Office work

A typical modern office

An office is generally a room or other area in which people work, but may also denote a position within an organization with specific duties attached to it (see officer, office-holder, official); the latter is in fact an earlier usage, office as place originally referring to the location of one's duty. When used as an adjective, the term "office" may refer to business-related tasks. In legal writing, a company or organization has offices in any place that it has an official presence, even if that presence consists of, for example, a storage silo rather than an office.

An office is an architectural and design phenomenon and a social phenomenon, whether it is a small office such as a bench in the corner of a small business of extremely small size (see small office/home office) through entire floors of buildings up to and including massive buildings dedicated entirely to one company. In modern terms an office usually refers to the location where white-collar workers are employed.

History of offices[link]

The structure and shape of the office is impacted by both management thought as well as construction materials and may or may not have walls or barriers . The word stems from the Latin officium, and its equivalents in various, mainly romance, languages. Interestingly, this was not necessarily a place, but rather an often mobile 'bureau' in the sense of a human staff or even the abstract notion of a formal position, such as a magistrature. The relatively elaborate Roman bureaucracy would not be equaled for centuries in the West after the fall of Rome, even partially reverting to illiteracy, while the East preserved a more sophisticated administrative culture, both under Byzantium and under Islam.

Offices in classical antiquity were often part of a palace complex or a large temple. There was usually a room where scrolls were kept and scribes did their work. Ancient texts mentioning the work of scribes allude to the existence of such "offices". These rooms are sometimes called "libraries" by some archaeologists and the general press because one often associates scrolls with literature. In fact they were true offices since the scrolls were meant for record keeping and other management functions such as treaties and edicts, and not for writing or keeping poetry or other works of fiction.

A European office from the early 18th century.

An office in 1903, equipped with speaking tubes.

1937 image of the Division of Classification and Cataloging, National Archives, United States

Pre-Industrial Revolution[link]

The High Middle Ages (1000–1300) saw the rise of the medieval chancery, which was usually the place where most government letters were written and where laws were copied in the administration of a kingdom. The rooms of the chancery often had walls full of pigeonholes, constructed to hold rolled up pieces of parchment for safekeeping or ready reference, a precursor to the book shelf. The introduction of printing during the Renaissance did not change these early government offices much.

Pre-industrial illustrations such as paintings or tapestries often show us personalities or eponyms in their private offices, handling record keeping books or writing on scrolls of parchment. All kinds of writings seemed to be mixed in these early forms of offices. Before the invention of the printing press and its distribution there was often a very thin line between a private office and a private library since books were read or written in the same space at the same desk or table, and general accounting and personal or private letters were also done there.

It was during the 13th century that the English form of the word first appeared when referring to a position involving duties (ex. the office of the …). Geoffrey Chaucer appears to have first used the word in 1395 to mean a place where business is transacted in The Canterbury Tales.

As Mercantilism became the dominant economic theory of the Renaissance, merchants tended to conduct their business in the same buildings, which might include retail sales, warehousing and clerical work. During the 15th century, population density in many cities reached the point where stand-alone buildings were used by merchants to conduct their business, and there was a developing a distinction between church, government/military and commerce uses for buildings.^[1]

Industrial Revolution[link]

The Industrial Revolution (18th and 19th century) saw the rise of banking, railroads, insurance, retailing, oil, and the telegraph industries. To transact business, an increasing large number of clerks were needed to handle order-processing, accounting, and file documents, with increasingly specialized office space required to house these activities. Most of the desks of the era were top heavy with paper storage bins extending above the desk-work area, giving the appearance of a cubical and offering the workers some degree of privacy.

The relative high price of land in the central core of cities lead to the first multi-story buildings, which were limited to about 10 stories until the use of iron and steel allowed for higher structures. The invention of the safety elevator in 1852 by Elisha Otis saw the rapid escalation upward of buildings.^[1] By the end of the 19th century, larger office buildings frequently contained large glass atriums to allow light into the complex and improve air circulation.

20th century[link]

By 1906, the Sears, Roebuck and Co opened their mail order and headquarters operation in a 3,000,000-square-foot (280,000 m²) building in Chicago, at the time, the largest building in the world. The Time and motion study, pioneered in manufacturing by F. W. Taylor and later applied to the office environment by Frank and Lillian Gilbreth, led to the idea that managers needed to play an active role in directing the work of subordinates. As a result, in 1915, the Equitable Life Insurance Company in New York City introduced the “Modern Efficiency Desk” with a flat top and drawers below, designed to allow managers an easy view of the workers. This led to a demand for a large square footages per floor in buildings, and a return to the open spaces that were seen in pre-industrial revolution buildings.^[1]

However, by the midpoint of the 20th century, it became apparent that an efficient office required discretion in the control of privacy, which is needed to combat tedium linked to poor productivity, and to encourage creativity. In 1964, the Herman Miller (office equipment) company engaged Robert Propst, a prolific industrial designer, who came up with the concept of the Action Office which later evolved into the cubicle office furniture system.^[1]

Office spaces[link]

The main purpose of an office environment is to support its occupants in performing their job - preferably at minimum cost and to maximum satisfaction. With different people performing different tasks and activities, however, it is not always easy to select the right office spaces. To aid decision-making in workplace and office design, one can distinguish three different types of office spaces: work spaces, meeting spaces and support spaces. For new, or developing businesses, remote satellite offices and project rooms, Serviced Offices can provide a simple solution and provide all of the former types of space.

Work spaces[link]

Work spaces in an office are typically used for conventional office activities such as reading, writing and computer work. There are nine generic types of work space, each supporting different activities.

• 

  open office

• 

  team space

• 

  cubicle

Open office - An open work space for more than ten people, suitable for activities which demand frequent communication or routine activities which need relatively little concentration

Team space - A semi-enclosed work space for two to eight people; suitable for teamwork which demands frequent internal communication and a medium level of concentration

Cubicle - A semi-enclosed work space for one person, suitable for activities which demand medium concentration and medium interaction

• 

  private office

• 

  shared office

• 

  team room

Private office - An enclosed work space for one person, suitable for activities which are confidential, demand a lot of concentration or include many small meetings

Shared office - An enclosed work space for two or three people, suitable for semi-concentrated work and collaborative work in small groups

Team room - An enclosed work space for four to ten people; suitable for teamwork which may be confidential and demands frequent internal communication

• 

  study booth

• 

  work lounge

• 

  touch down

Study booth - An enclosed work space for one person; suitable for short-term activities which demand concentration or confidentiality

Work lounge - A lounge-like work space for two to six people; suitable for short-term activities which demand collaboration and/or allow impromptu interaction

Touch down - An open work space for one person; suitable for short-term activities which require little concentration and low interaction

Meeting spaces[link]

Meeting spaces in an office are typically used interactive processes, be it quick conversations or intensive brainstorms. There are six generic types of meeting space, each supporting different activities.

• 

  small meeting room

• 

  large meeting room

• 

  Small meeting space

Small meeting room - An enclosed meeting space for two to four persons, suitable for both formal and informal interaction

Large meeting room - An enclosed meeting space for five to twelve people, suitable for formal interaction

Small meeting space - An open or semi-open meeting space for two to four persons; suitable for short, informal interaction

• 

  large meeting space

• 

  brainstorm room

• 

  meeting point

Large meeting space - An open or semi-open meeting space for five to twelve people; suitable for short, informal interaction

Brainstorm room - An enclosed meeting space for five to twelve people; suitable for brainstorming sessions and workshops

Meeting point - An open meeting point for two to four persons; suitable for ad hoc, informal meetings

Support spaces[link]

Support spaces in an office are typically used for secondary activities such as filing documents or taking a break. There are twelve generic types of support space, each supporting different activities.

• 

  filing space

• 

  storage space

• 

  print and copy area

Filing space - An open or enclosed support space for the storage of frequently used files and documents

Storage space - An open or enclosed support space for the storage of commonly used office supplies

Print and copy area - An open or enclosed support space with facilities for printing, scanning and copying

• 

  mail area

• 

  pantry area

• 

  break area

Mail area - An open or semi-open support space where employees can pick up or deliver their personal mail

Pantry area - An open or enclosed support space where people can get coffee and tea as well as soft drinks and snacks

Break area - A semi-open or enclosed support space where employees can take a break from their work

• 

  locker area

• 

  smoking room

• 

  library

Locker area - An open or semi-open support space where employees can store their personal belongings

Smoking room - An enclosed support space where employees can smoke a cigarette

Library - A semi-open or enclosed support space for reading of books, journals and magazines

• 

  games room

• 

  waiting area

• 

  circulation space

Games room - An enclosed support space where employees can play games (e.g. computer games, pool, darts)

Waiting area - An open or semi-open support space where visitors can be received and can wait for their appointment

Circulation space - Support space which is required for circulation on office floors, linking all major functions

Office structure[link]

Open plan TradeMe offices, above NZX, Wellington, New Zealand

There are many different ways of arranging the space in an office and whilst these vary according to function, managerial fashions and the culture of specific companies can be even more important. Choices include, how many people will work within the same room. At one extreme, each individual worker will have their own room; at the other extreme a large open plan office can be made up of one main room with tens or hundreds of people working in the same space. Open plan offices put multiple workers together in the same space, and some studies have shown that they can improve short term productivity, i.e. within a single software project. At the same time, the loss of privacy and security can increase the incidence of theft and loss of company secrets. A type of compromise between open plan and individual rooms is provided by the cubicle, possibly made most famous by the Dilbert cartoon series, which solves visual privacy to some extent, but often fails on acoustic separation and security. Most cubicles also require the occupant to sit with their back towards anyone who might be approaching; workers in walled offices almost always try to position their normal work seats and desks so that they can see someone entering, and in some instances, install tiny mirrors on things such as computer monitors

Office buildings[link]

A small office building in Salinas, California, United States.

The Willis Tower in Chicago is a high-rise office building, the tallest of its kind in the U.S.

While offices can be built in almost any location and in almost any building, some modern requirements for offices make this more difficult. These requirements can be both legal (e.g. light levels must be sufficient) or technical (e.g. requirements for computer networking). Alongside, other requirements such as security and flexibility of layout, has led to the creation of special buildings which are dedicated only or primarily for use as offices. An office building, also known as an office block or business centre is a form of commercial building which contains spaces mainly designed to be used for offices.

The primary purpose of an office building is to provide a workplace and working environment primarily for administrative and managerial workers. These workers usually occupy set areas within the office building, and usually are provided with desks, PCs and other equipment they may need within these areas.

An office building will be divided into sections for different companies or may be dedicated to one company. In either case, each company will typically have a reception area, one or several meeting rooms, singular or open-plan offices, as well as toilets.

Many office buildings also have kitchen facilities and a staff room, where workers can have lunch or take a short break. Many office spaces are now also serviced office spaces, which means that those occupying a space or building can share facilities.^[2]

Office and retail rental rates[link]

Rental rates for office and retail space are typically quoted in terms of money per floor-area–time, usually money per floor-area–year. For example, the rate for a particular property may be 290 dollars per square-meter–year ($290/m²·a) (or $29/ft²·a), and rates in the area could range $200/m²·a–$500/m²·a.

In many countries, rent is typically paid monthly even if usually discussed in terms of years.

Example: A particular 200 m² space is priced at $150/m²·a: (200 m²) × ($150/m²·a) / (12 mo/a) = $2500/month

In a gross lease, the rate quoted is an all-inclusive rate. One pays a set amount of rent per time and the landlord is responsible for all other expenses such as costs of utilities, taxes, insurance, maintenance, and repairs.

The triple net lease is one in which the tenant is liable for a share of various expenses such as property taxes, insurance, maintenance, utilities, climate control, repairs, janitorial services and landscaping.

Grading[link]

The Building Owners and Managers Association (BOMA) classifies office space into three categories: Class A, Class B, and Class C.^[3] According to BOMA, Class A office buildings have the "most prestigious buildings competing for premier office users with rents above average for the area." BOMA states that Class A facilities have "high quality standard finishes, state of the art systems, exceptional accessibility and a definite market presence." BOMA describes Class B office buildings as those that compete "for a wide range of users with rents in the average range for the area." BOMA states that Class B buildings have "adequate systems" and finishes that "are fair to good for the area," but that the buildings do not compete with Class A buildings for the same prices. According to BOMA Class C buildings are aimed towards "tenants requiring functional space at rents below the average for the area."^[4]

See also[link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Offices

Physical[link]

• Business park
• Corner office
• Executive suite
• Factory
• Office supplies
• Over-illumination
• Serviced office
• Steel Buildings
• Warehouse

Soft issues[link]

• Office etiquette
• Office gossip
• Office manager
• Office politics
• Online office suite
• Sick building syndrome

References[link]

Further reading[link]

• Juriaan van Meel, Yuri Martens, Hermen Jan van Ree. Planning Office Spaces: a practical guide for manager and designers. London: Laurence King Publishing, 2010.
• Adams, Scott. What do you call a sociopath in a cubicle? (answer, a coworker) Kansas City, Missouri: Andrews McMeel Pub., 2002.
• Duffy, Francis. Colin Cave. John Worthington, editors. Planning Office Space. London: The Architectural Press Ltd., 1976.
• Klein, Judy Graf. The Office Book. New York: Facts on File Inc., 1982.

See also[link]

• Early Office Museum

This Star Wars-related article describes a work or element of fiction in a primarily in-universe style. Please help rewrite it to explain the fiction more clearly and provide non-fictional perspective. (February 2008)

Lando Calrissian is a fictional character in the Star Wars universe. He is portrayed by Billy Dee Williams in Star Wars Episode V: The Empire Strikes Back and Star Wars Episode VI: Return of the Jedi. He also appears frequently in the Star Wars "Expanded Universe" of novels, comic books and video games, including a series of novels in which he is the primary protagonist.

Appearances[link]

[edit] Star Wars Episode V: The Empire Strikes Back

Lando Calrissian first appears in The Empire Strikes Back as the administrator of Cloud City, concerned primarily with keeping the Empire out of his affairs. One day, Darth Vader arrives and threatens Calrissian to take over the city unless he gives his old friend Han Solo over to the bounty hunter Boba Fett. Unwilling to leave the city in the hands of the Empire, Calrissian reluctantly betrays Han, but his conscience gets the better of him when Vader goes back on his word and takes Princess Leia Organa and Chewbacca as prisoners. In the ensuing evacuation of Cloud City, he helps Leia, Chewbacca, R2-D2 and C-3PO escape. He then assists Leia in rescuing the maimed Luke Skywalker from the underside of Cloud City. Afterwards, he joins the Rebel Alliance and promises Leia he will find Han.

[edit] Star Wars Episode VI: Return of the Jedi

In Return of the Jedi, Calrissian goes undercover to help Luke Skywalker rescue Solo from Jabba the Hutt. During a heated battle with Jabba's henchmen, Han saves Calrissian from being devoured by a Sarlaac; in return, Calrissian helps Han and his friends destroy Jabba's barge. For his heroics, he is made a general in the Rebel Alliance. He then takes the pilot chair in the Millennium Falcon and leads the attack on the second Death Star. He leads the Rebels to victory by destroying the gigantic battle station and, with it, the Empire.

Expanded Universe[link]

[edit] Pre-Empire Strikes Back

Calrissian's life prior to The Empire Strikes Back is chronicled in The Adventures of Lando Calrissian series of novels. Early in his career, Lando is a prodigious gambler and wins the Millennium Falcon in a game of sabacc. He also wins a strange star-shaped droid named Vuffi Raa, who would be his friend and ally on many occasions. After acquiring the Falcon, and under the tutelage of his friend Han Solo, Calrissian begins to develop his skills as a pilot.

In Lando Calrissian and the Mindharp of Sharu, he is conned by the Sorcerer of Tund, Rokur Gepta, into hunting down the titular object in the Rafa system. When he arrives, he finds it totally covered in sand and plastic pyramids, and inhabited by a dull and slow-witted society, the Toka. Lando eventually finds the mindharp, but the human governor of Rafa IV activates it. Majestically, the pyramids crumble and the Toka are revealed as the Sharu, an ancient civilization that had drained their intelligence away for safety. Once the Sharu are resurrected, they drive out all the humans. Lando is forced to return to Rokur empty-handed.

In Lando Calrissian and the Starcave of ThonBoka, Lando tries to save a space-borne species called the Oswaft. During the mission, strange spherical droids appear and take Vuffi Raa away, for he is actually a scout for this strange culture. Then, he enters the sabacc championships, and loses to Han Solo. Han makes off with the Millennium Falcon.

In Rebel Dawn, Calrissian helps Han Solo, Chewbacca, and Solo's old flame Bria Tharen (then a Commander in the Rebel Alliance) in a raid against the Hutt-controlled slave world of Ylesia. During the raid which promises generous rewards to Han and his compatriots, Tharen's Red Hand Squadron double crosses Lando and the rest of Han's friends. In the ensuing chaos, Han is branded an accomplice and a traitor. Back on Nar Shaddaa (then Solo's home) word soon spreads, and Calrissian punches him out. The two do not see each other again until The Empire Strikes Back, set three years later.

Later, he wins the mining facility of Cloud City from its current ruler, Baron Raynor. He becomes a responsible leader, keeping his operations out of the eyes of the Galactic Empire. These events are chronicled in the comic book story "Lady Luck," written by Rich Handley and Darko Macan, and its sequel, "Lando Calrissian: Idiot's Array," by Rich Handley.

[edit] Pre-Return of the Jedi

The Star Wars comic book series released by Marvel Comics featured Calrissian as a prominent character following The Empire Strikes Back. In the comic series, he has a crime lord arch nemesis named Drebble, and Calrissian will frequently make use of his foil's name as a cover identity so that any animosity he generates while using the alias will be brought against the real Drebble, not Calrissian himself. Drebble features in the comic story "Lady Luck," in which he receives a first name, Barpotomous. Calrissian's use of Drebble's name backfires when the alliance hears how much trouble "Drebble" has been causing the Empire, and orders Calrissian to find and decorate him.^[1]

[edit] Post-Return of the Jedi

Following the events of Return of the Jedi, he builds a mining complex on the Nkllon called Nomad City. The city consists of an old Dreadnaught carried across the landscape on the night side of the planet.

Nomad City is destroyed during Grand Admiral Thrawn's campaign against the New Republic, portrayed in The Thrawn Trilogy. When Emperor Palpatine reappears in Dark Empire and begins his own campaign against the New Republic, Calrissian rejoins the Republic's military at his previous rank. After Palpatine is finally destroyed in Empire's End, Calrissian leaves the military. When Kessel is abandoned following Admiral Daala's attack on the planet in Darksaber, Calrissian takes over the planet, converts its prison into a mining complex, and mines spice from the planet for a number of years.

During The Corellian Trilogy, Calrissian goes on a galaxy-wide hunt for a rich wife. The businessman, reasoning that marriage is partly a financial relationship, meets Tendra Risant, whom he marries. With his inlaws' money and his entrepreneurial abilities, he opens a mining facility on the planet of Dubrillion on the Outer Rim. On the side, he unofficially runs an asteroid training facility for smuggler pilots.

In Vector Prime, Calrissian asks Solo and Chewie to help him with a business transaction on the planet of Sernpidal. During this trip, Chewbacca meets his demise, saving Solo's son Anakin from the moon the Yuuzhan Vong sends crashing onto the planet. Solo, Anakin, and the thousands of people they saved head to Dubrillion, where the first major clash between the biological Vong and the mechanical New Republic occurs. Calrissian's ground defenses, as well as his newly-created shielding technologies, help save Dubrillion from the initial assault. When the Vong retreat, the Skywalker family launch a desperate attack with the Star Destroyer Rejuvenator and its task force. Calrissian serves as gunner for Solo on the Falcon, but the Rejuvenator and most of her complement of ships are destroyed.

In Dark Tide: Onslaught, Calrissian helps the Solos organize an escape route for Skywalker's Jedi Academy. He poses as a citizen of the besieged world Talfaglia in order to deliver 17 Jedi "hostages" to the Yuuzhan Vong; this is actually a strike team, which attempts to destroy the cloning facilities on the worldship orbiting Myrkr. He also creates Yuuzhan Vong Hunter Droids, two of which prove crucial in the assault on Myrkr to destroy the voxyn queen, and dozens more are used in assaults on Vong strongholds throughout the war.

In Star By Star, Calrissian's efforts are crucial in delaying the Vong victory in a battle on Coruscant. Instead of using mines to attack the Vong piecemeal, he lets them into the minefield, then turns them on the approaching enemy. Over one thousand of the Vong are destroyed or damaged. He also rescues the kidnapped Ben Skywalker from the clutches of the treacherous Senator Viqi Shesh.

In Enemy Lines: Rebel Dream, Calrissian leads the ground troops to a quick victory, then volunteers to lead a small task force to destroy Vong ambushes of convoys and find out how they tracked said convoys. These efforts are wholly successful, with large Vong capital ships destroyed with minimal effort, time, fuel, and munitions.

Finally, when the newly located Galactic Senate on Mon Calamari sets out to vote for a new Chief of State, Calrissian and Talon Karrde provide "incentives" such as silence, money, and blackmail to convince a group of corrupt senators to vote for Cal Omas, who supports the Jedi. When Omas is elected, Calrissian, Karrde, and Star Destroyer owner Booster Terrik lead the Smuggler's Alliance, with Han Solo commanding, to victory over a massive Yuuzhan Vong force in the rout at Ebaq 9.

Calrissian eventually retires to private life after proving crucial in the Battle of Yuuzhan'tar and creating a new Holonet to replace the one the Vong destroyed.

In the seventh novel of the Legacy of the Force series, Fury, Calrissian announces to Han Solo and Leia Organa Solo that he and Tendra are having a child.

Reception[link]

Lando Calrissian was chosen as the 11th top Star Wars character by IGN and^[2] the character was chosen as the 12th top Star Wars hero by Jesse Schedeen.^[3] Schedeen also said that Calrissian was one of the characters he would most like seeing in Star Wars: The Force Unleashed.^[4]

References[link]

External links[link]

• Lando Calrissian in the Star Wars Databank
• Lando Calrissian on Wookieepedia: a Star Wars Wiki

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