Yeah
take back the blood that you shed
ive lost these things in your head
like constant pounding
i drill the enemy like you (strength)
its all i need (faith)
keeps' calling me
forsake the ways of the world
pray to me in your dreams
pray to me your god i'll be
cannot fight for anything
anything at all
its my own religion
but like a dagger in my chest i fall to my knees
its my own religion
its my own religion
can't take the hate that you bring
i resolve to end it all
and its so hard to believe
i was once like you (strength)
its all i need (faith)
keeps' calling me
forsake the ways of the world
pray to me in your dreams
pray to me your god i'll be
cannot fight for anything
anything at all
its my own religion
but like a dagger in my chest i fall to my knees
its my own religion
its my own religion
its my own religion
i tried to stop this life from ever having
i wish this pain would subside in my life
ive..ive..
its my own religion
take back the blood that you shed
its my own religion
I never really understood religion
Except it seems a good excuse to kill
I never really could make a decision
I don't surpose I ever really will
I can't relate to any power structure
Where ego is the driving energy
I let mine go long, long time ago, now
When I decided that I would be free
Only thing I understand is living
The biggest sacrifice to make is death
Once you're dead, there's noting left for giving
The life means fighting your every breath
Erzählt mir nichts von euren Göttern
Denn die haben niemals existiert
Auch Jesus Christus oder Mohammed
Verhinderten nie einen Krieg
Behauptet nicht, daß ihr die Antwort habt
Auf die Frage, die ihr niemals gewußt
Behauptet nicht, daß ihr die Wahrheit sagt
Weil eure Wahrheit gelogen ist
Religion - Bedeutet Unterdrückung
Religion - Ist Opium für das Volk
Religion - Hat Millionen von Menschen getötet
Religion - Doch die Kirchen
Sind immer noch voll
Ihr habt die Bombe gesegnet
Die auf Hiroshima fiel
Auch mit Hitler und Mussolini
Habt ihr euch solidarisiert
Es ist egal, wer an der Macht ist
Denn ihr seid immer dabei
Ihr nehmt den Menschen das Denken ab
Mit eurer Heuchelei
Religion - Bedeutet Unterdrückung
Religion - Ist Opium für das Volk
Religion - Hat Millionen von Menschen getötet
Religion - Doch die Kirchen
Sind immer noch voll
Door to door, Selling me your religion
Confronting me like a fucking zombie
black shirt, white tie, brain washed till you die
fake dream, false hopes, religion is just one big lie
(HEY, HEY, HEY, HEY)
[Chorus]
Jehovah's Witness knocking on my door
Jehovah's witness gonna save us all
Jehovah's witness knocking on my door
Jehovah's witness aint gonna save shit!
Stay away, run and hide
Religion is conformity
Catholic Christian, knocking on my door
Cahtolic Christian, gonna save us all
Catholic Christian, knocking on my door
Catholic Christian, aint gonna save SHIT!
Suck my mouth.
Suck my pain away.
Helplessness,
I am hard to stain.
Potentially inappropriate...
I am naked,
before you.
Look at me.
You came for me.
I pray to you.
You are in me...
You are my religion.
You are my religion.
I'm loving you.
You're loving me.
You are my religion.
You are my religion.
I'm touching you.
You're touching me...
Intoxicated with your breath.
My eyes close,
I am a mess.
Starving and cold and I need your love...
You keep me real.
You lift me up.
Prayer soft,
I am in love.
Devotee of your immortal love.
Brutal truth.
It is profound.
Can you hear the sound,
of my breath
You are my religion.
You are my religion.
I'm loving you.
You're loving me.
You are my religion.
You are my religion.
I'm touching you.
You're touching me.
Religion, Religion, Religon...
Da kommt sie schon, die Prozession,
das ist Deine Religion
Du brauchst nichts mehr zu tun
Du brauchst nicht nett zu sein
Denn:
Gott wird Dir verzeihn, Gott wird Dir verzeihn
Religion !
Und geht es Dir auf Erden schlecht,
dann brauchst Du nur zu sterben
Jesus Christus ist gerecht, und wir sind seine Erben
Chorus
I and I respect all Religion
I and I me pray to the Almighty One
Me give thanks and praise fe the righteous way
But me can't follow...no me can't follow one
Verse
Me say me look to the Hindu ca me a Indian
Me look to the Muslim and Sikhism
Ina India too much to choose from
Sit down with Sadoo.. Indian holy man
Listen man a talk and me start understand
Go down Africa and me reach a Jam One
Sit down with Rasta and start fe reason
Read out of the bible talk to Christian
When you check it out could a confusion
Religion bring war and contradiction
One god we have one destination
Respect each other and nothing can wrong
Chorus
Verse
Me say me learn bout Rama and Hari Krishna
Guru Gobind Singh and the height of Allah
Me look to the East and pray to Mecca
Jesus Christ Christian Messiah
Ina Jerusalem was born the saviour
King Salassi I down a Ethiopia
The conquering lion of the tribe of Judah
Natty Rastafari and me pray to Jah Jah
Me look and me search and me study Buddha
Say nuff mon a talk bout Sai Baba
God bless all mon who fight evil doer
That's why the angels a fan me with the eagles feather
Chorus
Verse 3
Ca me say nuff mon a pray to animal and images
Some kill animal in sacrifices
Say nuff of them a follow demon and witches
Them worship the devil and satanic verses
But I and I no mek fe mek no compromises
Give thanks to the Lord and the highest praises
You spread the good word and bring good wishes
You mix ina evil the highest watches
You clean up your heart and break no promises
Live good with all colour and all races
Overcome tribulation man faces
A me say dust-to-dust and ashes to ashes
Chorus
It was early Sunday morning
Everyone in the house was still asleep
She made some toast and coffee
Took a shower and made herself smell sweet
She said, "I don't want a bus ride,
I believe that the walk might help me think
Got a heart kind of heavy
I need some big hat and gloves, shoes and bag religion!"
Religion
That's my decision
Some of that "make me feel better when I shout!!!" religion
That's my decision
Papa Henry was full of spice
He was a man usually nice
But something got into him last night
Made him want to fuss and hollar
The entire house was in a sweat
His bottle got broken and the floor got wet
"Clean it up!" you could hear him scream
Then he said, "I'm going out"
I need religion
Religion
That's my decision
Some of that "raise up the roof, 90 proof" religion
That's my decision
Religion
It's my decision, oh yes it is
That's my decision
It's the story about a good family
Who doesn't live anymore in good harmony
They are people who love their daughter and son
They try to give them religion
Little Billy likes his best friend Jack
How in the world could he be like that
Mama and Henry wanna have that chat
Boy, you need religion
Little Betty, whatcha gonna do
There's a child growing inside of you
You should've stopped and thought things through
Little girl you need a vision of religion
Religion
And that's my decision
Some of that "how'd I get on Rikki Lake" religion
That's my decision
Religion
Get a little,
Religion
Get a little
Religion
Well he could almost taste the money
But he was sitting in a den of thieves
Looking for the great awakening
Trying to find a way to leave
But that's when he got religion
And the light went on inside
He said somebody up there likes me
Now he's working for the holy guide
He got drunk but he don't remember
That he'd been drinking in a bar downtown
When he thought he heard a choir of angels
Singing in the Tiki Lounge
And that's when he got religion
From no salesman on TV
Just a tap on the shoulder in the parking lot
He still drinks but he does believe
Religion, you do the best you can
We all make the same mistakes
We're gonna wind up with the man
Religion, oh you do the best you can
We all make the same mistakes
We're gonna wind up with the man
She was silent as he paid her
But the thanks she got was next to none
And as her car pulled out of the motel
She felt the presence of someone
And that's when she got religion
In the front of a compact Ford
Just a gentle voice on the stereo
Now she's a working girl who loves the lord
Religions by country | |||
---|---|---|---|
Middle East
Oceania
|
Religion is a collection of cultural systems, belief systems, and worldviews that relate humanity to spirituality and, sometimes, to moral values.[1] Many religions have narratives, symbols, traditions and sacred histories that are intended to give meaning to life or to explain the origin of life or the universe. They tend to derive morality, ethics, religious laws or a preferred lifestyle from their ideas about the cosmos and human nature.
The word religion is sometimes used interchangeably with faith or belief system, but religion differs from private belief in that it has a public aspect[citation needed]. Many religions have organized behaviors, clergy, a definition of what constitutes adherence or membership, congregations of laity, regular meetings or services for the purposes of veneration of a deity or for prayer, holy places (either natural or architectural), and/or scriptures. The practice of a religion may also include sermons, commemoration of the activities of a god or gods, sacrifices, festivals, feasts, trance, initiations, funerary services, matrimonial services, meditation, music, art, dance, public service, or other aspects of human culture. However, there are examples of religions for which some or many of these aspects of structure, belief, or practices are absent.
The development of religion has taken different forms in different cultures. Some religions place an emphasis on belief, while others emphasize practice. Some religions focus on the subjective experience of the religious individual, while others consider the activities of the religious community to be most important. Some religions claim to be universal, believing their laws and cosmology to be binding for everyone, while others are intended to be practiced only by a closely defined or localized group. In many places religion has been associated with public institutions such as education, hospitals, the family, government, and political hierarchies. Anthropologists John Monoghan and Peter Just state that, "it seems apparent that one thing religion or belief helps us do is deal with problems of human life that are significant, persistent, and intolerable. One important way in which religious beliefs accomplish this is by providing a set of ideas about how and why the world is put together that allows people to accommodate anxieties and deal with misfortune."[2]
Some academics studying the subject have divided religions into three broad categories: world religions, a term which refers to transcultural, international faiths; indigenous religions, which refers to smaller, culture-specific or nation-specific religious groups; and new religious movements, which refers to recently developed faiths.[3] One modern academic theory of religion, social constructionism, says that religion is a modern concept that suggests all spiritual practice and worship follows a model similar to the Abrahamic religions as an orientation system that helps to interpret reality and define human beings,[4] and thus religion, as a concept, has been applied inappropriately to non-Western cultures that are not based upon such systems, or in which these systems are a substantially simpler construct.
Contents |
Religion (from O.Fr. religion "religious community," from L. religionem (nom. religio) "respect for what is sacred, reverence for the gods,"[5] "obligation, the bond between man and the gods"[6]) is derived from the Latin religiō, the ultimate origins of which are obscure. One possibility is derivation from a reduplicated *le-ligare, an interpretation traced to Cicero connecting lego "read", i.e. re (again) + lego in the sense of "choose", "go over again" or "consider carefully". Modern scholars such as Tom Harpur and Joseph Campbell favor the derivation from ligare "bind, connect", probably from a prefixed re-ligare, i.e. re (again) + ligare or "to reconnect," which was made prominent by St. Augustine, following the interpretation of Lactantius.[7][8] The medieval usage alternates with order in designating bonded communities like those of monastic orders: "we hear of the 'religion' of the Golden Fleece, of a knight 'of the religion of Avys'".[9]
According to the philologist Max Müller, the root of the English word "religion", the Latin religio, was originally used to mean only "reverence for God or the gods, careful pondering of divine things, piety" (which Cicero further derived to mean "diligence").[10][11] Max Müller characterized many other cultures around the world, including Egypt, Persia, and India, as having a similar power structure at this point in history. What is called ancient religion today, they would have only called "law".[12]
Many languages have words that can be translated as "religion", but they may use them in a very different way, and some have no word for religion at all. For example, the Sanskrit word dharma, sometimes translated as "religion", also means law. Throughout classical South Asia, the study of law consisted of concepts such as penance through piety and ceremonial as well as practical traditions. Medieval Japan at first had a similar union between "imperial law" and universal or "Buddha law", but these later became independent sources of power.[13][14]
There is no precise equivalent of "religion" in Hebrew, and Judaism does not distinguish clearly between religious, national, racial, or ethnic identities.[15] One of its central concepts is "halakha", sometimes translated as "law"", which guides religious practice and belief and many aspects of daily life.
The use of other terms, such as obedience to God or Islam are likewise grounded in particular histories and vocabularies.[16]
There are a number of theories regarding the origins of religion. Greg M. Epstein, a Humanist chaplain at Harvard University, states that "essentially all the world's major religions were founded on the principle that divine beings or forces can promise a level of justice in a supernatural realm that cannot be perceived in this natural one."[17] According to anthropologists John Monaghan and Peter Just,
Many of the great world religions appear to have begun as revitalization movements of some sort, as the vision of a charismatic prophet fires the imaginations of people seeking a more comprehensive answer to their problems than they feel is provided by everyday beliefs. Charismatic individuals have emerged at many times and places in the world. It seems that the key to long-term success – and many movements come and go with little long-term effect – has relatively little to do with the prophets, who appear with surprising regularity, but more to do with the development of a group of supporters who are able to institutionalize the movement.[18]
In the 19th and 20th centuries, the academic practice of comparative religion divided religious belief into philosophically defined categories called "world religions." However, some recent scholarship has argued that not all types of religion are necessarily separated by mutually exclusive philosophies, and furthermore that the utility of ascribing a practice to a certain philosophy, or even calling a given practice religious, rather than cultural, political, or social in nature, is limited.[19][20][21] The current state of psychological study about the nature of religiousness suggests that it is better to refer to religion as a largely invariant phenomenon that should be distinguished from cultural norms (i.e. "religions").[22] The list of religious movements given here is therefore an attempt to summarize the most important regional and philosophical influences on local communities, but it is by no means a complete description of every religious community, nor does it explain the most important elements of individual religiousness.
The four largest religious groups by population, estimated to account for between 5 and 7 billion people, are Christianity, Islam, Buddhism, and Hinduism (with the relative numbers for Buddhism and Hinduism dependent on the extent of syncretism).
Four largest religions | Adherents | % of world population | Article[circular reference] |
---|---|---|---|
World population | 6.99 billion[23] | Figures taken from individual articles: | |
Christianity | 2.1 billion – 2.2 billion | 33% – 34% | Christianity by country |
Islam | 1.5 billion – 1.6 billion[24] | 22% – 23% | Islam by country |
Buddhism | 500 million – 1.9 billion[25] | 7% – 29%[25] | Buddhism by country |
Hinduism | 1.0 billion – 1.1 billion | 15.2% – 16.2% | Hinduism by country |
Total | 5.1 billion – 6.8 billion[25] | 77% – 99%[25] |
Sociological classifications of religious movements suggest that within any given religious group, a community can resemble various types of structures, including "churches", "denominations", "sects", "cults", and "institutions".
Some scholars classify religions as either universal religions that seek worldwide acceptance and actively look for new converts, or ethnic religions that are identified with a particular ethnic group and do not seek converts.[33] Others reject the distinction, pointing out that all religious practices, whatever their philosophical origin, are ethnic because they come from a particular culture.[34][35][36]
Because religion continues to be recognized in Western thought as a universal impulse, many religious practitioners have aimed to band together in interfaith dialogue, cooperation, and religious peacebuilding. The first major dialogue was the Parliament of the World's Religions at the 1893 Chicago World's Fair, which remains notable even today both in affirming "universal values" and recognition of the diversity of practices among different cultures. The 20th century has been especially fruitful in use of interfaith dialogue as a means of solving ethnic, political, or even religious conflict, with Christian-Jewish reconciliation representing a complete reverse in the attitudes of many Christian communities towards Jews.
Recent interfaith initiatives include "A Common Word", launched in 2007 and focused on bringing Muslim and Christian leaders together,[37] the "C1 World Dialogue",[38] the "Common Ground" initiative between Islam and Buddhism,[39] and a United Nations sponsored "World Interfaith Harmony Week".[40][41]
The terms "atheist" (lack of belief in any gods) and "agnostic" (belief in the unknowability of the existence of gods), though specifically contrary to theistic (e.g. Christian, Jewish, and Muslim) religious teachings, do not by definition mean the opposite of "religious". There are religions (including Buddhism and Taoism), in fact, that classify some of their followers as agnostic, atheistic, or nontheistic. The true opposite of "religious" is the word "irreligious". Irreligion describes an absence of any religion; antireligion describes an active opposition or aversion toward religions in general.
Critics of religion consider it to be to be outdated, harmful to the individual (e.g. brainwashing of children, faith healing, circumcision), harmful to society (e.g. holy wars, terrorism, wasteful distribution of resources), to impede the progress of science, and to encourage immoral acts (e.g. blood sacrifice, discrimination against homosexuals and women). A major criticism of many religions is that they require beliefs that are irrational, unscientific, or unreasonable, because religious beliefs and traditions lack scientific or rational foundations.
As religion became a more personal matter in Western culture, discussions of society found a new focus on political and scientific meaning, and religious attitudes (dominantly Christian) were increasingly seen as irrelevant for the needs of the European world. On the political side, Ludwig Feuerbach recast Christian beliefs in light of humanism, paving the way for Karl Marx's famous characterization of religion as "the opium of the people". Meanwhile, in the scientific community, T.H. Huxley in 1869 coined the term "agnostic," a term—subsequently adopted by such figures as Robert Ingersoll—that, while directly conflicting with and novel to Christian tradition, is accepted and even embraced in some other religions. Later, Bertrand Russell told the world Why I Am Not a Christian, which influenced several later authors to discuss their breakaway from their own religious uprbringings from Islam to Hinduism.
Some modern-day critics, such as Bryan Caplan, hold that religion lacks utility in human society; they may regard religion as irrational.[42] Nobel Peace Laureate Shirin Ebadi has spoken out against undemocratic Islamic countries justifying "oppressive acts" in the name of Islam.[43]
Superstition has been described as "the incorrect establishment of cause and effect" or a false conception of causation.[44] Religion is more complex and includes social institutions and morality. But religions may include superstitions or make use of magical thinking. Adherents of one religion sometimes think of other religions as superstition.[45][46] Some atheists, deists, and skeptics regard religious belief as superstition.
Greek and Roman pagans, who saw their relations with the gods in political and social terms, scorned the man who constantly trembled with fear at the thought of the gods (deisidaimonia), as a slave might fear a cruel and capricious master. The Romans called such fear of the gods superstitio.[47] Early Christianity was outlawed as a superstitio Iudaica, a "Jewish superstition", by Domitian in the 80s AD. In AD 425, when Rome had become Christian, Theodosius II outlawed pagan traditions as superstitious.
The Roman Catholic Church considers superstition to be sinful in the sense that it denotes a lack of trust in the divine providence of God and, as such, is a violation of the first of the Ten Commandments. The Catechism of the Catholic Church states that superstition "in some sense represents a perverse excess of religion" (para. #2110). "Superstition," it says, "is a deviation of religious feeling and of the practices this feeling imposes. It can even affect the worship we offer the true God, e.g., when one attributes an importance in some way magical to certain practices otherwise lawful or necessary. To attribute the efficacy of prayers or of sacramental signs to their mere external performance, apart from the interior dispositions that they demand is to fall into superstition. Cf. Matthew 23:16-22" (para. #2111)
The word myth has several meanings.
Ancient polytheistic religions, such as those of Greece, Rome, and Scandinavia, are usually categorized under the heading of mythology. Religions of pre-industrial peoples, or cultures in development, are similarly called "myths" in the anthropology of religion. The term "myth" can be used pejoratively by both religious and non-religious people. By defining another person's religious stories and beliefs as mythology, one implies that they are less real or true than one's own religious stories and beliefs. Joseph Campbell remarked, "Mythology is often thought of as other people's religions, and religion can be defined as mis-interpreted mythology."[49]
In sociology, however, the term myth has a non-pejorative meaning. There, myth is defined as a story that is important for the group whether or not it is objectively or provably true. Examples include the death and resurrection of Jesus, which, to Christians, explains the means by which they are freed from sin and is also ostensibly a historical event. But from a mythological outlook, whether or not the event actually occurred is unimportant. Instead, the symbolism of the death of an old "life" and the start of a new "life" is what is most significant. Religious believers may or may not accept such symbolic interpretations.
Mayo Clinic researchers examined the association between religious involvement and spirituality, and physical health, mental health, health-related quality of life, and other health outcomes. The authors reported that: "Most studies have shown that religious involvement and spirituality are associated with better health outcomes, including greater longevity, coping skills, and health-related quality of life (even during terminal illness) and less anxiety, depression, and suicide."[50]
Charles Selengut characterizes the phrase "religion and violence" as "jarring", asserting that "religion is thought to be opposed to violence and a force for peace and reconciliation. He acknowledges, however, that "the history and scriptures of the world's religions tell stories of violence and war as they speak of peace and love."[51]
Hector Avalos argues that, because religions claim divine favor for themselves, over and against other groups, this sense of righteousness leads to violence because conflicting claims to superiority, based on unverifiable appeals to God, cannot be adjudicated objectively.[52]
Critics of religion Christopher Hitchens and Richard Dawkins go further and argue that religions do tremendous harm to society by using violence to promote their goals, in ways that are endorsed and exploited by their leaders.[53][page needed][54][page needed]
Regina Schwartz argues that all monotheistic religions are inherently violent because of an exclusivism that inevitably fosters violence against those that are considered outsiders.[55] Lawrence Wechsler asserts that Schwartz isn't just arguing that Abrahamic religions have a violent legacy, but that the legacy is actually genocidal in nature.[56]
Byron Bland asserts that one of the most prominent reasons for the "rise of the secular in Western thought" was the reaction against the religious violence of the 16th and 17th centuries. He asserts that "(t)he secular was a way of living with the religious differences that had produced so much horror. Under secularity, political entities have a warrant to make decisions independent from the need to enforce particular versions of religious orthodoxy. Indeed, they may run counter to certain strongly held beliefs if made in the interest of common welfare. Thus, one of the important goals of the secular is to limit violence."[57]
Nonetheless, believers have used similar arguments when responding to atheists in these discussions, pointing to the widespread imprisonment and mass murder of individuals under atheist states in the twentieth century:[58][59][60]
“ | And who can deny that Stalin and Mao, not to mention Pol Pot and a host of others, all committed atrocities in the name of a Communist ideology that was explicitly atheistic? Who can dispute that they did their bloody deeds by claiming to be establishing a 'new man' and a religion-free utopia? These were mass murders performed with atheism as a central part of their ideological inspiration, they were not mass murders done by people who simply happened to be atheist. –Dinesh D'Souza[60] | ” |
In response to such a line of argument, however, author Sam Harris writes:
"The problem with fascism and communism, however, is not that they are too critical of religion; the problem is that they are too much like religions. Such regimes are dogmatic to the core and generally give rise to personality cults that are indistinguishable from cults of religious hero worship. Auschwitz, the gulag and the killing fields were not examples of what happens when human beings reject religious dogma; they are examples of political, racial and nationalistic dogma run amok. There is no society in human history that ever suffered because its people became too reasonable."[61]
Richard Dawkins has stated that Stalin's atrocities were influenced not by atheism but by dogmatic Marxism,[62] and concludes that while Stalin and Mao happened to be atheists, they did not do their deeds in the name of atheism.[63] On other occasions, Dawkins has replied to the argument that Adolf Hitler and Josef Stalin were antireligious with the response that Hitler and Stalin also grew moustaches, in an effort to show the argument as fallacious.[64] Instead, Dawkins argues in The God Delusion that "What matters is not whether Hitler and Stalin were atheists, but whether atheism systematically influences people to do bad things. There is not the smallest evidence that it does."[65] D'Souza responds that an individual need not explicitly invoke atheism in committing atrocities if it is already implied in his worldview, as is the case in Marxism.[66]
This section requires expansion. |
There are laws and statutes that make reference to religion.[67] This has led scholar Winnifred Sullivan to claims that religious freedom is impossible.[68] Others argue that the Western legal principle of separation of church and state tends to engender a new, more inclusive civil religion.[69]
Religious knowledge, according to religious practitioners, may be gained from religious leaders, sacred texts, scriptures, or personal revelation. Some religions view such knowledge as unlimited in scope and suitable to answer any question; others see religious knowledge as playing a more restricted role, often as a complement to knowledge gained through physical observation. Adherents to various religious faiths often maintain that religious knowledge obtained via sacred texts or revelation is absolute and infallible and thereby creates an accompanying religious cosmology, although the proof for such is often tautological and generally limited to the religious texts and revelations that form the foundation of their belief.
In contrast, the scientific method gains knowledge by testing hypotheses to develop theories through elucidation of facts or evaluation by experiments and thus only answers cosmological questions about the universe that can be observed and measured. It develops theories of the world which best fit physically observed evidence. All scientific knowledge is subject to later refinement, or even outright rejection, in the face of additional evidence. Scientific theories that have an overwhelming preponderance of favorable evidence are often treated as de facto verities in general parlance, such as the theories of general relativity and natural selection to explain respectively the mechanisms of gravity and evolution.
In recent years, some academic writers have described religion according to the theory of social constructionism, which considers how ideas and social phenomena develop in a social context. Among the main proponents of this theory of religion are Timothy Fitzgerald, Daniel Dubuisson and Talal Asad. The social constructionists argue that religion is a modern concept that developed from Christianity and was then applied inappropriately to non-Western cultures.
Dubuisson, a French anthropologist, says that the idea of religion has changed a lot over time and that one cannot fully understand its development by relying on etymology, which "tends to minimize or cancel out the role of history".[70] "What the West and the history of religions in its wake have objectified under the name 'religion'", he says, " is ... something quite unique, which could be appropriate only to itself and its own history."[70] He notes that St. Augustine's definition of religio differed from the way we used the modern word "religion".[70] Dubuisson prefers the term "cosmographic formation" to religion. Dubuisson says that, with the emergence of religion as a category separate from culture and society, there arose religious studies. The initial purpose of religious studies was to demonstrate the superiority of the "living" or "universal" European world view to the "dead" or "ethnic" religions scattered throughout the rest of the world, expanding the teleological project of Schleiermacher and Tiele to a worldwide ideal religiousness.[71] Due to shifting theological currents, this was eventually supplanted by a liberal-ecumenical interest in searching for Western-style universal truths in every cultural tradition.[72] Clifford Geertz's definition of religion as a "cultural system" was proposed in the 20th century and continues to be widely accepted today.
According to Fitzgerald, the history of other cultures' interaction with the religious category is not about a universal constant,[clarification needed] but rather concerns a particular idea that first developed in Europe under the influence of Christianity.[73] Fitzgerald argues that from about the 4th century CE Western Europe and the rest of the world diverged. As Christianity became commonplace, the charismatic authority identified by Augustine, a quality we might today call "religiousness", exerted a commanding influence at the local level. This system persisted in the eastern Byzantine Empire following the East-West Schism, but Western Europe regulated unpredictable expressions of charisma through the Roman Catholic Church. As the Church lost its dominance during the Protestant Reformation and Christianity became closely tied to political structures, religion was recast as the basis of national sovereignty, and religious identity gradually became a less universal sense of spirituality and more divisive, locally defined, and tied to nationality.[74] It was at this point that "religion" was dissociated with universal beliefs and moved closer to dogma in both meaning and practice. However there was not yet the idea of dogma as personal choice, only of established churches. With the Enlightenment religion lost its attachment to nationality, says Fitzgerald, but rather than becoming a universal social attitude, it now became a personal feeling or emotion.[75] Friedrich Schleiermacher in the late 18th century defined religion as das schlechthinnige Abhängigkeitsgefühl, commonly translated as "a feeling of absolute dependence".[76] His contemporary Hegel disagreed thoroughly, defining religion as "the Divine Spirit becoming conscious of Himself through the finite spirit."[77]
Asad argues that before the word "religion" came into common usage, Christianity was a disciplina, a "rule" just like that of the Roman Empire. This idea can be found in the writings of St. Augustine (354–430). Christianity was then a power structure opposing and superseding human institutions, a literal Kingdom of Heaven. It was the discipline taught by one's family, school, church, and city authorities, rather than something calling one to self-discipline through symbols.[78]
These ideas are developed by S. N. Balagangadhara. In the Age of Enlightenment, Balagangadhara says that the idea of Christianity as the purest expression of spirituality was supplanted by the concept of "religion" as a worldwide practice.[79] This caused such ideas as religious freedom, a reexamination of classical philosophy as an alternative to Christian thought, and more radically Deism among intellectuals such as Voltaire. Much like Christianity, the idea of "religious freedom" was exported around the world as a civilizing technique, even to regions such as India that had never treated spirituality as a matter of political identity.[19] In Japan, where Buddhism was still seen as a philosophy of natural law,[80] the concept of "religion" and "religious freedom" as separate from other power structures was unnecessary until Christian missionaries demanded free access to conversion, and when Japanese Christians refused to engage in patriotic events.[81]
Similar views have been put forward by writers who are not social constructionists. George Lindbeck, a Lutheran and a postliberal theologian, says that religion does not refer to belief in "God" or a transcendent Absolute, but rather to "a kind of cultural and/or linguistic framework or medium that shapes the entirety of life and thought ... it is similar to an idiom that makes possible the description of realities, the formulation of beliefs, and the experiencing of inner attitudes, feelings, and sentiments.”[82] Nicholas de Lange, Professor of Hebrew and Jewish Studies at Cambridge University, says that "The comparative study of religions is an academic discipline which has been developed within Christian theology faculties, and it has a tendency to force widely differing phenomena into a kind of strait-jacket cut to a Christian pattern. The problem is not only that other 'religions' may have little or nothing to say about questions which are of burning importance for Christianity, but that they may not even see themselves as religions in precisely the same way in which Christianity sees itself as a religion."[83]
Religious criticism has a long history, going back at least as far as the 5th century BCE in ancient Greece with Diagoras "the atheist" of Melos, and 1st century BCE in Rome with Titus Lucretius Carus's De Rerum Natura, and continuing to the present day with the advent of New Atheism, represented by such authors as Sam Harris, Daniel Dennett, Richard Dawkins, Victor J. Stenger, and Christopher Hitchens.
Critics consider religion to be outdated, harmful to the individual (such as brainwashing of children, faith healing, circumcision), harmful to society (such as holy wars, terrorism, wasteful distribution of resources), to impede the progress of science, and to encourage immoral acts (such as blood sacrifice, discrimination against homosexuals and women).
On religion definition:
Studies of religion in particular geographical areas:
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