This article is about the modern country. For the ancient realm, see
Ancient Egypt.
| Arab Republic of Egypt
جمهورية مصر العربية
Ǧumhūriyyat Maṣr al-ʿArabiyyah
|
|
|
Anthem:
"Bilady, Bilady, Bilady"
"My country, my country, my country"
|
|
|
Capital
(and largest city) |
Cairo
30°2′N 31°13′E / 30.033°N 31.217°E / 30.033; 31.217 |
| Official language(s) |
Arabic[a] |
| Recognised national languages |
Coptic |
| Demonym |
Egyptian |
| Government |
Military junta |
| - |
Chairman of the Supreme Council of the Armed Forces |
Mohamed Hussein Tantawi[b] |
| - |
Prime Minister |
Kamal Ganzouri |
| Legislature |
Parliament[d] |
| - |
Upper house |
Shura Council |
| - |
Lower house |
People's Assembly |
| Establishment |
| - |
Unification of Upper and Lower Egypt |
c. 3150 BC |
| - |
Independence from the United Kingdom |
28 February 1922 |
| - |
Declaration of the republic |
18 June 1953 |
| - |
The Egyptian revolution [1] |
25 January 2011 |
| - |
Current Constitution[2] |
30 March 2011 |
| Area |
| - |
Total |
1,002,450 km2 (30th)
387,048 sq mi |
| - |
Water (%) |
0.632 |
| Population |
| - |
2011 estimate |
90 million (82 million inside + 8 million abroad) [3] [4] (16th) |
| - |
2006 census |
76,699,427 (total)[5]
incl. 3,901,396 abroad |
| - |
Density |
Real density:[c]
2,755.2/km2 (38th)
7,136/sq mi
Arithmetic density:
76.3/km2 (126th)
197.5/sq mi |
| GDP (PPP) |
2011 estimate |
| - |
Total |
$518.976 billion[6] |
| - |
Per capita |
$6,540[6] |
| GDP (nominal) |
2011 estimate |
| - |
Total |
$235.719 billion[6] |
| - |
Per capita |
$2,970[6] |
| Gini (1999–00) |
34.5 (medium) |
| HDI (2011) |
 0.644[7] (medium) (113th) |
| Currency |
Egyptian pound (EGP) |
| Time zone |
EET (UTC+2 (No DST Since 2011)) |
| Drives on the |
right |
| ISO 3166 code |
EG |
| Internet TLD |
.eg, مصر. |
| Calling code |
+20 |
a.^ Literary Arabic is the sole official language.[2] Egyptian Arabic is the national spoken language. Other dialects and minority languages are used regionally.
b.^ De facto interim head of state.[8][9]
c.^ Densities are based on 2006 population figures. The gap between arithmetic and real densities is due to the fact that 98% of Egyptians live on 3% of the territory.[10]
d.^ Parliament dissolved as of 11 February 2011. |
Egypt 
i/ˈiːdʒɪpt/ (Arabic: مصر, Miṣr, Egyptian Arabic: [mɑsˤɾ] ; Coptic: Ⲭⲏⲙⲓ, Kīmi ; Sahidic Coptic: ⲕⲏⲙⲉ, Kēme), officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, Arabic: 
جمهوريّة مصر العربيّة (help·info), is a country mainly in North Africa, with the Sinai Peninsula forming a land bridge in Southwest Asia. Egypt is thus a transcontinental country, and a major power in Africa, the Mediterranean Basin, the Middle East and the Muslim world. Covering an area of about 1,010,000 square kilometers (390,000 sq mi), Egypt is bordered by the Mediterranean Sea to the north, the Gaza Strip and Israel to the northeast, the Red Sea to the east, Sudan to the south and Libya to the west.
Egypt is one of the most populous countries in Africa and the Middle East. The great majority of its over 81 million people[4] live near the banks of the Nile River, in an area of about 40,000 square kilometers (15,000 sq mi), where the only arable land is found. The large areas of the Sahara Desert are sparsely inhabited. About half of Egypt's residents live in urban areas, with most spread across the densely populated centres of greater Cairo, Alexandria and other major cities in the Nile Delta.
Monuments in Egypt such as the Giza pyramid complex and its Great Sphinx were constructed by its ancient civilization. Its ancient ruins, such as those of Memphis, Thebes, and Karnak and the Valley of the Kings outside Luxor, are a significant focus of archaeological study. The tourism industry and the Red Sea Riviera employ about 12% of Egypt's workforce.
The economy of Egypt is one of the most diversified in the Middle East, with sectors such as tourism, agriculture, industry and service at almost equal production levels.
In early 2011, Egypt underwent a revolution, which resulted in the ousting of President Hosni Mubarak after nearly 30 years in power.[11]
Presidential elections are scheduled for May 2012.
The English name Egypt was borrowed from Middle French Egypte, from Latin Aegyptus, from ancient Greek Aígyptos (Αἴγυπτος), from earlier Linear B 𐁁𐀓𐀠𐀴𐀍 a-ku-pi-ti-yo. The adjective aigýpti-, aigýptios was borrowed into Coptic as ⲅⲩⲡϯⲓⲟⲥ/ⲕⲩⲡϯⲓⲟⲥ gyptios, kyptios, and from there into Arabic as قبطي qubṭī, back formed into قبة qubṭ, whence English Copt. The Greek forms were borrowed from Late Egyptian (Amarna) Hikuptah "Memphis", a corruption of the earlier Egyptian name Hwt-ka-Ptah (ḥwt-kꜣ-ptḥ), meaning "home of the ka (soul) of Ptah", the name of a temple to the god Ptah at Memphis.[12] Strabo attributed the word to a folk etymology in which Aígyptos (Αἴγυπτος) evolved as a compound from Aigaiou huptiōs (Aἰγαίου ὑπτίως), meaning "below the Aegean".
Miṣr, the Arabic and modern official name of Egypt (Egyptian Arabic: Maṣr), is of Semitic origin, directly cognate with other Semitic words for Egypt such as the Hebrew מִצְרַיִם (Mitzráyim), literally meaning "the two straits" (a reference to the dynastic separation of upper and lower Egypt).[unreliable source?][13] The word originally connoted "metropolis" or "civilization" and means "country", or "frontier-land".
The ancient Egyptian name of the country is Kemet (km.t) [𓆎𓅓𓏏𓊖], which means "black land", referring to the fertile black soils of the Nile flood plains, distinct from the deshret (dšṛt), or "red land" of the desert.[14] The name is realized as kēme and kēmə in the Coptic stage of the Egyptian language, and appeared in early Greek as Χημία (Khēmía).[15] Another name was tꜣ-mry "land of the riverbank".[16] The names of Upper and Lower Egypt were Ta-Sheme'aw (tꜣ-šmꜥw) "sedgeland" and Ta-Mehew (tꜣ mḥw) "northland", respectively.
There is evidence of rock carvings along the Nile terraces and in desert oases. In the 10th millennium BC, a culture of hunter-gatherers and fishers replaced a grain-grinding culture.[citation needed] Climate changes and/or overgrazing around 8000 BC began to desiccate the pastoral lands of Egypt, forming the Sahara. Early tribal peoples migrated to the Nile River where they developed a settled agricultural economy and more centralized society.[17]
By about 6000 BC a Neolithic culture rooted in the Nile Valley.[18] During the Neolithic era, several predynastic cultures developed independently in Upper and Lower Egypt. The Badarian culture and the successor Naqada series are generally regarded as precursors to dynastic Egypt. The earliest known Lower Egyptian site, Merimda, predates the Badarian by about seven hundred years. Contemporaneous Lower Egyptian communities coexisted with their southern counterparts for more than two thousand years, remaining culturally distinct, but maintaining frequent contact through trade. The earliest known evidence of Egyptian hieroglyphic inscriptions appeared during the predynastic period on Naqada III pottery vessels, dated to about 3200 BC.[19]
Main article:
Ancient EgyptA unified kingdom was founded c. 3150 BC by King Menes, leading to a series of dynasties that ruled Egypt for the next three millennia. Egyptian culture flourished during this long period and remained distinctively Egyptian in its religion, arts, language and customs. The first two ruling dynasties of a unified Egypt set the stage for the Old Kingdom period, c. 2700–2200 BC., which constructed many pyramids, most notably the Third Dynasty pyramid of Djoser and the Fourth Dynasty Giza Pyramids.
The First Intermediate Period ushered in a time of political upheaval for about 150 years.[20] Stronger Nile floods and stabilization of government, however, brought back renewed prosperity for the country in the Middle Kingdom c. 2040 BC, reaching a peak during the reign of Pharaoh Amenemhat III. A second period of disunity heralded the arrival of the first foreign ruling dynasty in Egypt, that of the Semitic Hyksos. The Hyksos invaders took over much of Lower Egypt around 1650 BC and founded a new capital at Avaris. They were driven out by an Upper Egyptian force led by Ahmose I, who founded the Eighteenth Dynasty and relocated the capital from Memphis to Thebes.
The New Kingdom c. 1550–1070 BC began with the Eighteenth Dynasty, marking the rise of Egypt as an international power that expanded during its greatest extension to an empire as far south as Tombos in Nubia, and included parts of the Levant in the east. This period is noted for some of the most well known Pharaohs, including Hatshepsut, Thutmose III, Akhenaten and his wife Nefertiti, Tutankhamun and Ramesses II. The first historically attested expression of monotheism came during this period as Atenism. Frequent contacts with other nations brought new ideas to the New Kingdom. The country was later invaded and conquered by Libyans, Nubians and Assyrians, but native Egyptians eventually drove them out and regained control of their country.[21]
The Thirtieth Dynasty was the last native ruling dynasty during the Pharaonic epoch. It fell to the Persians in 343 BC after the last native Pharaoh, King Nectanebo II, was defeated in battle.
The Ptolemaic Kingdom was a powerful Hellenistic state, extending from southern Syria in the east, to Cyrene to the west, and south to the frontier with Nubia. Alexandria became the capital city and a center of Greek culture and trade. To gain recognition by the native Egyptian populace, they named themselves as the successors to the Pharaohs. The later Ptolemies took on Egyptian traditions, had themselves portrayed on public monuments in Egyptian style and dress, and participated in Egyptian religious life.[22][23]
The last ruler from the Ptolemaic line was Cleopatra VII, who committed suicide with her lover Mark Antony, after Caesar Augustus had captured them. The Ptolemies faced rebellions of native Egyptians often caused by an unwanted regime and were involved in foreign and civil wars that led to the decline of the kingdom and its annexation by Rome. Nevertheless Hellenistic culture continued to thrive in Egypt well after the Muslim conquest.
Christianity was brought to Egypt by Saint Mark the Evangelist in the 1st century.[24] Diocletian's reign marked the transition from the Roman to the Byzantine era in Egypt, when a great number of Egyptian Christians were persecuted. The New Testament had by then been translated into Egyptian. After the Council of Chalcedon in AD 451, a distinct Egyptian Coptic Church was firmly established.[25]
Selim I (1470–1520), conquered Egypt
The
Hanging Church of Cairo, first built in the 3rd or 4th century, is one of the most famous
Coptic Churches in Egypt.
The Byzantines were able to regain control of the country after a brief Persian invasion early in the 7th century, until 639-42, when Egypt was invaded and conquered by the Islamic Empire by the Muslim Arabs. When they defeated the Byzantine Armies in Egypt, the Arabs brought Sunni Islam to the country. Early in this period, Egyptians began to blend their new faith with indigenous beliefs and practices, leading to various Sufi orders that have flourished to this day.[24] These earlier rites had survived the period of Coptic Christianity.[26]
Muslim rulers nominated by the Islamic Caliphate remained in control of Egypt for the next six centuries, with Cairo as the seat of the Caliphate under the Fatimids. With the end of the Kurdish Ayyubid dynasty, the Mamluks, a Turco-Circassian military caste, took control about AD 1250. By the late 13th century, Egypt linked the Red Sea, India, Malaya, and East Indies.[27] They continued to govern the country until the conquest of Egypt by the Ottoman Turks in 1517, after which it became a province of the Ottoman Empire. The mid-14th-century Black Death killed about 40% of the country's population.[28]
After the 15th century, the Ottoman invasion pushed the Egyptian system into decline. The defensive militarization damaged its civil society and economic institutions.[27] The weakening of the economic system combined with the effects of plague left Egypt vulnerable to foreign invasion. Portuguese traders took over their trade.[27] Egypt suffered six famines between 1687 and 1731.[29] The 1784 famine cost it roughly one-sixth of its population.[30]
The brief French invasion of Egypt led by Napoleon Bonaparte began in 1798. The expulsion of the French in 1801 by Ottoman, Mamluk, and British forces was followed by four years of anarchy in which Ottomans, Mamluks, and Albanians -- who were nominally in the service of the Ottomans—wrestled for power. Out of this chaos, the commander of the Albanian regiment, Muhammad Ali (Kavalali Mehmed Ali Pasha) emerged as a dominant figure and in 1805 was acknowledged by the Sultan in Istanbul as his viceroy in Egypt; the title implied subordination to the Sultan but this was in fact a polite fiction: Ottoman power in Egypt was finished and Muhammad Ali, an ambitious and able leader, established a dynasty that was to rule Egypt until the revolution of 1952. In later years, the dynasty became a British puppet.[31]
His primary focus was military: he annexed Northern Sudan (1820–1824), Syria (1833), and parts of Arabia and Anatolia; but in 1841 the European powers, fearful lest he topple the Ottoman Empire itself, forced him to return most of his conquests to the Ottomans, but he kept the Sudan and his title to Egypt was made hereditary. A more lasting result of his military ambition is that it required him to modernize the country. Eager to adopt the military (and therefore industrial) techniques of the great powers, he sent students to the West and invited training missions to Egypt. He built industries, a system of canals for irrigation and transport, and reformed the civil service.[31]
The introduction in 1820 of long-staple cotton, the Egyptian variety of which became notable, transformed its agriculture into a cash-crop monoculture before the end of the century. The social effects of this were enormous: land ownership became concentrated and many foreigners arrived, shifting production towards international markets.[31]
British rule lasted from 1882 when the British succeeded in defeating the Egyptian Army at Tel El Kebir in September and took control of the country, to the 1952 Egyptian revolution which made Egypt a republic and when British advisers were expelled.
Muhammad Ali was succeeded briefly by his son Ibrahim (in September 1848), then by a grandson Abbas I (in November 1848), then by Said (in 1854), and Isma'il (in 1863). Abbas I was cautious. Said and Ismail were ambitious developers, but they spent beyond their means. The Suez Canal, built in partnership with the French, was completed in 1869. The cost of this and other projects had two effects: it led to enormous debt to European banks, and caused popular discontent because of the onerous taxation it required. In 1875 Ismail was forced to sell Egypt's share in the canal to the British Government. Within three years this led to the imposition of British and French controllers who sat in the Egyptian cabinet, and, "with the financial power of the bondholders behind them, were the real power in the Government."[32]
Local dissatisfaction with Ismail and with European intrusion led to the formation of the first nationalist groupings in 1879, with Ahmad Urabi a prominent figure. In 1882 he became head of a nationalist-dominated ministry committed to democratic reforms including parliamentary control of the budget. Fearing a reduction of their control, the UK and France intervened militarily, bombarding Alexandria and crushing the Egyptian army at the battle of Tel el-Kebir.[33] They reinstalled Ismail's son Tewfik as figurehead of a de facto British protectorate.[34]
Female nationalists demonstrating in
Cairo, 1919
In 1914, the Protectorate was made official, and the title of the head of state, which had changed from pasha to khedive in 1867, was changed to sultan, to repudiate the vestigial suzerainty of the Ottoman sultan, who was backing the Central powers in World War I. Abbas II was deposed as khedive and replaced by his uncle, Hussein Kamel, as sultan.[35]
In 1906, the Dinshaway Incident prompted many neutral Egyptians to join the nationalist movement. After the First World War, Saad Zaghlul and the Wafd Party led the Egyptian nationalist movement to a majority at the local Legislative Assembly. When the British exiled Zaghlul and his associates to Malta on 8 March 1919, the country arose in its first modern revolution. The revolt led the UK government to issue a unilateral declaration of Egypt's independence on 22 February 1922.[36]
The new government drafted and implemented a constitution in 1923 based on a parliamentary system. Saad Zaghlul was popularly elected as Prime Minister of Egypt in 1924. In 1936, the Anglo-Egyptian Treaty was concluded. Continued instability due to remaining British influence and increasing political involvement by the king led to the dissolution of the parliament in a military coup d'état known as the 1952 Revolution. The Free Officers Movement forced King Farouk to abdicate in support of his son Fuad. British military presence in Egypt lasted until 1954.[37]
On 18 June 1953, the Egyptian Republic was declared, with General Muhammad Naguib as the first President of the Republic. Naguib was forced to resign in 1954 by Gamal Abdel Nasser – the real architect of the 1952 movement – and was later put under house arrest. Nasser assumed power as President in June, 1956. British forces completed their withdrawal from the occupied Suez Canal Zone on 13 June 1956. He nationalized the Suez Canal on 26 July 1956, prompting the 1956 Suez Crisis.
In the 1967 Six Day War, Israel invaded and occupied Egypt's Sinai Peninsula and the Gaza Strip, which Egypt had occupied since the 1948 Arab–Israeli War. Three years later President Nasser died and was succeeded by Anwar Sadat in 1970. Sadat switched Egypt's Cold War allegiance from the Soviet Union to the United States, expelling Soviet advisors in 1972. He launched the Infitah economic reform policy, while clamping down on religious and secular opposition.
In 1973, Egypt, along with Syria, launched the October War, a surprise attack against the Israeli forces occupying the Sinai Peninsula and the Golan Heights. It was an attempt to regain part of the Sinai territory Israel had captured 6 years earlier. Sadat hoped to seize some territory through military force, and then regain the rest of the peninsula by diplomacy. The conflict sparked an international crisis between the US and the USSR, both of whom intervened. The second UN-mandated ceasefire halted military action. While the war ended with a military stalemate, it presented Sadat with a political victory that later allowed him to regain the Sinai in return for peace with Israel.[38]
Sadat made a historic visit to Israel in 1977, which led to the 1979 peace treaty in exchange for Israeli withdrawal from Sinai. Sadat's initiative sparked enormous controversy in the Arab world and led to Egypt's expulsion from the Arab League, but it was supported by most Egyptians.[39] A fundamentalist military soldier assassinated Sadat in Cairo in 1981. He was succeeded by Hosni Mubarak.
In 2003, the Egyptian Movement for Change, popularly known as Kefaya, was launched to oppose the Mubarak regime and to establish democratic reforms and greater civil liberties.
On 25 January 2011, widespread protests began against Mubarak's government. The objective of the protest was the removal of Mubarak from power. These took the form of an intensive campaign of civil resistance supported by a very large number of people and mainly consisting of continuous mass demonstrations. By 29 January it was becoming clear that Mubarak's government had lost control when a curfew order was ignored, and the army took a semi-neutral stance on enforcing the curfew decree. Some protesters, a very small minority in Cairo, expressed views against what they deemed was foreign interference, highlighted by the then-held view that the U.S. administration had failed to take sides, as well as linking the administration with Israel.[40]
On 11 February 2011, Mubarak resigned and fled Cairo. Vice President Omar Suleiman announced that Mubarak had stepped down and that the Egyptian military would assume control of the nation's affairs in the short term.[41][42] (See also 2011 revolution.) Jubilant celebrations broke out in Tahrir Square at the news.[43] Mubarak may have left Cairo for Sharm el-Sheikh the previous night, before or shortly after the airing of a taped speech in which Mubarak vowed he would not step down or leave.[44]
On 13 February 2011, the high level military command of Egypt announced that both the constitution and the parliament of Egypt had been dissolved. The parliamentary election was to be held in September.[45]
A constitutional referendum was held on 19 March 2011.
On 28 November 2011, Egypt held its first parliamentary election since the previous regime had been in power. Turnout was high and there were no reports of irregularities or violence, although members of some parties broke the ban on campaigning at polling places by handing out pamphlets and banners.[46]
As a result of their conditional independence from Great Britain in 1922, the Egyptian royal family issued a Royal Decree establishing a national flag. This first flag was a major step for Egypt, and its colors were green with a white crescent and three stars in the middle.
The next version of the flag was established in 1958 by Presidential Decree, to incorporate aspects of Syria and Egypt, since they were merged into one country, the United Arab Republic. This new flag had three colors: red, white with two green stars, and black. The rectangular flag had a width of 1/3 the size of its length.
The flag was changed once again in 1972, with an amendment to the law. This new flag had the stars removed, and replaced with a golden hawk. The hawk was replaced in 1984 by the golden eagle of Salah El Dine, the Ayubbid Sultan of the Crusades who ruled Egypt and Syria in the 12th century. This is the flag that is currently used.[47]
-
Flag of Egypt
(1922–1953)
-
Flag of Egypt
(1953–1958)
-
Flag of Egypt
(1958–1972)
-
Flag of Egypt
(1972–1984)
-
Flag of Egypt
(1984–present)
At 1,001,450 square kilometers (386,660 sq mi),[48] Egypt is the world's 30th-largest country. In land area, it is about the same size as all Central America,[49] twice the size of Spain,[50] four times the size of the United Kingdom,[51] and the combined size of the US states of Texas and California.[52] It lies between latitudes 22° and 32°N, and longitudes 24° and 36°E.
Nevertheless, due to the aridity of Egypt's climate, population centres are concentrated along the narrow Nile Valley and Delta, meaning that about 99% of the population uses only about 5.5% of the total land area.[53] Egypt is bordered by Libya to the west, Sudan to the south, and by the Gaza Strip and Israel to the east. Egypt's important role in geopolitics stems from its strategic position: a transcontinental nation, it possesses a land bridge (the Isthmus of Suez) between Africa and Asia, traversed by a navigable waterway (the Suez Canal) that connects the Mediterranean Sea with the Indian Ocean by way of the Red Sea.
Apart from the Nile Valley, the majority of Egypt's landscape is desert. Winds create prolific sand dunes that peak at more than 100 feet (30 m) high. Egypt includes parts of the Sahara Desert and of the Libyan Desert. These deserts that protected the Kingdom of the Pharaohs from western threats were referred to as the "red land" in ancient Egypt.
Towns and cities include Alexandria, the second largest city; Aswan; Asyut; Cairo, the modern Egyptian capital and largest city; El-Mahalla El-Kubra; Giza, the site of the Pyramid of Khufu; Hurghada; Luxor; Kom Ombo; Port Safaga; Port Said; Sharm el Sheikh; Suez, where the Suez Canal is located; Zagazig; and Al-Minya. Oases include Bahariya, el Dakhla, Farafra, el Kharga and Siwa. Protectorates include Ras Mohamed National Park, Zaranik Protectorate and Siwa.
See Egyptian Protectorates for more information.
-
-
-
The coastline of Alexandria, Egypt's second largest city.
-
-
-
Most of Egypt's rain falls in the winter months.[54] South of Cairo, rainfall averages only around 2 to 5 mm (0.1 to 0.2 in) per year and at intervals of many years. On a very thin strip of the northern coast the rainfall can be as high as 410 mm (16.1 in),[55] mostly between October and March. Snow falls on Sinai's mountains and some of the north coastal cities such as Damietta, Baltim, Sidi Barrany, etc. and rarely in Alexandria. Frost is also known in mid-Sinai and mid-Egypt.
Temperatures average between 80 °F (27 °C) and 90 °F (32 °C) in summer, and up to 109 °F (43 °C) on the Red Sea coast. Winter temperatures average between 55 °F (13 °C) and 70 °F (21 °C). A steady wind from the northwest helps lower temperatures near the Mediterranean coast. The Khamaseen is a wind that blows from the south in spring, bringing sand and dust, and sometimes raises the temperature in the desert to more than 100 °F (38 °C).
Prior to the construction of the Aswan Dam, the Nile flooded annually (colloquially The Gift of the Nile) replenishing Egypt's soil. This gave the country consistent harvest throughout the years.
The potential rise in sea levels due to global warming could threaten Egypt's densely populated coastal strip and have grave consequences for the country's economy, agriculture and industry. Combined with growing demographic pressures, a significant rise in sea levels could turn millions of Egyptians into environmental refugees by the end of the century, according to some climate experts.[56]
Egypt has been officially named a "Republic" since 18 June 1953. However, it has been under Emergency Law continually since 1967 (with the exception of an 18-month break in 1980).[57][clarification needed] Between 1981 and 2011, Egypt was ruled autocratically by Mohamed Hosni Mubarak, who came to power after the assassination of President Mohammed Anwar El-Sadat.[58] Prime Minister Ahmed Shafik was sworn in as Prime Minister on 29 January 2011, following the resignation of Ahmed Nazif. Since President Mubarak's resignation during the 2011 revolution, Egypt's de facto government has been the Supreme Council of the Armed Forces, chaired by Mohamed Hussein Tantawi.
Although power is nominally organized under a multi-party semi-presidential system, whereby the executive power is theoretically divided between the President and the Prime Minister, in practice it has rested almost solely with the President who traditionally has been elected in single-candidate elections for more than fifty years. Egypt has also held regular multi-party parliamentary elections. The last presidential election, in which Mubarak won a fifth consecutive term, was held in September 2005. In 2009, Dr. Ali El Deen Hilal Dessouki, Media Secretary of the NDP, described Egypt as a "pharaonic" political system, and democracy as a "long term goal". Dessouki also stated that "the real center of power in Egypt is the military".[59]
In late February 2005, Mubarak announced in a surprise television broadcast that he had ordered the reform of the country's presidential election law, paving the way for multi-candidate polls in the upcoming presidential election. For the first time since the 1952 movement, the Egyptian people had an apparent chance to elect a leader from a list of various candidates. The President said his initiative came "out of my full conviction of the need to consolidate efforts for more freedom and democracy."[60] However, the new law placed restrictions on the candidates, designed to prevent well-known politicians such as Ayman Nour from standing against Mubarak, and paved the road for his easy re-election victory.[61]
After the 2005 presidential elections observers alleged government interference in the election process through fraud and vote-rigging, and police brutality and violence by pro-Mubarak supporters against opposition demonstrators.[62] After the election, Mubarak imprisoned Ayman Nour, and the U.S. government stated the "conviction of Mr. Nour, the runner-up in Egypt's 2005 presidential elections, calls into question Egypt's commitment to democracy, freedom, and the rule of law."[63]
Most Egyptians were skeptical about the process of democratization and the intent of the election rules. Less than 25% of the country's 32 million registered voters (out of a population of more than 72 million) turned out for the 2005 elections.[64]
Thirty-four constitutional changes voted on by parliament on 19 March 2007 prohibit parties from using religion as a basis for political activity, allow the drafting of a new anti-terrorism law to replace the emergency legislation in place since 1981, authorize broad police powers of arrest and surveillance, give the president power to dissolve parliament and end judicial election monitoring.[65] Opposition members of parliament abstained from voting on the proposed changes. Only 27% of registered voters turned out under heavy police presence and tight political control. It was officially announced on 27 March 2007 that 75.9% of those who participated in the referendum approved the constitutional amendments. The results were endorsed by the rump parliament, thus allowing the introduction of laws that curb the activity of opposition elements, particularly Islamists.
The Egyptian military receives billions of dollars of aid from the United States. It remains Egypt's most powerful institution. It has dozens of factories manufacturing weapons as well as consumer goods, and it exempts itself from laws that apply to other sectors.[58]
The CIA World Factbook states that the legal system is based on Islamic and civil law (particularly Napoleonic codes); and that judicial review takes place by a Supreme Court, which accepts compulsory International Court of Justice jurisdiction only with reservations.[66]
Egypt's foreign policy is supported by its population size, historical events, military strength, diplomatic expertise and a strategic geographical position. It has extensive political influence in Africa and the Middle East. Cairo has been a crossroads of regional commerce and culture for centuries, and its intellectual and Islamic institutions are at the center of the region's social and cultural development.
The permanent Headquarters of the Arab League are located in Cairo and the Secretary General of the Arab League has traditionally been Egyptian. Former Foreign Minister Nabil El-Arabi is the current group's Secretary General. The Arab League briefly moved from Egypt to Tunis in 1978 to protest the Egypt-Israel Peace Treaty, returning in 1989.
Egypt was the first Arab state to establish diplomatic relations with Israel, with the signing of the treaty. Despite the peace treaty, Israel is still largely considered an enemy country within Egypt.[67] Egypt has historically played an important role as a mediator in resolving disputes between various Arab states, and in the Israeli-Palestinian dispute. Egypt is a major ally of the United States.
Former Egyptian Deputy Prime Minister Boutros Boutros-Ghali served as Secretary-General of the United Nations from 1991 to 1996.
In the 21st century, Egypt has had a major problem with immigration, as millions of Africans flee poverty and war. Border control methods can be "harsh, sometimes lethal."[68]
The Egyptian Armed forces have a combined troop strength of around 450,000 active personnel.[69] According to the Israeli chair of the former Knesset Foreign Affairs and Defense Committee, Yuval Steinitz, the Egyptian Air Force has roughly the same number of modern warplanes as the Israeli Air Force and far more Western tanks, artillery, anti-aircraft batteries and warships than the IDF.[70]
The Egyptian military has recently undergone massive modernization, mostly in its Air Force. Egypt is speculated by Israel to be the second country in the region with a spy satellite, EgyptSat 1, and is planning to launch 3 more satellites (DesertSat1, EgyptSat2 & DesertSat2) over the next two years.[71]
The United States of America provides an annual military assistance, which in 2009 amounted to US$ 1.3 billion (inflation adjusted US$ 1.41 billion in 2012).[72]
Egypt is divided into 27 governorates. The governorates are further divided into regions. The regions contain towns and villages. Each governorate has a capital, sometimes carrying the same name as the governorate.
In April 2008, Cairo and Giza were subdivided into 4 governorates, namely the governorates of Cairo, Giza, 6 October and Helwan. As of April 2011, 6 October and Helwan governorates were again incorporated into Giza and Cairo respectively.[73] In 2009, the city of Luxor was declared an independent governorate.
The Upper governorates are located south of Cairo, while the Lower governorates are located in the Delta of the Nile, north of Cairo.
Several local and international human rights organizations, including Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch, have for many years criticized Egypt's human rights record as poor. In 2005, President Hosni Mubarak faced unprecedented public criticism when he clamped down on democracy activists challenging his rule. Some of the most serious human rights violations, according to HRW's 2006 report on Egypt, are routine torture, arbitrary detentions and trials before military and state security courts.[74]
Egypt has also been cited for discriminatory personal status laws governing marriage, custody and inheritance, which critics say put women at a disadvantage. Laws concerning Coptic Christians which place restrictions on church building and open worship have been recently eased, but major construction still requires Government approval, while sporadic attacks on Christians and churches continue.[75] Intolerance of Bahá'ís and unorthodox Muslim sects, such as Sufis and Shi'a, also remains a problem.[74]
The Egyptian legal system only recognizes three religions: Islam, Christianity and Judaism. When the Government moved to computerize identification cards, members of religious minorities, such as Bahá'ís, could not obtain identification documents.[76] An Egyptian court ruled in early 2008 that members of other faiths can obtain identity cards without listing their faiths, and without becoming officially recognized.[77] (For more on the status of religious minorities, see the Religion section.)
In 2005, the Freedom House rated political rights in Egypt at "6" (with 1 representing the most free and 7 the least), civil liberties as "5" and gave it the freedom rating of "Not Free."[78] It however noted that "Egypt witnessed its most transparent and competitive presidential and legislative elections in more than half a century and an increasingly unbridled public debate on the country's political future in 2005."[79] For freedom of the press, Egypt was deemed "Partly Free" in 2008, ranking 124 out of the 196 countries surveyed.[80]
In 2007, Amnesty International released a report criticizing Egypt for torture and illegal detention. The report alleges that Egypt has become an international center for torture, where other nations send suspects for interrogation, often as part of the War on Terror. The report calls on Egypt to bring its anti-terrorism laws into accordance with international human rights statutes and on other nations to stop sending their detainees to Egypt.[81] Egypt's foreign ministry quickly issued a rebuttal to this report, claiming that it was inaccurate and unfair, as well as causing deep offense.[82]
The Egyptian Organization for Human Rights (EOHR) is one of the longest-standing bodies for the defence of human rights in Egypt.[83] In 2003, the Government established the National Council for Human Rights, headquartered in Cairo and headed by former UN Secretary-General Boutros Boutros-Ghali who directly reports to the President.[84] The council has come under heavy criticism by local activists, who contend it undermines human rights work in Egypt by serving as a propaganda tool for the Government to excuse its violations[85] and to give legitimacy to repressive laws such as the recently renewed Emergency Law.[86] Egypt had announced in 2006 that it was in the process of abolishing the Emergency Law,[87] but in March 2007, Mubarak approved several constitutional amendments to include "an anti-terrorism clause that appears to enshrine sweeping police powers of arrest and surveillance", suggesting that the Emergency Law will remain for the long haul.[88]
According to the World Health Organization in 2008, an estimated 91.1% of Egypt's girls and women aged 15 to 49 have been subjected to genital mutilation.[89]
Egypt's economy depends mainly on agriculture, media, petroleum exports, exports of natural gas, and tourism; there are also more than three million Egyptians working abroad, mainly in Saudi Arabia, the Persian Gulf and Europe. The completion of the Aswan High Dam in 1970 and the resultant Lake Nasser have altered the time-honored place of the Nile River in the agriculture and ecology of Egypt. A rapidly growing population, limited arable land, and dependence on the Nile all continue to overtax resources and stress the economy.[90]
The government has invested in communications and physical infrastructure. Egypt has received U.S. foreign aid (since 1979, an average of $2.2 billion per year) and is the third-largest recipient of such funds from the United States following the Iraq war. Its main revenues however come from tourism as well as traffic that goes through the Suez Canal.[citation needed]
Egypt has a developed energy market based on coal, oil, natural gas, and hydro power. Substantial coal deposits are in the northeast Sinai, and are mined at the rate of about 600,000 metric tons (590,000 long tons; 660,000 short tons) per year. Oil and gas are produced in the western desert regions, the Gulf of Suez, and the Nile Delta. Egypt has huge reserves of gas, estimated at 1,940 cubic kilometres (470 cu mi), and LNG is exported to many countries.
Economic conditions have started to improve considerably after a period of stagnation from the adoption of more liberal economic policies by the Government, as well as increased revenues from tourism and a booming stock market. In its annual report, the International Monetary Fund (IMF) has rated Egypt as one of the top countries in the world undertaking economic reforms.[91] Some major economic reforms taken by the new government since 2003 include a dramatic slashing of customs and tariffs. A new taxation law implemented in 2005 decreased corporate taxes from 40% to the current 20%, resulting in a stated 100% increase in tax revenue by the year 2006.
Tourists ride in a traditional Nile boat.
Foreign direct investment (FDI) into Egypt has increased considerably in the past few years, exceeding $6 billion in 2006, due to the recent economic liberalization and privatization measures taken by minister of investment Mahmoud Mohieddin.
Although one of the main obstacles still facing the Egyptian economy is the trickle down of the wealth to the average population, many Egyptians criticize their Government for higher prices of basic goods while their standards of living or purchasing power remains relatively stagnant. Corruption is often cited by Egyptians as the main impediment to further economic growth.[92][93][94] The Government promises major reconstruction of the country's infrastructure, using money paid for the newly acquired third mobile license ($3 billion) by Etisalat.[95]
Egypt's most prominent multinational companies are the Orascom Group and Raya Contact Center. The IT sector has expanded rapidly in the past few years, with many start-ups selling outsourcing services to North America and Europe, operating with companies such as Microsoft, Oracle and other major corporations, as well as many small and medium enterprises. Some of these companies are the Xceed Contact Center, Raya, E Group Connections and C3. The sector has been stimulated by new Egyptian entrepreneurs with Government encouragement.
An estimated 2.7 million Egyptians abroad contribute actively to the development of their country through remittances (US$ 7.8 billion in 2009), as well as circulation of human and social capital and investment.[96]
Egypt's exports and imports are depicted in these product treemaps generated by the MIT/Harvard Atlas of Economic Complexity
Egypt population density (people per km
2)
Egypt is the most populated country in the Middle East and the third most populous on the African continent, at about 80 million inhabitants in 2009.[97] Population grew rapidly from 1970–2010 due to medical advances and increases in agricultural productivity,[98] enabled by the Green Revolution.[99] Egypt's population was estimated at only 3 million when Napoleon invaded the country in 1798.[100] In 1939, Egypt had a population of 16.5 million.[101]
The population is concentrated along the Nile (notably Cairo and Alexandria), in the Delta and near the Suez Canal. Approximately 90% of the population adheres to Islam and most of the rest to Christianity, primarily the Coptic Orthodox denomination.[102] Apart from religious affiliation, Egyptians can be divided demographically into those who live in the major urban centers and the fellahin or farmers of rural villages.
Egyptians are by far the largest ethnic group in Egypt at 91% of the total population.[102] Ethnic minorities include the Abazas, Turks, Greeks, Bedouin Arab tribes living in the eastern deserts and the Sinai Peninsula, the Berber-speaking Siwis (Amazigh) of the Siwa Oasis, and the Nubian communities clustered along the Nile. There are also tribal Beja communities concentrated in the south-eastern-most corner, and a number of Dom clans mostly in the Nile Delta and Faiyum who are progressively becoming assimilated as urbanization increases. According to the International Organization for Migration, an estimated 2.7 million Egyptians live abroad. Approximately 70% of Egyptian migrants live in Arab countries (923,600 in Saudi Arabia, 332,600 in Libya, 226,850 in Jordan, 190,550 in Kuwait with the rest elsewhere in the region) and the remaining 30 % are living mostly in Europe and North America (318,000 in the United States, 110,000 in Canada and 90,000 in Italy).[96]
Egypt also hosts an unknown number of refugees and asylum seekers, estimated to be between 500,000 and 3 million.[103] There are some 70,000 Palestinian refugees,[103] and about 150,000 recently arrived Iraqi refugees,[104] but the number of the largest group, the Sudanese, is contested.[105] The once-vibrant Greek and Jewish communities in Egypt have almost disappeared, with only a small number remaining in the country, but many Egyptian Jews visit on religious occasions and for tourism. Several important Jewish archaeological and historical sites are found in Cairo, Alexandria and other cities.
In income distribution, an estimated "35 to 40%" of Egypt's population earn less than the equivalent of $2 a day, while at the high end 2–3% may be termed rich.[106]
Largest cities or towns of Egypt
http://world-gazetteer.com/wg.php?x=&men=gcis&lng=en&des=wg&geo=-1&srt=pnan&col=abcq&msz=1500&geo=-69 |
|
Rank |
City name |
Governorate |
Pop. |
Rank |
City name |
Governorate |
Pop. |
|
Cairo
Alexandria
|
1 |
Cairo |
Cairo |
8,105,071 |
11 |
Asyut |
Asyut |
403,202 |
Giza
Shubra El-Kheima
Shubra El-Kheima
|
| 2 |
Alexandria |
Alexandria |
4,388,219 |
12 |
Ismailia |
Ismailia |
352,411 |
| 3 |
Giza |
Giza |
3,348,401 |
13 |
Faiyum |
Faiyum |
338,959 |
| 4 |
Shubra El-Kheima |
Qalyubia |
1,072,951 |
14 |
Zagazig |
Al Sharqia |
314,331 |
| 5 |
Port Said |
Port Said |
607,353 |
15 |
Damietta |
Damietta |
299,296 |
| 6 |
Suez |
Suez |
547,352 |
16 |
Aswan |
Aswan |
281,891 |
| 7 |
Luxor |
Luxor |
487,896 |
17 |
Minya |
Minya |
253,767 |
| 8 |
Mansoura |
Dakahlia |
480,494 |
18 |
Damanhour |
Beheira |
252,017 |
| 9 |
El-Mahalla El-Kubra |
Gharbia |
458,297 |
19 |
Beni Suef |
Beni Suef |
223,789 |
| 10 |
Tanta |
Gharbia |
437,793 |
20 |
Hurghada |
Red Sea |
223,124 |
The official language of the Republic is Modern Standard Arabic.[2] The spoken languages are: Egyptian Arabic (68%), Sa'idi Arabic (29%), Eastern Egyptian Bedawi Arabic (1.6%), Sudanese Arabic (0.6%), Domari (0.3%), Nobiin (0.3%), Beja (0.1%), Siwi and others. Additionally, Greek, Armenian and Italian are the main languages of immigrants. In Alexandria in the 19th century there was a large community of Italian Egyptians and Italian was the "lingua franca" of the city.
The main taught foreign languages in schools are English, French, German and sometimes Italian.
The historical languages include the Egyptian languages (also known as Copto-Egyptian) consisting of ancient Egyptian and Coptic, and form a separate branch among the family of Afro-Asiatic languages.
The "Koiné" dialect of the Greek language was important in Hellenistic Alexandria, and was used in the philosophy and science of that culture, and was also studied by later Arabic scholars.
Egypt hosts two major religious institutions, the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria established in the middle of the 1st century by Saint Mark the Evangelist, and Al-Azhar University founded in 970 CE by the Fatimids as the first[dubious – discuss] Islamic University in the world.
Cairo's unique cityscape with its ancient
mosques. Cairo is known as the
"city of a thousand minarets"
Egypt is a predominantly Sunni Muslim country with Islam as its state religion. The percentage of the adherents of various religions is a controversial topic in Egypt, with different sources citing different figures. Around 90% are identified as Muslim.[107][108][109][110][111] A significant number of Muslim Egyptians also follow native Sufi orders,[112] and there is a minority of Shi'a. Islam plays a central role in the lives of most Egyptian Muslims. The Adhan (Islamic call to prayer) is heard five times a day, and has the informal effect of regulating the pace of everything from business to media and entertainment. Cairo is famous for its numerous mosque minarets and is justifiably dubbed "the city of 1,000 minarets".[113] Cairo also comprises a significant number of church towers.
Islam arrived in the 7th century, and Egypt emerged as a center of politics and culture in the Muslim world. Under Anwar Sadat, Islam became the official state religion and Sharia the main source of law.[114]
There is a significant Christian minority in Egypt, who make up between 5% and 10% of the population.[107][108][109][110][111][115] Over 90% of Egyptian Christians belong to the native Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria, an Oriental Orthodox Church.[107][110][116] Other native Egyptian Christians are adherents of the Coptic Catholic Church, the Evangelical Church of Egypt and various other Protestant denominations. Non-native Christian communities are largely found in the urban regions of Cairo and Alexandria.
Coptic Christians face discrimination at multiple levels of the government, ranging from a disproportional representation in government ministries to laws that limit their ability to build or repair churches.[117] The Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life ranks Egypt as the fifth worst country in the world for religious freedom.[118][119] The Pew Forum also ranks Egypt among the 12 worst countries in the world in terms of religious violence against religious minorities and in terms of social hostilities against Christians.[119] The United States Commission on International Religious Freedom has placed Egypt on its watch list for religious freedom that requires close monitoring due to the nature and extent of violations of religious freedom engaged in or tolerated by the government.[120]
Coptic Christians are minimally represented in law enforcement, state security and public office, and are being discriminated against in the workforce on the basis of their religion.[74][117] The Coptic community, as well as several human rights activists and intellectuals, maintain that the number of Christians occupying government posts is not proportional to the number of Copts in Egypt. They are also the victims of discriminatory religious laws, anti-Christian judges, and anti-Christian state police. Anti-Christian laws include laws governing repairing old churches or constructing new ones, which are usually impossible tasks, requiring presidential permission to build a new church, and a governor’s permission to renovate even the bathroom in an already-built church.[117] Anti-Christian judges tend to "legislate from the bench". An example includes an Egyptian court's refusal to grant Muslim Egyptians who convert to Christianity identity cards that display their new religion.[117][121]
According to Magdi Khalil, since Mubarak took office in 1981, Copts have suffered over 1,500 attacks and have lost millions of dollars worth of property.[122][123] After the ousting of Hosni Mubarak, violent incidents have continued. The Weekly Standard magazine has noted six cases of anti-Christian sentiment and violence by extremist Salafist groups, some of which have gone unpunished.[124] On 7 May 2011, a church was burnt down in Cairo.[125]
Egypt recognizes only three religions; Islam, Christianity and Judaism. Other faiths practiced by Egyptians, such as s small Bahá'í community, are not recognized by the state. Individuals wishing to include such religions on their state issued identifications are denied, and had been put in the position of either not obtaining required identification or lying about their faith. A 2008 court ruling allowed members of unrecognized faiths to obtain identification and leave the religion field blank.[76][77]
Egyptian culture has six thousand years of recorded history. Ancient Egypt was among the earliest civilizations and for millennia, Egypt maintained a strikingly complex and stable culture that influenced later cultures of Europe, the Middle East and other African countries. After the Pharaonic era, Egypt itself came under the influence of Hellenism, Christianity, and Islamic culture. Today, many aspects of Egypt's ancient culture exist in interaction with newer elements, including the influence of modern Western culture, itself with roots in ancient Egypt.
Egypt's capital city, Cairo, is Africa's largest city and has been renowned for centuries as a center of learning, culture and commerce. Egypt has the highest number of Nobel Laureates in Africa and the Arab World. Some Egyptian born politicians were or are at the helm of major international organizations like Boutros Boutros-Ghali of the United Nations and Mohamed ElBaradei of the IAEA.
Egypt is a recognized cultural trend-setter of the Arabic-speaking world, and contemporary Arab culture is heavily influenced by Egyptian literature, music, film and television. Egypt gained a regional leadership role during the 1950s and 1960s, which gave a further enduring boost to the standing of Egyptian culture in the Arab world.[126]
The Nile Valley was home to one of the oldest cultures in the world, spanning three thousand years of continuous history. When Egypt fell under a series of foreign occupations after 343 BC, each left an indelible mark on the country's cultural landscape. Egyptian identity evolved in the span of this long period of occupation to accommodate, in principle, two new religions, Islam and Christianity; and a new language, Arabic, and its spoken descendant, Egyptian Arabic.[127]
After two thousand years of occupation, three ideologies competed for the attention of newly independent Egyptians: ethno-territorial Egyptian nationalism, secular Arab nationalism/pan-Arabism, and Islamism. Egyptian nationalism predates its Arab counterpart by many decades, having roots in the 19th century and becoming the dominant mode of expression of Egyptian anti-colonial activists and intellectuals until the early 20th century.[128] Arab nationalism reached a peak under Nasser but subsided under Sadat; meanwhile, the ideology espoused by Islamists such as the Muslim Brotherhood is present in small segments of the lower-middle strata of Egyptian society.[129]
The work of early 19th-century scholar Rifa'a et-Tahtawi led to the Egyptian Renaissance, marking the transition from Medieval to Early Modern Egypt. His work renewed interest in Egyptian antiquity and exposed Egyptian society to Enlightenment principles. Tahtawi co-founded with education reformer Ali Mubarak a native Egyptology school that looked for inspiration to medieval Egyptian scholars, such as Suyuti and Maqrizi, who themselves studied the history, language and antiquities of Egypt.[130]
Egypt's renaissance peaked in the late 19th and early 20th centuries through the work of people like Muhammad Abduh, Ahmed Lutfi el-Sayed, Muhammad Loutfi Goumah, Tawfiq el-Hakim, Louis Awad, Qasim Amin, Salama Moussa, Taha Hussein and Mahmoud Mokhtar. They forged a liberal path for Egypt expressed as a commitment to personal freedom, secularism and faith in science to bring progress.[131]
The Egyptians were one of the first major civilizations to codify design elements in art and architecture. The wall paintings done in the service of the Pharaohs followed a rigid code of visual rules and meanings. Egyptian civilization is renowned for its colossal pyramids, temples and monumental tombs. Well-known examples are the Pyramid of Djoser designed by ancient architect and engineer Imhotep, the Sphinx, and the temple of Abu Simbel. Modern and contemporary Egyptian art can be as diverse as any works in the world art scene, from the vernacular architecture of Hassan Fathy and Ramses Wissa Wassef, to Mahmoud Mokhtar's sculptures, to the distinctive Coptic iconography of Isaac Fanous.
The Cairo Opera House serves as the main performing arts venue in the Egyptian capital. Egypt's media and arts industry has flourished since the late 19th century, today with more than thirty satellite channels and over one hundred motion pictures produced each year. Cairo has long been known as the "Hollywood of the Middle East;" its annual film festival, the Cairo International Film Festival, has been rated as one of 11 festivals with a top class rating worldwide by the International Federation of Film Producers' Associations.[132] To bolster its media industry further, especially with the keen competition from the Persian Gulf Arab States and Lebanon, a large media city was built. Some Egyptian-born actors include Omar Sharif.
Main article:
Media of EgyptEgyptian media are highly influential throughout the Arab World, attributed to large audiences and increasing freedom from government control.[133][134] Freedom of the media is guaranteed in the constitution; however, many laws still restrict this right.[133][135] After the Egyptian presidential election of 2005, Ahmed Selim, office director for Information Minister Anas al-Fiqi, declared an era of a "free, transparent and independent Egyptian media."[134]
Today, the Egyptian media is experiencing greater freedom. Several Egyptian Talk shows, like 90 Minutes and Al- Ashera Masa'an, which air on private channels, and even state television programs such as El-beit beitak criticize the Government, which was previously banned.
Literature is an important cultural element in the life of Egypt. Egyptian novelists and poets were among the first to experiment with modern styles of Arabic literature, and the forms they developed have been widely imitated throughout the Middle East.[136] The first modern Egyptian novel Zaynab by Muhammad Husayn Haykal was published in 1913 in the Egyptian vernacular.[137] Egyptian novelist Naguib Mahfouz was the first Arabic-language writer to win the Nobel Prize in Literature. Egyptian women writers include Nawal El Saadawi, well known for her feminist activism, and Alifa Rifaat who also writes about women and tradition.
Vernacular poetry is perhaps the most popular literary genre among Egyptians, represented by the works of Ahmed Fouad Negm (Fagumi), Salah Jaheen and Abdel Rahman el-Abnudi. In their belief, boats were used by the dead to accompany the sun around the world, as Heaven was referred to as “Upper Waters”. In Egyptian mythology, every night the serpentine god Apophis would attack the Sun Boat as it brought the sun (and as such order )back to the Kingdom in the morning. It is referred to as the “Boat of Millions” as all the gods and souls of the blessed dead may at one point or another be needed to defend or operate it.
Main article:
Music of Egypt
Upper Egyptian folk musicians from
Kom Ombo.
Egyptian music is a rich mixture of indigenous, Mediterranean, African and Western elements. In antiquity, Egyptians were playing harps and flutes, including two indigenous instruments: the ney and the oud. Percussion and vocal music also became an important part of the local music tradition ever since. Contemporary Egyptian music traces its beginnings to the creative work of people such as Abdu-l Hamuli, Almaz and Mahmud Osman, who influenced the later work of Egyptian music giants such as Sayed Darwish, Umm Kulthum, Mohammed Abdel Wahab and Abdel Halim Hafez. From the 1970s onwards, Egyptian pop music has become increasingly important in Egyptian culture, while Egyptian folk music continues to be played during weddings and other festivities. Some of the most prominent contemporary Egyptian pop singers include Amr Diab and Mohamed Mounir.
Egypt celebrates many festivals and religious carnivals, also known as mulid. They are usually associated with a particular Coptic or Sufi saint, but are often celebrated by all Egyptians irrespective of creed or religion. Ramadan has a special flavor in Egypt, celebrated with sounds, lights (local lanterns known as fawanees) and much flare that many Muslim tourists from the region flock to Egypt during Ramadan to witness the spectacle. The ancient spring festival of Sham en Nisim (Coptic: Ϭⲱⲙ‘ⲛⲛⲓⲥⲓⲙ shom en nisim) has been celebrated by Egyptians for thousands of years, typically between the Egyptian months of Paremoude (April) and Pashons (May), following Easter Sunday.
Egypt is one of the boldest countries in the middle east in the music industry. The next generation of the Egyptian music is considered to be the rise, as the music was disrupted by some foreign influences, bad admixing, and abused oriental styles. The new arising talents starting from the late 1990s are taking over the rein now as they play different genres of many cultures. Rock And Metal music are prevailing widely in Egypt now,as much as the oriental jazz and folk music are becoming well-known now to the Egyptian and non-Egyptian fans
Football is the Popular National Sport of Egypt. Egyptian Football clubs Al-Ahly, El Zamalek, Ismaily, El-Ittihad El-Iskandary and El Masry are the most popular teams and enjoy the reputation of long-time regional champions. The great rivalries keep the streets of Egypt energized as people fill the streets when their favorite team wins. The Cairo Derby is one of the fiercest derbies in Africa and the world, the BBC even picked it as one of the toughest 7 derbies in the world.[138] The Egyptian national football team is ranked among the best in the world according to the FIFA World Rankings. The country is home to many African championships such as the Africa Cup of Nations. While Egypt's national team has not qualified for the FIFA World Cup since 1990, the Egyptian team won the Africa Cup Of Nations an unprecedented seven times, including two times in a row in 1957 and 1959 and an unprecedented three times in a row in 2006, 2008, and 2010 setting a world record.
Squash and tennis are other popular sports in Egypt. The Egyptian squash team has been known for its fierce competition in international championships since the 1930s. Amr Shabana is Egypt's best player and the winner of the world open three times and the best player of 2006.
The Egyptian Handball team also holds another record; throughout the 34 times the African Handball Nations Championship was held, Egypt won first place five times (including 2008), five times second place, four times third place, and came in fourth place twice. The team won 6th and 7th places in 1995, 1997 at the World Men's Handball Championship, and twice won 6th place at the 1996 and 2000 Olympics.
In 2007, Omar Samra joined Ben Stephens (England), Victoria James (Wales) and Greg Maud (South Africa) in putting together an expedition to climb Mount Everest from its South side. The Everest expedition began on 25 March 2007 and lasted for just over 9 weeks. On 17 May at precisely 9:49 am Nepal time, Omar became the first and youngest Egyptian to climb 8,850m Mount Everest. He also became the first Egyptian to climb Everest from its South face, the same route taken by Sir Edmund Hilary and Sherpa Tenzing in 1953.
Egypt has taken part in the Summer Olympic Games since 1912.
- ^ العسكري: 25 يناير عيد قومي.. ويعلن تفاصيل الاحتفال, Masrawy, 11 Jan 2012, http://www.masrawy.com/News/Egypt/Politics/2012/january/11/4726021.aspx, retrieved 15 May 2012
- ^ a b c "Constitutional Declaration: A New Stage in the History of the Great Egyptian People". Egypt State Information Service. 30 March 2011. http://www.sis.gov.eg/En/LastPage.aspx?Category_ID=1155. Retrieved 15 April 2011.
- ^ http://english.ahram.org.eg/NewsContent/1/64/40799/Egypt/Politics-/Census-authorities-Egypts-population-already--mill.aspx
- ^ a b "Population Clock". Central Agency for Public Mobilization and Statistics. 16 April 2011. http://www.msrintranet.capmas.gov.eg/pls/fdl/tst12e?action=1&lname=. Retrieved 16 April 2011.
- ^ "Indicators From Final Results of 2006 Pop. Census Compared With 1996 Census" (PDF). Central Agency for Public Mobilization and Statistics. http://www.msrintranet.capmas.gov.eg/ows-img2/htms/pdf/finalpop/5,7.pdf. Retrieved 15 April 2011.
- ^ a b c d "Egypt". International Monetary Fund. http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2012/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?pr.x=83&pr.y=14&sy=2009&ey=2012&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=469&s=NGDPD%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC%2CLP&grp=0&a=. Retrieved 18 April 2012.
- ^ "Human Development Report 2011". United Nations. 2011. http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2011_EN_Table1.pdf. Retrieved 5 November 2011.
- ^ Hope, Christopher; Swinford, Steven (15 February 2011). "WikiLeaks: Egypt's new man at the top 'was against reform'". The Daily Telegraph. http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/wikileaks/8326225/WikiLeaks-Egypts-new-man-at-the-top-was-against-reform.html. Retrieved 5 March 2011.
- ^ "The Supreme Council of the Armed Forces: Constitutional Proclamation". Egypt State Information Service. 13 February 2011. http://www.sis.gov.eg/En/Story.aspx?sid=53709. Retrieved 5 March 2011. "The Chairman of the Supreme Council of the Armed Forces shall represent it internally and externally."
- ^ de Blij, H. J.; Murphy, Alexander B.; Fouberg, Erin H. (2006). Human Geography: People, Place, and Culture (8th ed.). New York: John Wiley & Sons. p. 38. ISBN 978-0-471-67951-6.
- ^ "Hosni Mubarak". http://www.nytimes.com/2011/02/12/world/middleeast/12egypt.html?pagewanted=all. Retrieved 2012-05-23.
- ^ Hoffmeier, James K (1 October 2007). "Rameses of the Exodus narratives is the 13th B.C. Royal Ramesside Residence". Trinity Journal: 1. http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3803/is_200710/ai_n21137941/pg_2. [dead link]
- ^ "Biblical Hebrew E-Magazine. January, 2005". Ancient-hebrew.org. http://www.ancient-hebrew.org/emagazine/011.html. Retrieved 25 August 2010.
- ^ Rosalie, David (1997). Pyramid Builders of Ancient Egypt: A Modern Investigation of Pharaoh's Workforce. Routledge. p. 18.
- ^ "A Brief History of Alchemy". UNIVERSITY OF BRISTOL SCHOOL OF CHEMISTRY. http://www.chm.bris.ac.uk/webprojects2002/crabb/history.html. Retrieved 21 August 2008.
- ^ Breasted, James Henry; Peter A. Piccione (2001). Ancient Records of Egypt. University of Illinois Press. pp. 76;40. ISBN 978-0-252-06975-8. http://books.google.com/?id=bT0q7nt1-gUC.
- ^ Midant-Reynes, Béatrix. The Prehistory of Egypt: From the First Egyptians to the First Kings. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers.
- ^ "The Nile Valley 6000–4000 BC Neolithic". The British Museum. 2005. http://www.worldtimelines.org.uk/world/africa/nile_valley/6000-4000BC. Retrieved 21 August 2008.
- ^ Bard, Kathryn A. Ian Shaw, ed. The Oxford Illustrated History of Ancient Egypt. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000. p. 69.
- ^ "The Fall of the Egyptian Old Kingdom". Bbc.co.uk. 17 February 2011. http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/egyptians/apocalypse_egypt_01.shtml. Retrieved 3 November 2011.
- ^ "The Kushite Conquest of Egypt". Ancientsudan.org. http://www.ancientsudan.org/history_06_nubconegypt.htm. Retrieved 25 August 2010.
- ^ Bowman, Alan K (1996). Egypt after the Pharaohs 332 BC – AD 642 (2nd ed.). Berkeley: University of California Press. pp. 25–26. ISBN 0-520-20531-6.
- ^ Stanwick, Paul Edmond (2003). Portraits of the Ptolemies: Greek kings as Egyptian pharaohs. Austin: University of Texas Press. ISBN 0-292-77772-8.
- ^ a b "Egypt". Berkley Center for Religion, Peace, and World Affairs. http://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/resources/countries/egypt. Retrieved 14 December 2011. See drop-down essay on "Islamic Conquest and the Ottoman Empire"
- ^ Kamil, Jill. Coptic Egypt: History and Guide. Cairo: American University in Cairo, 1997. p. 39
- ^ El-Daly, Okasha. Egyptology: The Missing Millennium. London: UCL Press, 2005. p. 140
- ^ a b c Abu-Lughod, Janet L. (1991) [1989]. "The Mideast Heartland". Before European Hegemony: The World System A.D. 1250–1350. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 243–244. ISBN 978-0-19-506774-3. http://books.google.com/books?id=rYlgGU2SLiQC&lpg=PP1&dq=editions%3ArYlgGU2SLiQC&pg=PA244#v=onepage&q&f=false.
- ^ Egypt – Major Cities, U.S. Library of Congress
- ^ The Ottoman Empire, 1700–1922. Cambridge University Press. 2005. p. 115. ISBN 0-521-83910-6.
- ^ "Icelandic Volcano Caused Historic Famine In Egypt, Study Shows". ScienceDaily. 22 November 2006
- ^ a b c Nejla M. Abu Izzeddin, Nasser of the Arabs, published c. 1973, p 2.
- ^ Nejla M. Abu Izzeddin, Nasser of the Arabs", p 2.
- ^ Anglo French motivation: Derek Hopwood, Egypt: Politics and Society 1945–1981. London, 1982, George Allen & Unwin. p 11.
- ^ De facto protectorate: Joan Wucher King, Historical Dictionary of Egypt. Metuchen, New Jersey, USA; 1984; Scarecrow. p 17.
- ^ James Jankowski, Egypt, A Short History, p. 111
- ^ Jankowski, op cit., p. 112
- ^ "Egypt". CIA- The World Factbook. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/eg.html. Retrieved 2 February 2011. "Partially independent from the UK in 1922, Egypt acquired full sovereignty with the overthrow of the British-backed monarchy in 1952."
- ^ USMC Major Michael C. Jordan (1997). "The 1973 Arab-Israeli War: Arab Policies, Strategies, and Campaigns". GlobalSecurity.org. http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/library/report/1997/Jordan.htm. Retrieved 20 April 2009.
- ^ Vatikiotis, p. 443
- ^ "Malaysia Egypt Protest Pictures & Photos". AP Photo/Lai Seng Sin. 31 January 2011. http://newshopper.sulekha.com/malaysia-egypt-protest_photo_1689167.htm.
- ^ Kirkpatrick, David D. (11 February 2010). "Mubarak Steps Down, Ceding Power to Military". New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2011/02/12/world/middleeast/12egypt.html. Retrieved 11 February 2011.
- ^ "Egypt crisis: President Hosni Mubarak resigns as leader". BBC. 11 February 2010. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-12433045. Retrieved 11 February 2011.
- ^ Mubarak Resigns As Egypt's President, Armed Forces To Take Control The Huffington Post/AP, 2011 02 11
- ^ Mubarak Flees Cairo for Sharm el-Sheikh, CBS News, 11 Feb 2011, http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2011/02/11/501364/main20031477.shtml, retrieved 15 May 2012
- ^ "Egyptian Parliament dissolved, constitution suspended". BBC. 13 February 2011. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-12443678. Retrieved 13 February 2011.
- ^ Egypt's Historic Day Proceeds Peacefully, Turnout High For Elections. NPR. 28 November 2011. Last Retrieved 29 November 2011.
- ^ "About Egypt, An Overview of Egypt". Touregypt.net. http://www.touregypt.net/aboute.htm. Retrieved 3 November 2011.
- ^ "World Factbook area rank order". Cia.gov. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2147rank.html. Retrieved 1 February 2011.
- ^ "More changes ahead for Egypt". Findarticles.com. 1 November 2005. http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_hb6597/is_/ai_n29232377. Retrieved 25 August 2010.
- ^ E. A. Pearce, Charles Gordon Smith, The Times Books World Weather Guide, (Times Books/Random House: 1990), p.40
- ^ "Sun, sand and searing heat". Bbc.co.uk. 18 April 2001. http://www.bbc.co.uk/bristol/content/weather/2001/04/18/egypt.shtml. Retrieved 25 August 2010.
- ^ Robert Pateman, Salwa El-Hamamsy, Egypt, (Marshall Cavendish: 2003), p.7
- ^ "Land use and Coastal Management in the Third Countries: Egypt as a case" (PDF). http://iodeweb1.vliz.be/odin/bitstream/1834/383/1/Hamza.pdf. Retrieved 3 November 2011.
- ^ Soliman, KH. Rainfall over Egypt. Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society, vol. 80, issue 343, p. 104.
- ^ "Marsa Matruh, Egypt". Weatherbase.com. http://www.weatherbase.com/weather/weather.php3?s=60326&refer=. Retrieved 3 November 2011.
- ^ "Contingency planning for rising sea levels in Egypt | IRIN News, March 2008". Irinnews.org. http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=77240. Retrieved 25 August 2010.
- ^ "The Emergency Law in Egypt". International Federation for Human Rights. http://www.fidh.org/THE-EMERGENCY-LAW-IN-EGYPT. Retrieved 2 February 2011.
- ^ a b Cambanis, Thanassis (11 September 2010). "Succession Gives Army a Stiff Test in Egypt". Egypt: NYTimes.com. http://www.nytimes.com/2010/09/12/world/middleeast/12egypt.html?pagewanted=1&ref=global-home. Retrieved 3 November 2011.
- ^ "NDP Insider: Military will ensure transfer of power". US Department of State. 30 July 2009. http://www.wikileaks.ch/cable/2009/07/09CAIRO1468.html.
- ^ Business Today Egypt. Mubarak throws presidential race wide open[dead link]. March 2005.
- ^ "Democracy on the Nile: The story of Ayman Nour and Egypt's problematic attempt at free elections". Weeklystandard.com. 27 March 2006. http://www.weeklystandard.com/Content/Public/Articles/000/000/012/034kggwf.asp. Retrieved 3 November 2011.
- ^ Murphy, Dan. Egyptian vote marred by violence. Christian Science Monitor. 26 May 2005.
- ^ United States "Deeply Troubled" by Sentencing of Egypt's Nour. U.S. Department of State, Published 24 December 2005
- ^ Gomez, Edward M. Hosni Mubarak's pretend democratic election. San Francisco Chronicle. 13 September 2005.
- ^ "Anger over Egypt vote timetable". BBC News. 20 March 2007. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/6472031.stm. Retrieved 3 November 2011.
- ^ "Egypt". CIA- The World Factbook. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/eg.html. Retrieved 2 February 2011.
- ^ "Massive Israel protests hit universities" (Egyptian Mail, 16 March 2010) "According to most Egyptians, almost 31 years after a peace treaty was signed between Egypt and Israel, having normal ties between the two countries is still a potent accusation and Israel is largely considered to be an enemy country"
- ^ Desperate on the Border, ALASDAIR SOUSSI, Jerusalem Report, 9 November 1953, [1][dead link]
- ^ "Egypt Military Strength". Globalfirepower.com. http://www.globalfirepower.com/country_detail.asp?country_id=12. Retrieved 25 August 2010.
- ^ Steinitz, Yuval. Not the peace we expected. Haaretz. 5 December 2006.
- ^ Katz, Yaacov. "Egypt to launch first spy satellite", Jerusalem Post, 15 January 2007.
- ^ "Scenesetter: President Mubarak's visit to Washington". US Department of State. 19 May 2009. http://www.wikileaks.ch/cable/2009/05/09CAIRO874.html.
- ^ "Egypt's PM centralises Helwan and 6 October governorates". Ahram Online. 14 April 2011. http://english.ahram.org.eg/NewsContent/1/0/10037/Egypt/Egypts-PM-centralises-Helwan-and--October-governor.aspx. Retrieved 25 July 2011.
- ^ a b c Human Rights Watch. Egypt: Overview of human rights issues in Egypt. 2005
- ^ Church Building Regulations Eased[dead link]
- ^ a b "Egypt, International Religious Freedom Report 2008". Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor. 19 September 2008. http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2008/108481.htm.
- ^ a b Johnston, Cynthia (29 January 2008). "Egypt Baha'is win court fight over identity papers". Reuters. Archived from the original on 15 February 2008. http://web.archive.org/web/20080215133731/http://africa.reuters.com/wire/news/usnL29677385.html. Retrieved 30 January 2008.
- ^ "Freedom in the World 2006" (PDF). Freedom House. 16 December 2005. http://www.freedomhouse.org/uploads/pdf/Charts2006.pdf. Retrieved 27 July 2006.
See also Freedom in the World 2006, List of indices of freedom
- ^ "Freedom House. Freedom in the World — Egypt. 2006". Freedomhouse.org. 10 May 2004. http://www.freedomhouse.org/template.cfm?page=22&year=2006&country=6956. Retrieved 25 August 2010.
- ^ "Freedom House. Freedom of the Press World Ranking. 2009". Freedomhouse.org. 10 May 2004. http://www.freedomhouse.org/template.cfm?page=442&year=2008. Retrieved 25 August 2010.
- ^ "Egypt torture centre, report says". BBC News. 11 April 2007. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/6544149.stm. Retrieved 3 November 2011.
- ^ "Egypt rejects torture criticism". BBC News. 13 April 2007. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/6551401.stm. Retrieved 3 November 2011.
- ^ "Egyptian Organization for Human Rights". En.eohr.org. http://en.eohr.org. Retrieved 25 August 2010.
- ^ Official page of the Egyptian National Council for Human Rights[dead link].
- ^ Egyptian National Council for Human Rights Against Human Rights NGOs[dead link]. EOHR. 3 June 2003.
- ^ Qenawy, Ahmed. The Egyptian Human Rights Council: The Apple Falls Close to the Tree. ANHRI. 2004
- ^ "Egypt to begin process of lifting emergency laws". Jurist.law.pitt.edu. 5 December 2006. http://jurist.law.pitt.edu/paperchase/2006/12/egypt-to-begin-process-of-lifting.php. Retrieved 3 November 2011.
- ^ "Egypt parliament approves changes in constitution". Reuters. 9 February 2009. http://africa.reuters.com?type=topNews&storyID=2007-03-20T070538Z_01_BAN025517_RTRIDST_0_OZATP-EGYPT-CONSTITUTION-20070320.XML. Retrieved 3 November 2011.
- ^ "WHO | Female genital mutilation and other harmful practices". Who.int. 2011. http://www.who.int/reproductivehealth/topics/fgm/prevalence/en/index.html. Retrieved 28 January 2011.
- ^ "Egypt: Economy". LookLex Encyclopedia. http://lexicorient.com/e.o/egypt_2.htm. Retrieved 21 August 2008.
- ^ Enders, Klaus. "Egypt: Reforms Trigger Economic Growth". Internation Monetary Fund. http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/survey/so/2008/car021308a.htm. Retrieved 2 February 2011. "In its most recent review of Egypt's economy, the IMF says the expansion has broadened from energy, construction, and telecommunications to such labor-intensive sectors as agriculture and manufacturing."
- ^ "IRIN Middle East | Middle East | Egypt: Corruption hampering development, says opposition report | Other | Breaking News". Irinnews.org. http://www.irinnews.org/report.aspx?reportid=27105. Retrieved 25 August 2010.
- ^ Daily News Egypt – Full Article[dead link]
- ^ Rania Al Malky. "et — Full Story". Egypttoday.com. http://www.egypttoday.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=2978. Retrieved 25 August 2010. [dead link]
- ^ Fatima El Saadani (August 2006). "Etisalat Wins Third License". Business Today. http://www.businesstodayegypt.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=6902. Retrieved 21 August 2008. [dead link]
- ^ a b Migration and Development in Egypt: Facts and Figures. International Organization for Migration. 2010. http://www.egypt.iom.int/Doc/IOM%20Migration%20and%20Development%20in%20Egypt%20Facts%20and%20Figures%20(English).pdf. Retrieved 21 July 2010.
- ^ "CIA – The World Factbook". Cia.gov. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/eg.html. Retrieved 1 February 2011.
- ^ "The limits of a Green Revolution?". BBC News. 29 March 2007. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/in_depth/6496585.stm. Retrieved 25 August 2010.
- ^ Posted 8 April 2000 by admin (8 April 2000). "Food First/Institute for Food and Development Policy". Foodfirst.org. http://www.foodfirst.org/media/opeds/2000/4-greenrev.html. Retrieved 25 August 2010.
- ^ Egypt – Population, U.S. Library of Congress
- ^ "Many histories deep: the personal landscape poets in Egypt, 1940–45". Roger Bowen (1995). p.207. ISBN 0-8386-3567-9
- ^ a b "Egyptian people section from the World Factbook". World Fact Book. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/eg.html#People. Retrieved 29 January 2007.
- ^ a b Refugees in Egypt[dead link]
- ^ "Iraq: from a Flood to a Trickle: Egypt". Hrw.org. http://hrw.org/backgrounder/refugees/iraq0407/4.htm. Retrieved 25 August 2010.
- ^ See The U.S. Committee for Refugees and Immigrants[dead link] for a lower estimate. The "The Egyptian Organization for Human Rights". Archived from the original on 30 December 2007. http://web.archive.org/web/20071230012918/http://www.eohr.org/ref/. states on its web site that in 2000 the World Council of Churches claimed that "between two and five million Sudanese have come to Egypt in recent years". Most Sudanese refugees come to Egypt in the hope of resettling in Europe or the US.
- ^ Egypt Over the Brink, interview with Tarek Osman| BY LAUREN E. BOHN AND SARAH LYNCH | 8 February 2011
- ^ a b c "Background Note: Egypt". United States Department of State Bureau of Near Eastern Affairs. 10 November 2010. http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5309.htm. Retrieved 5 March 2011.
- ^ a b "Mapping The Global Muslim Population" (PDF). http://pewforum.org/newassets/images/reports/Muslimpopulation/Muslimpopulation.pdf. Retrieved 25 July 2011.
- ^ a b "Egypt from "The World Factbook"". American Central Intelligence Agency (CIA). 4 September 2008. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/eg.html.
- ^ a b c "Egypt from "Foreign and Commonwealth Office"". Foreign and Commonwealth Office -UK Ministry of Foreign Affairs. 15 August 2008. http://www.fco.gov.uk/en/about-the-fco/country-profiles/middle-east-north-africa/egypt.
- ^ a b "Egypt from "msn encarta"". Egypt from "msn encarta". Encarta. 30 September 2008. http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761557408_3/Egypt.html. [dead link]
- ^ Hoffman, Valerie J. Sufism, Mystics, and Saints in Modern Egypt. University of South Carolina Press, 1995.
- ^ Robin Barton (19 February 2001). "Cairo: Welcome to the city of 1,000 minarets". London: The Independent. http://www.independent.co.uk/travel/africa/cairo-welcome-to-the-city-of-1000-minarets-692635.html.
- ^ "Egypt". Berkley Center for Religion, Peace, and World Affairs. http://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/resources/countries/egypt. Retrieved 14 December 2011.
- ^ "Egypt". State.gov. 10 November 2010. http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5309.htm. Retrieved 3 November 2011.
- ^ Who are the Christians in the Middle East?. Betty Jane Bailey. 18 June 2009. ISBN 978-0-8028-1020-5. http://books.google.com/?id=xrGL7o69KBIC&pg=PA145&lpg=PA145&dq=coptic+orthodox.
- ^ a b c d "Christianity's Modern-Day Martyrs: Victims of Radical Islam – Rising Islamic Extremism Is Putting Pressure on Christians in Muslim Nations". Abcnews.go.com. 1 March 2010. http://abcnews.go.com/International/christian-martyrs-victims-radical-islam/story?id=9976549&page=4. Retrieved 1 February 2011.
- ^ "RELIGION: Few States Enjoy Freedom of Faith, Report Says – IPS". Ipsnews.net. 17 December 2009. http://www.ipsnorthamerica.net/news.php?idnews=2748. Retrieved 1 February 2011.
- ^ a b "Global Restrictions on Religion – Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life". Pewforum.org. 17 December 2009. http://pewforum.org/newassets/images/reports/restrictions/restrictionsfullreport.pdf. Retrieved 1 February 2011.
- ^ "USCIRF Watch List – USCIRF". Uscirf.gov. http://www.uscirf.gov/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=1457&Itemid=1. Retrieved 1 February 2011.
- ^ Akbar Ahmed and John Bryson Chane (22 December 2010). "Christians senselessly tormented by extremists in Muslim world". Edition.cnn.com. http://edition.cnn.com/2010/OPINION/12/21/ahmed.chane.christians.muslims/index.html. Retrieved 1 February 2011.
- ^ Magdi Khalil (26 February 2010). "How the Mubarak Regime Enables the Persecution of Egypt's Copts :: Middle East Forum". Meforum.org. http://www.meforum.org/2599/egypt-persecution-of-copts. Retrieved 1 February 2011.
- ^ "وضع الأقباط تحت حكم مبارك". Elaph.com. http://www.elaph.com/Web/opinion/2010/3/541685.html. Retrieved 1 February 2011.
- ^ "Egypt’s Other Extremists". The Weekly Standard. 16 May 2011. http://www.weeklystandard.com/articles/egypt-s-other-extremists_559363.html. Retrieved 25 July 2011.
- ^ "11 killed, churches burned in Cairo". http://www.upi.com/Top_News/World-News/2011/05/08/11-killed-churches-burned-in-Cairo/UPI-72161304827867/. Retrieved 12 May 2011.
- ^ "MIDEAST: Egypt Makes Cultural Clout Count (IPS, Oct. 29, 2009)". Ipsnews.net. 29 October 2009. http://www.ipsnews.net/news.asp?idnews=49061. Retrieved 25 August 2010.
- ^ Raymon Kondos (15 February). "The Egyptian Identity: Pharaohs, Moslems, Arabs, Africans, Middle Easterners or Mediterranean People?". http://www.youregypt.com/issue3/topic.htm. Retrieved 21 August 2008.
- ^ Jankowski, James. "Egypt and Early Arab Nationalism" in Rashid Khalidi, ed. The Origins of Arab Nationalism. New York: Columbia University Press, 1990, pp. 244–45
- ^ Dawisha, Adeed. Arab Nationalism in the Twentieth Century. Princeton: Princeton University Press. 2003, pp. 264–65, 267
- ^ El-Daly, op cit., p. 29
- ^ Jankowski, op cit., p. 130
- ^ Film Festivals (1 December 2005). "Cairo Film Festival information". Ukhotmovies.com. http://www.ukhotmovies.com/film-festivals/cairo-film-festival/information.html. Retrieved 3 November 2011.
- ^ a b Country profiles: Egypt BBC
- ^ a b "Plus ca Change: The Role of the Media in Egypt's First Contested Presidential Elections", TBS
- ^ "Freedom House 2007 report". Freedomhouse.org. 10 May 2004. http://www.freedomhouse.org/template.cfm?page=251&year=2007. Retrieved 25 August 2010.
- ^ "Global influence of Egyptian culture". Egypt State Information Service. 4 February 2006. http://www.sis.gov.eg/En/EgyptOnline/Culture/000001/0203000000000000000567.htm. Retrieved 21 August 2008. [dead link]
- ^ Vatikiotis, op cit.
- ^ "BBC Sport Academy | Football | Features | Al-Ahly v Zamalek". BBC News. 5 August 2002. http://news.bbc.co.uk/sportacademy/hi/sa/football/features/newsid_2299000/2299305.stm. Retrieved 25 August 2010.
- Government
- General
- Other
- Leonard William King, History of Egypt, Chaldea, Syria, Babylonia, and Assyria in the Light of Recent Discovery, Project Gutenberg.
- Egyptian History (urdu)
- By Nile and Tigris, a narrative of journeys in Egypt and Mesopotamia on behalf of the British museum between the years 1886 and 1913, by Sir E. A. Wallis Budge, 1920 (a searchable facsimile at the University of Georgia Libraries; DjVu &layered PDF format)
- Napoleon on the Nile: Soldiers, Artists, and the Rediscovery of Egypt.
|
Geographic locale
|
|
|
|
|
|
This list shows only countries belonging to the UN North Africa subregion
|
|
| Sovereign states |
|
|
| Territories |
|
|
|
1The disputed territory of Western Sahara is mostly occupied and administered by Morocco; the Polisario Front claims the territory in militating for the establishment an independent republic, and exercises limited control over rump border territories. 2Spanish exclaves.
|
|
|
Middle East
|
|
| Countries and territories |
|
|
| Other topics |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
International membership
|
|
|
|
|
| Members |
|
|
|
| Suspended |
|
|
| Observers |
|
|
| Diplomacy |
|
|
|
|
|
| Members |
|
|
| Observers |
| Countries and territories |
|
|
| Muslim communities |
|
|
| International organizations |
|
|
|
|
|
|
| Members |
|
|
| Observers |
|
|
- 1 Associate member.
- 2 Provisionally referred to by the Francophonie as the "former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia"; see Macedonia naming dispute.
|
|
|
|
lez:Мисри
.svg)
![[icon]](http://web.archive.org./web/20121005100419/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg){kind=small}
.svg)
.jpg)
This article incorporates 
Geographic data related to 
.svg){kind=small}
