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Agra
Agra (; , {{lang-ur|) is a city on the banks of the river Yamuna in the northern state of Uttar Pradesh, India. With a population of 1,686,976 (2010 est.), it is one of the most populous cities in Uttar Pradesh and the 19th most populous in India. Agra can also refer to the administrative district that has its headquarters in Agra city.
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Ahmedabad
Ahmedabad () is the largest city in Gujarat, India. It is the seventh largest city and eighth largest metropolitan area of India, with a city population of approximately 3.96 million and metropolitan population of 5.41 million. Located on the banks of the River Sabarmati, the city is the administrative centre of Ahmedabad district and was the capital of Gujarat from 1960 to 1970; the capital was shifted to Gandhinagar thereafter. In the middle of 1990's it was the fifth largest city in India.In colloquial Gujarati, the city is commonly called Amdavad.
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Aksai Chin
http://wn.com/Aksai_Chin -
Alaska
Alaska () is the largest state of the United States by area. It is situated in the northwest extremity of the North American continent, with Canada to the east, the Arctic Ocean to the north, and the Pacific Ocean to the west and south, with Russia further west across the Bering Strait. Approximately half of Alaska's 698,473 residents live within the Anchorage metropolitan area. As of 2009, Alaska remains the least densely populated state of the U.S.
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Ambala
Ambala (, ) is a city and a municipal corporation in Ambala district in the state of Haryana, India, located on the border of the states of Haryana and Punjab in India. Politically; Ambala has two sub-areas: Ambala Cantt (cantonment) and Ambala City, approximately 3 kilometers apart from each other. It has a large Indian Army and Indian Air Force presence within the confines of its cantonment area. Due to its geographical location, the Ambala district plays an important role in local tourism. Tourists to Himachal Pradesh, Punjab, Chandigarh and Jammu & Kashmir have to cross through Ambala whether by road or rail.
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Amritsar
:''This article is about the city. For the district see Amritsar district.
http://wn.com/Amritsar -
Angola
Angola, officially the Republic of Angola (, ; ), is a country in south-central Africa bordered by Namibia on the south, Democratic Republic of the Congo on the north, and Zambia on the east; its west coast is on the Atlantic Ocean with Luanda as its capital city. The exclave province of Cabinda has a border with the Republic of the Congo and the Democratic Republic of the Congo.
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Assam
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Bangalore
Bangalore , known as Bengaluru (), is the capital of the Indian state of Karnataka. Bangalore is nicknamed the Garden City and was once called a pensioner's paradise. Located on the Deccan Plateau in the south-eastern part of Karnataka, Bangalore is India's third most populous city and fifth-most populous urban agglomeration. As of 2009, Bangalore was inducted in the list of Global cities and ranked as a "Beta World City" alongside Geneva, Copenhagen, Boston, Cairo, Riyadh, Berlin, to name a few, in the studies performed by the Globalization and World Cities Study Group and Network in 2008.
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Baramulla
Baramulla () is a city in the Baramulla district in Jammu and Kashmir state in northern India. Baramulla is the third largest city of Jammu & Kashmir state (2001 census) after Srinagar (894940 people), Jammu (369959 people) and Anantnag (72204 people). The old town is connected by five bridges with the new town and five more bridges are in the pipe line.The commonly used language is Kashmiri followed by Urdu and English. The percentage of Muslims in the city is 96.5 and rest 03.5% is being shared by Hindus, sikhs, Christans and Buddhism.
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Bareilly
Barally (, {{Lang-ur|) is a city in Bareilly district in the northern Indian state of Uttar Pradesh. Standing on the Ramganga river, it is the capital of the Bareilly division and the geographical region Rohilkhand. It is a center for the manufacture of furniture and for trade in cotton, grain, and sugar. The city's population in 2001 was 699,839. Geographically it forms the outer gateway to enter Uttarakhand State.
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Battle of Plassey
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Bhopal
Bhopal (), ; is the capital of the Indian state of Madhya Pradesh and the administrative headquarters of Bhopal District and Bhopal Division. The city was the capital of the former Bhopal state. Bhopal is also known as the Lake City (or City of Lakes) for its various natural as well as artificial lakes
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Bhutan
The Kingdom of Bhutan () (Dzongkha: ; Wylie: '' 'drug yul; Tibetan pinyin: ''), is a small landlocked country in South Asia, located at the eastern end of the Himalayas and bordered to the south, east and west by the Republic of India and to the north by the People's Republic of China . Bhutan is separated from the nearby state of Nepal to the west by the Indian state of Sikkim, and from Bangladesh to the south by West Bengal.
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Bikaner
Bikaner is a District in the northwest of the state of Rajasthan in northern India. The city is the administrative headquarters of Bikaner District and Bikaner division. It was formerly the capital of the princely state of Bikaner. The city was founded by Rao Bika and Jats as the spot which Rao Bika selected for his capital, was the birthright of a Nehra Jat, who would only concede it for this purpose on the condition that his name should be linked in perpetuity with its surrender. Naira, or Nera, was the name of the proprietor, which Bika added to his own, thus composing that of the future capital, Bikaner. in 1486 and from its small origins it has developed into the fourth largest city in Rajasthan. The Ganga Canal completed in 1928 and the Indira Gandhi Canal completed in 1987 have allowed the farming of crops such as mustard, cotton, Groundnut, wheat and vegetables. Other industries include wool production and the mining of Gypsum, plaster of Paris and bentonite.
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Bosnia & Herzegovina
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British Empire
The British Empire comprised the dominions, colonies, protectorates, mandates and other territories ruled or administered by the United Kingdom. It originated with the overseas colonies and trading posts established by England in the late 16th and early 17th centuries. At its height it was the largest empire in history and, for over a century, was the foremost global power. By 1922 the British Empire held sway over about 458 million people, one-quarter of the world's population at the time, and covered more than 13 million square miles (34 million km2), almost a quarter of the Earth's total land area. As a result, its political, linguistic and cultural legacy is widespread. At the peak of its power, it was often said that "the sun never sets on the British Empire" because its span across the globe ensured that the sun was always shining on at least one of its numerous territories.
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Cambodia
http://wn.com/Cambodia -
Cossipore
:: See Kashipur for disambiguation
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Dehradun
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Dhaka
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El Salvador
El Salvador (; , literally meaning "Republic of The Savior") is the smallest and also the most densely populated country in Central America. It borders the Pacific Ocean between Guatemala and Honduras. It lies on the Gulf of Fonseca, as do Honduras and Nicaragua further south.
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Eritrea
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Ethiopia
{{Infobox country
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Gangtok
http://wn.com/Gangtok -
Gaya, India
Gaya is a city in Bihar, India, and it is also the headquarters of Gaya District.
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Goa
http://wn.com/Goa -
Haiti
Haiti (; French , ; Haitian Creole: Ayiti, ), officially the Republic of Haiti ( ;
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Hyderabad State
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Hyderabad, India
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India
India (), officially the Republic of India ( ; see also official names of India), is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by geographical area, the second-most populous country with over 1.18 billion people, and the most populous democracy in the world. Mainland India is bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the west, and the Bay of Bengal on the east; and it is bordered by Pakistan to the west; Bhutan, the People's Republic of China and Nepal to the north; and Bangladesh and Burma to the east. In the Indian Ocean, mainland India and the Lakshadweep Islands are in the vicinity of Sri Lanka and the Maldives, while India's Andaman and Nicobar Islands share maritime border with Thailand and the Indonesian island of Sumatra in the Andaman Sea. India has a coastline of .
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Indian Naval Academy
Indian Naval Academy Ezhimala (INA) (Asia's largest Naval academy) also called as NAVAC is a state-of-the-art naval training facility of Indian Navy,located in the Kannur (Cannanore) District of Kerala State in southern India. Situated between the imposing Mount Dilli, serene Kavvayi backwaters and majestic Arabian Sea, NAVAC(short form for Naval Academy) provides an idyllic setting for training with its picturesque and tranquil environment. It will conduct the basic training for all officers being inducted into the Indian Navy and the Indian Coast Guard under various courses. INS Zamorin is the base depot ship for administrative and logistic support for the functioning of INA.
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Iran
Iran ( ), officially the Islamic Republic of Iran is a country in Central Eurasia and Western Asia. The name Iran has been in use natively since the Sassanian era and came into use internationally in 1935, before which the country was also known to the western world as Persia. Both Persia and Iran are used interchangeably in cultural contexts; however, Iran is the name used officially in political contexts.
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Iraq
Iraq ( or , Arabic: ), officially the Republic of Iraq (Arabic:
http://wn.com/Iraq -
Israel
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Jabalpur
Jabalpur () () is a city in the state of Madhya Pradesh in India. Jabalpur is the administrative headquarters of Jabalpur district and Jabalpur division. Jabalpur is located in the Mahakaushal region in the geographic center of India. Jabalpur is one of the largest cities in Madhya Pradesh. Jabalpur was the 27th largest urban conurbation in India in 2001 (2001 Census).
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Jalandhar
Jalandhar (, Hindi: ), is a city in Jalandhar District in the state of Punjab, India. In Hindu mythology, Jalandhara was the eponymous kingdom of a devil in Satyuga. It was also known as Prasthala at the time of Mahabharta and it was also known as Jullundur in British times.
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Jammu and Kashmir
http://wn.com/Jammu_and_Kashmir -
Kalimpong
Kalimpong () is a hill station in the Mahabharat Range (or Lesser Himalaya) in the Indian state of West Bengal. It is located at an average elevation of . The town is the headquarters of the Kalimpong subdivision, a part of the district of Darjeeling. The Indian Army's 27 Mountain Division is located on the outskirts of the town.
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Kargil district
Kargil (; ) is a district of Ladakh, Kashmir, India. Kargil lies near the Line of Control facing Pakistan-administered Kashmir's Baltistan to the west, and Kashmir valley to the south. Zanskar is part of Kargil district along with Suru, Wakha and Dras valleys. Kargil was at the center of a conflict between India and Pakistan in 1999.
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Kashmir
http://wn.com/Kashmir -
Katanga Province
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Kolkata
Kolkata (Bengali: ; ), is the capital of the Indian state of West Bengal. Kolkata is the cultural capital of India and the commercial capital of Eastern India. It is located in eastern India on the east bank of the Hooghly River. The Kolkata metropolitan area including suburbs has a population exceeding 15 million, making it the third most populous metropolitan area in India and one of the most populous urban areas in the world. The city is also classified as the eighth largest urban agglomeration in the world.
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Kota, Rajasthan
Kota () formerly known as Kotah, is a city in the northern Indian state of Rajasthan. Situated on the banks of Chambal River, the city is the trade centre for an area in which millet, wheat, Rice,Pulses, coriander and oilseeds are grown; industries include cotton and oilseed milling, textile weaving, distilling, dairying, manufacture of metal handcrafts,fertilizers,chemicals and engineering equipments.It is also known as the power house of rajasthan.It has very fertile land and greenery with good irrigation facilities through canal. Kota is one of the major industrial hubs in northern India, with many prominent chemical,engineering & power plants are based here. The rail junction, a road hub, lies 4.8 km (3 mi) to the north.
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Kuwait
The State of Kuwait (, Dawlat al-Kuwayt) is a sovereign Arab nation situated in the northeast of the Arabian Peninsula in Western Asia. It is bordered by Saudi Arabia to the south, and Iraq to the north. It lies on the northwestern shore of the Persian Gulf. The name Kuwait is derived from the Arabic "akwat", the plural of "kout", meaning fortress built near water. The emirate covers an area of 17,820 square kilometres (6,880 sq mi) and has a population of about 2.7 million.
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Ladakh
Ladakh (, Ladakhi , , , ; "land of high passes") is a region of Jammu and Kashmir, the northernmost state of the Republic of India. It lies between the Kunlun mountain range in the north and the main Great Himalayas to the south, inhabited by people of Indo-Aryan and Tibetan descent. It is one of the most sparsely populated regions in Kashmir.
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Lebanon
Lebanon ( or ; ; ), officially the Republic of Lebanon (Arabic: ; French: ), is a country on the eastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea. It is bordered by Syria to the north and east, and Israel to the south. Lebanon's location at the crossroads of the Mediterranean Basin and the Arabian hinterland has dictated its rich history, and shaped a cultural identity of religious and ethnic diversity.
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Leh
Leh (; ), was the capital of the Himalayan kingdom of Ladakh, now the Leh District in the state of Jammu and Kashmir, India. Leh, with an area of 45,110 km2, is the second largest district in the country (after Kutch, Gujarat) in terms of area.
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Liberia
http://wn.com/Liberia -
Library of Congress
The Library of Congress is the research library of the United States Congress, de facto national library of the United States, and the oldest federal cultural institution in the United States. Located in three buildings in Washington, D.C., it is the largest library in the world by shelf space and number of books. The head of the Library is the Librarian of Congress, currently James H. Billington.
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Line of Control
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Lubumbashi
Lubumbashi (formerly , or Dutch: ) is the second largest city in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (formerly Zaire), second only to the nation's capital Kinshasa, and the hub of the southeastern part of the country. The copper-mining city serves as the capital of the relatively prosperous Haut-Katanga Province, lying near the Zambian border. Population estimates vary widely but average around 1.2 million.
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Lucknow
Lucknow (; , {{Lang-ur|, , ) is the capital city of Uttar Pradesh in India. Lucknow is the administrative headquarters of Lucknow District and Lucknow Division. It is named after Lakshman the brother of Lord Rama, the Prince of Ayodhya and hero of the Hindu epic Ramayana.
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Meerut
http://wn.com/Meerut -
Mozambique
http://wn.com/Mozambique -
Mughal Empire
The Mughal Empire (, ; Urdu: ; self-designation: , ), or Mogul (also Moghul) Empire in former English usage, was an Indian-Islamic power that ruled a large portion of the Indian subcontinent which began in 1526, invaded and ruled most of South Asia by the late 17th and early 18th centuries and ended in the mid-19th century.
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Nagpur
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Nagrota
http://wn.com/Nagrota -
Namibia
Namibia, officially the Republic of Namibia (, ), is a country in southern Africa whose western border is the Atlantic Ocean. It shares land borders with Angola and Zambia to the north, Botswana to the east and South Africa to the south and east. It gained independence from South Africa on 21 March 1990 following the Namibian War of Independence. Its capital and largest city is Windhoek. Namibia is a member state of the United Nations (UN), the Southern African Development Community (SADC), the African Union (AU), and the Commonwealth of Nations.
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Nasik
http://wn.com/Nasik -
New Delhi
http://wn.com/New_Delhi -
North Korea
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Operation Meghdoot
'Operation Meghdoot' was the name given to the attack launched by the Indian Military to capture the Siachen Glacier in the disputed Kashmir region, precipitating the Siachen Conflict. Launched on 13 April 1984, this military operation was unique as the first assault launched in the world's highest battlefield. The military action eventually resulted in Indian troops managing to gain control of the entire Siachen Glacier.
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Pakistan
{{Infobox country
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Pokhran-II
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Portugal
Portugal (, ), officially the Portuguese Republic (; ), is a country located in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. Portugal is the westernmost country of Europe and is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean to the west and south and by Spain to the north and east. The Atlantic archipelagos of the Azores and Madeira are also part of Portugal.
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Rajasthan
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Ranchi
Ranchi () is the capital of the Indian state of Jharkhand. Jharkhand accounts for 40% of the mineral resources of India. Ranchi accounts for 50% mineral production of the state, nearing about 18% of nation's mineral production. For this reason Ranchi is also called the Manchester of the East. Ranchi was the centre of the Jharkhand movement for a separate state for the tribal regions of South Bihar, northern Orissa, Western West Bengal and the present eastern Chhattisgarh. Jharkhand State was formed on 15 November 2000 by carving the Bihar divisions of Chota Nagpur and Santhal Parganas.
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Republic of India
http://wn.com/Republic_of_India -
Republic of Pakistan
http://wn.com/Republic_of_Pakistan -
Rezang La
Rezang La, is a pass and is on the south-eastern approach to Chushul Valley. The feature is 3,000 yards long and 2,000 yards wide at an average height of 16,000 feet.
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Rwanda
The Republic of Rwanda (, , or in English, or in Kinyarwanda) is a unitary republic of central and eastern Africa. It borders Uganda to the north; Tanzania to the east; Burundi to the south; and the Democratic Republic of the Congo to the west. Rwanda is landlocked but is noted for its lakes, particularly Lake Kivu, which occupies the floor of the Rift Valley along most of the country's western border. Although close to the equator, the country has a temperate climate due to its high elevation, with the highest point being Mount Karisimbi. The terrain consists of mountains and gently rolling hills, with plains and swamps in the east. Abundant wildlife, including rare mountain gorillas, have led to a fast-growing tourism sector. The largest cities in Rwanda are Kigali, Gitarama, and Butare. Unlike many African countries, Rwanda is home to only one significant ethnic and linguistic group, the Banyarwanda. The country is well known for its native styles of dance, particularly the Intore dance, and for its drummers. Kinyarwanda, English and French are the official languages.
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Secunderabad
Secunderabad (, ) popularly known as the twin city of Hyderabad is located in the Indian state of Andhra Pradesh just north of Hyderabad. Named after Sikandar Jah, the third Nizam of the Asaf Jahi dynasty, Secunderabad was founded in the early 18th century as a British cantonment. Though geographically separated from Hyderabad by the Hussain Sagar, today Secunderabad is no longer a separate municipal unit and has become part of Hyderabad. Both cities are collectively known just as Hyderabad outside the state and together they form the sixth largest metropolis in India. Though they are called twin cities, the cities have both different histories and cultures, with Secunderabad having developed directly under British rule until 1948 and Hyderabad as the capital of the Nizams' princely state. Being one of the largest cantonments in India, Secunderabad has a large army and air force presence.
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Shakargarh
http://wn.com/Shakargarh -
Sialkot
Sialkot (Punjabi, {{lang-ur|) is a city situated in the north-east of the Punjab province in Pakistan at the foothills of the snow-covered peaks of Kashmir near the Chenab river. It is the capital of Sialkot District and, formerly, it has been the winter-capital of the State of Kashmir. The city is about north-west of Lahore and only a few kilometres from Indian-controlled Jammu.
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Sierra Leone
Sierra Leone () (Krio: Sa Lone), officially the Republic of Sierra Leone, is a country in West Africa. It is bordered by Guinea to the north and east, Liberia to the southeast, and the Atlantic Ocean to the west and southwest. Sierra Leone covers a total area of and has a population estimated at 6.5 million. It is a former British Colony and now a constitutional republic comprising three provinces and the Western Area; which are further divided into fourteen districts.
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Siliguri
http://wn.com/Siliguri -
Somalia
Somalia ( ; ; ), officially the Republic of Somalia (, ) and formerly known as the Somali Democratic Republic under communist rule, is a country located in the Horn of Africa. It is bordered by Djibouti to the northwest, Kenya to the southwest, the Gulf of Aden with Yemen to the north, the Indian Ocean to the east, and Ethiopia to the west. With the longest coastline on the continent, its terrain consists mainly of plateaus, plains and highlands.
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South Korea
South Korea, officially the Republic of Korea (ROK, , ) and sometimes referred to simply as Korea, is a state in East Asia, located on the southern portion of the Korean Peninsula. It is neighbored by the People's Republic of China to the west, Japan to the east, and North Korea to the north. Its capital is Seoul. South Korea lies in a temperate climate region with a predominantly mountainous terrain. Its territory covers a total area of 99,392 square kilometers and has a population of .
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Sri Ganganagar
http://wn.com/Sri_Ganganagar -
Sri Lanka
The Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka (commonly known as Sri Lanka (, , or ); ; , ) is a country and a sovereign state off souther coast of the Indian subcontinent. A island nation in South Asia, it was till 1972 known as Ceylon (, , or ). Sri Lanka is surrounded by the Indian Ocean, the Gulf of Mannar and the Palk Strait.
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Srinagar
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UK
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UNDOF
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Yemen
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Aksai Chin
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Ardeshir Tarapore
Lieutenant Colonel Ardeshir Burzorji Tarapore was born on August 18, 1923 in Mumbai. He belongs to the family of General Ratanjiba who led the army of Chatrapati Shivaji Maharaj, who was awarded 100 villages of which Tarapore was main village. The name Tarapore comes for the same reason. Later his grandfather relocated to Hyderabad and started working under the excise department of Nizam of Hyderabad. After his death Burzonji took up his father's job and was comparatively successful due to his hardwork.
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Bana Singh
Captain Bana Singh, was born on 6 January 1949 at Kadyal in Jammu and Kashmir. He enrolled in the Indian Army on 6 January 1969 into the 8th Jammu & Kashmir Light Infantry (JAK LI) Regiment. He was awarded the Param Vir Chakra, the highest wartime gallantry medal in India.
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Bengali people
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CHM Piru Singh
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Dhan Singh Thapa
http://wn.com/Dhan_Singh_Thapa -
General Thimayya
http://wn.com/General_Thimayya -
Hoshiar Singh
Major Hoshiar Singh (1936 - 1998) was born on 5 May 1936 in Sisana village, Rohtak district, Haryana to Choudhary Hira Singh. He served in the Indian Army with dedication, retiring as a Brigadier. He died on 6 December 1998 of natural causes.
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K M Cariappa
http://wn.com/K_M_Cariappa -
Korean War
http://wn.com/Korean_War -
Krishna Menon
http://wn.com/Krishna_Menon -
Mahajanapadas
http://wn.com/Mahajanapadas -
Manoj Kumar Pandey
Lieutenant Manoj Kumar Pandey, PVC (25 June 1975, Sitapur, Uttar Pradesh - 2/3 July 1999, Kashmir) was the son of Gopi Chand Pandey, Gomti Nagar, Lucknow-Uttar Pradesh, who was awarded Param Vir Chakra for his courage and leadership during adverse times.
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Naik Jadu Nath Singh
Naik Jadu Nath Singh, a Rathore Rajput, was born on 21 November 1916 in Shahjahanpur, Uttar Pradesh. He was enrolled in the 1 Rajput (now 4 Guards (1 Rajput))on 21 November 1941. During the Jammu & Kashmir operations in the winter of 1947, the capture of Jhangar on December 24th, by the Pakistani raiders, placed them in an advantageous position in the Naushahra sector. Being in full command of the communication lines from Mirpur to Poonch, they could now build up their forces for attack on Naushahra. The Army was alive to this threat. In January 1948, they conducted operations to prevent the enemy build up in the area and in the process occupied Kot village to the Northwest of Naushahra. In any case an attack on Naushahra was imminent. Brigadier Usman of the 50 Para Brigade had made adequate preparation to thwart this attack by establishing strong pickets on possible enemy approaches. One of these approaches lay to the north of Naushahra through Tain dhar.
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Neville Maxwell
Neville Maxwell (b. 1926) is a British journalist.
http://wn.com/Neville_Maxwell -
Rama Raghoba Rane
Second Lieutenant Rama Raghoba Rane, was born on 26 June 1918 at Chendia, Karwar, Karnataka, India. He comes from Konkan Maratha Community of Karwar. His statue has been erected in Karwar. He was commissioned in the Corps of Engineers on 15 December 1947. He retired as a Major from the Indian Army in 1968. During his 21 years' service with the Army, he earned five M-in-D (Mentioned-in-Despatches). He served with distinction during the 1947-48 Jammu and Kashmir operations. He was awarded the Param Vir Chakra for his courage and gallantry during the war against Pakistan.
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Sam Manekshaw
Field Marshal Sam Hormusji Framji Jamshedji Manekshaw, MC "Sam Bahadur" (lit. sam the Brave) (3 April 1914 – 27 June 2008) was an Indian Army officer. In a long career spanning nearly four decades, Manekshaw rose to be the 8th chief of staff of the Indian Army in 1969 and under his command, Indian forces concluded a victorious campaign during the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971.
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Second Boer War
The Second Boer War (, Afrikaans:Tweede Vryheidsoorlog or Tweede Boereoorlog), was fought from 11 October 1899 until 31 May 1902. The Second Boer War was fought between the British Empire and the Dutch-speaking Boer inhabitants of the two independent Boer republics: the South African Republic (Transvaal Republic) and the Orange Free State. It ended with the annexation of the region under the British Empire, ultimately forming the Union of South Africa as part of the Commonwealth. The conflict is commonly referred to as The Boer War but is also known as the South African War outside South Africa, the Anglo-Boer War among most South Africans, and in Afrikaans as the Anglo-Boereoorlog or Tweede Vryheidsoorlog ("Second War of Liberation") or the Engelse oorlog (English War).
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Shaitan Singh
Major Shaitan Singh was born on December 1, 1924 at Jodhpur in Rajasthan. He was commissioned in the Kumaon Regiment on 1 August 1949. Major Shaitan Singh was awarded Param Vir Chakra, the highest wartime gallantry medal, posthumously, for his leadership and courage during the Sino-Indian War.He hailed from Bhati Rajput Community.
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Sino-Indian War
The Sino-Indian War (), also known as the Sino-Indian Border Conflict (), was a war between China and India that occurred in 1962. A disputed Himalayan border was the main pretext for war, but other issues played a role. There had been a series of violent border incidents after the 1959 Tibetan uprising, when India had granted asylum to the Dalai Lama. India initiated a Forward Policy in which it placed outposts along the border, including several north of the McMahon Line, the eastern portion of a Line of Actual Control proclaimed by Chinese Premier Zhou Enlai in 1959.
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Somnath Sharma
http://wn.com/Somnath_Sharma -
Tariq Ali
Tariq Ali (Punjabi, lang-ur|), born 21 October 1943, is a British Pakistani historian, novelist, filmmaker, political campaigner, and commentator. He is a member of the editorial committee of the New Left Review and Sin Permiso, and regularly contributes to The Guardian, CounterPunch, and the London Review of Books.
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The Times
The Times is a daily national newspaper published in the United Kingdom since 1785, when it was known as The Daily Universal Register.
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Vikram Batra
http://wn.com/Vikram_Batra -
World War I
World War I was a military conflict centered on Europe that began in the summer of 1914. The fighting ended in late 1918. This conflict involved all of the world's great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances: the Allies (centred around the Triple Entente) and the Central Powers. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilized in one of the largest wars in history. More than 9 million combatants were killed, due largely to great technological advances in firepower without corresponding ones in mobility. It was the second deadliest conflict in history.
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Yogendra Singh Yadav
Grenadier Yogendra Singh Yadav of the Indian army was awarded the highest Indian military honour, Param Vir Chakra for his actions during the Kargil War on 4 July 1999.
http://wn.com/Yogendra_Singh_Yadav
AP
Creative Commons / Cameron kennedy
Creative Commons / Cameron kennedy
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| Indian Army | |
|---|---|
 Indian Army Seal |
|
| Founded | 15 August 1947 – present |
| Country | India |
| Type | Army |
| Size | 1,429,900 Active personnel 960,000 Reserve personnel 158 Helicopters |
| Part of | Ministry of Defence Indian Armed Forces |
| Headquarters | New Delhi, India |
| Website | indianarmy.nic.in |
| Commanders | |
| Chief of the Army Staff | General Bikram Singh[1] |
| Notable commanders |
Field Marshal Cariappa Field Marshal Manekshaw |
The Indian Army (IA, Devanāgarī: भारतीय थलसेना, Bhāratīyan Thalasēnā) is the land based branch and the largest component of the Indian Armed Forces.
According to the IISS, in 2010 the army had a strength of 1,129,900 active personnel and 960,000 reserve personnel,[2] making the Indian Army the world's largest standing volunteer army.[1][3]
Its primary mission is to ensure the national security and defence of the Republic of India from external aggression and threats, and maintaining peace and security within its borders. It also conducts humanitarian rescue operations during natural calamities and other disturbances. The President of India is the Commander-in-Chief of the Army. The Chief of Army Staff (COAS), a General, is a four star commander and commands the army. There is typically never more than one serving general at any given time in the Army. Two officers have been conferred the rank of field marshal, a 5-star rank and the officer serves as the ceremonial chief.
The Indian Army came into being when India gained independence in 1947, and inherited most of the infrastructure of the British Indian Army that were located in post-partition India. The Indian Army is a voluntary service and although a provision for military conscription exists in the Indian constitution, it has never been imposed. Since independence, the army has been involved in four wars with neighbouring Pakistan and one with the People's Republic of China. Other major operations undertaken by the army include Operation Vijay, Operation Meghdoot and Operation Cactus. Apart from conflicts, the army has also been an active participant in United Nations peacekeeping missions.
Mission[link]
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The Indian Army provides that "The Indian Army is the land component of the Indian Armed Forces which exists to uphold the ideals of the Constitution of India."[citation needed] As a major component of national power, alongside the Indian Navy and the Indian Air Force, the roles of the Indian Army are as follows:
- Primary: Preserve national interests and safeguard sovereignty, territorial integrity and unity of India against any external threats by deterrence or by waging war.
- Secondary: Assist Government agencies to cope with ‘proxy war’ and other internal threats and provide aid to civil authority when requisitioned for the purpose."[4]
History[link]
British Indian Army[link]
A Military Department was created within the Supreme Government of the East India Company at Kolkata in the year 1776. Its main function was to sift and record orders relating to the Army that were issued by various Departments of the Government of the East India Company[5]
With the Charter Act of 1833, the Secretariat of the Government of the East India Company was reorganised into four Departments, including a Military Department. The army in the Presidencies of Bengal, Bombay & Madras functioned as respective Presidency Army until April 1895, when the Presidency Armies were unified into a single Indian Army. For administrative convenience, it was divided into four commands at that point of time, namely Punjab (including the North West Frontier), Bengal, Madras (including Burma) and Bombay (including Sind, Quetta and Aden).[6]
The British Indian Army was a critical force for the primacy of the British Empire both in India and across the world. Besides maintaining the internal security of the British Raj, the Army fought in many other theatres – Anglo-Burmese Wars, First and Second Anglo-Sikh Wars, First, Second and Third Anglo-Afghan Wars, First and Second Opium Wars in China, Abyssinia, Boxer Rebellion in China.
First World War[link]
In the 20th century, the British Indian Army was a crucial adjunct to the British forces in both the World Wars.
1.3 million Indian soldiers served in World War I (1914–1918) for the Allies, after the United Kingdom made vague promises of self-governance to the Indian National Congress in return for its support. Britain reneged on its promises after the war, following which the Indian Independence movement gained strength. 74,187 Indian troops were killed or missing in action in the war.[7]
The "Indianisation" of the British Indian Army began with the formation of the Prince of Wales Royal Indian Military College at Dehradun in March 1912 with the purpose of providing education to the scions of aristocratic and well to do Indian families and to prepare selected Indian boys for admission into the Royal Military College, Sandhurst. Indian officers given a King's commission after passing out were posted to one of the eight units selected for Indianisation. Political pressure due to the slow pace of Indianisation, just 69 officers being commissioned between 1918 and 1932, led to the formation of the Indian Military Academy in 1932 and greater numbers of officers of Indian origin being commissioned.[8]
Second World War[link]
In World War II Indian soldiers fought for the Allies. In 1939, British officials had no plan for expansion and training of Indian forces, which comprised about 130,000 men (in addition there were 44,000 men in British units in India in 1939.) Their mission was internal security and defence against a possible Russian threat through Afghanistan. As the war progressed, the size and role of the Indian Army expanded dramatically, and troops were sent to battle fronts as soon as possible. The most serious problem was lack of equipment.[9]
With the fall of Singapore in 1942, about 40,000 Indian soldiers were captured. They were given a choice and 30,000 joined the Indian National Army. Those who refused became POWs and were mostly shipped to New Guinea.[10] Japan's Indian National Army had little effect on the war.[11]
In the African and Middle-Eastern Campaigns, captured Indian troops were given a choice to join the German Army to eventually "liberate" India from Great Britain instead of being sent to POW camps. Those along with Indian students who were in Germany when the war broke out made what was called the Free India Legion. They were originally intended as pathfinders for German forces in Asia but they soon were sent to help guard the Atlantic Wall. Few who were part of the Free India Legion ever saw any combat and very few were ever stationed outside of Europe. At its height the Free India Legion had over 3,000 troops in its ranks.[12]
Indian units served in Burma, where in 1944–45 five Indian divisions were engaged along with one British and three African divisions. Even larger numbers operated in the Middle East. Some 87,000 Indian soldiers died in the war.
Inception[link]
Upon independence and the subsequent Partition of India in 1947, four of the ten Gurkha regiments were transferred to the British Army. The rest of the British Indian Army was divided between the newly created nations of Republic of India and Republic of Pakistan. The Punjab Boundary Force, which had been formed to help police the Punjab during the partition period, was disbanded,[13] and Headquarters Delhi and East Punjab Command was formed to administer the area.
Conflicts and Operations[link]
First Kashmir War (1947)[link]
Immediately after independence, tensions between India and Pakistan began to boil over, and the first of three full-scale wars between the two nations broke out over the then princely state of Kashmir. Upon the Maharaja of Kashmir's eagerness to accede to India against the will of the 95% Muslim population of Kashmir, a 'tribal' invasion of parts of Kashmir began with mostly people from the NWFP region helping out the local Kashmiri population.[14] The men included Pakistan army regulars. Soon after, Pakistan sent in more of its troops to prevent Indian annexation by force. The Maharaja, Hari Singh, appealed to India, and to Lord Mountbatten of Burma, the Governor General, for help. He signed the Instrument of Accession which was largely seen as a deal by the Kashmiri population and Kashmir acceded to India (a decision ratified by Britain). Immediately after, Indian troops were airlifted to Srinagar.[14] This contingent included General Thimayya who distinguished himself in the operation and in years that followed, became a Chief of the Indian Army. An intense war was waged across the state and former comrades found themselves fighting each other. Both sides made some territorial gains and also suffered significant losses.
An uneasy UN sponsored peace returned by the end of 1948 with Indian and Pakistani soldiers facing each other directly on the Line of Control, which has since divided Indian-held Kashmir from Pakistan-held Kashmir. A host of UN Resolutions(38–47) were passed calling for a plebiscite to be held in Kashmir to determine accession to India or Pakistan. These Resolutions however were never accepted by India. Tensions between India and Pakistan, largely over Kashmir, have never since been entirely eliminated.
Inclusion of Hyderabad (1948)[link]
After the partition of India, the State of Hyderabad, a princely-state under the rule of a Nizam, chose to remain independent. The Nizam, refused to accede his state to the Union of India. The following stand-off between the Government of India and the Nizam ended on 12 September 1948 when India's then deputy Prime Minister Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel ordered Indian troops to secure the state. With 5 days of low-intensity fighting, the Indian Army, backed by a squadron of Hawker Tempest aircraft of the Indian Air Force, routed the Hyderabad State forces. Five infantry battalions and one armoured squadron of the Indian Army were engaged in the operation. The following day, the State of Hyderabad was proclaimed as a part of the Union of India. Major General Joyanto Nath Chaudhuri, who led the Operation Polo was appointed the Military Governor of Hyderabad (1948–1949) to restore law and order.
Medical Assistance during Korean War (1950–1953)[link]
During the Korean War, India sent the 60th (Parachute) Field Ambulance unit to aid the UN troops fighting against the Chinese and North Korean invasion of South Korea, though they decided against sending combat forces. The 60th PFA was included in the 1st Commonwealth Division.
In the aftermath of the war, Indian soldiers were also sent to Korea to peace-keep.
Liberation of Goa, Daman and Diu (1961)[link]
Even though the British and French vacated all their colonial possessions in the Indian subcontinent, Portugal refused to relinquish control of its Indian colonies of Goa, Daman and Diu. After repeated attempts by India to negotiate with Portugal for the return of its territory were spurned by Portuguese prime minister and dictator, Antonio de Oliveira Salazar, India launched Operation Vijay on 12 December 1961 to evict the Portuguese. A small contingent of its troops entered Goa, Daman and Diu to liberate and secure the territory. After a brief conflict, in which 31 Portuguese soldiers were killed, the Portuguese Navy frigate NRP Afonso de Albuquerque destroyed, and over 3,000 Portuguese captured, Portuguese General Manuel António Vassalo e Silva surrendered to the Indian Army, after twenty-six hours and Goa, Daman and Diu joined the Indian Union.
Sino-Indian Conflict (1962)[link]
The cause of the war was a dispute over the sovereignty of the widely-separated Aksai Chin and Arunachal Pradesh border regions. Aksai Chin, claimed by India to belong to Kashmir and by China to be part of Xinjiang, contains an important road link that connects the Chinese regions of Tibet and Xinjiang. China's construction of this road was one of the triggers of the conflict.
Small-scale clashes between the Indian and Chinese forces broke out as India insisted on the disputed McMahon Line being regarded as the international border between the two countries. Chinese troops claim to have not retaliated to the cross-border firing by Indian troops, despite sustaining losses.[15] China's suspicion of India's involvement in Tibet created more rifts between the two countries.[16]
In 1962, the Indian Army was ordered to move to the Thag La ridge located near the border between Bhutan and Arunachal Pradesh and about three miles (5 km) north of the disputed McMahon Line. Meanwhile, Chinese troops too had made incursions into Indian-held territory and tensions between the two reached a new high when Indian forces discovered a road constructed by China in Aksai Chin. After a series of failed negotiations, the People's Liberation Army attacked Indian Army positions at the Thag La ridge. This move by China caught India by surprise and by 12 October, Nehru gave orders for the Chinese to be expelled from Aksai Chin. However, poor coordination among various divisions of the Indian Army and the late decision to mobilise the Indian Air Force in vast numbers gave China a crucial tactical and strategic advantage over India. On 20 October, Chinese soldiers attacked India in both the North-West and North-Eastern parts of the border and captured vast portions of Aksai Chin and Arunachal Pradesh.
As the fighting moved beyond disputed territories, China called on the Indian government to negotiate, however India remained determined to regain lost territory. With no peaceful agreement in sight, China unilaterally withdrew its forces from Arunachal Pradesh. The reasons for the withdrawal are disputed with India claiming various logistical problems for China and diplomatic support to it from the United States, while China stated that it still held territory that it had staked diplomatic claim upon. The dividing line between the Indian and Chinese forces was named the Line of Actual Control.
The poor decisions made by India's military commanders, and, indeed, its political leadership, raised several questions. The Henderson-Brooks & Bhagat committee was soon set up by the Government of India to determine the causes of the poor performance of the Indian Army. The report of China even after hostilities began and also criticised the decision to not allow the Indian Air Force to target Chinese transport lines out of fear of Chinese aerial counter-attack on Indian civilian areas. Much of the blame was also targeted at the incompetence of then Defence Minister, Krishna Menon who resigned from his post soon after the war ended. Despite frequent calls for its release, the Henderson-Brooks report still remains classified.[17] Neville Maxwell has written an account of the war.[18]
Indo-Pakistani War of 1965[link]
A second confrontation with Pakistan took place in 1965, largely over Kashmir. Pakistani President Ayub Khan launched Operation Gibraltar in August 1965, during which several Pakistani paramilitary troops infiltrated into Indian-administered Kashmir and attempt to ignite an anti-India agitation in Jammu and Kashmir. Pakistani leaders believed that India, which was still recovering from the disastrous Sino-Indian War, would be unable to deal with a military thrust and a Kashmiri rebellion. India reacted swiftly and launched a counter offensive on Pakistan. Pakistan launched Operation Grand Slam in reply on 1 September, invading India's Chamb-Jaurian sector. In retaliation, the India's Army launched a major offensive throughout its border with Pakistan, with Lahore as its prime target.
Initially, the Indian Army met with considerable success in the northern sector. After launching prolonged artillery barrages against Pakistan, India was able to capture three important mountain positions in Kashmir. By 9 September, the Indian Army had made considerable in-roads into Pakistan. India had its largest haul of Pakistani tanks when the offensive of Pakistan's 1st Armoured Division was blunted at the Battle of Asal Uttar, which took place on 10 September near Khemkaran.[19] The biggest tank battle of the war came in the form of the Battle of Chawinda, the largest tank battle in history after World War II. Pakistan's defeat at the Battle of Asal Uttar hastened the end of the conflict.[19]
At the time of ceasefire declaration, India reported casualties of about 3,500 killed. On the other hand, it was estimated that about 3,800 Pakistani soldiers were killed in the battle.[20][21][22] About 190 Pakistani tanks were either destroyed or captured by India. India lost a total of 175 tanks during the conflict and about 100 more had to undergo repair.[19][23] the decision to return back to pre-war positions, following the Tashkent Declaration, caused an outcry among the polity[who?] in New Delhi. It was widely believed that India's decision to accept the ceasefire was due to political factors, and not military, since it was facing considerable pressure from the United States and the UN to stop hostilities.[24]
Indo-Pakistani War of 1971[link]
An independence movement broke out in East Pakistan which was brutally crushed by Pakistani forces. Due to large-scale atrocities against them, thousands of Bengalis took refuge in neighbouring India causing a major refugee crisis there. In early 1971, India declared its full-support for the Bengali rebels, known as Mukti Bahini, and Indian agents were extensively involved in covert operations to aid them.
On 20 November 1971, Indian Army moved the 14 Punjab Battalion 45 Cavalry into Garibpur, a strategically important town near India's border with East Pakistan, and successfully captured it. The following day, more clashes took place between Indian and Pakistani forces. Wary of India's growing involvement in the Bengali rebellion, the Pakistan Air Force (PAF) launched a preemptive strike on 10 Indian air bases at Srinagar, Jammu, Pathankot, Amritsar, Agra, Adampur, Jodhpur, Jaisalmer, Uttarlai and Sirsa at 1745 hours on 3 December. This aerial offensive, however, failed to accomplish its stated objectives and gave India its excuse to declare a full-scale war against Pakistan the same day. By midnight, the Indian Army, accompanied by Indian Air Force, launched a major three-pronged assault into East Pakistan. The Indian Army won several battles on the eastern front including the decisive of battle of Hilli, which was the only front where the Pakistani Army was able to build up considerable resistance. The operation also included a battalion-level airborne operation on Tangail which resulted in the capitulation of all resistance within five days.[25] India's massive early gains was largely attributed to the speed and flexibility with which Indian armoured divisions moved across East Pakistan.[26]
Pakistan launched a counter-attack against India on the western front. On 4 December 1971, the A company of the 23rd Battalion of India's Punjab Regiment detected and intercepted the movement of the 51st Infantry Brigade of the Pakistani Army near Ramgarh, Rajasthan. The battle of Longewala ensued during which the A company, though being outnumbered, thwarted the Pakistani advance until the Indian Air Force directed its fighters to engage the Pakistani tanks. By the time the battle had ended, 34 Pakistani tanks and 50 armoured vehicles were either destroyed or abandoned. About 200 Pakistani troops were killed in action during the battle while only 2 Indian soldiers lost their lives. Pakistan suffered another major defeat on the western front during the battle of Basantar which was fought from 4 December to 16th. By the end of the battle, about 66 Pakistani tanks were destroyed and 40 more were captured. In return, Pakistani forces were able to destroy only 11 Indian tanks. None of the numerous Pakistani offensives on the Western front materialised.[27] By 16 December, Pakistan had lost sizeable territory on both eastern and western fronts.
Under the command of Lt. General J.S. Arora, the three corps of the Indian Army, which had invaded East Pakistan, entered Dhaka and forced Pakistani forces to surrender on 16 December 1971, one day after the conclusion of the battle of Basantar. After Pakistan's Lt. General A.A.K. Niazi signed the Instrument of Surrender, India took more than 90,000 Pakistani prisoners of war. At the time of the signing of the Instrument of Surrender, 9,000 Pakistani soldiers were killed-in-action while India suffered only 2,500 battle-related deaths.[21] In addition, Pakistan lost 200 tanks during the battle compared to India's 80.[28]
In 1972, the Simla Agreement was signed between the two countries and tensions simmered. However, there were occasional spurts in diplomatic tensions which culminated into increased military vigilance on both sides.
Siachen conflict (1984)[link]
The Siachen Glacier, though a part of the Kashmir region, was not officially demarcated on maps prepared and exchanged between the two sides in 1947. As a consequence, prior to the 1980s, neither India nor Pakistan maintained any permanent military presence in the region. However, Pakistan began conducting and allowing a series of mountaineering expeditions to the glacier beginning in the 1950s. By early 1980s, the government of Pakistan was granting special expedition permits to mountaineers and United States Army maps deliberately showed Siachen as a part of Pakistan. This practice gave rise to the contemporary meaning of the term oropolitics.
India, possibly irked by these developments, launched Operation Meghdoot in April 1984. The entire Kumaon Regiment of the Indian Army was airlifted to the glacier. Pakistani forces responded quickly and clashes between the two followed. Indian Army secured the strategic Sia La and Bilafond La mountain passes and by 1985, more than 1,000 square miles (2,600 km2) of territory, 'claimed' by Pakistan, was under Indian control.[29] The Indian Army continues to control all of the Siachen Glacier and its tributary glaciers. Pakistan made several unsuccessful attempts to regain control over Siachen. In late 1987, Pakistan mobilised about 8,000 troops and garrisoned them near Khapalu, aiming to capture Bilafond La.[30] However, they were repulsed by Indian Army personnel guarding Bilafond. During the battle, about 23 Indian soldiers lost their lives while more than 150 Pakistani troops perished.[31] Further unsuccessful attempts to reclaim positions were launched by Pakistan in 1990, 1995, 1996 and 1999, most notably in Kargil that year.
India continues to maintain a strong military presence in the region despite extremely inhospitable conditions. The conflict over Siachen is regularly cited as an example of mountain warfare.[32] The highest peak in the Siachen glacier region, Saltoro Kangri, could be viewed as strategically important for India because of its immense altitude which could enable the Indian forces to monitor some Pakistani or Chinese movements in the immediate area.[33] Maintaining control over Siachen poses several logistical challenges for the Indian Army. Several infrastructure projects were constructed in the region, including a helipad 21,000 feet (6,400 m) above the sea level.[34] In 2004, Indian Army was spending an estimated US$2 million a day to support its personnel stationed in the region.[35]
Counter-insurgency activities[link]
The Indian Army has played a crucial role in the past, fighting insurgents and terrorists within the nation. The army launched Operation Bluestar and Operation Woodrose in the 1980s to combat Sikh insurgents. The army, along with some paramilitary forces, has the prime responsibility of maintaining law and order in the troubled Jammu and Kashmir region. The Indian Army also sent a contingent to Sri Lanka in 1987 as a part of the Indian Peace Keeping Force.
Kargil conflict (1999)[link]
In 1998, India carried out nuclear tests and a few days later, Pakistan responded by more nuclear tests giving both countries nuclear deterrence[disambiguation needed 
] capability. Diplomatic tensions eased after the Lahore Summit was held in 1999. The sense of optimism was short-lived, however, since in mid-1999 Pakistani paramilitary forces and Kashmiri insurgents captured deserted, but strategic, Himalayan heights in the Kargil district of India. These had been vacated by the Indian army during the onset of the inhospitable winter and were supposed to reoccupied in spring. The regular Pakistani troops who took control of these areas received important support, both in the form of arms and supplies, from Pakistan. Some of the heights under their control, which also included the Tiger Hill, overlooked the vital Srinagar-Leh Highway (NH 1A), Batalik and Dras.
Once the scale of the Pakistani incursion was realised, the Indian Army quickly mobilised about 200,000 troops and Operation Meghdoot was launched. However, since the heights were under Pakistani control, India was in a clear strategic disadvantage. From their observation posts, the Pakistani forces had a clear line-of-sight to lay down indirect artillery fire on NH 1A, inflicting heavy casualties on the Indians.[36] This was a serious problem for the Indian Army as the highway was its main logistical and supply route.[37] Thus, the Indian Army's first priority was to recapture peaks that were in the immediate vicinity of NH1a. This resulted in Indian troops first targeting the Tiger Hill and Tololing complex in Dras.[38] This was soon followed by more attacks on the Batalik-Turtok sub-sector which provided access to Siachen Glacier. Point 4590, which had the nearest view of the NH1a, was successfully recaptured by Indian forces on 14 June.[39]
Though most of the posts in the vicinity of the highway were cleared by mid-June, some parts of the highway near Drass witnessed sporadic shelling until the end of the war. Once NH1a area was cleared, the Indian Army turned to driving the invading force back across the Line of Control. The Battle of Tololing, among other assaults, slowly tilted the combat in India's favour. Nevertheless, some of the posts put up a stiff resistance, including Tiger Hill (Point 5140) that fell only later in the war. As the operation was fully underway, about 250 artillery guns were brought in to clear the infiltrators in the posts that were in the line-of-sight. In many vital points, neither artillery nor air power could dislodge the outposts manned by the Pakistan soldiers, who were out of visible range. The Indian Army mounted some direct frontal ground assaults which were slow and took a heavy toll given the steep ascent that had to be made on peaks as high as 18,000 feet (5,500 m). Two months into the conflict, Indian troops had slowly retaken most of the ridges they had lost;[40][41] according to official count, an estimated 75%–80% of the intruded area and nearly all high ground was back under Indian control.
Following the Washington accord on 4 July, where Sharif agreed to withdraw Pakistani troops, most of the fighting came to a gradual halt, but some Pakistani forces remained in positions on the Indian side of the LOC. In addition, the United Jihad Council (an umbrella for all extremist groups) rejected Pakistan's plan for a climb-down, instead deciding to fight on.[42] The Indian Army launched its final attacks in the last week of July; as soon as the Drass subsector had been cleared of Pakistani forces, the fighting ceased on 26 July. The day has since been marked as Kargil Vijay Diwas (Kargil Victory Day) in India. By the end of the war, India had resumed control of all territory south and east of the Line of Control, as was established in July 1972 per the Shimla Accord. By the time all hostilities had ended, the number of Indian soldiers killed during the conflict stood at 527.[43] while more than 700 regular members of the Pakistani army were killed.[44] The number of Islamist fighters, also known as Mujahideen, killed by Indian Armed Forces during the conflict stood at about 3,000.
United Nations Peacekeeping Missions[link]
The Indian Army has undertaken numerous UN peacekeeping missions:[45]
- Angola, UNAVEM I, 1988–1991
- Angola, UNAVEM II, 1991–1995
- Angola, UNAVEM III, 1995–1997
- Angola, MONUA, 1997–1999
- Bosnia & Herzegovina, UNMIBH, 1995–2002
- Cambodia, UNAMIC, 1991–1992
- Cambodia, UNTAC, 1992–1993
- Central America, ONUCA, 1989–1992
- Congo, ONUC, 1960–1964
- El Salvador, ONUSAL, 1991–1995
- Ethiopia & Eritrea, UNMEE, 2000–2008
- Haiti, UNMIH, 1993–1996
- Haiti, UNSMIH, 1996–1997
- Haiti, UNTMIH, 1997
- Haiti, MIPONUH, 1997–2000
- Iran & Iraq, UNIIMOG, 1988–1991
- Iraq & Kuwait, UNIKOM, 1991–2003
- Israel, UNDOF
- Liberia, UNOMIL, 1993–1997
- Lebanon, UNOGL, UNIFIL, 1958
- Middle East, UNEF I, 1956–1967
- Mozambique, ONUMOZ, 1992–1994
- Namibia, UNTAG, 1989–1990
- Rwanda, UNAMIR, 1993–1996
- Sierra Leone, UNOMSIL, 1998–1999
- Sierra Leone, UNAMSIL, 1999–2005
- Somalia, UNOSOM, 1993–1995
- Yemen, UNYOM, 1963–1964
The Indian army also provided paramedical units to facilitate the withdrawal of the sick and wounded in the Korean War.
Major exercises[link]
Operation Brasstacks[link]
Operation Brasstacks was launched by the Indian Army in November 1986 to simulate a full-scale war on the western border. The exercise was the largest ever conducted in India and comprised nine infantry, three mechanised, three armoured and one air assault division, and included three independent armoured brigades. Amphibious assault exercises were also conducted with the Indian Navy. Brasstacks also allegedly incorporated nuclear attack drills. It led to tensions with Pakistan and a subsequent rapprochement in mid-1987.[46][47]
Operation Parakram[link]
After the 13 December 2001 attack on the Indian Parliament, Operation Parakram was launched in which tens of thousands of Indian troops were deployed along the Indo-Pakistan border. India blamed Pakistan for backing the attack. The operation was the largest military exercise carried out by any Asian country. Its prime objective is still unclear but appears to have been to prepare the army for any future nuclear conflict with Pakistan, which seemed increasingly possible after the December attack on the Indian parliament.[citation needed]
Operation Sanghe Shakti[link]
It has since been stated that the main goal of this exercise was to validate the mobilisation strategies of the Ambala-based II Strike Corps. Air support was a part of this exercise, and an entire battalion of paratroops parachuted in during the conduction of the war games, with allied equipment. Some 20,000 soldiers took part in the exercise.[citation needed]
Exercise Ashwamedha[link]
Indian Army tested its network centric warfare capabilities in the exercise Ashwamedha. The exercise was held in the Thar desert, in which over 300,000 troops participated.[48] Asymmetric warfare capability was also tested by the Indian Army during the exercise.[49]
Operation Sudarshan Sakthi[link]
It took place at Baundi village, 40 km. south east of Barmer in Rajasthan on 6 December 2011.The Exercise, helmed by southern army command and the south western air command, seeks to build synergy between the army and the air force in a network centric environment.The exercise would take place in a theatre of 175 km x 150 km area covering Barmer, Jaisalmer, Pokhran and Pachpadra, said an officer from 21 Corpse. Both T-90 and T-72 tanks along with heavy duty guns would be in action in the exercise, the built up for which had began since September end.
Youdh Abhays[link]
Exercise YUDH ABHYAS is part of an ongoing series of joint exercises between the Indian and United States Armies since 2005, agreed upon under the New Framework of India-US Defence Relationship.
Commencing at the platoon level, the exercise has graduated to a command post (CPX) and field training exercise (FTX).
The seventh edition of Yudh Abhyas is currently underway since 5 March 2012 in two locations under the South Western Command. The US Army contingent is from the US Army Pacific (USARPAC), part of their Pacific Command (PACOM). The Command Post Exercise has an engineer brigade headquarters with its planners from both sides, while the Field Training Exercise comprises troops of 2nd Squadron 14th US Cavalry Regiment from 25th Infantry Division, Hawaii, along with a platoon of Strykers, and a similar sized Indian Army contingent of mechanised infantry. The event is all the more interesting as a number of key surveillance, communications and Improvised Explosive Devices detection and neutralisation technologies, available with both sides have been fielded in the exercise.[50]
Exercise Shoorveer[link]
On first week of April 2012 Indian Army has launched a massive summer exercise in the Rajasthan desert involving over 50,000 troops and several hundred artillery guns and infantry combat vehicles as part of its efforts to shore up its battle worthiness on the western front with Pakistan. The exercise, code-named "Shoorveer", is being conducted by the Jaipur-based South Western Command and will end in the first week of May. This is the largest ever exercise conducted by Indian army since 1947.
The collective training started with honing up of basic battle procedures and tactical drills at tactical level. A number of field firings are being carried out to check the accuracy and lethality of the weapon systems. A large number of innovations and modifications carried out by units and formations to enhance combat power are being tested in the field. The troops will build the momentum of training gradually, with increased combat tempo to set the stage for a major joint army-air force exercise in the later part of the exercise.[51] The collective training started with honing up of basic battle procedures and tactical drills at tactical level.The exercise Shoorveer is scheduled to culminate when Sapta Shakti Command along with Indian Air Force will carry out swift battle manoeuvres and joint operations. A number of field firings are being carried out to check the accuracy and lethality of the weapon systems.
Exercise Rudra Akrosh[link]
In May 2012 Indian army start testing the preparedness level of its units and to validate new age technology, battle concepts, organisational structures and networked operations, Western Army Command is conducting its summer training exercises in Punjab and Jammu and Kashmir. "Codenamed Exercise Rudra Akrosh, the war games are aimed to validate the operational and transformational effectiveness of various formations under the Western Army Command. The exercise which entered its culmination phase was also witnessed by Western Army Commander Lt General S R Ghosh. It includes various summer training manoeuvres where approximately 20,000 troops tested battle skills with state-of-the-art weapon systems in complete integration of the fighter and transport aircraft pitched in by the Indian Air Force. Besides interacting with the soldiers and officers coordinating the war games, Lt Gen Ghosh witnessed various battle manoeuvres by infantry troops, mechanised infantry, tanks, artillery, Heliborne troops and surveillance equipment. Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) and attack helicopters were also coopted in the operational scenario . Recently, the Jaipur-based South Western Command- also known as Sapta Shakti command- conducted its summer war games with more than 50,000 troops, latest weaponary and air assets.[52]
Structure[link]
The army has a strength of about a million troops and fields 34 divisions. Its headquarters is located in the Indian capital New Delhi and it is under the overall command of the Chief of Army Staff (COAS), currently General General Bikram Singh, PVSM, UYSM, AVSM, SM, VSM, ADC
Initially, the army's main objective was to defend the nation's frontiers. However, over the years, the army has also taken up the responsibility of providing internal security, especially in insurgent-hit Kashmir and north-east.
Recently it has been proposed to enhance the strength of army by more than 90,000 to counter the increasing presence of Chinese troops along the LAC.
Commands[link]
The army operates 7 operational commands. Each command is headed by General Officer Commanding-in-Chief with the rank of Lieutenant General. Each command is directly affiliated to the Army HQ in New Delhi. These commands are given below in their correct order of raising, location (city) and their commanders. There is also the Army Training Commanded abbreviated as ARTRAC. The staff in each Command HQ is headed by Chief Of Staff (COS) who is also an officer of Lieutenant General rank.[citation needed] Besides these army officers may head tri-service commands such as the Strategic Forces command and the Andaman and Nicobar Command.
Corps[link]
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A corps is an army field formation responsible for a zone within a command theatre. There are three types of corps in the Indian Army: Strike, Holding and Mixed. A command generally consists of two or more corps. A corps has Army divisions under its command. The Corps HQ is the highest field formation in the army. Further information is available from Richard A. Renaldi and Ravi Rikhe, 'Indian Army Order of Battle,' Orbat.com for Tiger Lily Books: A division of General Data LLC, ISBN 978-0-9820541-7-8, 2011.
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Regimental organisation[link]
In addition to this (not to be confused with the Field Corps mentioned above) are the Regiments or Corps or departments of the Indian Army. The corps mentioned below are the functional divisions entrusted with specific pan-Army tasks.
Arms
The Indian Territorial Army has units from a number of corps which serve as a part-time reserve. Services
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Other field formations[link]
- Division: An Army Division is an intermediate between a Corps and a Brigade. It is the largest striking force in the army. Each Division is headed by [General Officer Commanding] (GOC) in the rank of Major General. It usually consists of 15,000 combat troops and 8,000 support elements. Currently, the Indian Army has 37[53] Divisions including 4 RAPID (Re-organised Army Plains Infantry Divisions) Action Divisions, 18 Infantry Divisions, 10 Mountain Divisions, 3 Armoured Divisions and 2 Artillery Divisions. Each Division composes of several Brigades.
- Brigade: A Brigade generally consists of around 3,000 combat troops with supporting elements. An Infantry Brigade usually has 3 Infantry Battalions along with various Support Arms & Services. It is headed by a Brigadier, equivalent to a Brigadier General in some armies. In addition to the Brigades in various Army Divisions, the Indian Army also has 5 Independent Armoured Brigades, 15 Independent Artillery Brigades, 7 Independent Infantry Brigades, 1 Independent Parachute Brigade,3 Independent Air Defence Brigades, 2 Independent Air Defence Groups and 4 Independent Engineer Brigades. These Independent Brigades operate directly under the Corps Commander (GOC Corps).
- Battalion: A Battalion is commanded by a Colonel and is the Infantry's main fighting unit. It consists of more than 900 combat personnel.
- Company: Headed by the Major, a Company comprises 120 soldiers.
- Platoon: An intermediate between a Company and Section, a Platoon is headed by a Lieutenant or depending on the availability of Commissioned Officers, a Junior Commissioned Officer, with the rank of Subedar or Naib-Subedar. It has a total strength of about 32 troops.
- Section: Smallest military outfit with a strength of 10 personnel. Commanded by a Non-commissioned officer of the rank of Havildar Major or Sergeant Major.
Regiments[link]
Infantry regiments[link]
Upon its inception, the Indian Army inherited the British Army's organizational structure which is still maintained today. Therefore, like its predecessor, an Indian Infantry Regiment's responsibility is not to undertake field operations but to provide battalions and well trained personnel to the field formations, as such it is common to find battalions of the same regiment spread across several brigades, divisions, corps, commands, and even theatres.
Infantry Regiments of the Indian Army recruit based on certain selection criteria, such as geographical location (the Punjab Regiment), Assam Rifles etc. some regimental recruitment criteria are unique to India with some regiment's recruitment pool falling on ethnicity, caste or religion such as the Gorkha Regiments, Jatt Regiment and Sikh Regiment respectively. Over the years various political and military factions have tried to dissolve the unique selection criteria process of the regiments over a fear that loyalty to the regiment or its ethnic people opposed to loyalty to the union of India and have succeeded somewhat with the creation of caste-less, religion-less, non-regional regiments, such as the Brigade of Guards & Parachute Regiment, but have generally met with little success or gained popular support amongst the rank and file Jawans.
Like its British and commonwealth counterparts troops enlisted within the regiment are immensely loyal and take great pride in the regiment they are assigned too and generally spend their entire career within the regiment.
Regiments in order of seniority within the Indian Army are:
- The Parachute Regiment
- Brigade of the Guards
- Maratha Light Infantry
- Mechanised Infantry Regiment
- Punjab Regiment
- Madras Regiment
- The Grenadiers
- Rajputana Rifles
- Rajput Regiment
- Jat Regiment
- Sikh Regiment
- Sikh Light Infantry
- Dogra Regiment
- Garhwal Rifles
- Kumaon Regiment
- Assam Regiment
- Bihar Regiment
- Mahar Regiment
- Jammu & Kashmir Rifles
- Jammu & Kashmir Light Infantry
- Naga Regiment
- 1 Gorkha Rifles (The Malaun Regiment)
- 3 Gorkha Rifles
- 4 Gorkha Rifles
- 5 Gorkha Rifles (Frontier Force)
- 8 Gorkha Rifles
- 9 Gorkha Rifles
- 11 Gorkha Rifles
- Ladakh Scouts
- Arunachal Scouts
- Sikkim Scouts[54] (Planned)
- Mizo regiment[55] (Planned)
- Meghalaya regiment[56] (Planned)
- Manipur regiment[57] (Planned)
Artillery regiments[link]
The Regiment of Artillery constitutes a formidable operational arm of Indian Army. Historically it takes its lineage from Moghul Emperor Babur who is popularly credited with introduction of Artillery in India, in the Battle of Panipat in 1526.[citation needed] However evidence of earlier use of gun by Bahmani Kings in the Battle of Adoni in 1368 and King Mohammed Shah of Gujrat in fifteenth century have been recorded.[citation needed] Indian artillery units were disbanded after the 1857 rebellion and reformed only in 1935 when the Regiment was established.[citation needed]
Armoured regiments[link]
There are 97 armoured regiments in the Indian Army. These include the following historic regiments dating back to the nineteenth century or earlier: 1st Skinner's Horse, the 2nd Lancers (Gardner's Horse), 3rd Cavalry, Hodson's Horse, 7th Light Cavalry, 8th Light Cavalry, 9th Royal Deccan Horse, Scinde Horse, Poona Horse, 15th Lancers, 16th Light Cavalry, 18th Cavalry, 20th Lancers, and the Central India Horse. A substantial number of additional units designated as either "Cavalry" or "Armoured" Regiments have been raised since Independence.
Indian army staff and equipment[link]
Strength[link]
| Indian Army statistics[2] | |
|---|---|
| Active Troops | 1,129,900 |
| Reserve Troops | 800,000* |
| Indian Territorial Army | 160,000** |
* includes 300,000 1st line troops and 500,000 2nd line troops
** only 40,000 regular establishment
Formations[link]
- 4 RAPIDs (Reorganised Army Plains Infantry Divisions)
- 18 Infantry Divisions
- 10 Mountain Divisions
- 3 Armoured Divisions
- 3 Artillery Divisions
- 3 Air Defence Brigades and 2 Surface-to-Air Missile Groups
- 5 Independent Armoured Brigades
- 15 Independent Artillery Brigades
- 7 Independent Infantry Brigades
- 1 Airborne Brigade
- 4 Engineer Brigades
- 41 Army Aviation Helicopter Units
Sub-units[link]
- 93 Tank Regiments (??)
- 32 Mechanised Infantry Battalions
- 50 Artillery Regiments
- 3 Parachute Battalions
- 7 Special Forces Battalions
- 23 Combat Helicopter Units
- 50 Air Defence Regiments
Rank structure[link]
The various rank of the Indian Army are listed below in descending order:
Commissioned Officers
- Field Marshal1
- General (the rank held by Chief of Army Staff)
- Lieutenant-General
- Major-General
- Brigadier
- Colonel
- Lieutenant-Colonel
- Major
- Captain
- Lieutenant
Junior Commissioned Officers (JCOs) (Active and honorary)
- Subedar Major/Honorary Captain3
- Subedar/Honorary Lieutenant3
- Subedar Major/Risaldar Major
- Subedar/Risaldar
- Naib Subedar/Naib Risaldar
Non Commissioned Officers (NCOs)
- Regimental Havildar Major/Regimental Daffadar Major 2
- Regimental Quartermaster HavildarRegimental Quartermaster Daffadar2
- Company Havildar Major/Squadron Daffadar Major
- Company Quartermaster Havildar/Squadron Quartermaster Daffadar
- Havildar/Daffadar
Other Personnels
- Naik/Lance Daffadar
- Lance Naik/Acting Lance Daffadar
- Sepoy (infantry and other arms)/Sowar(Indian Army Armoured Corps)
Notes:
- Only two officers have been made Field Marshal so far: Field Marshal K M Cariappa—the first Indian Commander-in-Chief (a post since abolished)—and Field Marshal S H F J Manekshaw, the Chief of Army Staff during the Army in the 1971 war with Pakistan.
- This has now been discontinued. Non-Commissioned Officers in the rank of Havildar are elible for Honorary JCO ranks.
- Given to Outstanding JCO's Rank and pay of a Lieutenant, role continues to be of a JCO.
Combat doctrine[link]
The current combat doctrine of the Indian Army is based on effectively utilising holding formations and strike formations. In the case of an attack, the holding formations would contain the enemy and strike formations would counter-attack to neutralise enemy forces. In the case of an Indian attack, the holding formations would pin enemy forces down whilst the strike formations attack at a point of Indian choosing. The Indian Army is large enough to devote several corps to the strike role. Currently, the army is also looking at enhancing its special forces capabilities. With the role of India increasing and the requirement for protection of India's interest in far off shores become important, the Indian Army and Indian Navy are jointly planning to set up a marine brigade.[58]
Equipment[link]
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Most of the army equipment is imported, but efforts are being made to manufacture indigenous equipment. The Defence Research and Development Organisation has developed a range of weapons for the Indian Army ranging from small arms, artillery, radars and the Arjun tank. All Indian Military small-arms are manufactured under the umbrella administration of the Ordnance Factory Board, with principal Firearm manufacturing facilities in Ichhapore, Cossipore, Kanpur, Jabalpur and Tiruchirapalli. The Indian National Small Arms System (INSAS) rifle, which is successfully inducted by Indian Army since 1997 is a product of the Ishapore Rifle Factory, while ammunition is manufactured at Khadki and possibly at Bolangir.
Aircraft[link]
The Army Aviation Corps is the main body of the Indian Army for tactical air transport, reconnaissance, and medical evacuation, while Indian Air Force's helicopter assets are responsible for assisting the army troop transport and close air support. It operates around 150 helicopters.
The Indian army had projected a requirement for a helicopter that can carry loads of up to 75 kg heights of 23,000 feet (7,000 m) on the Siachen Glacier in Jammu and Kashmir. Flying at these heights poses unique challenges due to the rarefied atmosphere. The Indian Army chose the Eurocopter AS 550 for a $550 million contract for 197 light helicopters to replace its ageing fleet of Chetaks and Cheetahs, some of which were inducted more than three decades ago.[59] The deal has however been scrapped amidst allegations of corruption during the bidding process.[60]
Uniforms[link]
The Indian Army camouflage consists of shirts, trousers and cap of a synthetic material. Shirts are buttoned up with two chest pockets with buttoned up flaps. Trousers have two pockets, two thigh box pockets and a back pocket. The Indian Army Jungle camouflage dress features a jungle camouflage pattern and is designed for use in woodland environments. The Indian Army Desert camouflage, which features a desert camouflage pattern, is used by artillery and infantry posted in dusty, semi-desert and desert areas of Rajasthan and its vicinity.
The forces of the East India Company in India were forced by casualties to dye their white summer tunics to neutral tones, initially a tan called khaki (from the Hindi-Urdu word for "dusty"). This was a temporary measure which became standard in Indian service in the 1880s. Only during the Second Boer War in 1902, did the entire British Army standardise on dun for Service Dress. Indian Army uniform standardises on dun for khaki.
The modern Indian Army wears distinctive parade uniforms characterised by variegated turbans and waist-sashes in regimental colours. The Gurkha and Garwhal Rifles and the Assam, Kumaon and the Naga Regiments wear broad brimmed hats of traditional style. Traditionally, all Rifle regiments and the Jammu and Kashmir Light Infantry (Jammu and Kashmir Rifles, Garhwal Rifles, Gurkha Rifles, and Rajputana Rifles) wear rank badges, buttons and blackened wire embroidered articles of uniform in black instead of the usual Brass (or gold) coloured as the original role of the rifle regiments was camouflage and concealment.
Recipients of the Param Vir Chakra[link]
Listed below are the most notable people to have received the Param Vir Chakra, the highest military decoration of the Indian Army.
Future developments[link]
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- Futuristic Infantry Soldier As a System (F-INSAS) is the Indian Army's principal modernisation program from 2012 to 2020. In the first phase, to be completed by 2012, the infantry soldiers will be equipped with modular weapon systems that will have multi-functions. The Indian Army intends to modernise all of its 465 infantry and paramilitary battalions by 2020 with this program.
- India is currently re-organising its mechanised forces to achieve strategic mobility and high-volume firepower for rapid thrusts into enemy territory. India proposes to progressively induct as many as 248 Arjun MBT and develop and induct the Arjun MKII variant, 1,657 Russian-origin T-90S main-battle tanks (MBTs), apart from the ongoing upgrade of its T-72 fleet. The Army recently placed an order for 4,100 French-origin Milan-2T anti-tank guided missiles (ATGMs). Defence ministry sources said the Rs 592-crore (approximately US$120 million) order was cleared after the 2008 Mumbai attacks, with the government finally fast-tracking several military procurement plans.[61]
- The Army gained the Cabinet Committee on Security's approval to raise two new infantry mountain divisions (with around 15,000 combat soldiers each),[62] and an artillery brigade in 2008. These divisions were likely to be armed with ultralight howitzers. In July 2009, it was reported that the Army was advocating a new artillery division, said defence ministry sources.[63] The proposed artillery division, under the Kolkata-based Eastern Command, was to have three brigades—two of 155mm howitzers and one of the Russian "Smerch" and indigenous "Pinaka" multiple-launch rocket systems.
- The Indian Army plans to develop and induct a 155mm indigenous artillery gun within the next three and a half years.[64]
- Tanks and armoured vehicles
- T-90 bhishma – India plans to induct Total 1657 tanks by 2020. 807 already in service.
- Arjun MBT – 248 On order – 170 inducted.
- Arjun MBT mk 2 – Trials started 2011. Production By 2014.
- FMBT – The FMBT will be a lighter tank of 50 tons. At conceptual stage.
- FICV – Future Infantry Combat Vehicle program of DRDO. It is supposed to replace Indian Army's current regiment of BMP-2 infantry combat vehicle.
- Missiles
- Intercontinental Ballistic Missiles
- Cruise Missiles
- Nirbhay Missile
- Brahmos and Brahmos Mk 2 missiles
- Tactical Ballistic Missiles
- Prahaar (missile) – With a range of 150 km.[65]
- Shaurya (missile) – It has a range of between 750 to 1900 km.
- Anti-Tank Guided Missiles
- Nag Anti-tank guided missile
- Helinag – Air launched variant of nag Anti-tank missile
- CLGM (missile) -|Cannon lauch Anti-tank guided missile
- Indian Ballistic Missile Defense Program – The Indian Ballistic Missile Defense Program is an initiative to develop and deploy a multi-layered ballistic missile defence system to protect India from ballistic missile attacks.
- Vehicles
- Mahindra Axe – Light utility vehicle to be purchased.
- Kroton – Possible sale of 80 mine laying vehicles from Poland.
- Light Tank – 300 tanks (200 tracked 100 wheeled) to be deployed on china border.
- AHS Krab – Possible sale of 110 from Poland. deal along with kroton.
- PZA Loara – Possible sale of 100 from Poland. deal along with Kroton.
- Artillery
- Under the Field Artillery Rationalization Plan, Indian Army plans to procure 3000 to 4000
155 mm Towed, Wheeled and Tracked Artillery Systems. The requirement for artillery guns to be met with indigenous development and production.
- Modern Sub Machine Carbine – The Modern Sub Machine Carbine (MSMC) is the latest combined venture of ARDE & OFB, developed for the Indian Army on a platform of experiences from the INSAS rifle.
- Army Aviation
- Procurement process for 197 light utility helicopters (LUH) is ongoing of which 64 will be inducted in the Army Aviation to replace the Cheetak and Cheetah Helicopters.
- HAL Light Observation Helicopter (LOH) or Light Utility helicopter (LUH) – Requirement for 384 helicopters including for army and air force.
- HAL has obtained a firm order to deliver 114 HAL Light Combat Helicopters to the Indian Army.[66]
- Rustom-1 UAV[67]
See also[link]
References[link]
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- ^ a b IISS 2010, pp. 360
- ^ Page, Jeremy. "Comic starts adventure to find war heroes". The Times (9 February 2008).
- ^ Headquarters Army Training Command. "Indian Army Doctrine". October 2004. Archive link via archive.org (original url: http://indianarmy.nic.in/indianarmydoctrine_1.doc).
- ^ "About The Ministry". Ministry of Defence, Government of India. http://mod.nic.in/aboutus/welcome.html. Retrieved 31 March 2011.
- ^ Harold E. Raugh, The Victorians at war, 1815–1914: an encyclopaedia of British military history (2004) pp 173–79
- ^ Urlanis, Boris (1971). Wars and Population. Moscow. p. 85.
- ^ Khanduri, Chandra B. (2006). Thimayya: an amazing life. New Delhi: Knowledge World. p. 394. ISBN 978-81-87966-36-4. http://books.google.co.in/books?id=ZWXfAAAAMAAJ. Retrieved 30 July 2010.
- ^ Kaushik Roy, "Expansion And Deployment of the Indian Army during World War II: 1939–45,"Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research, Autumn 2010, Vol. 88 Issue 355, pp 248–268
- ^ Peter Stanley, "Great in adversity": Indian prisoners of war in New Guinea," Journal of the Australian War Memorial (October 2002) No. 37 online
- ^ Peter W. Fay, The Forgotten Army, India's Armed Struggle for Independence 1942–1945 (1996)
- ^ Martin Bamber and Aad Neeven (26 August 1942). "The Free Indian Legion – Infantry Regiment 950 (Ind)". Freeindianlegion.info. http://www.freeindianlegion.info/pag_infanterie-regement-950.php. Retrieved 1 June 2012.
- ^ For the Punjab Boundary Force, see Daniel P. Marston, 'The Indian Army, Partition, and the Punjab Boundary Force, 1945–47,' War In History November 2009, vol. 16 no. 4 469–505
- ^ a b Indo-Pakistani War, 1947–1949. ACIG. 29 October 2003. http://www.acig.org/artman/publish/article_321.shtml.
- ^ Bruce Bueno de Mesquita & David Lalman. War and Reason: Domestic and International Imperatives. Yale University Press (1994), p. 201. ISBN 978-0-300-05922-9.
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- ^ Claude Arpi. India and her neighbourhood: a French observer's views. Har-Anand Publications (2005), p. 186. ISBN 978-81-241-1097-3.
- ^ CenturyChina,www.centurychina.com/plaboard/uploads/1962war.htm
- ^ a b c R.D. Pradhan & Yashwantrao Balwantrao Chavan (2007). 1965 War, the Inside Story: Defence Minister Y.B. Chavan's Diary of India-Pakistan War.. Atlantic Publishers & Distributors. p. 47. ISBN 978-81-269-0762-5. http://books.google.com/books?id=ymYCJQjEGBUC&pg=PA47.
- ^ Sumit Ganguly. "Pakistan". In India: A Country Study (James Heitzman and Robert L. Worden, editors). Library of Congress Federal Research Division (September 1995).
- ^ a b "Indo-Pakistan Wars". Microsoft Encarta 2008. Archived 2009-10-31.
- ^ Thomas M. Leonard. Encyclopedia of the developing world, Volume 2. Taylor & Francis, 2006. ISBN 0-415-97663-4, 9780415976633.
- ^ Spencer Tucker. Tanks: An Illustrated History of Their Impact. ABC-CLIO (2004), p. 172. ISBN 978-1-57607-995-9.
- ^ Sumit Ganguly. Conflict unending: India-Pakistan tensions since 1947. Columbia University Press (2002), p. 45. ISBN 978-0-231-12369-3.
- ^ Owen Bennett Jones. Pakistan: Eye of the Storm. Yale University Press (2003), p. 177. ISBN 978-0-300-10147-8.
- ^ Eric H. Arnett. Military capacity and the risk of war: China, India, Pakistan, and Iran. Oxford University Press (1997), p. 134. ISBN 978-0-19-829281-4.
- ^ S. Paul Kapur. Dangerous deterrent: nuclear weapons proliferation and conflict in South Asia. Stanford University Press (2007), p. 17. ISBN 978-0-8047-5550-4.
- ^ Encyclopedia of the Developing World, p. 806.
- ^ Edward W. Desmond. "The Himalayas War at the Top Of the World". Time (31 July 1989).
- ^ Vivek Chadha. Low Intensity Conflicts in India: An Analysis. SAGE (2005), p. 105. ISBN 978-0-7619-3325-0.
- ^ Pradeep Barua. The State at War in South Asia. University of Nebraska Press (2005), p. 256. ISBN 978-0-8032-1344-9.
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- ^ Arun Bhattacharjee. "On Kashmir, hot air and trial balloons". Asia Times (23 September 2004).
- ^ Indian general praises Pakistani valour at Kargil 5 May 2003 Daily Times, Pakistan
- ^ Kashmir in the Shadow of War By Robert Wirsing Published by M.E. Sharpe, 2003 ISBN 0-7656-1090-6 pp36
- ^ Managing Armed Conflicts in the 21st Century By Adekeye Adebajo, Chandra Lekha Sriram Published by Routledge pp192,193
- ^ The State at War in South Asia By Pradeep Barua Published by U of Nebraska Press Page 261
- ^ Bitter Chill of Winter – Tariq Ali, London Review of Books
- ^ Colonel Ravi Nanda (1999). Kargil : A Wake Up Call. Vedams Books. ISBN 81-7095-074-0. Online summary of the Book
- ^ Alastair Lawson. "Pakistan and the Kashmir militants". BBC News (5 July 1999).
- ^ A.K. Chakraborty. "Kargil War brings into sharp focus India's commitment to peace". Government of India Press Information Bureau (July 2000).
- ^ Michael Edward Brown. Offense, defence, and war. MIT Press (2004), p. 393.
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- ^ John Pike. "Brass Tacks". Globalsecurity.org. http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/war/brass-tacks.htm. Retrieved 31 March 2011.
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- ^ "Indian Army tests network centric warfare capability in Ashwamedha war games". India-defence.com. http://www.india-defence.com/reports/3115. Retrieved 1 June 2012.
- ^ 'Ashwamedha' reinforces importance of foot soldiers[dead link]
- ^ "Indo-US Army Exercise Yudh Abhyas". Defence.pk. 14 March 2012. http://www.defence.pk/forums/indian-defence/165331-indo-us-army-exercise-yudh-abhyas.html. Retrieved 1 June 2012.
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- ^ TNN 18 May 2010, 01.56 am IST (18 May 2010). "Army plans to raise Arunachal and Sikkim Scouts for China border". The Times of India. http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Army-plans-to-raise-Arunachal-and-Sikkim-Scouts-for-China-border/articleshow/5941569.cms. Retrieved 1 June 2012.
- ^ "Meghalaya villages seek merger with Assam : 15th oct11 ~ E-Pao! Headlines". E-pao.net. http://www.e-pao.net/GP.asp?src=15..151011.oct11. Retrieved 1 June 2012.
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- ^ Eurocopter wins big Indian Army deal
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- ^ Rustom-1 will hit production[dead link]
Bibliography[link]
- International Institute for Strategic Studies; Hackett, James (ed.) (3 February 2010). The Military Balance 2010. London: Routledge. ISBN 1-85743-557-5.
External links[link]
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