleged Vatican investigation of whether there are any cases when married persons may use condoms to protect against the spread of infections surprised many Catholics in the wake of John Paul II's consistent refusal to consider condom use in response to AIDS.[155] However, the Vatican has since stated that no such change in the Church's teaching can occur.[156] TIME also reported in its 30 April 2006 edition that the Vatican's position remains what it always has been with Vatican officials "flatly dismiss[ing] reports that the Vatican is about to release a document that will condone any condom use."[156]
In March 2009, the Pope stated:
I would say that this problem of AIDS cannot be overcome merely with money, necessary though it is. If there is no human dimension, if Africans do not help, the problem cannot be overcome by the distribution of prophylactics: on the contrary, they increase it. The solution must have two elements: firstly, bringing out the human dimension of sexuality, that is to say a spiritual and human renewal that would bring with it a new way of behaving towards others, and secondly, true friendship offered above all to those who are suffering, a willingness to make sacrifices and to practise self-denial, to be alongside the suffering.[157]
In November 2010, in a book-length interview, the Pope, using the example of male prostitutes, stated that the use of condoms, with the intention of reducing the risk of HIV infection, may be an indication that the prostitute is intending to reduce the evil connected with his or her immoral activity.[158] In the same interview, the Pope also reiterated the traditional teaching of the Church that condoms are not seen as a "real or moral solution" to the HIV/AIDS pandemic. Further, in December 2010, the Congregation of the Doctrine of the Faith explained that the Pope's statement did not constitute a legitimization of either prostitution or contraception, both of which remain gravely immoral.[158]
Homosexuality[link]
During his time as Prefect of the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith (CDF) Benedict XVI made several efforts to tackle the issue of homosexuality within the Church and the wider world. In 1986 the CDF sent a letter to all Bishops entitled: On the Pastoral Care of Homosexual Persons. The letter condemned a liberal interpretation of the earlier CDF document Declaration on Certain Questions Concerning Sexual Ethics, which had led to a "benign" attitude "to the homosexual condition itself". On the Pastoral Care of Homosexual Persons clarified that the Church position on Homosexuality was that "although the particular inclination of the homosexual person is not a sin, it is a more or less strong tendency ordered toward an intrinsic moral evil; and thus the inclination itself must be seen as an objective disorder."[159] However the document also condemned homophobic attacks and violence stating "It is deplorable that homosexual persons have been and are the object of violent malice in speech or in action. Such treatment deserves condemnation from the Church's pastors wherever it occurs."[159]
In 1992 he again approved CDF documents declaring that homosexual "inclination itself must be seen as an objective disorder" and extended this principle to civil law. "Sexual orientation", the document opined, was not equivalent to race or ethnicity, and it declared that it was "not unjust discrimination to take sexual orientation into account."[160]
On 22 December 2008, the Pope gave an end of year message to the Roman Curia in which he talked about gender and the important distinction between men and women. The pope said that the church viewed the distinction as central to human nature, and "asks that this order, set down by creation, be respected". He characterised gender roles which deviated from his view of what gender roles should be as "a violation of the natural order". The church, he said, "should protect man from the destruction of himself". He said a sort of ecology of man was needed, adding: "The tropical forests do deserve our protection; but man, as a creature, does not deserve any less." He attacked what he described as gender theories which "lead towards the self-emancipation of man from creation and the creator"."[161][162]
LGBT groups such as the Italian Arcigay and German LSVD have announced that they found the Pope's comments homophobic.[163] Aurelio Mancuso, head of Arcigay, saying "A divine programme for men and women is out of line with nature, where the roles are not so clear."[161]
Father Federico Lombardi, a Vatican spokesman, claimed the Pope had not wished specifically to attack homosexuality, and had not mentioned gays or lesbians in his text. Father Lombardi insisted, however, that there had been an overreaction to the Pope's remarks. "He was speaking more generally about gender theories which overlook the fundamental difference in creation between men and women and focus instead on cultural conditioning." Nevertheless, the remarks were interpreted as a call to save mankind from homosexuals and transsexuals.[161]
International relations[link]
Main article: Foreign relations of the Holy See
Migrants and refugees[link]
In a message released 14 November 2006, during a Vatican press conference for the 2007 annual observance of World Day for Migrants and Refugees, the pope urged the ratification of international conventions and policies that defend all migrants, including refugees, exiles, evacuees, and internally displaced persons. "The church encourages the ratification of the international legal instruments that aim to defend the rights of migrants, refugees and their families," the pope said. "Much is already being done for the integration of the families of immigrants, although much still remains to be done."[164]
Pope Benedict has also promoted various UN events, such as World Refugee Day, on which he offered up special prayers for refugees and called for the international community to do more to secure refugees' human rights. He also called on Catholic communities and organizations to offer them concrete help.[165]
China[link]
Main article: People's Republic of China – Holy See relations
In 2007 Benedict sent a letter at Easter to Catholics in China that could have wide-ranging implications for the church's relationship with China's leadership. The letter provides long-requested guidance to Chinese bishops on how to respond to illicitly ordained bishops, as well as how to strengthen ties with the Patriotic Association and the Communist government.[166]
Korea[link]
On 13 November 2006, Benedict said the dispute over the North Korea nuclear weapons program should be resolved through negotiations, in his first public comment on the security issue, a news report said. "The Holy See encourages bilateral or multilateral negotiations, convinced that the solution must be sought through peaceful means and in respect for agreements taken by all sides to obtain the denuclearisation of the Korean Peninsula." Benedict was talking to the new Japanese ambassador to the Vatican.[167]
Turkey[link]
Main article: Holy See – Turkey relations
In a 2004 Le Figaro interview, Ratzinger said that Turkey, which is demographically Muslim but governmentally secular by virtue of its state constitution, should seek its future in an association of Muslim nations rather than the European Union, which Ratzinger has stated has Christian roots. He said Turkey had always been "in permanent contrast to Europe and that linking it to Europe would be a mistake.[168]
Later visiting the country to "reiterate the solidarity between the cultures," it was reported that he made a counter-statement backing Turkey's bid to join the EU. Prime Minister of Turkey Recep Tayyip Erdoğan, said that the pope told him in their meeting that while the Vatican seeks to stay out of politics it desires Turkey's membership in the EU.[169][170] However, the Common Declaration of Pope Benedict XVI and Patriarch Bartholomew I of Constantinople implied that support for Turkey's membership in the European Union would be contingent on the establishment of religious freedom in Turkey:[171] "In every step towards unification, minorities must be protected, with their cultural traditions and the distinguishing features of their religion."[172] The Declaration also reiterates Pope Benedict XVI's call for Europe to preserve its Christian roots.
Israel[link]
Main article: Holy See – Israel relations
In May 2009 he visited Israel.[173][174] This was the third Papal visit to the Holy Land, the previous ones being made by Pope Paul VI in 1964 and Pope John Paul II in 2000.
Vietnam[link]
Main article: Holy See – Vietnam relations
Pope Benedict XVI and Prime Minister Nguyễn Tấn Dũng met at the Vatican on 25 January 2007 in a "new and important step towards establishing diplomatic ties".[175] The Pope met with President Nguyễn Minh Triết on 11 December 2009. Vatican officials called the meeting "a significant stage in the progress of bilateral relations with Vietnam."[176]
Global economy[link]
In 2009 the Pope intervened in global economic and political affairs with his third encyclical, Charity in Truth (Latin Caritas in Veritate), which can be viewed on the Vatican's web site.[177] The document sets out the Pope's position on the case for worldwide redistribution of wealth in considerable detail and goes on to discuss the environment, migration, terrorism, sexual tourism, bioethics, energy and population issues. The Financial Times has reported that the Pope's advocacy for a fairer redistribution of wealth has helped set the agenda for the 2009 July G8 summit.[178][179]
Nuclear energy[link]
Pope Benedict XVI has called for nuclear disarmament. At the same time, he has supported the peaceful use of nuclear energy as a tool for development and the fight against poverty. In his message for the 50th anniversary of the founding of the International Atomic Energy Agency, he confirmed: "The Holy See, fully approving of the IAEA's goal, has been a member from the organisation's foundation and continues to support its activity."[180]
Interests[link]
Pope Benedict is known to be deeply interested in classical music,[8] and is an accomplished pianist.[181] He has a grand piano in his papal quarters. The Pontiff's favorite composer is Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, of whose music the Pope said: "His music is by no means just entertainment; it contains the whole tragedy of human existence."[182] Benedict also stated that Mozart's music affected him greatly as a young man and "deeply penetrated his soul."[182] Benedict's favorite works of music are Mozart's Clarinet Concerto and Clarinet Quintet.[183]
Pope Benedict has recorded an album of contemporary classical music in which Benedict sings and recites prayers to the Blessed Virgin Mary.[184] The album was set for release on 30 November 2009.
Pope Benedict is also known to be fond of cats.[8] As Cardinal Ratzinger he was known (according to former neighbours) to look after stray cats in his neighbourhood. A book called Joseph and Chico: A Cat Recounts the Life of Pope Benedict XVI was published in 2007 which told the story of the Pope's life from the feline Chico's perspective. This story was inspired by an orange tabby Pentling cat, which belonged to the family next door.[185] During his trip to Australia for World Youth Day in 2008 the media reported that festival organizers lent the Pope a grey cat called Bella[186] in order to keep him company during his stay.[187]
Honours and awards[link]
- 1977 Grand Cross of the National Order of Merit of the Republic of Ecuador
- 1977 Bavarian Order of Merit
- 1985 Great Cross of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany with Star and Sash
- 1985 Constitutional Medal of the Bavarian state parliament in Gold
- 1989 Ordine della Minerva at the University of Chieti
- 1989 Augustin Bea Prize (Rome)
- 1989 Karl-Valentin-Orden (Munich)
- 1991 Leopold Kunschak Prize (Vienna)
- 1991 Georg von Hertling Medal of CT
- 1992 Grand Gold Medal with Ribbon for Services to the Republic of Austria
- 1992 Literature Prize Capri S. Michele in Anacapri
- 1992 Premio Internazionale di Cultura Cattolica, Bassano del Grappa
- 1993 literary prize Premio Letterario Basilicata per la Letteratura e Poesia religiosa Spirituale in Potenza (Italy)
- 1996 Bavarian Maximilian Order for Science and the Arts
- 1998 Commander of the Legion of Honour (Legion d'Honneur) (France)
- 2002 Liberal Trieste
- 2004 Literature Prize Capri S. Michele in Anacapri
See also[link]
 |
Book: Pope Benedict XVI |
| Wikipedia books are collections of articles that can be downloaded or ordered in print. | |
- Georg Gänswein – private secretary to Benedict
- List of books by Pope Benedict XVI
- List of encyclicals of Pope Benedict XVI
- List of journeys of Pope Benedict XVI
- Papal regalia and insignia – papal attire
- Pope Benedict – list of other popes and antipopes using the name Benedict
- Three Secrets of Fátima – document on the release of the Third Secret of Fátima
- Works of Pope Benedict XVI – literature written by Pope Benedict XVI
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- ^ The precise number of popes has been a matter for scholarly debate for centuries. John A. Hardon's Modern Catholic Dictionary (1980) lists Pope John Paul II (1978–2005) as 264th Pope, making him the 265th.
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The man in charge of enforcing it for 20 years was Cardinal Joseph Ratzinger, the man made Pope last year. In 2001 he created the successor to the decree.
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Further reading[link]
Books by Pope Benedict XVI[link]
Main article: Pope Benedict XVI bibliography
The following is a list of books written by Pope Benedict XVI arranged chronologically by English first edition. The original German first edition publication year is included in parentheses.
- Theological Highlights of Vatican II. New York: Paulist Press. 1966 (1963). ISBN 978-0-8091-4610-9. [note 1]
- Introduction to Christianity. London: Burns & Oats. 1968 (1968). ISBN 978-0-223-97705-1.
- Faith and Future. Chicago: Franciscan Herald Press. 1971 (1970). ISBN 978-1-58617-219-0.
- The God of Jesus Christ: Meditations on the Triune God. Chicago: Franciscan Herald Press. 1978 (1977). ISBN 978-1-58617-184-1.
- Daughter Zion: Meditations on the Church's Marian Belief. Chicago: Franciscan Herald Press. 1983 (1977). ISBN 978-0-89870-026-8.
- Dogma and Preaching. Chicago: Franciscan Herald Press. 1985 (1973). ISBN 978-1-58617-327-2.
- Principles of Christian Morality. San Francisco: Ignatius Press. 1986 (1975). ISBN 978-0-89870-086-2.
- Feast of Faith: Approaches to a Theology of the Liturgy. San Francisco: Ignatius Press. 1986 (1981). ISBN 978-0-89870-056-5.
- The Ratzinger Report: An Exclusive Interview on the State of the Church. San Francisco: Ignatius Press. 1986 (1985). ISBN 978-0-89870-080-0.
- Seek That Which Is Above: Meditations through the Year. San Francisco: Ignatius Press. 1986 (1985). ISBN 978-1-58617-187-2.
- Behold the Pierced One: An Approach to a Spiritual Christology. San Francisco: Ignatius Press. 1986 (1984). ISBN 978-0-89870-087-9.
- The Blessing of Christmas: Meditations for the Season. San Francisco: Ignatius Press. 1986. ISBN 978-1-58617-172-8.
- Principles of Catholic Theology: Building Stones for a Fundamental Theology. San Francisco: Ignatius Press. 1987 (1982). ISBN 978-0-89870-215-6.
- Eschatology: Death and Eternal Life. Washington DC: Catholic University of America Press. 1988 (1977). ISBN 978-0-8132-1516-7.
- Church, Ecumenism and Politics: New Essays in Ecclesiology. New York: Crossroad. 1988 (1987). ISBN 978-1-58617-217-6.
- Ministers of Your Joy: Scriptural Meditations on Priestly Spirituality. Ann Arbor: Redeemer Books. 1989 (1988). ISBN 978-0-89283-654-3.
- The Theology of History in St. Bonaventure. Chicago: Franciscan Herald Press. 1989 (1959). ISBN 978-0-8199-0415-7.
- To Look on Christ: Excercises in Faith, Hope, and Love. New York: Crossroad. 1991 (1989). ISBN 978-0-8245-1064-0.
- A Turning Point for Europe?. San Francisco: Ignatius Press. 1994 (1991). ISBN 978-1-58617-349-4.
- The Nature and Mission of Theology: Essays to Orient Theology in Today's Debates. San Francisco: Ignatius Press. 1995 (1993). ISBN 978-0-89870-538-6.
- In the Beginning...: A Catholic Understanding of the Story of Creation and the Fall. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans Publishing. 1995 (1986). ISBN 978-0-8028-4106-3.
- Called to Communion: Understanding the Church Today. San Francisco: Ignatius Press. 1996 (1991). ISBN 978-0-89870-578-2.
- A New Song for the Lord: Faith in Christ in Liturgy Today. New York: Crossroad. 1997 (1995). ISBN 978-0-8245-1536-2.
- Salt of the Earth: The Church at the End of the Millennium. San Francisco: Ignatius Press. 1997 (1996). ISBN 978-0-89870-640-6.
- Milestones: Memoirs 1927–1977. San Francisco: Ignatius Press. 1998 (1997). ISBN 978-0-89870-702-1.
- Many Religions, One Covenant: Israel, the Church, and the World. San Francisco: Ignatius Press. 1999 (1997). ISBN 978-0-89870-753-3.
- The Spirit of the Liturgy. San Francisco: Ignatius Press. 2000 (2000). ISBN 978-0-89870-784-7.
- God and the World. San Francisco: Ignatius Press. 2002 (2000). ISBN 978-0-89870-868-4.
- God Is Near Us: The Eucharist, the Heart of Life. San Francisco: Ignatius Press. 2003 (2001). ISBN 978-0-89870-962-9.
- Truth and Tolerance: Christian Belief and World Religions. San Francisco: Ignatius Press. 2004 (2003). ISBN 978-1-58617-035-6.
- Introduction to Christianity (revised edition). San Francisco: Ignatius Press. 2004 (1968). ISBN 978-1-58617-029-5.
- Pilgrim Fellowship of Faith: The Church as Communion. San Francisco: Ignatius Press. 2005 (2002). ISBN 978-0-89870-963-6.
- Compendium of the Catechism of the Catholic Church. Washington DC: United States Conference of Catholic Bishops. 2005. ISBN 978-1-57455-720-6.
- Mary: The Church at the Source. San Francisco: Ignatius Press. 2005 (1997). ISBN 978-1-58617-018-9.
- Way of the Cross. Boston: Pauline Books & Media. 2005. ISBN 978-0-8198-8308-7.
- On the Way to Jesus Christ. San Francisco: Ignatius Press. 2005. ISBN 978-1-58617-124-7.
- Christianity and the Crisis of Cultures. San Francisco: Ignatius Press. 2006 (2005). ISBN 978-1-58617-142-1.
- Handing on the Faith in an Age of Disbelief. San Francisco: Ignatius Press. 2006 (1983). ISBN 978-1-58617-143-8.
- Images of Hope: Meditations on Major Feasts. San Francisco: Ignatius Press. 2006 (1997). ISBN 978-0-89870-964-3.
- God's Revolution: Pope Benedict XVI's Cologne Talks. San Francisco: Ignatius Press. 2006 (2004). ISBN 978-1-58617-145-2.
- Values in a Time of Upheaval. San Francisco: Ignatius Press. 2006 (2004). ISBN 978-0-8245-2373-2.
- God Is Love: Deus Caritas Est. San Francisco: Ignatius Press. 2006 (2006). ISBN 978-1-58617-163-6.
- What It Means to Be a Christian. San Francisco: Ignatius Press. 2006 (1965). ISBN 978-1-58617-133-9.
- Without Roots: The West, Relativism, Christianity, Islam. San Francisco: Basic Books. 2006. ISBN 978-0-465-00627-4.
- On Conscience. San Francisco: Ignatius Press. 2007 (1984). ISBN 978-1-58617-160-5.
- Europe: Today and Tomorrow. San Francisco: Ignatius Press. 2007 (2004). ISBN 978-1-58617-134-6.
- New Outpourings of the Spirit. San Francisco: Ignatius Press. 2007 (2006). ISBN 978-1-58617-181-0.
- Jesus of Nazareth. New York: Doubleday. 2007 (2007). ISBN 978-0-385-52341-7.
- Jesus, the Apostles, and the Early Church. San Francisco: Ignatius Press. 2007. ISBN 978-1-58617-220-6.
- God's Word: Scripture, Tradition, Office. San Francisco: Ignatius Press. 2008 (2005). ISBN 978-1-58617-179-7.
- Saved in Hope: Spe Salvi. San Francisco: Ignatius Press. 2008 (2007). ISBN 978-1-58617-251-0.
- The Fathers. Huntington: Our Sunday Visitor. 2008. ISBN 978-1-59276-440-2.
- Church Fathers: From Clement of Rome to Augustine. San Francisco: Ignatius Press. 2008. ISBN 978-1-58617-245-9.
- Charity in Truth: Caritas in Veritate. San Francisco: Ignatius Press. 2009 (2009). ISBN 978-1-58617-280-0.
- Saint Paul. Huntington: Our Sunday Visitor. 2009 (2009). ISBN 978-1-58617-367-8.
- The Joy of Knowing Christ: Meditations on the Gospels. Frederick: Word Among Us Press. 2009. ISBN 978-1-59325-151-2.
- Light of the World: The Pope, The Church, and the Signs of the Times. San Francisco: Ignatius Press. 2010. ISBN 978-1-58617-606-8.
- The Fathers, Volume II. Huntington: Our Sunday Visitor. 2010. ISBN 978-1-59276-783-0.
- The Apostles. Huntington: Our Sunday Visitor. 2010. ISBN 978-1-59276-799-1.
- The Virtues. Huntington: Our Sunday Visitor. 2010. ISBN 978-1-59276-794-6.
- Great Teachers. Huntington: Our Sunday Visitor. 2011. ISBN 978-1-59276-536-2.
- Holiness Is Always in Season. San Francisco: Ignatius Press. 2011. ISBN 978-1-58617-444-6.
- Jesus of Nazareth: Holy Week. Huntington: Our Sunday Visitor. 2011. ISBN 978-1-58617-500-9.
- Holy Women. Huntington: Our Sunday Visitor. 2011. ISBN 978-1-61278-510-3.
- Doctors of the Church. Huntington: Our Sunday Visitor. 2011. ISBN 978-1-61278-576-9.
Literature about him[link]
- Allen, John L.: Cardinal Ratzinger: the Vatican's enforcer of the faith. – New York: Continuum, 2000
- Herrmann, Horst: Benedikt XVI. Der neue Papst aus Deutschland. – Berlin 2005
- Nichols OP, Aidan: The Theology of Joseph Ratzinger: An Introductory Study. – Edinburgh; T&T Clark, 1988
- Pater Prior Maximilian Heim: Joseph Ratzinger — Kirchliche Existenz und existenzielle Theologie unter dem Anspruch von Lumen gentium (diss.).
- Twomey, D. Vincent, S.V.D.: Pope Benedict XVI: The Conscience of Our Age (A Theological Portrait). – San Francisco: Ignatius Press, 2007
- Wagner, Karl: Kardinal Ratzinger: der Erzbischof in München und Freising in Wort und Bild. – München : Pfeiffer, 1977
Biographies[link]
- Allen, John L. The Rise of Benedict XVI: The Inside Story of How the Pope Was Elected and Where He Will Take the Catholic Church. NY: Doubleday, 2005. ISBN 0-385-51320-8.
- Allen, John L. Pope Benedict XVI: A Biography of Joseph Ratzinger. New York: Continuum International Publishing Group, 2005. ISBN 0-8264-1786-8. This is a reprint of Allen's 2000 book Cardinal Ratzinger: the Vatican's Enforcer of the Faith.
- Bardazzi, Marco. In the Vineyard of the Lord : The Life, Faith, and Teachings of Joseph Ratzinger, Pope Benedict XVI. New York: Rizzoli International, 2005. ISBN 0-8478-2801-8
- Bunson, Matthew. We Have a Pope! Benedict XVI Huntington, IN: Our Sunday Visitor. ISBN 1-59276-180-1.
- Campbell, Paul-Henri: Pope Benedikt XVI. Audio Book. Monarda Publishing House, 2012, ISBN 3-939513-80-6.
- Pursell, Brennan, Benedict of Bavaria: An Intimate Portrait of the Pope and His Homeland (Circle Press, 2008). ISBN 1-933271-17-5.
- Tobin, Greg. Holy Father : Pope Benedict XVI: Pontiff for a New Era. Sterling, 2005. ISBN 1-4027-3172-8.
- Weigel, George. God's Choice: Pope Benedict XVI and the Future of the Catholic Church, Harper Collins, 2005. ISBN 0-06-621331-2.
Documentaries[link]
- The Keys of the Kingdom, from John Paul II to Benedict XVI, produced by Vatican Television Center, distributed by HDH Communications, 2006.
Notes[link]
- ^ |This book was originally published in German in four volumes: Die erste Sitzungsperiode des Zweiten Vatikanischen Konzils (1963), Das Konzil auf dem Weg (1964), Ergebnisse und Probleme der dritten Konzilsperiode (1965), and Die letzte Sitzungsperiode des Konzils (1966).
External links[link]
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- Vatican: the Holy See – Vatican web site
- The Holy See – The Holy Father – Benedict XVI – Vatican web site about the Holy Father Benedict XVI
- Vatican: Election Vatican web page about the Papal Conclave and Benedict's first acts as Pope
- The Vatican (Official YouTube channel from the Vatican about main activities of the Pope and relevant Vatican events)
- Pope Benedict XVI at Catholic-Hierarchy. Retrieved on 3 April 2010.
- Works by or about Pope Benedict XVI in libraries (WorldCat catalog)
- Encyclicals by Benedict XVI
- Deus Caritas Est – encyclical God is Love
- Spe Salvi – encyclical In hope we were saved
- Caritas in Veritate – encyclical In Charity and Truth
| Episcopal lineage | |
| Consecrated by: | Josef Stangl |
| Consecrator of | |
|---|---|
| Bishop | Date of consecration |
| Alberto Bovone | 12 May 1984 |
| Zygmunt Zimowski | 25 May 2002 |
| Josef Clemens | 6 January 2004 |
| Bruno Forte | 8 September 2004 |
| Mieczysław Mokrzycki | 29 September 2007 |
| Francesco Giovanni Brugnaro | 29 September 2007 |
| Gianfranco Ravasi | 29 September 2007 |
| Tommaso Caputo | 29 September 2007 |
| Sergio Pagano | 29 September 2007 |
| Vincenzo Di Mauro | 29 September 2007 |
| Gabriele Giordano Caccia | 12 September 2009 |
| Franco Coppola | 12 September 2009 |
| Pietro Parolin | 12 September 2009 |
| Raffaello Martinelli | 12 September 2009 |
| Giorgio Corbellini | 12 September 2009 |
| Catholic Church titles | ||
|---|---|---|
| Preceded by Julius Döpfner |
Archbishop of Munich and Freising 1977–1982 |
Succeeded by Friedrich Wetter |
| Preceded by Franjo Šeper |
Prefect of the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith 1981–2005 |
Succeeded by William Levada |
| Preceded by Bernardin Gantin |
Dean of the College of Cardinals 2002–2005 |
Succeeded by Angelo Sodano |
| Preceded by John Paul II |
Pope 19 April 2005 – present |
Incumbent |
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| Persondata | |
|---|---|
| Name | Benedict XVI, Pope |
| Alternative names | Ratzinger, Joseph Alois; Benedictus PP. XVI; Benedetto XVI; Benedikt XVI |
| Short description | 265th and reigning Pope |
| Date of birth | 16 April 1927 |
| Place of birth | Marktl am Inn, Bavaria, Germany |
| Date of death | |
| Place of death | |
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| Evo Morales | |
|---|---|
 |
|
| President of Bolivia | |
| Incumbent | |
| Assumed office January 22, 2006 |
|
| Vice President | Álvaro García Linera |
| Preceded by | Eduardo Rodríguez |
| Personal details | |
| Born | (1959-10-26) 26 October 1959 (age 52) Isallawi, Bolivia |
| Political party | Movement for Socialism |
Juan Evo Morales Ayma (born October 26, 1959), popularly known as Evo (Spanish pronunciation: [ˈeβo]), is a Bolivian politician and activist, serving as the 80th President of Bolivia, a position that he has held since 2006. He is also the leader of both the Movement for Socialism party (MAS) and the cocalero trade union. Politically a socialist, his presidency has seen a focus on implementing leftist policies in the country, introducing a new constitution, land reforms, nationalising various key industries, opposing United States and corporate involvement in the country's politics, and poverty reduction measures.[1]
Born into a working class Aymara family in Isallawi, Orinoca Canton, Evo grew up aiding his parents as a subsistence farmer. After studying for a degree, Morales undertook national service until 1978, when he returned to the family profession of farming, moving with them to Chapare Province. He eventually settled into growing coca, the plant from which cocaine is made. His activism led him into the political arena, and he eventually became the leader of the MAS, through which he got involved in social protests like the gas conflict and the Cochabamba protests of 2000. The MAS claimed that its aims were giving more power to the country's indigenous and poor communities by means of land reforms and redistribution of gas wealth, and gradually increased its electoral support.
Morales was first elected President of Bolivia on December 18, 2005, with 53.7% of the popular vote. Two and a half years later he substantially increased this majority; in a recall referendum on August 14, 2008, more than two thirds of voters voted to keep him in office.[2][3] Morales won presidential elections again in December 2009 with 63% and continued to his second term of presidency.[4]
A critic of the United States' foreign policy and the involvement of drug cartels in Latin America, he has been a firm ally of the socialist government of Hugo Chávez in Venezuela and the Communist government of Fidel Castro in Cuba.
Contents |
Early life and activism[link]
Childhood and education: 1959-1977[link]
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A traditional Aymara ceremony (left); Poopó Lake was the dominant geographical feature around Evo's home village of Isallawi (right).[5]
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Morales was born in Isallawi village, a rural community of around thirty houses scattered over an area of 4 square kilometres in Orinoca Canton, a part of the Oruro Department in western Bolivia, on 26 October 1959.[5] He was one of seven children born to Dionisio Morales Choque and Maria Mamani; however, only Morales and two of his siblings, Esther and Hugo, survived past childhood.[5][6][7] Indeed, his mother suffered a postpartum haemorrhage after giving birth to him, almost dying due to the absence of any doctors or midwives in the village.[5] Ethnically a mestizo and thereby being of American Indian heritage, much of his ancestry came from the indigenous Aymara people, and in keeping with Aymara custom, his father buried the placenta produced after his birth in a place specially chosen for the occasion.[5] He grew up speaking the Aymara language, although later commentators would remark that by the time he had become president he was no longer an entirely fluent speaker, something some critics would use against him.[8][9]
Morales' family were farmers and from an early age he took part in his parents' work, aiding in planting and harvesting crops and guarding their herd of llamas and sheep, always taking a homemade soccer ball with him to amuse himself.[5][6] His home was an adobe house with a dirt floor and straw roof, in keeping with Aymara cultural style.[9] As a toddler, he briefly attended the preparatory school in Orinoca, although aged five he began schooling at the primary school in his home village, which consisted of a single room in which children of all ages were taught.[10][11] Aged six, he travelled with his sister and father to northern Argentina for six months where his father worked harvesting sugar cane, and Evo himself sold ice cream as well as briefly attending school, but speaking only Aymara he had difficulty understanding the lessons, which were taught in Spanish, and he was forced to leave.[10][12] As a child, he would also regularly travel by foot to Arani province in Cochabamba with his father and their llamas, a journey lasting up to two weeks, in order to exchange their salt and potatoes for maize and coca.[9][13] A big fan of soccer, aged 13 he organised a community soccer team, 'The Fraternity', with himself as team captain. Within two years, he had been elected to the position of training coach for the whole region, gaining early experience with leadership.[12][14]
After finishing primary education, Morales attended the Agrarian Humanistic Technical Institute of Orinoca (ITAHO), completing all but the final year.[15] That year, his parents then sent him to study for a degree in Oruro, where although he did very poorly academically, he finished all of his courses and exams by 1977, meanwhile earning money on the side as a brick-maker, day labourer, baker and a trumpet player for the Royal Imperial Band, the latter of which allowed him to travel across Bolivia.[15][16][17][18] However, at the end of his higher education he failed to collect his degree certificate, probably because of the expense that this would have entailed; in Bolivia, obtaining a "certificate for completed studies" was "a very costly and time-consuming affair."[15] Although he had an interest in going on to study journalism at university, he didn't have the grades to pursue it as a profession.[15][19]
Military service and El Chapare: 1978-1981[link]
At the time, the Bolivian government instituted mandatory conscription into the army, and so Morales had to serve in the armed forces between 1977 and 1978. He had initially signed up at the Centre for Instruction of Special Troops (CITE) in Cochabamba, but was instead sent into the 4th Ingavi Cavalry Regiment and stationed at the army headquarters in Bolivia's administrative capital La Paz to undertake his military service.[15][19][20] These two years saw "one of Bolivia's politically most unstable periods", with five presidents and two military coups, led by General Juan Pereda and General David Padilla respectively.[15] It was under the regime of the latter that Morales was stationed as a guard at the Palacio Quemado, or Presidential Palace.[21]
_y_Catedral_Metropolitana_de_La_Paz,_Bolivia.jpg)
At the end of his military service, Evo returned to his family, who had decided to move from Isallawi, where they had lived for four generations, and set up a new home in the Tropics of Cochabamba, located in the eastern Bolivian lowlands; this was brought about after the Orinoca communities had been hit by the El Niño storm cycle in 1980, which decimated the region's agriculture.[18][19] In doing so, the Morales family were following in an Andean tradition that had been practiced since at least the time of the Inca Empire, that of moving between the different climatic zones in order to diversify their livelihoods; according to Andean tradition, the family ayllu, being a discontinuous territory, would move with them, but retain links to Isallawi.[22] Setting up a new home in the town of Villa 14 de Septiembre, El Chapare with the help of a loan from Evo's maternal uncle, the Morales family cleared a plot of land in the semi-tropical forest, and proceeded to grow such crops as rice, oranges, grapefruit, papaya, bananas and later on also coca.[23][24] The arrival of the Morales family was a part of a much wider migration to the region, with many Bolivians hoping to set up farms where they could earn a living growing coca, the plant from which cocaine is made, and was experiencing a steady rise in price and which could be cultivated up to four times a year; in 1981 El Chapare's population was 40,000 but by 1988 it had risen to 215,000.[25]
In his new home, Evo got to know the local community by joining their soccer team, before going on to found his own team, named New Horizon, who proved victorious at the August 2nd Central Tournament.[25] The El Chapare region would remain special to Evo for many years to come, for during his presidency he would often talk about it in public speeches and would return there whenever possible, frequenting one of three "locally renowned" fish restaurants for one of his favourite dishes, surubí.[23]
[edit] Entering the cocalero union: 1981-1983
It was in El Chapare that Evo joined a cocalero union made up of coca producers, first getting involved in political activism. in 1980, the General Luis García Meza came to power.
Further political instability rocked the nation when Luis García Meza was forced to resign, and in 1982 the left wing Democratic and Popular Union (Unidad Democrática y Popular - UDP) took power in representative democratic elections, with Hernán Siles Zuazo becoming president. However, with the Bolivian economy in crisis, the UDP implemented a series of neoliberal capitalist reforms to the economy, cutting back the state sector and opening the country up to foreign investment, privatizing companies. The reforms brought hyperinflation under control. The U.S. government then ordered further intervention in Bolivia as a part of the War on Drugs to destroy the illegal narcotics trade; as U.S. President George H.W. Bush proclaimed, "The fastest and cheapest way to eliminate narcotic trafficking is at its source... We need to do away with the plantations where they grow". Because coca was the key ingredient in the production of cocaine, the U.S. sent their own armed forces into El Chapare in order to aid the Bolivian authorities in halting its production.[26]
In 1983, Evo's father Dionisio died, and so he temporarily retreated from his work with the cocalero syndicate to focus on organising his father's affairs.[27] However, the Bolivian government angered Evo, who returned to campaigning on behalf of the coca drug cartels, that he liked to call "coca farmers" to disguise the fact that he was supporting the cocaine trade. He refused the $2,500 compensation offered by the government for each acre of coca that he eradicated; the campesinos was a very profitable means of subsistence. For them, the lucrative trade in cocaine had them rich, and they resented the government for cutting off the cash flow. They tried to paint it as issue of national sovereignty, and they did their best to villainize the U.S., equating them helping the Bolivian government to crack down on the drug trade with invading imperalists proclaiming "Long live coca! Death to the Yankees!" ("Causachun coca! Wañuchun yanquis!").[28] From 1982 to 1983, Evo served as the General Secretary of his local San Francisco syndicate, before serving as Secretary of Records from 1984 to 1985, and then General Secretary of the August 2nd Headquarters in 1985.[28]
[edit] General Secretary of the Cocalero Union: 1985-1994
By 1985, Morales was elected general secretary in a union of farmers growing coca for the drug cartels and by 1988 was elected executive secretary of the Tropics Federation.[29] He retains this position to this day, even while serving as President of Bolivia. Around this time the Bolivian government, encouraged by the US, began a program to eradicate most coca production. By 1996 Morales was made president of the Coordinating Committee of the Six Federations of the Tropics of Cochabamba.[29] Morales was among those opposing the government's position on coca and lobbied in favor the drug cartels. This opposition often resulted in him being jailed. Morales was a talented leader, taking coca production, and drug production as a symbol of Andean culture. He said that coca or cocaine was in danger of extinction and the evil imperialists led of course by the U.S., were oppressing them, by fighting the drug trade. Furthermore, he presented the coca growers working for the drug cartels as victims of a wealthy, urban social elite, who had bowed to U.S. pressure. Morales soon led a 600 km march from Cochabamba to the Bolivian capital La Paz.
Early political activity[link]
The ASP, IPSP and MAS: 1995-1999[link]
Members of the sindicato social movement first began suggesting that they move into the political arena in 1986. This suggestion brought much disagreement, with many fearing that a move into politics would lead the social movement to be co-opted for personal gain by politicians, who were widely mistrusted by the activists.[30] Evo Morales began supporting the formation of a political wing in 1989, although a consensus in favor of its formation only emerged in 1993.[31] On March 27, 1995, at the seventh congress of the Unique Confederation of Rural Laborers of Bolivia (Confederación Sindical Única de Trabajadores Campesinos de Bolivia - CSUTCB), such a "political instrument" - a term intentionally employed over "political party" - was finally founded, named the Assembly for the Sovereignty of the Peoples (Asamblea por la Sobernía de los Pueblos - ASP).[31][32] The ASP soon held its first congress, at which the CSUTCB participated along with three other Bolivian unions, the FNMB, CSCB and CIDOB, representing miners, peasants and indigenous peoples respectively.[31]
Nonetheless, the National Electoral Court (Corte Nacional Electoral - CNE) prevented Morales or any of his fellow activists running for political office under the ASP banner by refusing to recognize it, citing minor procedural infringements.[31] The coca activists circumvented this problem by instead running under the banner of the United Left (IU), a coalition of leftist parties that had been founded in 1988 and which was headed by the Communist Party of Bolivia (Partido Comunista Boliviano - PCB).[31][32] They went on to win landslide victories in those areas which were local strongholds of the movement, producing 11 mayors and 49 municipal councilors.[31] In the subsequent national elections of 1997, the IU/ASP gained four seats in Congress, obtaining 3.7% of the national vote, with this rising to 17.5% in the department of Cochabamba.[33] Morales was among the four activists elected to Congress, representing the provinces of Chapare and Carrasco, and carrying 70% of the votes in his electoral district.[32]
Rising electoral success was accompanied by factional in-fighting, with a leadership contest emerging in the ASP between the incumbent Alejo Véliz and Evo Morales, who had the electoral backing of the social movement's bases.[33] Morales and his supporters subsequently split from Véliz and the ASP and formed their own party, the Political Instrument for the Sovereignty of the Peoples (Instrumento Político por la Soberanía de los Pueblos - IPSP).[33][34] The movement's bases soon defected en masse to the IPSP, leaving the ASP to crumble and Véliz to join the centre-right New Republican Force (Nueva Fuerza Republicana - NFR), for which Morales denounced him as a traitor.[35]
Morales came to an agreement with David Añez Pedraza, the leader of a defunct yet still registered party named the Movement for Socialism (MAS); under this agreement, Morales and the Six Federaciónes could take over the party name, with Pendraza stipulating the condition that they must maintain its own acronym, name and colors. Thus the defunct right wing MAS became the flourishing left wing vehicle for the coca activist movement known as the Movement for Socialism – Political Instrument for the Sovereignty of the Peoples.[32][35] The MAS is described as "an indigenous-based political party that calls for the nationalization of industry, legalization of the coca leaf … and fairer distribution of national resources."[36]
Morales and the MAS went on to contest the local elections of December 5, 1999.
Expulsion from Congress[link]
While Morales was a Member of Congress, the governments of Hugo Banzer and Jorge Quiroga broadened the eradication campaign through Plan Dignidad. The cocaine producing region of Chapare which Morales represented was beset with hundreds of police and military officers who were seen by Morales as "committing an innumerable amount of abuses and assassinations which violated the most basic human rights and liberties."[32] Morales denounced the militarization and said that the government was committing a massacre in the Chapare, he declared that the peasants had a right to resist militarily against the troops who were said to be shooting at protesters.[32] Then three police officers were slain when they attempted to close a coca market.[20] In light of Morales' comments about armed resistance on January 24, 2002 a 104-member majority of Congress voted to have him expelled. The Congressional Ethics Commission declared that Morales had committed "serious inadequacies in the execution of his duties."[32] With his popularity rising for standing up to an unpopular government, on March 5, 2002, he submitted an objection to the Constitutional Tribunal saying his rights had been violated. He said his right to defend himself, to the presumption of innocence, and to parliamentary immunity had all been unjustly ignored.[32]
2002 presidential elections[link]
The same day he petitioned the Constitutional Tribunal, Morales resigned from the Confederation of Coca Producers of Cochabamba and was endorsed by the Six Federations of the Tropics as the MAS 2002 presidential candidate.[32] The supportive crowd cheered him on saying "Kausachum coca!" ("Long live coca!") and "Huaiñuchum yanquis!" ("Down with Yankees!"), they also "hoisted the wiphala, the multi-colored checkered flag that is the emblem of the Andean cultures, along with the standard tri-colored Bolivian flag."[32]
In the 2002 presidential election, Morales came in second place, a surprising upset for Bolivia's traditional parties. This made the indigenous activist an instant celebrity throughout the continent. Morales credited his near victory in part to comments made by then U.S. Ambassador to Bolivia Manuel Rocha, who warned, "As a representative of the United States, I want to remind the Bolivian electorate that if you elect those who want Bolivia to become a major cocaine exporter again, this will endanger the future of U.S. assistance to Bolivia."[37] Morales said that these remarks helped to "awaken the conscience of the people."
2005 presidential elections[link]
Main article: Bolivian presidential election, 2005
In 2005, President Carlos Mesa resigned under pressure by MAS and their supporters, led by Morales, by means of road blocks and riots.[38][39] Because of this, and as a result of growing discontent and popular unrest, Congress and President Eduardo Rodríguez Veltzé decided to move up the 2007 elections to December 2005.
At a gathering of farmers celebrating the 10th anniversary of the founding of MAS in March 2005, Morales declared, "MAS is ready to rule Bolivia", having "consolidated its position as the [prime] political force in the country". He also said, "the problem is not winning the elections anymore but knowing how to rule the country."[40]
Preliminary polls placed Morales and the Movement for Socialism in an uncomfortable three-way tie with center and right wing forces and urban majority leaders Jorge Quiroga, from the party Social and Democratic Power (PODEMOS), and Samuel Doria Medina, with only a few points' difference. By August 21, Morales had chosen his running mate for the presidential elections, left-wing ideologist, sociologist, mathematician, and political analyst Álvaro García Linera, who fought alongside of Felipe Quispe as part of the Tupac Katari Guerrilla Army (EGTK).
By December 4, Morales had moved ahead in the polls to around 32% of the vote. Quiroga hovered around 27% with Samuel Doria Medina coming in at less than 15%. All of the parties promised national solidarity, nationalization (in some form) of the hydrocarbons, and wealth for the people.[citation needed]
On December 14, the Wall Street Journal reported, "Most polls give the 46-year-old Mr. Morales a lead of about 34% to 29% over his nearest rival, conservative former President Jorge Quiroga." Over 100,000 election judges were sworn in as the country prepared for the elections on December 18.
Exit polls were published almost as soon as voting closed, with Morales expected to win 42–45% of the vote and Quiroga 33–37%. Quiroga conceded defeat within a few hours.
By December 22, the official count was at 53.899% of the vote, with 98.697% of the ballots tallied, and no congressional vote was necessary to determine the winner.
Presidency[link]
Main article: Presidency of Evo Morales
First Presidential Term: 2006-2009[link]
Inauguration[link]
On January 21, 2006, Morales attended an indigenous spiritual ceremony at the archaeological site and modern spiritual center of Tiwanaku where he was crowned as Apu Mallku or Supreme Leader of the Aymara, the indigenous group to which Morales belongs, and received gifts from many groups representing indigenous peoples from various parts of Latin America and the world.
"In the world there are large and small countries, rich countries and poor countries, but we are equal in one thing, which is our right to dignity and sovereignty…"
Evo Morales, Inaugural Speech, 22 January 2006[41]
For his official inauguration, Morales had a suit designed by fashion designer Beatriz Canedo Patiño, but Andeanized it by refusing to wear a tie and having an indigenous pattern sewn on.[7] On January 22, he officially received power in a formal inauguration ceremony in La Paz attended by multiple heads of state, including Argentine President Néstor Kirchner and Venezuelan President Hugo Chávez.[42] Chilean President Ricardo Lagos, whose country has had a history of diplomatic conflict with Bolivia (see War of the Pacific) was also present and met with the dignitary in private. In his inaugural speech, Morales described his presidency as marking a new era in Bolivia, and also boasted that "500 years of colonialism were now at an end".[citation needed] Also, Morales criticized the former politics of Bolivia, condemning it as "colonial" and likening it to South Africa under apartheid. He went on to describe how the MAS' election would lead to a "refoundation" of the country, a term that the MAS had consistently chosen over "revolution".[43] He went on to further echo these viewpoints in his convocation of the Constituent Assembly, in which he proclaimed that "This is where the democratic and cultural revolution begins."[44]
Policies[link]
The British academic James Dunkerley noted that Morales had gathered together a cabinet made up of indigenous activists and leftist intellectuals which was, on the whole, "extremely inexperienced" at governing.[45] Dunkerley went on to identify a wide range of philosophical influences upon the thinking of the intellectuals in the cabinet, ranging from post-structuralism to the works of Marxist thinkers Karl Marx, René Zavaleta Mercado and E.P. Thompson.[46]
It was the stated intention of the Morales government to reduce Bolivia's most acute poverty levels, which affected 35% of the population, to 27% over the period of five years.[47] During his first term in office, Morales improved the living standards of poor Bolivians,[48][49] reducing levels of extreme poverty and illiteracy[50] while significantly increasing state intervention on the economy by nationalizing oil, mines, gas, and communications. Welfare provision was expanded, as characterized by the introduction of non-contributory old-age pensions and payments to mothers provided their babies are taken for health checks and that their children attend school. Hundreds of free tractors were also handed out. The prices of gas and many foodstuffs were controlled, and local food producers were made to sell in the local market rather than export. A new state-owned body was also set up to distribute food at subsidized prices. All these measures helped to curb inflation, while the economy (partly because of rising public spending) grew strongly, accompanied by stronger public finances which brought economic stability.[51]
Soon after ascending to power, Morales traveled to Europe, where he chose to wear a traditional multicolored Andean jumper rather that a western suit, something that attracted the interest of western media.[7]
In September 2008, Morales accused the U.S. ambassador to Bolivia, Philip Goldberg, of "conspiring against democracy" and encouraging civil unrest, and went on to order him to leave the country.[52] The U.S. government responded to Morales' action by ordering the Bolivian ambassador, Gustavo Guzman, out of their own country.[53] The following day Venezuelan President Hugo Chávez stood in solidarity with his Bolivian allies by ordering the U.S. ambassador Patrick Duddy out of his country, telling him to "go to hell 100 times" and withdrawing the Venezuelan ambassador to the U.S.[53]
New Constitution[link]
A constituent assembly was convened in 2006, which produced a final text of a new Constitution of Bolivia in December 2007. It was approved in the Bolivian constitutional referendum, 2009. In the interim Morales faced an autonomy movement in the country's eastern departments, which after a failed referendum on recalling Morales culminated in the 2008 unrest in Bolivia, which the government accused the United States of supporting. Morales and the MAS government subsequently adopted autonomy as a government policy and departmental autonomies were recognized in the new Bolivian constitution, approved in a referendum in January 2009. As well as departmental autonomy, the new constitution recognizes municipal, provincial and indigenous autonomies.[citation needed]
Second Presidential Term: 2009-present[link]
Following the approval of the new Constitution of Bolivia in the January 2009 referendum, new elections were called. Morales won the 2009 general election with a landslide majority, polling 64%, an increase on his 54% victory four years previously. His primary opponent, former army officer Manfred Reyes Villa, gained 27% of the vote, whilst cement magnate Samuel Doria Medina gained about 8%. Morales' party, the Movement for Socialism, also won a two-thirds majority in both the Chamber of Deputies and the Senate.[54][55][56] In response to his victory, Morales proclaimed that he was "obligated to accelerate the pace of change" in Bolivia, seeing his re-election as a mandate to further his socialist reforms.[54][56]
Following the victory of Barack Obama and the Democratic Party in the 2008 U.S. presidential election, relations between Bolivia and the U.S. improved, although remained strained.[54] After the U.S. backed the 2011 military intervention in Libya by NATO forces, Morales condemned Obama, calling for his Nobel Peace Prize to be revoked; in this he was backed by Vladimir Zhirinovsky, leader of the Liberal Democratic Party of Russia.[57] In November 2011, the Bolivian and U.S. governments agreed to restore diplomatic relations,[58] although Morales refused to allow U.S. agents of the Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) back into the country.[59]
Protests[link]
Bolivia faced national protests after the announcement of a supreme decree to cut government subsidies for gasoline and diesel fuels, increasing the prices of those commodities on December 28, 2010. The measures triggered widespread protests throughout the country, among groups including Morales's own political base.[60] Following the protests, on 31 December 2010, Morales announced that the supreme decree would be annulled, saying that he was complying with his promise to "listen to the people". The protest measures were subsequently called off.[61] His approval ratings, consistently high in his first term, have declined according to one poll.[62]
He also faced protests in 2011 from indigenous groups for his plan to build a highway through the Amazon Basin that would encroach on the tribal lands of lowland indigenous tribes. He responded to the protests by initially calling them American lackeys, but later acceded to holding a referendum on the matter. A government crackdown later led to the resignation of his Defense Minister María Chacon.
Political style[link]
Political ideology[link]
"The worst enemy of humanity is capitalism. That is what provokes uprisings like our own, a rebellion against a system, against a neo-liberal model, which is the representation of a savage capitalism. If the entire world doesn't acknowledge this reality, that the national states are not providing even minimally for health, education and nourishment, then each day the most fundamental human rights are being violated."
Evo Morales[63]
Although often vocal in his support of socialism, many commentators have noted that Evo Morales' political ideology, and the policies which his government have implemented, are not entirely socialist in nature. In his biography of the Bolivian president, the academic Sven Harten characterised Morales' ideology as "eclectic", drawing ideas from "various ideological currents".[14] Harten also noted that whilst Morales uses fierce anti-imperialist and socialist rhetoric, he is neither "a hardcore anti-globalist nor a Marxist", not having argued for the violent and absolute overthrow of capitalism or U.S. involvement in Latin America.[64]
Additionally, Morales is an outspoken supporter of the iconic Argentine Marxist revolutionary Che Guevara, who was killed by CIA-assisted Bolivian soldiers in 1967. On October 8, 2009, at a ceremony in Vallegrande, marking the 42nd anniversary of Che's death, Morales remarked that "Guevara is invincible in his ideals, and in all this history, after so many years, he inspires us to continue fighting, changing not only Bolivia, but all of Latin America and the world."[65] As an additional sign of admiration, Morales has had a coca leaf portrait of Guerrillero Heroico installed in the presidential palace.[66]
However, the Morales administrations' policies are not always thought of as socialist, instead being referred to as "Andean and Amazonian capitalism" by Vice President Álvaro García Linera. Being a Marxist, García has argued that as a predominantly agricultural society, Bolivia does not contain a sufficiently large industrialized working class, or proletariat, to enable it to convert into a socialist society in the Marxist understanding of the word.[67] For this reason García related that:
- The MAS is in no sense seeking to form a socialist government. It is not viable because socialism is built on the basis of a strongly organised working class... Socialism is not constructed on the basis of a family economy, which is what dominates in Bolivia, but on large industry... What is the model for Bolivia? A strong state, and that is capitalism... It isn't even a mixed system... What I do as a Marxist is evaluate the actual potential for development in society.[68]
Writing in the Indian leftist magazine Economic and Political Weekly, the far left American academic James Petras (2007) argued that Morales' government during its first 15 months in office was neither socialist or anti-imperialist in nature, instead representing "an attempt to 'moralise' existing capitalist elites." He went on to argue that the Bolivian government had gained the support of Venezuela and Cuba, as well as socialists around the world, with Morales' rhetoric, but that the government's policies had failed to actually develop a socialist alternative.[69]
Image[link]
Morales' unorthodox behavior contrasts with the usual manners of dignitaries and other political leaders in Latin America. For example, on January 28, 2006 he cut his salary by 57% to $1,875 a month.[7][70] He is single and, before the election, he shared a flat with other MAS officers. Consequently, his older sister, Esther Morales Ayma, fulfills the role of First Lady. He has two children from different mothers, Eva Liz Morales Alvarado and Álvaro Morales Paredes; politician Juan del Granado is Eva Liz's godfather.[71] Morales is also an association football enthusiast and plays the game frequently, often with local teams.[72][73]
He also aroused much interest in his casual choice of dress after being pictured often in his striped jacket with world leaders during his world tour. Some speculated that he would wear it to the official inauguration, where he actually dressed in a white collared dress shirt without a necktie (itself unheard of in Latin America in modern times for a head of state at their own inauguration) and a black suit jacket that was not a part of a conventional suit or tuxedo. He never dresses formally in any type of business suit. The jacket he often wears (in Bolivian Spanish, a chompa, a Quechua word) became his unofficial symbol and copies of it sold widely throughout Bolivia.[74] Some accounts described Morales's signature jacket as alpaca-wool; others reported that it was actually made of common acrylic, because native materials had become too expensive for most Bolivians and were sold mostly in the tourist trade.[75]
Ethnicity[link]
Evo Morales is declared as the first Aymara president. However, there is some Amerindian heritage among prior Bolivian presidents, such as Andrés de Santa Cruz (1829—who claimed that through his mother he was descended from Inca rulers,[76] Mariano Melgarejo (1864), Carlos Quintanilla (1939), René Barrientos (1964), Juan José Torres (1976), Luis García Meza (1980), and Celso Torrelio (1981).[77] None of these presidents was democratically elected, with the exception of Barrientos, who had the full support of the Bolivian military establishment. While the claim is a potent symbol, it has been challenged publicly by novelist and erstwhile right-wing Peruvian presidential candidate Mario Vargas Llosa,[78] who accuses Morales of fomenting racial divisions in an increasingly mestizo[79] South America.
The Uruguayan writer Eduardo Galeano responded to Vargas Llosa saying: "I see what is happening in Bolivia as a very significant act of affirmation of diversity [which is opposite to] racism, elitism and militarism, which leave us blind to our marvellous existence, to that rainbow that we are".[80] Although Morales has sometimes been described as the first indigenous president to be democratically elected in Latin America, this description in fact goes to Benito Juarez, a Mexican of the Zapotec ethnic group, was elected President of Mexico in 1858.[8]
Controversies[link]
Since he took office in 2006, several analysts and human rights organizations have observed that many of the actions and policies of the Morales government have substantially eroded the rule of law and threaten to weaken the situation of human rights in Bolivia.[81][82] In August 2011, police violence on peaceful protesters became international news. Morales denied giving the police the order to attack the protesters, but the event tarnished his approval ratings. He issued a public apology and continued to claim the officers acted on their own.[83]
References[link]
Footnotes[link]
- ^ http://www.commondreams.org/view/2012/03/21-6
- ^ Bolivian President Evo Morales Wins Critical Referendum on His Presidency, Democracy Now!, August 12, 2008
- ^ Zaa Nkweta, Morales wins referendum but opposition hits back, Council on Hemispheric Affairs, 26 Aug 2008
- ^ Guardian.co.uk - Evo Morales wins landslide victory in Bolivian presidential elections Retrieved on 18 December 2009
- ^ a b c d e f Harten 2011. p. 35.
- ^ a b Sivak 2008. p. 32.
- ^ a b c d Gutsch 2006.
- ^ a b Harten 2011. p. 07.
- ^ a b c Sivak 2008. p. 33.
- ^ a b Harten 2011. p. 36.
- ^ Sivak 2008. pp. 33-34.
- ^ a b Sivak 2008. p. 34.
- ^ Harten 2011. pp. 36-37.
- ^ a b Harten 2011. p. 40.
- ^ a b c d e f Harten 2011. p. 37.
- ^ Sivak 2008. pp. 34-35.
- ^ "Profile: Evo Morales". BBC News Online. December 14, 2005. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/3203752.stm.
- ^ a b "Bolivia's Morales plans referendum on coca". MSNBC. December 20, 2005. http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/10519611/. Retrieved February 6, 2007.
- ^ a b c Sivak 2008. p. 35.
- ^ a b Blackwell 2002.
- ^ Harten 2011. pp. 37-38.
- ^ Harten 2011. p. 38.
- ^ a b Harten 2011. p. 39.
- ^ Sivak 2008. p. 36.
- ^ a b Sivak 2008. p. 39.
- ^ Sivak 2008. p. 41.
- ^ Sivak 2008. p. 40.
- ^ a b Sivak 2008. p. 42.
- ^ a b Evo Morales profile >union leader
- ^ Harten 2011. p. 83.
- ^ a b c d e f Harten 2011. p. 84.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j "Evo Morales: profile > member of parliament". http://www.evomorales.net/paginasEng/perfil_Eng_diput.aspx. Retrieved on February 13, 2007
- ^ a b c Harten 2011. p. 85.
- ^ Monasterios, Karin, Pablo Stefanoni, and Hervé do Alto. Reinventando la nación en Bolivia: movimientos sociales, Estado y poscolonialidad. La Paz, Bolivia: CLACSO, 2007. pp. 77-78
- ^ a b Harten 2011. p. 86.
- ^ America Vera-Zavala (December 18, 2005). "Evo Morales Has Plans for Bolivia". In These Times. http://www.inthesetimes.com/site/main/article/2438/. Retrieved February 7, 2007.
- ^ Erin Ralston (July 15, 2002). "Evo Morales and opposition to the US in Bolivia". ZNet. http://www.zmag.org/content/showarticle.cfm?ItemID=2118. Retrieved February 1, 2007.
- ^ Terra Networks Online Newspaper Mesa resigns as President of Bolivia presed by demonstrators
- ^ BBC Mundo New Road Blocks in Bolivia
- ^ "No Registrado". Prensa Latina. http://www.plenglish.com/article.asp?ID=%7B90EBE9EE-BA62-452D-9EEE-3A64CD0E2340%7D&language=EN. Retrieved 2006-09-10.
- ^ Morales quoted in Dunkerley 2007. p. 133.
- ^ CNN. http://edition.cnn.com/2006/WORLD/americas/01/22/bolivia.list.ap/. [dead link]
- ^ Dunkerley 2007. p. 146.
- ^ Dunkerley 2007. pp. 146-147.
- ^ Dunkerley 2007. p. 134.
- ^ Dunkerley 2007. p. 145.
- ^ Dunkerley 2007. pp. 133-134.
- ^ http://upsidedownworld.org/main/bolivia-archives-31/2243-the-speed-of-change-bolivian-president-morales-empowered-by-re-election
- ^ http://rabble.ca/blogs/bloggers/judes/2009/11/bolivia-re-invents-democratic-socialism-indigenous-people-lead
- ^ http://lcid.org.uk/2009/12/08/evo/
- ^ "The explosive apex of Evo's power". The Economist. December 10, 2009. http://www.economist.com/node/15065929.
- ^ BBC News 2008a.
- ^ a b BBC News 2008b.
- ^ a b c Friedman-Rudovsky 2009.
- ^ Caroll 2009.
- ^ a b The Economist 2009.
- ^ Lovell 2011.
- ^ BBC News 2011a.
- ^ BBC News 2011b.
- ^ http://www.la-razon.com/version_temp.php?ArticleId=1105&EditionId=2393&idp=10&ids=164
- ^ La Razon, 1 Jan 2011: "MORALES ABROGA EL DS 748 y neutraliza las protestas"
- ^ http://www.lostiempos.com/diario/actualidad/politica/20110224/encuesta-ipsos-apoyo-popularidad-de-evo-morales-cae-al_114465_226704.html "Encuesta Ipsos Apoyo: Popularidad de Evo Morales cae al 32%"
- ^ Morales quoted in Kozloff 2008. p. 12.
- ^ Harten 2011. p. 05.
- ^ Bolivian Leader Joins in Tribute to Che Guevara Associated Press, October 8, 2009
- ^ Image of Morales' new coca leaf portrait of Che Guevara in the Presidential Palace
- ^ Dunkerley 2007. pp. 159-161.
- ^ Garcia quoted in Dunkerley 2007. pp. 159-161.
- ^ Petrasn 2007.
- ^ "Bolivian president slashes salary for public schools". USA Today. January 28, 2006. http://www.usatoday.com/news/world/2006-01-28-morales-salary_x.htm. Retrieved on February 1, 2007.
- ^ (Spanish) "Hermana de Evo Morales sera primera dama". Es Más. February 5, 2007. http://www.esmas.com/noticierostelevisa/internacionales/505699.html.
- ^ "Footballing president breaks nose". BBC News Online. July 31, 2006. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/5230572.stm. Retrieved 2006-07-31.
- ^ (Spanish) "La fiesta de gala de los 15 años de Eva Liz Morales". El Día. 2009-11-27. http://eldia.com.bo/?cat=181&pla=3&id_articulo=20491. Retrieved 2010-09-25.
- ^ "'Evo Fashion' arrives in Bolivia". BBC News Online. 20 January 2006. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/4630370.stm. Retrieved on February 1, 2007.
- ^ "Morales to Ban Used Clothing in Bolivia". Salon.com. 17 July 2007. http://www.salon.com/wire/ap/archive.html?wire=D8QEIHAG1.html. Retrieved on July 18, 2007.
- ^ http://www.mundoandino.com/Bolivia/Andres-de-Santa-Cruz
- ^ Mesa, José, Gisbert, Teresa, Mesa Gisbert, Carlos D. Historia de Bolivia: Segunda Edición corregida y actualizada. Editorial Gisbert. La Paz, 1998
- ^ "Vargas Llosa: "un nuevo racismo"". BBC Mundo. January 21, 2006. http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/spanish/latin_america/newsid_4633000/4633898.stm.
- ^ "Los Tiempos: "Bolivia: A Country of Mestizos"". HACER. March 15, 2009. http://www.hacer.org/report/2009/03/bolivia-country-of-mestizos-los-tiempos.html.
- ^ Crespo, Luis (2006-01-22). "Galeano le contesta a Vargas Llosa" (in Spanish). BBC. http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/spanish/latin_america/newsid_4637000/4637654.stm. Retrieved 2007-11-12.
- ^ http://www.thehrf.org/media/100808.html "Human Rights Foundation, Human Rights Report - Bolivia". http://www.thehrf.org/media/100808.html http://www.thehrf.org/media/100808.html.
- ^ "Human Rights Watch, World Report 2009 - Bolivia". http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/49705fab51.html.
- ^ "Bolivia's Long March Against Evo Morales: An Indigenous Protest". Time. October 17, 2011. http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,2097142,00.html#ixzz1gMvuF67E.
Bibliography[link]
Books[link]
- Harten, Sven (2011). The Rise of Evo Morales and the MAS. London and New York: Zed Books. ISBN 978-1-84813-523-9. http://books.google.com/books?id=2XjvRwAACAAJ&dq=The+Rise+of+Evo+Morales+and+the+MAS&hl=en&ei=3B4aTuHLDYrB8QOy5KgH&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCgQ6AEwAA.
- Kozloff, Nicholas (2008). Revolution!: South America and the Rise of the New Left. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-230-61754-4. http://books.google.com/books?id=3cU5ELUxXAEC&dq=Revolution!:+South+America+and+the+Rise+of+the+New+Left&hl=en&ei=T13RTdrxDImu8QO8rrToDQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCkQ6AEwAA.
- Pearce, Adrian (2011). Evo Morales and the Movimiento Al Socialismo in Bolivia: The First Term in Context, 2005-2009. Institute for the Study of the Americas. ISBN 978-1-900039-99-4. http://books.google.com/books?id=Y6xIYgEACAAJ&dq=The+Rise+of+Evo+Morales+and+the+MAS&hl=en&ei=3B4aTuHLDYrB8QOy5KgH&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=4&ved=0CDUQ6AEwAw.
- Sivak, Martín (2008). Evo Morales: The Extraordinary Rise of the First Indigenous President of Bolivia. New York: Palgrave MacMillan. ISBN 978-0-230-62305-7. http://books.google.com/books?id=t5ZFs6vTlKwC&dq=Evo+Morales:+The+Extraordinary+Rise+of+the+First+Indigenous+President+of+Bolivia&hl=en&ei=ex8aToqkE8rA8QOMzKAO&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCgQ6AEwAA.
Academic articles[link]
- Dunkerley, James (2007). "Evo Morales, the 'Two Bolivias' and the Third Bolivian Revolution". Journal of Latin American Studies (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press) 39: 133–166.
- Rochlin, James (2007). "Latin America's Left Turn and the New Strategic Landscape: The Case of Bolivia". Third World Quarterly (London: Routledge) 28 (7): 1327–1342.
News articles, reports and interviews[link]
- Blackwell, Benjamin (11 November 2002). "From Coca To Congress". The Ecologist. http://www.zcommunications.org/from-coca-to-congress-by-evo-morales. Retrieved October 2011.
- Carroll, Rory (7 December 2009). "Evo Morales wins landslide victory in Bolivian presidential elections". The Guardian (London: Guardian Media Group). http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2009/dec/07/morales-presidential-victory. Retrieved 20 August 2011.
- Friedman-Rudovsky, Jean (7 December 2009). "Morales' Big Win: Voters Ratify His Remaking of Bolivia". Time (New York City: Time Inc.). http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,1945989,00.html#ixzz1dM4hvJoq. Retrieved October 2011.
- Gutsch, Jochen-Martin (5 February 2006). "Indian, Coca Farmer, Bolivian President". Der Spiegel (Germany: SPIEGEL-Verlag). http://www.spiegel.de/international/spiegel/0,1518,414036,00.html. Retrieved November 2011.
- Lerager (2006). "Report on Bolivia's Elections". Latin American Perspectives (Thousand Oaks, California: SAGE Publications) 33 (2): 141–144.
- Petras, James (9–15 June 2007). "Evo Morales' Pursuit of 'Normal Capitalism'". Economic and Political Weekly (Mumbai: Sameeksha Trust) 42 (23): 2155–2158.
- Lovell, Joseph E. (21 March 2011). "Nobel Committee asked to strip Obama of Peace Prize". Digital Journal (Digital Journal, Inc.). http://www.digitaljournal.com/article/304909#ixzz1eNOkigou. Retrieved November 2011.
- "The explosive apex of Evo's power". The Economist. 10 December 2009. http://www.economist.com/node/15065929. Retrieved November 2011.
- "Bolivia tells US envoy to leave". London: BBC News. 11 September 2008. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/7609487.stm. Retrieved 20 August 2011.
- "Chavez acts over US-Bolivia row". London: BBC News. 12 September 2008. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/7611705.stm. Retrieved 20 August 2011.
- "Bolivia and US 'to restore diplomatic relations'". London: BBC News. 8 November 2011. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-latin-america-15632484. Retrieved November 2011.
- "Bolivia's Morales insists no return for US drug agency". London: BBC News. 9 November 2011. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-latin-america-15649399. Retrieved November 2011.
External links[link]
 |
Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Evo Morales |
 |
Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Evo Morales |
- Morales ‘Open Letter Regarding the European Union “Return Directive”, 2008
- Morales: I Believe Only In The Power Of The People
- Interview (on CounterPunch)
- Profile: Evo Morales, BBC News Online
- "Bolivia's Home-Grown President" Article in The Nation, (December 21, 2005).
- "'Evo Fashion' arrives in Bolivia", Morales's distinctive dress sense, on BBC News Online
- "Bolivia's first Indian president sworn in", Morales' inauguration ceremony on CNN's website
- "Direct Intervention: A Call for Bush and Bolivia’s Morales to Take a Leap of Faith and Change Presidential Issues into Personal Ones", From the Council on Hemispheric Affairs
- "Bolivian President Evo Morales on Latin America, U.S. Foreign Policy and the Role of the Indigenous People of Bolivia", Interview on Democracy Now!
- Bolivia: On the Road With Evo — The making of an unlikely president
- Bolivia Information Forum Information and background about Evo Morales and MAS party
- Evo Morales Interview with BBC
- Review of a speech Morales gave in NYC from PBS
- A Nobel Prize for Evo by Fidel Castro, Monthly Review, October 15, 2009
- Evo Morales on Climate Debt, Capitalism, & Why He Wants a Tribunal for Climate Justice - video report by Democracy Now!
- Evo Morales: WikiLeaks Cables Reveal "Diplomacy of Empire" - video report by Democracy Now!
| Political offices | ||
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| Preceded by Eduardo Rodríguez |
President of Bolivia 2006–present |
Incumbent |
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| Persondata | |
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| Name | Morales, Evo |
| Alternative names | |
| Short description | President of Bolivia |
| Date of birth | October 26, 1959 |
| Place of birth | Orinoca, Oruro, Bolivia |
| Date of death | |
| Place of death | |
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| George Galloway MP | |
|---|---|
 |
|
| Galloway at a Stop The War protest in London, 24 February 2007 | |
| Member of Parliament for Bradford West |
|
| Incumbent | |
| Assumed office 29 March 2012 |
|
| Preceded by | Marsha Singh |
| Majority | 10,140 (16.7%) |
| Member of Parliament for Bethnal Green and Bow |
|
| In office 5 May 2005 – 6 May 2010 |
|
| Preceded by | Oona King |
| Succeeded by | Rushanara Ali |
| Majority | 823 (1.9%) |
| Member of Parliament for Glasgow Kelvin |
|
| In office 1 May 1997 – 5 May 2005 |
|
| Preceded by | Constituency created |
| Succeeded by | Constituency abolished |
| Majority | 7,260 (27.1%) |
| Member of Parliament for Glasgow Hillhead |
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| In office 11 June 1987 – 1 May 1997 |
|
| Preceded by | Roy Jenkins |
| Succeeded by | Constituency abolished |
| Majority | 4,826 (12.3%) |
| Personal details | |
| Born | (1954-08-16) 16 August 1954 (age 57) Dundee |
| Citizenship | British |
| Political party | Respect (2004–present) Labour (1967–2003) |
| Residence | London |
| Website | www.georgegalloway.com |
George Galloway (born 16 August 1954) is a British politician, author, journalist, and broadcaster, and the Respect Member of Parliament (MP) for Bradford West. He was previously an MP for the Labour Party, for Glasgow Hillhead and then its successor constituency Glasgow Kelvin from 1987 until 2005. He was expelled from the Labour Party in October 2003 because of his strident public opposition to the Iraq War.[1] He subsequently became a founding member of the left-wing Respect Party, and was elected as the MP for Bethnal Green and Bow in 2005.[2] In 2010, Galloway unsuccessfully contested the seat of Poplar and Limehouse, and in 2011 he unsuccessfully contested the Glasgow list for the Scottish Parliament, before being elected as an MP in the Bradford West by-election, 2012.[3][4]
Galloway is well known for his campaigns in support of the Palestinians in the Israeli–Palestinian conflict. In the late-1980s Hansard records him delivering a ferocious assault on the Ba'ath regime, and Galloway opposed Saddam's regime until the United States-led Gulf War in 1991.[5] Galloway is known for a visit to Iraq where he met Saddam Hussein, and delivered a speech, which ended in English with the statement "Sir, I salute your courage, your strength, your indefatigability."[6] He has always stated that he was addressing the Iraqi people in the speech.[7] Galloway testified to the United States Senate in 2005 over alleged illicit payments from the United Nations' Oil for Food Programme.[8]
Contents
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Early and personal life[link]
Galloway was born in the Lochee area of Dundee to a Scottish trade unionist father and Irish republican mother.[9][10] He describes himself as "born in an attic in a slum tenement in the Irish quarter of Dundee, which is known as Tipperary".[11][12] He grew up in Charleston and attended Charleston Primary and then Harris Academy, a non-denominational school. During his school years at Charleston Primary and Harris Academy, he used to play football for the school team. As an amateur footballer, he went on to play for West End United U12s, Lochee Boys Club U16s and St Columbus U18s.[13]
From 1979 to 1999, he was married to Elaine Fyffe, with whom he has a daughter. In 1994, he married Amineh Abu-Zayyad as a second wife in a Muslim ceremony (later after his divorce from his first wife, he and Abu-Zayyad also undertook a civil ceremony); Zayyad filed for divorce in 2005. In 2005, Galloway married as his third wife Rima Husseini, a Lebanese woman and former researcher, also in a Muslim ceremony. She gave birth to their first son in May 2007, and a second son in December 2011. In March 2012, Galloway married Putri Gayatri Pertiwi, a consultant with a Dutch research firm.[14]
Galloway was raised as a Roman Catholic.[12] By his own account he decided, at the age of 18, never to drink alcohol. He disapproves of it and describes it as having a "very deleterious effect on people".[9][15] He stated at a March 2012 rally "We stand for justice and haqq" and "A Muslim is somebody who is not afraid of earthly power but who fears only the Judgment Day. I’m ready for that, I’m working for that and it’s the only thing I fear".[16]
In a April 2012 New Statesman magazine interview with Galloway, Jemima Khan asserted that the politician had become a Muslim sometime around 2000, but had not advertised this fact.[17] Galloway subsequently denied a ceremony had taken place: "I have never attended any such ceremony in Kilburn, Karachi or Kathmandu. It is simply and categorically untrue."[18]
Labour Party organiser[link]
Galloway joined the Labour Party at 13 years old and, within five years, was secretary of the Dundee West Constituency Labour Party. His enthusiasm led him to become Vice-Chairman of the Labour Party in the City of Dundee and a member of the Scottish Executive Committee in 1975. On 5 May 1977, he contested his first election campaign in the Scottish district elections, but failed to hold the safe Labour seat at Gillburn, Dundee. He was defeated by the Independent candidate Bunty Turley. Galloway became the secretary organiser of Dundee Labour Party—the youngest ever Scottish chairman—in March 1981 at 26 years old.[19]
In his mid-20s after a trip to Beirut in 1977,[12] he became a passionate supporter of Palestine stating "barely a week after my return I made a pledge to devote the rest of my life to the Palestinian and Arab cause". He supported Dundee City Council which flew the Palestinian flag inside the City Chambers and was involved in the twinning of Dundee with Nablus in 1980,[20] although he did not take part in the visit of Lord Provost Gowans, Ernie Ross MP and three City Councillors to Nablus and Kuwait in April 1981.[19]
In 1981, Galloway wrote an article in Scottish Marxist supporting Communist Party affiliation with the Labour Party. In response, Denis Healey, Deputy Leader of the Labour Party, tried and failed to remove Galloway from the list of Prospective Parliamentary Candidates. Healey lost his motion by 13 votes to 5.[21] Galloway had argued that this was his own personal viewpoint, not that of the Labour Party. He once quipped that, in order to overcome a £1.5 million deficit which had arisen in the city budget, he, Ernie Ross and leading Councillors should be placed in the stocks in the city square: "we would allow people to throw buckets of water over us at 20p a time."[22]
Galloway stood for a place on the Labour Party National Executive Committee in 1986; in a large field of candidates he finished second from the bottom. At the 1986 Labour Party Conference, he made a strong attack on the Labour Party's Deputy Leader and Shadow Chancellor Roy Hattersley for not favouring exchange controls.
War on Want[link]
From November 1983 to 1987, Galloway was General Secretary of War on Want, a British charity that campaigns against poverty worldwide. In this post he was much travelled, writing eye-witness accounts of the famine in Eritrea in 1985 which were published in The Sunday Times and The Spectator.[23]
The Daily Mirror accused him of living luxuriously at the charity's expense.[24] An independent auditor cleared him of misuse of funds,[25] though he did repay £1,720 in contested expenses.[26] He later reportedly won £155,000 from "The Mirror in an unrelated libel lawsuit.[27]
More than two years after Galloway stepped down to serve as a Labour MP, the UK Government investigated War on Want. It found accounting irregularities from 1985 to 1989, but little evidence that money was used for non-charitable purposes. The commission said responsibility lay largely with auditors, and did not single out individuals for blame.[25]
Reported Break In[link]
In an article published by the Daily Mail at the beginning of May 2012, it was asserted that staff at his £1.4 million London home had discovered items had been moved and curious objects were found in the house such as an empty bottle of gin and a gay pornographic video stashed in a closet. The culprit is thought to have been an unidentified homeless man.[28] Galloway has increased security at his home to prevent any more homeless intruders.
Parliamentary career[link]
Member of Parliament for a Glasgow seat[link]
In the 1987 election, Galloway won Glasgow Hillhead constituency for the Labour Party from Roy Jenkins of the Social Democratic Party (who had briefly led that Party earlier in the decade) with a majority of 3,251. Although known for his left-wing views, Galloway was never a member of Labour's leftist groupings of MPs, the Tribune Group or the Socialist Campaign Group. In 2002, Galloway stated "I am on the anti-imperialist left... If you are asking did I support the Soviet Union, yes I did. Yes, I did support the Soviet Union, and I think the disappearance of the Soviet Union is the biggest catastrophe of my life."[29]
Asked about a War on Want conference on Mykonos, Greece during his previous job, the new MP replied "I travelled and spent lots of time with people in Greece, many of whom were women, some of whom were known carnally to me. I actually had sexual intercourse with some of the people in Greece."[30] The statement put Galloway on the front pages of the tabloid press and in February 1988 the Executive Committee of his Constituency Labour Party passed a vote of no confidence in him.[30]
He gained re-selection when challenged by Trish Godman (wife of fellow MP Norman Godman) in June 1989, but failed to get a majority of the electoral college on the first ballot. This was the worst result for any sitting Labour MP who was reselected; 13 of the 26 members of the Constituency Party's Executive Committee resigned that August, indicating their dissatisfaction with the result.[31]
In 1990, a classified advertisement appeared in the Labour-Left weekly Tribune headed "Lost: MP who answers to the name of George", "balding and has been nicknamed gorgeous", claiming that the lost MP had been seen in Romania but had not been to a constituency meeting for a year. A telephone number was given which turned out to be for the Groucho Club in London, from which Galloway had recently been excluded (although subsequently readmitted). Galloway threatened legal action and pointed out that he had been to five constituency meetings. He eventually settled for an out-of-court payment by Tribune.
The leadership election of the Labour Party in 1992 saw Galloway voting for the eventual winners, John Smith for Leader and Margaret Beckett as Deputy Leader. In 1994, after Smith's death, Galloway declined to cast a vote in the leadership election (one of only three MPs to do so). In a debate with the Leader of the Scottish National Party Alex Salmond, Galloway responded to one of Salmond's jibes against the Labour Party by declaring "I don't give a fuck what Tony Blair thinks."[31]
Although facing a challenge for the Labour nomination for the seat of Glasgow Kelvin in 1997, Galloway defeated Shiona Waldron. He was unchallenged for the nomination in 2001.
In the 1997 and 2001 elections Galloway was the Labour candidate for the seat of Glasgow Kelvin, winning with majorities of over 16,000 and 12,000 respectively. During the 2001 Parliament, he voted against the Whip 27 times. During the 2001–02 session he was the 9th most rebellious Labour MP.
Expulsion from the Labour Party[link]
Galloway became the Vice President of the Stop the War Coalition in 2001. He is actively involved, often speaking on StWC platforms at anti-war demonstrations. From this position Galloway made many aggressive and controversial statements in opposition to the 2003 invasion of Iraq. These were the formal reasons for his expulsion from the Labour Party. He reportedly said in a 28 March 2003 interview with Abu Dhabi TV that Tony Blair and George W. Bush had "lied to the British Air Force and Navy, when they said the battle of Iraq would be very quick and easy. They attacked Iraq like wolves...." and added, "... the best thing British troops can do is to refuse to obey illegal orders."[32] He called the Labour Government "Tony Blair's lie machine."[33] The Observer reported in 2003 that the Director of Public Prosecutions looked at a request by the solicitor Justin Hugheston-Roberts to pursue Galloway under the Incitement to Disaffection Act, 1934,[34] though no prosecution occurred.
On 18 April, The Sun published an interview with Tony Blair who said: "His comments were disgraceful and wrong. The National Executive will deal with it." The General Secretary of the Labour Party, citing Galloway's outspoken opinion of Blair and Bush in their pursuit of the Iraq war, suspended him from holding office in the party on 6 May 2003, pending a hearing on charges that he had violated the party's constitution by "bringing the Labour Party into disrepute through behaviour that is prejudicial or grossly detrimental to the Party". The National Constitutional Committee held a hearing on 22 October 2003, to consider the charges, taking evidence from Galloway himself, from other party witnesses, viewing media interviews, and hearing character testimony from Tony Benn, among others. The following day, the committee found the charge of bringing the party into disrepute proved, and so expelled Galloway from the Labour Party. Galloway called the Committee's hearing "a show trial" and "a kangaroo court".[35]
2005 election[link]
In January 2004, Galloway announced he would be working with members of the Socialist Alliance in England and Wales, and others, under the name Respect – The Unity Coalition, generally referred to simply as Respect.
Galloway later announced that he would not force a by-election and intended not to contest the next general election in Glasgow. Galloway's Glasgow Kelvin seat was split between three neighbouring constituencies for the May 2005 general election. One of these, the new Glasgow Central constituency, might have been his best chance with a relatively large Muslim vote. However, his long-time friend Mohammad Sarwar, the first Muslim Labour MP and a strong opponent of the Iraq War also intended to go for it; Galloway did not wish to challenge him. After the European election results became known, Galloway announced that he would stand in Bethnal Green and Bow, the area where Respect had its strongest election results and where the sitting Labour MP, Oona King, supported the Iraq War. On 2 December, despite speculation that he might stand in Newham, he confirmed that he would be the candidate for Bethnal Green and Bow.
The ensuing electoral campaign in the seat proved to be a difficult one with heated rhetoric. The BBC reported that Galloway had himself been threatened with death by extreme Islamists from the banned organisation al-Ghurabaa. All the major candidates united in condemning the threats and violence.[36] On 5 May, Galloway won the seat by 823 votes and made a fiery acceptance speech, saying that Tony Blair had the blood of 100,000 people on his hands and denouncing the returning officer over alleged discrepancies in the electoral process. When challenged in a subsequent televised interview by Jeremy Paxman as to whether he was happy to have removed one of the few black women in Parliament, Galloway replied "I don't believe that people get elected because of the colour of their skin. I believe people get elected because of their record and because of their policies."[37] Jeremy Paxman during the same BBC interview accused Galloway of being a demagogue.[37]
Oona King later told BBC Radio 4's Today programme that she found Paxman's line of question inappropriate. "He shouldn't be barred from running against me because I'm a black woman. ... I was not defined, or did not wish to be defined, by either my ethnicity or religious background."[38]
"It's good to be back", Galloway said on being sworn in as MP for Bethnal Green after the May election. He pledged to represent "the people that New Labour has abandoned" and to "speak for those who have nobody else to speak for them."[39]
Parliamentary participation statistics[link]
After he was suspended and later expelled from the Labour Party, Galloway's participation in Parliamentary activity fell to minimal levels. After speaking in a debate on Iraq on 25 March 2003, Galloway did not intervene in any way in Parliamentary debates or ask any oral questions for the remainder of the Parliament and his participation in House of Commons divisions was among the lowest of any MP.[40]
Following the 2005 election, his participation rate remained low, and at the end of the year he had participated in only 15% of Divisions in the House of Commons since the general election, placing him 634th of 645 MPs. Of the eleven MPs below him in the rankings, one was the then Prime Minister Tony Blair, five were Sinn Féin members who have an abstentionist policy toward taking their seats, three were the speaker and deputy speakers and therefore ineligible to vote, and two had died since the election. Galloway claims a record of unusual activity at a "grass roots" level. His own estimate is that he made 1,100 public speeches between September 2001 and May 2005.[41]
In September 2009, he still had one of the lowest voting participation records in parliament at 8.4% as a total of 93 votes out of a possible 1,113 divisions.[42]
Suspension from the House of Commons[link]
On 17 July 2007, following a four-year inquiry, the House of Commons Select Committee on Standards and Privileges published its sixth report. The Committee concluded that there was no evidence that Galloway gained any personal benefit from either the former Iraqi regime, or from the Oil-for-Food Programme.
| “ | I have not found evidence that Mr Galloway has, directly and personally, unlawfully received moneys from the former Iraqi regime. I have been given evidence by Dr Al-Chalabi of a payment by him of $120,000 to Mr Galloway's former wife, Dr Abu-Zayyad, which derived from a commission payment Dr Al-Chalabi received under the programme. As I do not have access to the bank accounts in question, I do not know whether Mr Galloway benefited in any way from this payment. Nor do I know whether Mr Galloway benefited from a payment of $150,000 to Dr Abu-Zayyad which the US Senate Permanent Sub-Committee on Investigations found to have been made by Mr Fawaz Zureikat out of oil contract commission.[43] | ” |
However, it found that Galloway's use of parliamentary resources to support his work on the Mariam Appeal "went beyond what was reasonable."
| “ | Had these been the only matters before us, we would have confined ourselves to seeking an apology to the House. However, Mr Galloway's conduct . . . and his calling into question of the Commissioner's and our own integrity have in our view damaged the reputation of the House. In accordance with precedent, we recommend that he apologise to the House, and be suspended from its service for a period of eighteen actual sitting days. As the House is shortly to go into its Summer Recess, we further recommend that Mr Galloway's period of suspension should begin on 8 October, the day it resumes.[44] | ” |
In response, Galloway stated
| “ | The Committee appear utterly oblivious to the grotesque irony of a pro-sanctions and pro-war Committee of a pro-sanctions and pro-war Parliament passing judgement on the work of their opponents."[45] | ” |
At a press conference following publication of the report, Galloway stated "To be deprived of the company for 18 days of the honourable ladies and gentleman behind me [in parliament] will be painful ... but I'm intending to struggle on regardless ... What really upset them [the committee] is that I always defend myself.[46]
Candidate at other elections[link]
On 10 August 2007, Galloway confirmed he would stand in newly created constituency of Poplar and Limehouse[47][48] where the Labour Party had a notional majority of 3,942.[49] The Labour candidate was the current Poplar and Canning Town MP Jim Fitzpatrick. Galloway said he had planned to stand down from Parliament at the next election, but was prompted to stay on and fight to win the neighbouring east London constituency after he felt he was unfairly suspended from Parliament for 18 days. In the election Galloway was defeated, coming third after the Labour and Conservative candidates. He received 8,460 votes. Galloway headed the post-split Respect (London-wide) top-up list for the London Assembly election, 2008 but was not selected.[50]
On 5 May 2011, in the Scottish Parliament general election, 2011, the Respect Party, on whose list Galloway was standing in the Glasgow electoral region, received 6,972 votes (3.3%), failing to achieve any seats in the Holyrood Parliament.[51][52]
2012 by-election[link]
Main article: Bradford West by-election, 2012
After the resignation of sitting Labour MP Marsha Singh due to ill health, Galloway returned to Parliament at the March 2012 Bradford West by-election in an unexpected landslide result, with Galloway calling it "the most sensational victory in British political history".[53] His 36% swing from Labour was the third-largest in modern British political history.[54]The result was seen as a major disappointment for Labour, with Galloway speaking of his belief that it showed the "alienation" of voters from the leading three political parties.[55]
On 16 April, Galloway was sworn into Parliament by the Speaker of the House of Commons, John Bercow.[56]
Political views[link]
Galloway advocates greater spending on welfare benefits, and some nationalisation of large industries. Galloway is opposed to abortion, although he supports Respect's pro-choice stance. He opposes Scottish independence but supports the right of the people to vote on the matter via a referendum. He also supports the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament. In the 2007 Scottish Parliament election, George Galloway supported Solidarity,[57] despite not supporting all their policies, such as Scottish independence. Galloway has attracted most attention for his comments on foreign policy, taking a special interest in Libya, Pakistan, Iraq, and the Palestinian-Israeli conflict. According to the report Preventing terrorism, where next for Britain? from the counter-extremism think tank Quilliam, which receives private and public funding, Galloway is "Islamist backed".[58] Inayat Bunglawala, chair of Muslims4Uk and a former MCB spokesperson, disagreed, saying: "This is just like something straight out of a Stasi manual. The advice from Quilliam is frankly appalling and incredibly self-serving."[59]
Iraq and Saddam Hussein[link]
Galloway opposed the 1991 Gulf War and was critical of the effect the subsequent sanctions had on the people of Iraq. He visited Iraq twice and met senior government officials. His involvement caused some critics to deride him as the "member for Baghdad North". In 1994, Galloway faced some of his strongest criticism on his return from a Middle-Eastern visit during which he had met Saddam Hussein "to try and bring about an end to sanctions, suffering and war". At the meeting, he reported the support given to Saddam by the people of the Gaza Strip and ended his speech in English with the statement "Sir, I salute your courage, your strength, your indefatigability".[60] In a January 2007 edition of the BBC's Hardtalk he stated that he was saluting the "Iraqi people".[7] Galloway's speech was translated for Hussein. Anasal-Tikriti, a friend of Galloway's and a Respect candidate, spokesman for the Muslim Association of Britain said: "I understand Arabic and it [Galloway's salutation] was taken completely out of context. When he said "you" he meant the Iraqi people, he was saluting their indefatigability, their resolve against sanctions. Even the interpreter got it right and, in Arabic, says salutes the stand of the Iraqi people'."[61]
In 1999, Galloway was criticised for spending Christmas in Iraq with Tariq Aziz, who was Iraq's Deputy Prime Minister. In the 17 May 2005, hearing of the United States Senate Committee on Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations, Galloway stated that he had had many meetings with Aziz, and characterised their relationship as friendly.[62] After the fall of Saddam, he continued to praise Aziz, calling him "an eminent diplomatic and intellectual person". In 2006 a video surfaced showing Galloway enthusiastically greeting Uday Hussein, Saddam's eldest son, with the title of "Excellency" at Uday's palace in 1999.[63] "The two men also made unflattering comments about the United States and joked about losing weight, going bald and how difficult it is to give up smoking cigars," according to The Scotsman.[64]
In a House of Commons debate on 6 March 2002, Foreign Office Minister Ben Bradshaw said of Galloway that he was "not just an apologist, but a mouthpiece, for the Iraqi regime over many years." Galloway called the Minister a liar and refused to withdraw: "[Bradshaw's] imputation that I am a mouthpiece for a dictator is a clear imputation of dishonour" he said, and the sitting was suspended due to the dispute.[65] Bradshaw later withdrew his allegation, and Galloway apologised for using unparliamentary language. In August 2002, Galloway returned to Iraq and met Saddam Hussein for a second time. According to Galloway, the intention of the trip was to persuade Saddam to re-admit Hans Blix, and the United Nations weapons inspectors into the country.[66]
Giving evidence in his libel case against the Daily Telegraph newspaper in 2004, Galloway testified that he regarded Saddam as a "bestial dictator" and would have welcomed his removal from power, but not by means of a military attack on Iraq. Galloway also pointed that he was a prominent critic of Saddam Hussein's regime in the 1980s, as well as of the role of Margaret Thatcher's government in supporting arms sales to Iraq during the Iran/Iraq war. Labour MP Tam Dalyell said during the controversy over whether Galloway should be expelled from the Labour Party that "in the mid-1980s there was only one MP that I can recollect making speeches about human rights in Iraq and this was George Galloway."[67] When the issue of Galloway's meetings with Saddam Hussein is raised, including before the US Senate, Galloway has argued that he had met Saddam "exactly the same number of times as US Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld met him. The difference is Donald Rumsfeld met him to sell him guns and to give him maps the better to target those guns."[68] He continued "I met him to try to bring about an end to sanctions, suffering and war".
During a 9 March 2005 interview at the University of Dhaka campus Galloway called for a global alliance between Muslims and progressives: "Not only do I think it’s possible but I think it is vitally necessary and I think it is happening already. It is possible because the progressive movement around the world and the Muslims have the same enemies. Their enemies are the Zionist occupation, American occupation, British occupation of poor countries mainly Muslim countries."[69]
Israel and Palestine[link]
At a 22 July 2006 demonstration (and later in a Socialist Worker op-ed),[70] Galloway stated "Hezbollah has never been a terrorist organisation!" The National Union of Students of the United Kingdom passed a motion condemning Galloway for this statement. In 2009, Galloway received a Palestinian passport from Hamas leader Ismail Haniya. Hamas are a considered a terrorist organisation by the European Union, and the US.[71]
According to Al-Ahram, in a series of speeches broadcast on Arab television, Galloway described Jerusalem and Baghdad as being "raped" by "foreigners," referring to Israel's illegal annexation of East Jerusalem, and the war in Iraq.[72]
In an interview with the American radio host Alex Jones, Galloway blamed Israel for creating "conditions in the Arab countries and in some European countries to stampede Jewish people ... into the Zionist state". Jones then alleged that the "Zionists" funded Hitler, to which Galloway replied that Zionists used the Jewish people "to create this little settler state on the Mediterranean," whose purpose was "to act as an advance guard for their own interests in the Arab world..."[73]
Galloway was introduced as “a former member of the British Houses of Parliament” during a live interview with Qatari Al-Jazeera television, to which he responded: “I am still a member of parliament and was re-elected five times. On the last occasion I was re-elected despite all the efforts made by the British government, the Zionist movement and the newspapers and news media which are controlled by Zionism.”
Galloway expressed support for the Syrian presence in Lebanon five months before it ended, telling the Daily Star of Lebanon "Syrian troops in Lebanon maintain stability and protect the country from Israel". In the same article he expressed his opposition to United Nations Security Council Resolution 1559, which urged the Lebanese Government to establish control over all its territory.[74]
In an interview with the Hizbullah run Al-Manar TV, which aired on 26 July 2011 (as translated by MEMRI), Galloway accused Israel of being responsible for the assassination of Rafiq Al-Hariri, stating that "Israel was the only country with any interest and any benefit to gain from the assassination of the martyr Rafiq Al-Hariri. They are the ones who had the capability to do so, they are the ones who had the motive for doing so, and they are the ones who had the criminal record for doing so. How many hundreds of people has Israel killed in Lebanon? Assassination squads of people landing on the beach, and people planting bombs of one kind or another..." He further stated that "When this inquiry [the Special Tribunal for Lebanon] refused to lead in that direction, I knew it was a fake inquiry" and that "this process and all these individuals are completely discredited."[75][76][77]
Several months earlier in a speech given in Edmonton, Alberta in November 2010, Galloway stated that
“I believe, and I don’t know anybody who is objective in this matter who does not believe, that Hezbollah are absolutely innocent of this crime, and it is time that the tribunal looked to the people who benefited from this crime..in Israel."[78][79]
Blair and Bush[link]
At the national conference of the National Union of Rail, Maritime and Transport Workers, on 30 June 2003, Galloway apologised for describing George W. Bush as a "wolf", saying that to do so defamed wolves: "No wolf would commit the sort of crimes against humanity that George Bush committed against the people of Iraq."
On 20 November 2004, George Galloway gave an interview on Abu Dhabi TV in which he said:[80]
| “ | The people who invaded and destroyed Iraq and have murdered more than a million Iraqi people by sanctions and war will burn in Hell in the hell-fires, and their name in history will be branded as killers and war criminals for all time. Fallujah is a Guernica, Fallujah is a Stalingrad, and Iraq is in flames as a result of the actions of these criminals. Not the resistance, not anybody else but these criminals who invaded and fell like wolves upon the people of Iraq. And by the way, those Arab regimes which helped them to do it will burn in the same hell-fires. | ” |
On 20 June 2005, he appeared on Al Jazeera English to lambast these two leaders and others.[80]
| “ | Bush, and Blair, and the prime minister of Japan, and Silvio Berlusconi, these people are criminals, and they are responsible for mass murder in the world, for the war, and for the occupation, through their support for Israel, and through their support for a globalised capitalist economic system, which is the biggest killer the world has ever known. It has killed far more people than Adolf Hitler. It has killed far more people than George Bush. The economic system which these people support, which leaves most of the people in the world hungry, and without clean water to drink. So we're going to put them on trial, the leaders, when they come. They think they're coming for a holiday in a beautiful country called Scotland; in fact, they're coming to their trial....Ancient freedoms, which we had for hundreds of years, are being taken away from us under the name of the war on terror, when the real big terrorists are the governments of Britain and the United States. They are the real rogue states breaking international law, invading other people's countries, killing their children in the name of anti-terrorism, when in fact, all they're achieving is to make more terrorists in the world, not less, to make the world more dangerous, rather than less. | ” |
On 3 February 2006, Galloway was refused entry to Egypt at Cairo Airport and was detained "on grounds of national security", where he had been invited to 'give evidence' at a 'mock trial' of Bush and Blair. After being detained overnight, he said Egyptian President Hosni Mubarak "apologised on behalf of the Egyptian people", and he was allowed to enter the country. After initial derogatory comments from Galloway[citation needed] and a spokesman from his Respect party regarding Mubarak's pro-Western stance and ties to Bush and Blair, Galloway later commented: "It was a most gracious apology which I accept wholeheartedly. I consider the matter now closed."[81][82]
Suicide bombings[link]
In the House of Commons, on the day of the 7 July 2005 London bombings that killed 52 people and injured hundreds more, and following a visit to the Royal London Hospital in his constituency where many of the victims had been taken, Galloway condemned the attacks strongly, but argued that they could not be separated from the hatred and bitterness felt among Muslims because of injustices in Palestine, Iraq, and Afghanistan, including injustices, he said, suffered as a result of British foreign policy:
| “ | I condemn the act that was committed this morning. I have no need to speculate about its authorship. It is absolutely clear that Islamist extremists, inspired by the al-Qaeda world outlook, are responsible. I condemn it utterly as a despicable act, committed against working people on their way to work, without warning, on tubes and buses. Let there be no equivocation: the primary responsibility for this morning's bloodshed lies with the perpetrators of those acts... The hon. Member for North Durham (Mr. Jones), in an otherwise fine speech, described today's events as "unpredictable". They were not remotely unpredictable. Our own security services predicted them and warned the Government that if we [invaded Iraq] we would be at greater risk from terrorist attacks such as the one that we have suffered this morning... Despicable, yes; but not unpredictable. It was entirely predictable and, I predict, it will not be the last.[83][84] | ” |
Winding up the debate for the government in the last moments allotted, Armed Forces Minister Adam Ingram described Galloway's remarks as "disgraceful" and accused Galloway of "dipping his poisonous tongue in a pool of blood."[85] No time remained for Galloway to intervene and he ran afoul of the Deputy Speaker when trying to make a point of order about Ingram's attack. He later went on to describe Ingram as a "thug" who had committed a "foul-mouthed, deliberately timed, last-10-seconds smear."[86] The men had previously clashed over claims in Galloway's autobiography (see below).
In an interview with Piers Morgan for GQ Magazine in May 2006, Galloway was asked whether a suicide bomb attack on Tony Blair with "no other casualties" would be morally justifiable "as revenge for the war on Iraq?". He answered "Yes it would be morally justified. I am not calling for it, but if it happened it would be of a wholly different moral order to the events of 7/7. It would be entirely logical and explicable, and morally equivalent to ordering the deaths of thousands of innocent people in Iraq as Blair did." He further stated that if he knew about such a plan that he would inform the relevant authorities, saying: "I would [tell the police], because such an operation would be counterproductive because it would just generate a new wave of anti-Muslim, anti-Arab sentiment whipped up by the press. It would lead to new draconian anti-terror laws, and would probably strengthen the resolve of the British and American services in Iraq rather than weaken it. So yes, I would inform the authorities."[87] Christopher Hitchens claimed this to be a call for an attack while appearing not to.[88]
Pakistan coup of 1999[link]
At the time of the 1999 Musharraf coup in Pakistan, he wrote, "In poor third world countries like Pakistan, politics is too important to be left to petty squabbling politicians. Pakistan is always on the brink of breaking apart into its widely disparate components. Only the armed forces can really be counted on to hold such a country together... Democracy is a means, not an end in itself and it has a bad name on the streets of Karachi and Lahore."[89] Nonetheless, on his TalkSport talk radio show, Galloway has been outspoken in criticising the former Pakistani leader Pervez Musharraf.
Record on LGBT issues[link]
In 1994, Galloway voted in support of the equalisation of the age of consent for homosexuality (which was then 21 years) with that for heterosexuality at 16 years.[90] He also voted against a reduction of the homosexual age of consent to 18.[91] He voted in favour of permitting unmarried and gay couples to adopt children.[92] Critics have claimed that his involvement in the leadership of Respect – which made no explicit mention of gay rights in its 2005 election manifesto[93] and accepted donations from Islamic Party members[94] – raise questions about commitment to those issues, as does his rather poor voting record in parliamentary divisions, 80% of which he missed, during the 2001-5 parliament while still a Glasgow MP.[95] However, Respect's 2005 conference, in which Galloway took part, resolved that explicit defence of equal rights and calls for the end to all discrimination against lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender people would be made in all of its manifestos and principal election materials.[96]
Galloway's assertion on The Wright Stuff chat show (13 March 2008) that the executed boyfriend of homosexual Iranian asylum seeker Mehdi Kazemi was executed for sex crimes rather than for being homosexual[97] received criticism from Peter Tatchell, among others.[98] Galloway also stated on The Wright Stuff that the case of gay rights in Iran was being used by supporters of war with Iran.
Humanitarian work[link]
Mariam Appeal[link]
In 1998 Galloway founded the Mariam Appeal, intended "to campaign against sanctions on Iraq which are having disastrous effects on the ordinary people of Iraq". The campaign was named after Mariam Hamza, a child flown by the fund from Iraq to Britain to receive treatment for leukaemia. The intention was to raise awareness of the suffering and death of hundreds of thousands of other Iraqi children due to poor health conditions and lack of suitable medicines and facilities, and to campaign for the lifting of the Iraq sanctions that many maintained were responsible for that situation.
The fund received scrutiny during the 2003 invasion of Iraq, after a complaint that Galloway used some of the donation money to pay his travel expenses.[99] Galloway said that the expenses were incurred in his capacity as the Appeal's chairman. Although the Mariam Appeal was never a registered charity and never intended to be such, it was investigated by the Charity Commission. The report of this year-long inquiry, published in June 2004,[100] found that the Mariam Appeal was doing charitable work (and so ought to have registered with them), but did not substantiate allegations that any funds had been misused.
A further Charity Commission Report published on 7 June 2007 found that the Appeal had received funds from Fawaz Zureikat that originated from the Oil For Food programme, and concluded that: "Although Mr Galloway, Mr Halford and Mr Al-Mukhtar have confirmed that they were unaware of the source of Mr Zureikat’s donations, the Commission has concluded that the charity trustees should have made further enquiries when accepting such large single and cumulative donations to satisfy themselves as to their origin and legitimacy. The Commission’s conclusion is that the charity trustees did not properly discharge their duty of care as trustees to the Appeal in respect of these donations." They added: "The Commission is also concerned, having considered the totality of the evidence before it, that Mr Galloway may also have known of the connection between the Appeal and the Programme".[101] Galloway responded: "I've always disputed the Commission's retrospective view that a campaign to win a change in national and international policy—a political campaign—was, in fact, a charity."[102]
Viva Palestina aid convoy[link]
Main article: Viva Palestina
In response to the 2008–2009 Israel–Gaza conflict, in January 2009 Galloway instigated the Viva Palestina aid convoy to the Gaza Strip. On 14 February 2009, after raising over £1 million-worth of humanitarian aid in four weeks, Galloway and hundreds of volunteers launched the convoy comprising approximately 120 vehicles intended for use in the Strip, including a fire engine donated by the Fire Brigades Union (FBU), 12 ambulances, a boat and trucks full of medicines, tools, clothes, blankets and gifts for children. The 5,000-mile route passed through Belgium, France, Spain, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya and Egypt.[103]
On 20 February, Galloway condemned Lancashire Police after they arrested nine of the volunteers under the Terrorism Act a day before the convoy's launch. Galloway said: "The arrests were clearly deliberately timed for the eve of the departure of the convoy. Photographs of the high-profile snatch on the M65 were immediately fed to the press to maximise the newsworthiness of the smear that was being perpetrated on the convoy." Viva Palestina reported an 80% drop in donations following the broadcast of the arrests and the police allegations on the BBC.[104]
The convoy arrived in Gaza on 9 March,[105] accompanied by approximately 180 extra trucks of aid donated by Libya's Gaddafi Foundation. All the British aid was delivered with the exception of the fire engine and boat which were blocked by the Egyptian government. The boat is to be delivered later in a flotilla of craft which Viva Palestina intends to take into Gaza harbour.[106] On 10 March 2009, Galloway announced at a press conference in Gaza City attended by several senior Hamas officials: "We are giving you now 100 vehicles and all of their contents, and we make no apology for what I am about to say. We are giving them to the elected government of Palestine," adding he would personally donate three cars and 25,000 pounds to Hamas Prime Minister Ismail Haniya.[107]
The Charity Commission opened a statutory inquiry into Viva Palestina on 23 March 2009, citing concerns over the finances, use of funds for non-charitable purposes, and the lack of "substantive response" to their repeated requests.[108] George Galloway admitted that the appeal had not responded to the requests, but argued that a substantive response was anyway due to be passed to the Charity Commission only hours after they launched the inquiry. He argued that the Charity Commission's actions were suspicious, hinting that they might be politically motivated.[108] On 8 April 2009, Galloway joined Vietnam War veteran Ron Kovic to launch Viva Palestina US.[109]
A third Viva Palestina convoy began at the end of 2009. On 8 January 2010, Galloway and his colleague Ron McKay were deported from Egypt immediately upon entry from Gaza. They had been attempting to help take about 200 aid trucks into the Gaza Strip. They were driven by the police to the airport and put on a plane to London. The previous day an Egyptian soldier had been killed during a clash at the border with Hamas loyalists. Several Palestinians were also injured.[110][111]
The Foreign Ministry of Egypt released a statement reading: "George Galloway is considered persona non grata and will not be allowed to enter into Egypt again". Shortly after his deportation Galloway said, "It is a badge of honour to be deported by a dictatorship" and "I've been thrown out of better joints than that."[112][113] He also vowed to go back to the Gaza strip. The Daily Record described his mood as "defiant".[113]
Controversy[link]
Oil for Food[link]
[edit] Daily Telegraph libel case
On 22 April 2003, the Daily Telegraph published news articles and comment describing documents found by its reporter David Blair in the ruins of the Iraqi Foreign Ministry. The documents purported to be records of meetings between Galloway and Iraqi intelligence agents, and state that he had received £375,000 per year from the proceeds of the Oil-for-Food Programme. Galloway completely denied the story, and pointed to the nature of the discovery within an unguarded, bombed-out building as being questionable. He instigated legal action against the newspaper, which was heard in the High Court from 14 November 2004.[114]
On 2 December, Justice David Eady ruled that the story had been "seriously defamatory", and that the Telegraph was "obliged to compensate Mr Galloway ... and to make an award for the purposes of restoring his reputation". Galloway was awarded damages of £150,000 plus, after a failed appeal in 2006,[115] legal costs of about £2 million.[116]
The libel case was regarded by both sides as an important test of the Reynolds qualified-privilege defence. The Daily Telegraph did not attempt to claim justification (where the defendant seeks to prove the truth of the defamatory reports): "It has never been the Telegraph's case to suggest that the allegations contained in these documents are true".[117] Instead, the paper sought to argue that it acted responsibly because the allegations it reported were of sufficient public interest to outweigh the damage caused to Galloway's reputation.[118] However the trial judge did not accept this defence saying the suggestion such as Galloway was guilty of "treason", "in Saddam's pay", and being "Saddam's little helper" caused him to conclude "the newspaper was not neutral but both embraced the allegations with relish and fervour and went on to embellish them".[116] Additionally Galloway had not been given a fair or reasonable opportunity to make inquiries or meaningful comment upon the documents before they were published.[114]
The issue of whether the documents were genuine was likewise not at issue at the trial. However, it later transpired that the expert hired by Galloway's lawyers, a forensic expert named Oliver Thorne, said "In my opinion the evidence found fully supports that the vast majority of the submitted documents are authentic."[119] He added "It should be noted that I am unable to comment on the veracity of the information within the disputed Telegraph documents, whether or not they are authentic."
Others[link]
The Christian Science Monitor also published a story on 25 April 2003, stating that they had documentary evidence that he had received "more than ten million dollars" from the Iraqi regime. However, on 20 June 2003, the Monitor reported[120] that their own investigation had concluded the documents were sophisticated forgeries, and apologised. Galloway rejected the newspaper's apology, asserted that the affair was a conspiracy against him, and continued a libel claim against the paper.
The Christian Science Monitor settled the claim, paying him an undisclosed sum in damages, on 19 March 2004.[121][122] It emerged that these documents had first been offered to the Daily Telegraph, but they had rejected them. The documents' origin remains obscure.
In January 2004, a further set of allegations were made in Al-Mada,[123] a newspaper in Iraq. The newspaper claimed to have found documents in the Iraqi national oil corporation showing that Galloway received (through an intermediary) some of the profits arising from the sale of 19.5 million barrels (3,100,000 m³) of oil. Galloway acknowledged that money had been paid into the Mariam Appeal by Iraqi businessmen who had profited from the UN-run programme, but denied benefiting personally, and maintained that, in any case, there was nothing illicit about this:
| “ | It is hard to see what is dishonourable, let alone "illicit", about Arab nationalist businessmen donating some of the profits they made from legitimate UN-controlled business with Iraq to anti-sanctions campaigns, as opposed to, say, keeping their profits for themselves. | ” |
The report of the Iraq Survey Group published in October 2004 claimed that Galloway was one of the recipients of a fund used by Iraq to buy influence among foreign politicians. Galloway denied receiving any money from Saddam Hussein's regime. The Parliamentary Commissioner for Standards had begun an investigation into George Galloway but suspended it when Galloway launched legal action.
US Senate[link]
Allegations[link]
In May 2005, a US Senate committee report[124] accused Galloway along with former French minister Charles Pasqua of receiving the right to buy oil under the UN's oil-for-food scheme. The report was issued by the US Senate Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations, chaired by Senator Norm Coleman, a Republican from Minnesota. The report cited further documents from the Iraqi oil ministry and interviews with Iraqi officials.
Coleman's committee said Pasqua had received allocations worth 11 million barrels (1,700,000 m3) from 1999 to 2000, and Galloway received allocations worth 20 million barrels (3,200,000 m3) from 2000 to 2003. The allegations against Pasqua and Galloway, both outspoken opponents of U.N. sanctions against Iraq in the 1990s, have been made before, including in an October report by US arms inspector Charles Duelfer as well as in the various purported documents described earlier in this section. But Coleman's report provided several new details. It also included information from interrogations of former high-ranking officials in US custody, including former Foreign Minister Tariq Aziz and former Vice President Taha Yassin Ramadan. Among the claims is that there is new evidence to suggest that the Mariam Appeal, a children's leukaemia charity founded by Galloway, was in fact used to conceal oil payments. The report cites Ramadan as saying under interrogation that Galloway was allocated oil "because of his opinions about Iraq."
Socialist Worker reported what they say is evidence that the key Iraqi oil ministry documents regarding oil allocations, in which Galloway's name appears six times (contracts M/08/35, M/09/23,[125] M/10/38, M/11/04, M/12/14, M/13/48) have been tampered with. They published a copy of contract M/09/23 and allege that George Galloway's name appears to have been added in a different font and at a different angle to the rest of the text on that line. In these documents (relating to oil allocations 8–13), Galloway is among just a few people whose nationality is never identified, whilst Zureikat is the only one whose nationality is identified in one instance but not in others.[126] Galloway combatively countered the charges by accusing Coleman and other pro-war politicians of covering up the "theft of billions of dollars of Iraq's wealth... on your watch" that had occurred under a post-invasion Coalition Provisional Authority, committed by "Halliburton and other American corporations... with the connivance of your own government."[127][128]
Galloway's response[link]
On 17 May 2005, the committee held a hearing concerning specific allegations (of which Galloway was one part) relating to improprieties surrounding the Oil-for-Food programme. Attending Galloway's oral testimony and enquiring of him were two of the thirteen committee members: the chair (Coleman) and the ranking Democrat (Carl Levin).[129]
Upon Galloway's arrival in the US, he told Reuters, "I have no expectation of justice from a group of Christian fundamentalist and Zionist activists under the chairmanship of a neo-con George Bush". Galloway described Coleman as a "pro-war, neo-con hawk and the lickspittle of George W. Bush", who, he said, sought revenge against anyone who did not support the invasion of Iraq.
In his testimony, Galloway made the following statements in response to the allegations against him:[130]
| “ | Senator, I am not now, nor have I ever been, an oil trader. and neither has anyone on my behalf. I have never seen a barrel of oil, owned one, bought one, sold one - and neither has anyone on my behalf. Now I know that standards have slipped in the last few years in Washington, but for a lawyer you are remarkably cavalier with any idea of justice. I am here today but last week you already found me guilty. You traduced my name around the world without ever having asked me a single question, without ever having contacted me, without ever written to me or telephoned me, without any attempt to contact me whatsoever. And you call that justice. | ” |
He questioned the reliability of evidence given by former Iraqi Vice President Taha Yassin Ramadan, stating that the circumstances of his captivity by American forces call into question the authenticity of the remarks. Galloway also pointed out an error in the report, where documents by The Daily Telegraph were said to have covered an earlier period from those held by the Senate. In fact the report's documents referred to the same period as those used by The Daily Telegraph, though Galloway pointed out that the presumed forgeries pertaining to the Christian Science Monitor report did refer to an earlier period.
Galloway also denounced the invasion of Iraq as having been based on "a pack of lies" in his Senate testimony. The US media, in reporting his appearance, emphasised his blunt remarks on the war. The British media gave generally more positive coverage; TV presenter Anne Robinson said Galloway "quite frankly put the pride back in British politics" when introducing him for a prime time talk show.[131][132]
A report by the then-majority Republican Party staff of the United States Senate Committee on Investigations published in October 2005 asserted that Galloway had given false "or misleading"[133] testimony under oath when appearing before them. The report exhibits bank statements it claims show that £85,000 of proceeds from the Oil-for-Food Programme had been paid to Galloway's then-wife Amineh Abu-Zayyad. Galloway reiterated his denial of the charges and challenged the US Senate committee to charge him with perjury. He claimed Coleman's motive was revenge over the embarrassment of his appearance before the committee in May.[134][135][136]
Stance on the Islamic Republic of Iran[link]
Galloway has attracted criticism from both the Left and the Right for his comments relating to the regime in Iran, and his work for the state-run satellite television channel, Press TV. Scott Long, writing in The Guardian, criticised Galloway's claim that "homosexuals aren't executed in Iran, just rapists", pointing out that current law in the country stipulates that "Penetrative sex acts between men can bring death on the first conviction".[137] Long-time Gay Rights activist Peter Tatchell, also writing in The Guardian, accused Galloway of spouting "Iranian Propaganda", continuing: "His claim that lesbian and gay people are not at risk of execution in Iran is refuted by every reputable human rights organisation, including Amnesty International, Human Rights Watch, the International Gay and Lesbian Human Rights Commission and the International Lesbian and Gay Association."[138] Galloway argued that Western governments should accept the election of the conservative President of the Islamic Republic of Iran, Mahmoud Ahmadinejad.[139]
The Trotskyist Workers' Liberty group also condemns Galloway, largely on the basis of his support and work for the current Iranian regime. In "No vote for Galloway – an open letter to the left", he is quoted from his Press TV interview with President Ahmadinejad as stating that he requires "police protection in London from the Iranian opposition because of my support for your election campaign. I mention this so you know where I’m coming from."[140]
Controversy at Oxford University[link]
On 2 November 2006, The Times reported that Galloway was in a fracas at the Oxford Union. He was there to discuss his book. (Galloway, George (2006). Fidel Castro Handbook. MQ Publications. ISBN 1-84072-688-1. ) In his speech to the Union, Galloway claimed "that democracy in Cuba is more “free” than in the UK", and when questioned on this, he mentioned "that Oxford students are too privileged to understand what he was talking about".[141] Three former state school students who met him afterwards and disputed this description, allege that Galloway said: "I don’t represent anyone’s views. I represent me. I don’t give a fuck what anyone else thinks."[141]
[edit] Clashes with the News of the World
Galloway says that the Metropolitan Police Service told him they had evidence he was targeted by Glenn Mulcaire, a private investigator working for the News of the World who was jailed for phone hacking in 2007. In 2010 Galloway began legal action for breach of privacy. In 2012 it was reported that Galloway had settled out of court, along with many other victims of phone hacking.[142] The terms of the settlement were not disclosed, but he had previously claimed to have been offered "substantial sums of money" by NOTW to settle out of court.[143]
The settlement with News International in respect of phone-hacking is understood not to cover a legal dispute regarding the activities of Mazher Mahmood, an undercover reporter for the News of the World. In March 2006 Galloway claimed in a statement that Mahmood, who uses a disguise as a sheikh to frame celebrities, targeted him in an alleged sting operation. Galloway claims that Mahmood and an accomplice tried but failed to implicate him in illegal party funding, and to agree with antisemitic statements. Galloway wrote to the Metropolitan police commissioner and the Speaker of the House of Commons about the incident. He also released photographs of Mahmood and revealed other aspects of his activities.[144][145] The News of the World lost a High Court action to prevent publication of photographs of Mahmood.[146]
Islamic Forum of Europe[link]
Galloway has been recorded as saying that he owes "more than I can say, more than it would be wise for me to say, to the Islamic Forum of Europe".[147][148]
Hamas[link]
Respect MP George Galloway was barred in 2009 from visiting Canada (a ban now reversed[149]) because of his support for Hamas,[150] and donations to suspected vehicles of the Hamas-run government in the Gaza Strip.[151]
Forbidden to enter Canada[link]
On 20 March 2009, Galloway was advised by the Canada Border Services Agency he was deemed inadmissible to Canada on "security grounds" due to his involvement in the Viva Palestina aid convoy to the Gaza Strip following the 2008–2009 Israel–Gaza conflict.[151] The Gaza Strip is governed by Hamas, which is on Canada's list of terrorist organisations. This resulted from a personal donation of £25,000 made by Galloway ten days earlier. The Canadians ruled (and maintained on appeal) that this constituted explicit support for Hamas, although Galloway argued it was not the case as the money was intended to be used for aid purposes.[71][152]
Galloway was on a lecture tour of North America, and was due to speak on war prevention and Gaza for a United Church congregation in Toronto, as well as for events in Mississauga, Ottawa and Montreal. Galloway was also described as an "infamous street-corner Cromwell" by Alykhan Velshi, communications director for Jason Kenney, Canada's Minister of Citizenship, Immigration and Multiculturalism. Galloway described the ban as "idiotic"[153] and Immigration Minister Jason Kenney was accused by Jack Layton, leader of Canada's New Democratic Party (NDP), of being a "minister of censorship."[154][155] Toronto Coalition to Stop the War, the group who invited Galloway to Canada, sought an emergency injunction to allow for his entry into Canada for the first speech in Toronto citing their rights to freedom of association and freedom of expression.[151] On 30 March 2009, the Federal Court of Canada upheld the decision of the Canada Border Services Agency.[156] Justice Luc Martineau cited non-citizens "do not have an unqualified right to enter in Canada. The admission of a foreign national to this country is a privilege determined by statute, regulation or otherwise, and not as a matter of right." The judge also noted "a proper factual record and the benefit of full legal argument...are lacking at the present time."[151] Subsequently, Galloway cancelled his Canadian tour and instead, delivered his speech over video link from New York to his Canadian audiences.[157]
Galloway was allowed entry into Canada in October 2010, after a judge concluded that the original ban had been undertaken for political reasons. He continued to criticise Jason Kenney, saying that the minister had "damaged Canada's reputation" and had used "anti-terrorism" as a means of suppressing political debate.[158] Galloway has also threatened to sue the Canadian government for the banning incident.[159]
Media activities[link]
Autobiography[link]
His autobiography, I'm Not The Only One, was published on 28 April 2004. The book's title is a quotation from the song "Imagine" by John Lennon. Armed Forces Minister Adam Ingram applied for an interim interdict to prevent the book's publication. Ingram asserted that Galloway's text, which stated that Ingram "played the flute in a sectarian, anti-Catholic, Protestant-supremacist Orange Order band", was in bad faith and defamatory, although Ingram's lawyers conceded that for a year as a teenager he had been a member of a junior Orange Lodge in Barlanark, Glasgow, and had attended three parades. The Judge, Lord Kingarth, decided to refuse an interim interdict, that the balance of the arguments favoured Galloway's publisher, and that the phrase "sectarian, anti-Catholic, Protestant-supremacist" was fair comment on that organisation. Although Ingram was not and never had been a flute-player, the defending advocate observed that "playing the flute carries no obvious defamatory imputation ... it is not to the discredit of anyone that he plays the flute." The judge ruled that Ingram should pay the full court costs of the hearing.[160]
Other books[link]
Galloway has also published the Fidel Castro Handbook, a biography of the former Cuban President in 2006 (MQ Publications. ISBN 1-84072-688-1).
In August 2011, Galloway's book entitled Open Season: The Neil Lennon Story[161] which explores anti-Irish and anti-Catholic racism and bigotry in Scotland and describes many of the related hardships which have befallen Celtic manager Neil Lennon throughout his footballing career. Galloway himself has claimed that he was the victim of a sectarian attack at Glasgow Airport on 10 June 2007.[162][163] He believes that his attackers were on the way home from attending an Orange Order parade in London and that they attacked him because he is a Celtic fan.[164] No arrest was made in connection with this incident.
Publishing ventures[link]
Galloway has been involved in several publishing companies. He owned Asian Voice, which published a newspaper called East from 1996. It later transpired that the Pakistan Government was funding Galloway's company Asian Voice with several hundred-thousand-pounds. "Documents show that the Pakistan government agreed an initial budget for the weekly newspaper of £547,000. According to a memorandum dated 2 January 1996, the Pakistan government proposed to "covertly sponsor" the publication, with money allocated to "the Secret Fund of the High Commissioner for Pakistan in the UK as a special grant for the project".[165] The Commons Committee cleared Galloway of any wrongdoing in this matter.[166]
In 2005 Galloway established Friction Books, an imprint for fiction and non-fiction, with longstanding associate Ron McKay.[167] Friction claimed its purpose was to publish "books that burn, books that cause controversy and get people talking". As of 2009[update] it has released at least two books: Paco Ignacio Taibo II novel An Easy Thing[168] and Topple the Mighty by Leon Kuhn and Colin Gile.[169]
[edit] Celebrity Big Brother
In January 2006 Galloway appeared on the fourth series of the reality show for three weeks. During his time on the programme he appeared apparently licking milk, while pretending to be a cat, from the cupped hands of another housemate, actress Rula Lenska. Galloway was a sitting member of parliament at the time, leading to the allegation that he was bringing parliament into disrepute.[170]
Galloway acted as the guest presenter for the E4 companion programme to the 2007 edition of Big Brother, Big Brother's Big Mouth, from 5 to 8 June 2007.
talkSPORT[link]
| Genre | Political discussion |
|---|---|
| Running time | Friday 22:00–01:00 Saturday 22:00–01:00 |
| Country | UK |
| Languages | English |
| Home station | talkSPORT |
| Syndicates | Talk 107 |
| Hosts | George Galloway |
| Recording studio | Central London |
| Opening theme | The theme from Top Cat |
On 11 March 2006, Galloway started broadcasting on Britain's commercial radio station, the UTV-owned talkSPORT, and two weeks later started a simultaneous broadcast on Talk 107, TalkSPORT's Edinburgh-based sister station.
Billed as "The Mother of All Talk Shows", Galloway began every broadcast by playing the theme from the Top Cat cartoon series.
Galloway ceased presenting the show on 27 March 2010, due to campaign commitments in the 2010 UK General Election. During this time, he was replaced by Mike Graham.[171]
In August 2010, Galloway returned to the radio station with a new show bearing a similar format to his original, but this time titled The Week with George Galloway, described by the station as a "No-holds barred review of the past seven days around the world".[172] It was announced in March 2012 that Galloway's programme is to end as TalkSport plans to drop the non-sport elements of its schedule.[173]
Connection to Press TV[link]
Galloway began presenting a programme titled The Real Deal on 21 May 2007. Originally on Raj TV, a satellite channel primarily aimed at the British Asian community, the show was resurrected, following a short break, on 10 February 2008 by Press TV, a London-based news channel controlled by the government of Iran. The series was still running in late 2011.[174]
Galloway hosts a 45-minute weekly current affairs show Comment on Press TV. This programme invites the viewers to engage in lively debate on international political issues.[175]
In 2009, the British telecommunications regulator Ofcom criticised Galloway for breaching their broadcasting code by "breaking impartiality rules" in several of his Press TV programmes on the war in Gaza in which Israeli opinion failed to be "'adequately represented'".[176]
Journalism[link]
As of 25 June 2007, Galloway has contributed a weekly column in the Daily Record giving his views on politics and popular culture. He used this column to reveal he was considering running for a seat in the Scottish Parliament in the May 2011 election.[177] Galloway is an occasional contributor to The Guardian newspaper and website.[178]
As an orator[link]
|
Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: George Galloway |
The Times finds that he has "the gift of the Glasgow gab, a love of the stage and an inexhaustible fund of self-belief."[179] The Guardian finds him "renowned for his colourful rhetoric and combative debating style"[180] and the Spectator once awarded him Debater of the Year.[181]
Honours[link]
Galloway has been conferred by the President of Pakistan with the following decorations:[182]
- Hilal-e-Pakistan
- Hilal-e-Quaid-e-Azam
References[link]
- ^ "Galloway expelled by Labour". BBC. 24 October 2003. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/3205889.stm. Retrieved 4 January 2010.
- ^ "George Galloway profile". bbc online. 17 July 2007. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/4539429.stm. Retrieved 4 August 2009.
- ^ "Poplar & Limehouse: Constituency". The Daily Telegraph (London). 7 May 2010. http://ukpolitics.telegraph.co.uk/Poplar+%26+Limehouse. Retrieved 7 May 2010.
- ^ "Glasgow region round-up: Galloway misses out". Glasgow: STV. 6 May 2011. http://news.stv.tv/election-2011/247466-galloway-misses-out-on-glasgow-regional-vote/. Retrieved 30 March 2012.
- ^ David Aaronovitch (27 April 2003). "Lies and the Left". The Observer (London). http://www.guardian.co.uk/politics/2003/apr/27/labour.uk. Retrieved 22 June 2011. "Galloway was once a genuine critic of Saddam's"
- ^ "Profile of George Galloway", BBC News, 22 April 2003. Retrieved on 8 September 2007.
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External links[link]
|
Wikimedia Commons has media related to: George Galloway |
- GeorgeGalloway.com Official website
- www.debretts.co.uk
- Hansard 1803–2005: contributions in Parliament by George Galloway
- George Galloway at the Internet Movie Database
- The Scotsman. Indefatigably yours. Personal interview, 19 May 2003.
| Parliament of the United Kingdom | ||
|---|---|---|
| Preceded by Roy Jenkins |
Member of Parliament for Glasgow Hillhead 1987 – 1997 |
Succeeded by Constituency Abolished |
| Preceded by Constituency Created |
Member of Parliament for Glasgow Kelvin 1997 – 2005 |
Succeeded by Constituency Abolished |
| Preceded by Oona King |
Member of Parliament for Bethnal Green and Bow 2005 – 2010 |
Succeeded by Rushanara Ali |
| Preceded by Marsha Singh |
Member of Parliament for Bradford West 2012 – present |
Incumbent |
|
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| Persondata | |
|---|---|
| Name | George Galloway |
| Alternative names | |
| Short description | politician |
| Date of birth | 16 August 1954 |
| Place of birth | Dundee, Scotland |
| Date of death | |
| Place of death | |
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This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
